J b SoS ee another and this upsets the electrical neutrality of both the bodies. Infact;;when two bodies are rubbed together, a redistribution of electrons takes place, The _ body which losses electrons becomes positively charged, while the body which receives electrons becomes negatively charged. Experiments have proved that when two glass rods both positively charged (rubbed with silk) are brought near each other, they repel each other. Similarly two ebonite rods both negatively charged (rubbed with fur) repel each other. Hence this experiment shows clearly that the bodies charged with like charges repel, when brought near each other. When the positively charged glass rod is brought near the negatively charged ebonite rod, it is observed that they attract each other. Thus it is clear that the bodies charged with unlike charges attract each other. 2.3. COULOMB'S LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS In 1785, Charles Augustin de Coulomb made a thorough study of electric attrac- tion and repulsion. He then gave the quantitative law governing the force between charged bodies. According to Coulomb's law, the magnitude of force of attraction or repul- sion between any two charged bodies depends upon the following: 1. Directly proportional to the product of their charges. 2. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. 3. The nature of the medium between the charges. Thus, electrostatic force between the two charges Q, and Qz placed at'a dis- tance r from each other is given by. Fe QQ, Also Foy or Q.1) where k is a constant of proportionality and depends upon the nature of the medium between the two charges and is called the specific inductive capacity or the dielectric constant of the medium. The value of k as found out experimen- tally is, aes 2.2) ane, £, where & is the permittivity of the vacuum and €, the relative permittivity of the medium between the two charges. Combining Eqs (2.1 and 2.2) (2.3)unit . which when piel at a distance 0 ge, will repe! i= 8x10" TE a nS esa xO N oiyzy =3.593N (ii) Force of attraction on charge at C due to charge at B, 4x10 x2 10% An x 8.854 x 107"? x (0.1)? ‘Distance r between charges at C and B = 0.1 m or Fg = 7-187 N (iii) Force of attraction on the charge at C due to charge at D, 4x 10x 4x 10° 4a x 8.854 x 107 x (0.1) es atC and D = 0.1 m Fea = Fen = Distance r between charg. or Fen = 1 Force Fe4. Fey and Fey are directed as shown in Fig. 2.1. Let the resultant force acting on the charge at C. that is resultant of Fos, Fey and Fep be Fp. Let, the components of Fy along x und y directions be Fyy and Fay. Then, cm Feg 608 45° 374 — 3.593 x Fry = Feg— Fea sin 45° = 7.187-3.593 x Resultant Force on charge at C. Fy = ¥029°+ 2.17 =9.527N | 2.4 ELECTRIC FIELD According to laws of electrostatics, a charged body when placed near ano charge, experiences a force of attraction or repulsion depending upon the } of charges. Any region of space, in which a charged body experiences a . Of attraction or repulsion is called an electric field. Thus the region around electric charge Q, constitutes an electric field because any other char; Placed in that region experiences a force. Theoretically, the electric field du _acharge extends up to an infinite distance but Proctically it becomes i ing certain distance. :38 Basic Electrical Engineering 20 i dq to the plate. Let g inging 4 .ession small charges neu © the Be edineocn came c tha postive plate as a result a bead charge tq ang . if les. nba the corresponding potential wifferen between the plat en, vel Now the work done in bringing a charge dq to the plate of the capacitor i. given by ig dweuxdg or dw= 4 xdg Thus the total work done in charging the capacitor from zero to a charge +. Q is given by Q 2 1@ w= fod or Wa xe 3 But Q=cv : 2LeV 2 lnep iGpmarap ‘Thus, energy stored in a capacitor of C farad capacity with a potential differ ence of V volts between its plates, is given by, Energy stored =} cv? 2.23) 2.8 CAPACITOR CHARGING Figure 2.13 shows a capacitor of capaci- tance C connected in series with a non- inductive resistor R and the combination is connected to a de supply of V volts through a switch S. If the switch S is closed, the capacitor gets charged finally to a potential of V volts, that is equal and Opposite to that r of the DC supply. However, riligs across FB. 2.13 Capacitor being charet the capacitor during its charging process builds up slowly and does not rise UP immediately to its final value. At the in: i stant of closing the switch S, there is charge on the capacitor and therefore no potential difference across it. AS #— Time in seconds ——> "Fig. 2.14 Charging of capacitor 2 det he charging current i from Eq. (2.24) into B dv =R(c#)+0 (< a : By Res is dl- riage or vevrre™) hist ay | Equation (2.29) gives an expression showing the variation in the volag. across the capacitor during the charging process of the capacitor. i iec#ec £ (va -e%°y) Also charging current, pra d URC =6V =, — € 7 Gea) or charging eurrenty is dene 230) Equation (2.30) gives the variation of charging current during the process of charging of the capacitor. Since, v = 4 and V= g. we may also write Eq. (2.29) in the following manner. 4 =~ QQ ere eno or q=a(-et) (231) Equation (2.31) shows clearly how the capacitor gets charged to finally attain a charge Q. Figure 2.14 shows the potential difference across the capacitor and the charg: ing current as per Eqs. (2.29 and 2.30). - "Form Eq. (2.29), the instantaneous voltage across the capacitor at time != RC is given by pave eRaRcy =v(1-2)-v (1-345) v =0.632V 32) Hence, after a time equal to RC second, the voltage across the capacitor rises _to 0.632 of its final steady value. This time RC is called the time constant of circuit. Hence, time constant of the charging circuit may be defined as the ae 1 taken for the voltage across the capacitor to rise to 0.632 of its final st? value. , ‘! i CAPACITOR DISCHARGING : e2) it is assumed that the capacitor has been charted ts, tha itarged and the corresponding discharging current is i amperes (Fig. 2.15), then Discharge current i=—w/R (2.33) Here the negative sign indicates that it T foltage across g 3 p ; Wp capacitor, jj Suppose the potential difference across ”” . : | seconds © I Discharge current ;,.- =. is a discharging current. Its direction is | opposite to the charging current. Assume the capacitor is v volts, t second after the switch S has been moved to the position b that the potential difference across the Fig. 2.15 Discharging of capacitor capacitor changes by dv in a small time dt a second then, (2.34) Equating Eqs. (2.33 and 2.34), ft stl RC v Integrating both sides, Re zo inyta Initial conditions are at r= 0, v = V. Thus A=InV Hence Re TT nvtiny t v or — =In— RG. 1¥ YC guac v or pave me (2.35) Also i=-vR= + end or pa-reee (2.36) Equations (2.35 and 2.36) show the relationship of the potential difference across the capacitor and the discharge current respectively during the process of discharging a charged capacitor. The curves of potential difference across the capacitor and the discharge current based on the above equations during the Process of discharging have been plotted in Fig. 2.15.. ince» = Land V= Seq. (2.35) may also be wtitteti a8oat fare a nt vb ve ‘ircuit consisting of a capacitor -R is given by, : * 10 x 10° x 500 = 0.015 s in the charging circuit, the ¥final value of chitge o ‘on the capacitor, ih @ = Cx V=30x 10 x 100 = 0.003 C Thus .003 (1 - e#018) or q = 0.003 (1 = e656") (vi) Charge on the capacitor at any time t as given by Eq. (2.40) is, g = 0.003 (1 - ¢667) ‘ Charge on the capacitor after 0.05 s, q = 0.003 (1 — ¢-6667%005) .003 (1 - 0.0356) = 0.00289 C (vii) Charging current after 0.05 s is (Eg. 2.39) f65H i Charging current after 0.05 s, 2 €°66.5%005 - 9.95 x 107 A (vii) Value of current at any time tis 2 gions Charging current, when 1=0.015 sis ors i =0.2 e005 =0.0735. A (ix) Current through resistor after 0.05 s = 9.95 x 103 A Thus voltage across 500 Q resistor after 0.05 s = 9.95 x 10° x 500 = 4.975 V Example 2.5 A 100 j1F capacitor is charged from a 200 V de supply. After it is fully charged, it is disconnected and immediately connected in parallel with a 50 WF capacitor. Calculate (i) the potential difference across the combination, (ii) the electrostatic energy before the capacitors are connected in parallel, and (iii) electrostatic energy after the capacitors are connected in parallel. The capacitor of 50 |1F is initially uncharged. Solution: Capacitance of the capacitor, C= 100 WF = 100 x 10°F Voltage applied across the capacitor V = 200 V (While charging, the capacitor will attain a final charge Q, which is given by, Q=CxV = 100 x 10° x 200 = 0.02 C Now the capacitor of 100 [AF with a charge of 0.02 C on its plates is con- nected in parallel with another capacitor of 50 UF. AS a result, charge of 0.02 C will divide between the two capacitors as per their capacities. Total capacitance of the combination, Cy = 100 +50 = 150 pF = 150x 10°F If the potential difference across s thes combination i is V volts then,across three uncharged capacitors capacitors are 4000, 5000 and 6000 jofeclectric field, eects fic ld strength, electric f o discussed. Electrostatic potential at a point due ‘with. Fundamentals of equipotential surfaces and potential gradient : se a detail, Application of electrostatics in, the field of capacitors is, di for the energy stored in the capacitor, charging of capacitor and discharging tees through resistance are derived. = Points to Remember ie { QQ 47e,€,7° 1. Coulomb's law: 2. Electric field strength: E 2 4axr* 4. Electric potential at a point due to a point charge q: 3, Blectric flux density: D = 4me,€,-7 5. Potential due to number of charges: V= —!__] 44.44... 46, €, ” 6. Capacitance of a capacitor C = @ Se 7. Capacitors in series: F = GE *G 8. Capacitors in parallel: C= Cy +C, + Cs 9. Energy stored in capacitor: W = $ cv 10. Charging of capacitor: + vec g=aQ(l-e") 11. Discharging of capacitor: i = eon q=geme > Problems : na 2.1 (a) What are the various factors on which the peace capacitor som, hiiic Electrical Engineering sively used in electrical instruments, earphones. eee telephoy receivers, small de motors, ete. The magnets prepared from SO iron or nick which retain magnetism as long as the magnetising sabes a core at known as temporary magnets, They are easily and strongly) TAURI tos thi strength as soon as the magnetising force 18 remove! id yaaa lore impor. tance as compared to permanent magnets and have wide app! Sin the figlg of electrical generators, motors, relays, etc. 3.2 MAGNETIC FIELD The area around a magnetic pole or magnet within which its influence is perceptible, is called its magnetic field. A small compass needle can be used to map a magnetic field. Iron filings may also be used to demonstrate the shape and distribution of the magnetic field in any horizontal plane. These filings set Fig. 3,1 External lines of force due to themselves in the form of curved chains small bar magnet between the poles as shown in Fig. 3.1. Such continuous curves in a magnetic field are normally termed as magnetic lines of force. These lines of force travel from the north to the south pole as shown in Fig. 3.1. These are assumed to continue through the magnet to the point from which they have emerged. Thus, each line of force forms a closed path. 3.2.1 Magnetic Flux The total number of lines of force in the magnetic field is called the magnetic flux, It is denoted by a symbol ¢. The unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb). The lines of magnetic flux have no physical existence. Really speaking, nothing flows in a magnetic field. The concept of these flux lines is purely imaginary and was introduced by Faraday as a pictorial method of representing the distr bution and density of a magnetic field. This concept of lines of magnetic flux forms a very convenient and useful basis for explaining various magnetic effec's and to calculate their values. Lines of magnetic flux possess the following Pr?” erties. 1. They form closed loops. 2. They always starts from the north pole and end in th ole and are then continuous through the body of the inaghets ae 3. They never intersect each other, i 4. Lines of force are like stretched elastic cords, tending to contract lens!" wise. 5. Lines of force exert lateral pressure, that i ut side es that is they tend to bulge © 6. Lines of magnetic flux that are 7 rep?! one another. Parallel and in the same direction: aaa—acelecrenagnetinin a -2 Magnetic Flux Density gnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux per unit area of a surface at right angles to the magnetic field. This is also known as, magnetic induction. Tts symbol is B and measured in weber per sq. metre or Tesla. Hence, _ Magnetic flux @ = flux density (B) x surface area (A), or flux density, B= 4, _ wh/m? or Tesla. 3.2.3 Permeability _A magnetic material when placed in a magnetic field acquires magnetism due fo induction. The measure of the degree to which the lines of force of the mag- netizing field can penetrate or permeate the medium is called the absolute per- “meability of the medium. It is denoted by a symbol yt. The permeability of all non-magnetic materials including air is represented Ho, equal to 42x 1077 Him. The absolute permeability 41 of a medium or magnetic material can also be " expressed in terms of its relative permeability 41, and the permeability of free Space or air Llp, i.e. H=MoXH, B.D The relative permeability of a magnetic material may be defined as the ratio the flux density produced in the material to the flux density produced in vac- or in a non-magnetic core, provided the magnetic field strength is same in _ both the cases. It is denoted by ul, The value of relative permeability of a ferro- gnetic material varies considerably with the working value of magnetic flux density. .2.4 Relation between Magnetic Flux Density and Field Intensity _ At any point in a magnetic field, field strength or field intensity H is the force "maintaining the magnetic flux and producing a particular value of flux density &B ‘at that point. Hence the field intensity H is the cause, and the flux density B is the effect. Thus, the flux density can be assumed proportional to the field _ intensity in a magnetic field, that is in free space, B= UyH. : 3B. 2) or HH ~ where {ip is called the permeability of free space or magnetic space constant. Its lue is 4 x 10” in S.1. and rationalized MKS system of units, : _ The flux density B also depends upon the nature of the medium. Thus if the itive permeability of the medium is j4,, the flux density at any point in a mag- field is given by, : eo B=pou,H G2@)Electromagnetism at Fel. example 3.3. A wire carrying a current of 50 A is bent into the form of a cir. ‘of radius 4 cm. Calculate (i) the flux density at the centre of the coil and (ii) density perpendicular to the plane of the coil at a distance of 10 cm from the Solution: © (i) Flux density at the centre of the circular coil with radius carrying cur- tent / is given by [Eq. 3.16)], B= ae (for air medium) Permeability {uy = 470 107 Current through the coil, 7=50 A Radius of the circular coil, R= 4 em = 0.04 m = 4nx107x50 2x 0.04 = 785.7 x 10° Wb/m? (Tesla) (ii) Flux density at a point P perpendicular to the plane of the coil at a distance z from the coil of radius R is given by (Eq. (3.15)], (for air medium) Distance of the point from the coil, z= 10. em = 0.1 m _ 4 1077 x50 x (0.04) ~~ 210.04? + Oa? hg = 40.2 x 10° Wb/m? (Tesla) | 3.9 FORCE ON CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN MAGNETIC FIELD Tf a conductor carrying a current of / is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B wb/m?, it experiences a mechanical force that depends upon the ‘magnitude of current, the length of the conductor and the flux density of the magnetic field. The direction of this force can be determined by Flaming’s left hand rule. Consider a conductor of length / metre 1 carrying a current of / ampere and placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux densi- E oe \ ty B Wb/m?, making an angle @ with the | direction of the field as shown in Fig. | -. 3.10. The mechanical force experienced i by the conductor is directly proportional | to, Fig. 3.10. Effect of magnetic field on ) current flowing in the conductor, /, current carrying |Sy. Basic Blectrical Engineering ) length of the conductor, /. ‘ (iii) flux density of the uniform magnetic field, B, and Civ) sine of the angle between the conductor and the uniform magnetic fj, a ence, F =Bilsin® 8.23 In general, for any elemental current element of length dl, the force ex, enced is given by, dF = Bldlsin 6 (324 Electrical motors producing mechanical power, work basically on this prin. ciple. As such, the above relationship is very useful in the study of electric engineering. Based upon the direction of the flux and the direction of current in the con. ductor, the direction of force can be determined by applying “Flemings Left Hand Rule’, which reads as follows: “Stretch the fore finger, second finger ani the thumb of the left hand mutually at right angles as shown in Fig. 3.11. Ifthe fore finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, second finger in the direction of current through the conductor, then the thumb will indicate the direction of force, that is motion of the conductor.” Ne Field Motion: ‘Current Fig. 3.11 Fleming's let hand rule 3.10 FORCE BETWEEN Two PARALLEL LINEAR CONDUCTORS Figure 3.12 shows two long parallel conductors AB and CD carrying cures! and 1’ in opposite directions. Let the conductors with distance R metre bet them be placed in air. The ma, gnetic lines of force due to the currents / and conductors AB and CD respectively are as shown in indicate that the force on the ductors are in the same direction, the force. ductors would experience an attractiv The magnetic flux density B at a by the conductor AB as given by E, S will be reversed and the 1° € force. sit! tadial distance R due to a current! q. (3.10) is | gyMagnetic Circuit _ 4.1 INTRODUCTION EAs ‘ussed in Chapter 3, it is the basic characteristics of the lines of magnetic flux that they form close loops around and through the magnetic material. The | complete close path of the flux around any current carrying circuit is referred as magnetic circuit as shown in Fig. 4.1. The magnetic circuit consists predominantly of iron paths of specified geom- etry which serves to confine the flux. In some cases, air gap may also be a part of the magnetic circuit. The magnetomotive force of the coil produces a flux Which is confined to iron and to that part of air having effectively the same cross- sectional area as the iron. The operation of electrical machines like transformer, generator, motor, etc. depends largely upon the magnetism produced by the magnetic circuit. In this chapter, the basic fundamentals of magnetic circuit are discussed. There is a lot of similarity between the magnetic and electric circuits. A compar- ative study is done for both the circuits. Calculations for the ampere tums con- _ Sumed by the iron parts and the air gap have been discussed. Furthermore, it is Fealised that how a magnetic circuit can be replaced by a single line equivalent circuit, which could be of immense help is solving the series—parallel magnetic _ circuits. The concept of Hysteresis, Hysteresis loss, Eddy current and Eddy cur- __ Tent loss have been discussed. | 4.2 MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF) _ The current flowing in an electrical circuit is due to the existence of electromo- | tive force (emf) across the circuit. By analogy, to drive magnetic flux through 2 Magnetic circuit, a magnetomotive force (mmf) is necessary.=A Basic Electrical Engineering _ * — _ nen current flows in @ Coil of ong, ive force can be produced wh t Magnetomotive force can be pre Mepporioal tothe coven No more turns, The magnitude of mmt is direct the number of turns of the coil N. mmf = NI (4.1) 4.3 MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH If the magnetic circuit of magnetic material is homogeneous and of uniform cross-sectional area, the magnetomotive force per metre length of the Magnetic circuit (path of magnetic flux) is called the magnetic field strength. It is repre. sented by H. Hence the magnetic field strength is, mmf _ NI 1 At sf where, / is the length of the magnetic flux path in metres. Alm (4.2) 4.4 RELUCTANCE Let the iron ring shown in Fig. 4.1 have a mean circumference of ! metre, a cross-sectional area of a m* and N turns carrying current of / ampere, then the total flux flowing in the dotted path (Fig. 4.1) is given by, = flux density x cross-sectional area or, o=Ba (4.3) Also mmf = magnetic field strength x length of the magnetic flux path mmf = HI (4.4) Dividing Eq. (4.3) by Eg. (4.4), o_ _ Ba Bar ree 15) but Bow Mo H, (4.6) H : ’ Gm: a ame Hoe mmf ! or — =—— 4.7) @ Hol, ‘ Equation (4.7) is similar in form to, me pl caren = R= ig for electrical circuits As emfcurrent is called resistance in electrical circuits, similarly mmi/S can be termed as reluctance for magnetic circuits. Thus reluctance is the prope!_iceoleenetio Cipemit: oo tbe magnetic material which opposes the flow of magnetic flax theough i. The ude of reluctance as given by Eq. (4.7) is Reiuctance = for magnetic materials (43) Het « i Reluctance = =, for non-magnetic materials 9 Hence, the reluctance offered by the magnetic circuit or 2 part of magnetic circuit depends upon G) nature of magnetic material. ie. fl, [1 e (Gi) length of magnetic flux path in the part of magnetic circuit. ic. [, and (Gi) cross-sectional area of the material through which flux is passing, Le... ‘The reluctance is expressed in ampere/weber and is denoted by S. The recip- rocal of reluctance is termed 2s permeance, which is analogous to conductance in electrical circuits. 4.5 LAWS OF MAGNETIC CIRCUITS All the laws applicable to electric circuits such 2s Ohm's law. Kirchhoff's. laws, cic. can be applied to magnetic circuits simply by replacing the electrical terms with the corresponding magnetic terms. Flux in 2 magnetic circuit is analogous to the current flowing in an electrical circuit. Magnetomotive force for magnet- ic carcuit is analogous to electromotive force for electrical circuit. With a similar analogy. different electrical terms can be replaced by similar magnetic terms. Otim’s law for electrical circuits is, emf = current x resistance or, E=I“R with the above analogy, Ohm's law for magnetic circuit will be. mmf = flux x reluctance (4.10) resistivity x length _ pl 4 wea a a 1__, length | i dene permeability area. 2a a Holt, 4 In series electrical circuit, the total resistance of the circuit is equal to the ail the resistances in series. Similarly, when the flux has to permeate aposie Miectrical Mngitvering. ~s es, the total reluctance of the Complete - snetic circuit in serie tna sre T of portions of a magnetic circu f the reluctances of various portign, e sum o} magnetic circuit will be equal to the te. $25, 45,4554 (4.12) is equal to the sum of i 4 al voltage drop is equa OF the electric circuit the total vol P fo i Stee aon ae ‘elements of the circuit. uae aie al farm rei toe Bea given flux in the magnetic circuit is pe a ne sme te Tmmfs necessary to establish the flux through the various Paris oF We © 1S, the total mmf for the complete magnetic circuit consisting Of a number o homogeneous parts is given by, Total mmf =F, + F + F3 + 6+ (4.13) Substituting for F,, F;, F; from Bq. (4.4) F = Hyly + Holy + Hyly +. B, or Total mmf F = as + (4.14) 1 where /,, />, /; etc. are the magnetic flux path lengths in the various parts of the magnetic circuits and [;. [4, ly, etc. are the absolute permeabilities of the medi- um of various parts of the magnetic circuit. 4.6 AMPERE TURNS FOR A MAGNETIC CIRCUIT In rationalised mks system or S.I. system, the mmf acting around a complete magnetic circuit is equal to the total ampere turns Tequired to force the given flux through the magnetic circuit, i.e. Total ampere turns = aN +52), + Fu), e 4.15) My Ha" My Equation (4.15) clearly indicates that the mmf per unit length or the ampere turns per unit length of each part of a magnetic circuit depends upon the work ing flux density and the absolute permeability of the material of the part. The absolute permeability depends on the nature of magnetic material and also upon the working value of flux density. Hence, ampere turns per unit length of the magnetic flux path for a particular part of the magnetic material can be found out from the standard curves of the material, plotted as flux density vs ampere tums per unit length, that is (B-H curve of the material), corresponding to the work” ing value of flux density in that part. A proper B-if curve of the material form ing part of the magnetic circuit must be selected to find out ampere numns perunlt length at a value of flux density in that part. The ampere oie 9a? unit tength s° calculated is then moltplied by the length of magnetic flux nevis in that pati order to get the total ampere turns needed by that part of the aes circuit. - si bate ae i a oe complete magnetic circuit is then found out by adding algebraically the ampere turns ni A of the magnetic circuit, teeded for the various parts______ Magnetic Circuit | 91 1 Calculation of Ampere Turns for Iron Part pere turns for various parts of the magnetic circuit will be calculated sepa- . To calculated the ampere turns for a particular part, the following proce- is followed in general. (i) The reluctance of the part is calculated using Eq. (4.8) or Eq. (4.9) as the case may be. ji) The magnetic flux @ established in that part is calculated using Eq. (4.10). iii) Cross-sectional area of the part is calculated from the given dimensions. (iv) Magnetic flux density is found by dividing the flux by the cross-sectional — area.ie. B= dla ‘(v) Ampere turns per metre of the magnetic flux path length in that part at the flux density calculated above is found by using the magnetization curve for the magnetic material of that part. (vi) Length of the magnetic flux path in that part is estimated from the given dimensions. (vii) Total ampere turns for the part is obtained by multiplying ampere turns per metre by the length of the flux path. viii) General procedure is now applied to various parts of the magnetic circuit. (ix) Total ampere turns for the complete magnetic circuit can now be found by 7 y the ampere turns needed by the various parts of the AT, = flux x reluctance Reluctance for air gap (for which 1, = 1) = HoA, hus, Alp Xetra Syke HoA, — Ay Ho = pbk” Genie Be ampere tums for the air gap AT, = 0.796 B, |, x 10° (4.16) B, = gap flux density in Wb/m? or T J, = length of magnetic flux path in the air gap in metre , to calculate the ampere turns for the air gap, the following general lure may be followed. -{i) Calculate the magnetic flux in the air gap. (ii) Calculate the gap area from the given data.(iii) Calculate gap density, By = +. vi ‘e § (iv) Using Eq. (4.16), calculate the ampere turns needed for the air pay 4.6.3 Magnetization Curves Magnetization curves play an important role in finding the ampere part of a magnetic circuit. The magnetization curve is plotted in terms netic flux density in weber/sq. metre and the magnetizing force per unit |e, in ampere turns per metre. These curves have been plotted in Fig. 4.2 for vari magnetic materials used in electrical engineering. Due to the variation of perms ability with flux density, these curves have curvature depending upon the quali ty of the magnetic material, Figure 4.2 shows clearly, how these curves differ various magnetic materials, depending upon their magnetic properties. 1.6 16 rr 2 ‘Armature plaves ladda da “g 1212/8 Transf a g — "plates ee é 1.010 Casto = B08 8 E ‘xt x 10) i 06 6 ce 3 5 Cast = 04 4 ahs 02 2 2 0 0Magnetic Circuit 4 imilarities in Electric and Magnetic Circuits Bieceree coeuits Magnetic circuits Custent flows fn the citeuit Tux is assumed to flow. ‘The pratt of current is called Path of Mux is called magnetic circuit elootrig eineit Current Lows due to emf Flux flows due to mmf Plow of current ts restricted by Ww of flux is restricted by reluctance resistanee of the circuit of the circuit ‘Current = emtiResistance Flux = mmf/Reluetance. ! co R= Uh cl => Resistance & = Voek Reluctance $= 7] Table 4.2. Dissimilarities in Electric and Magnetic Circuits Electric cirewits Current actually flows in the circuit, Flux does not flow, it is only assumed to flow for finding out certain magnetic effect Bnergy is needed till the current Energy is needed only to create the flows. magnetic flux. Resistance of the circuit is Reluctance of the circuit changes with independent of the current. the magnetic flux. with 1000 tums and the exciting current is 1.0 A, The relative permeabili- of part A and part B may be taken as 1000 and 1200 respectively. Calculate the Jowing: (1) reluctance of part A. (Gi) reluctance of part B (iii) reluctance of two r {iv) total reluctance of the complete magnetic circuit, (v) the mmf, (ed) toral flux. and (vii) Mux density. ‘Leakage and fringing may be neglected. ‘Solution: Figure 4.3 shows the “given. ic frame consisting of “Rwe iton parts A and B separated by ‘we ait gaps of 2 mm cach. Dotted ‘ie shows the mean magnetic circuit Set op in this frame. when the coils ‘wound over it carry current. The magnetic circuit consists of four por- _ ‘tions connected in series, that is fi) magnetic flux path in part B. (it) magnetic flux path in air gap, ‘¢ia) magnetic flux path in part A and Fig. 4.3 Magnetic circuit of example 4.1 (fw) flux path im air gap. Hence the “feral reluctance of this magnetic circuit will be equal to the sum of the reluctanees these four parts calculated separately. | 48 Reluctance offered by a magnetic path is given by. (Eq. (4.8)] P seed Hobe+ ! Reluctance for part A, Sa = aout Cross-sectional area of part A, Whose cross-section is a square with 3.6m side, a= 3x3=9em? = 9x 107m Length of mean path of flux in pan A. =20-(1.5 +15) = 2i7cm=0.17m Permeability, fly =42% 107 Relative permeability 1, for part A = 1000 17 t=" Thus reluctance of part A. Sa 79-7 1000 x 9 x10 = 15.03 x 10° AT/Wb (ii) Reluctance of part B, Sp = —=§— : ee ee Tig Hea Cross-sectional area of part B, a= 9 x 10 m* Relative permeability 1, of part B = 1200 Length of mean path of flux in part B, Ip = 17 + 8.5 +8.5 =34cm=0.34m 034 4x x10” x1200x9x10~ = 25.04 x 10° AT/Wb ‘Thus reluctance of part B. Sp = (iii) Hence reluctance of two air gaps, s, 0.004 4m107 x9 x10 : = 353.5 x 10° AT/Wb (iv) Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit, $= S,+ Sy + S, 5: or 5 =(15.03 + 25.04 + 353.5) x 104 = 393.57 x 10° AT/Wb (v) The magnetomotive force produced by i 7 yy tw i - ing 1000 tans and carpe eons? {cols on iron part B, each ha = (2x 1000) x1 = : 7 = 2000 AT tami=N? (vi) As per Ohm’s law for magnetic circuits, mmf = Flux x Reluctance Thus flux = mmf ‘Reluctance = —2000 393.57 x10" = 5.08 x 10% Wh4.2. A.cast steel electromagnet has an ait gap length of 3mm and an | th of length 40 em. Find the umber of ampere turns necessary to produce density of 0.7 Whim? in the gap, Neglect leakage and fringing. gon: As per the question, the magnetic circuit of the electromagnet consists o portions. that is iron portion and gap in series, Hence the total ampere tums -y will be equal to the sum of ampere turns of the iron portion and the tums for the air gap. i) Ampere tums for the air gap is given by Eq, (4.16) AT, = 0.796 Bgl, X 10° Flux density in the gap, B, = 0.7 Wom? Length of the air gap, f, =3mm=3x 10% m Thus AT, =0.796X0.7X3x 10 x 10° = 1671 AT ji) Flux density in the iron portion can be taken as the same, ie. B= 0.7 Wom? ‘Corresponding to a flux density of 0.7 W/m’, ampere turns per metre of "flux path length for cast stecl material as obtained from B-H curve (Fig. P42), 4 = 660 AT/m Length of the magnetic flux path in iron portion = 40 em = ‘Thus total ampere turns necessary for iron portion = 660 x 0. Total ampere turns to be provided on the electromagnet = 1671 + 264 = 1935 AT e4.3 A steel ring of 25cm mean diameter and of circular section 3.cm hhas an air gap of 1-5 mm length. It is wound uniformly with 700 tums carrying a current of 2 A. Calculate (i) magnetomotive force, (ii) flux den- ii) magnetic flux, (iv) reluctance, and (v) relative permeability of steel ring, e magnetic leakage and assume that iron path takes about 35 per cent of magnetomotive force. e ‘The steel ring is similar to the one shown in Fig. 4.1. The steel ring is 3 uniformly. The mean path of magnetic flux in the steel ring has been by dotted line in Fig. 4.1. i) Number of turns provided on the steel ring, V'= 700 ‘Current carried by the winding on the ring, 7 = 2.0 A ‘Total ampere tums provided on the ring = 700 x 2 = 1400 maf produced = NI = 1400 AT i) Total ampere turns or mmf = 1400 AT . Iron portion takes 35 per cent of the total mmf, Thus, minf for iron portion = 0.35 x 1400 = 490 AT ‘Hence mmf for air gap = 1400 - 490 = 910 AT 4m 264Ampere turns for the air gap is given by. 6 AT, = 0.196% B, 1% 10 5mm=15%10%m Length of air gap, ly He Thus flux density inthe air BaP. By = 5796 xT, = 91010" 0.762 whim? | ~ 0.796 x15 %10~* | (ii) Diameter of circular section of the ring = 3 em 14 x (3) 07 em? = 7.07 x 10% m? ux density x sectional area .762 x 7.07 x 104 538 x 10 Wb 538 mWb (iv) mmf = Flux x Reluctance (Ohm’s law for magnetic circuits) mmf 1400 or Reluctance = T= Daag ig =2.6 x 10° AT/Wb (v) Total ampere turns, N= 1400 Length of the mean flux path in the steel ring = 7x D,, Mean diameter of steel ring, D, = 25 cm Thus length of mean flux path in the rin, Sectional area Magnetic flux 1x25 78.57 cm = 0.7857 m Ampere turns per metre length of the flux path, i.e. Hix Ampere turn for iron part | 0.7857 | = ass 8 | = ms = Uy H, ‘Thus relative permeability of steel ring = ___~ 0.762 =e 623.6 x 4x x 1077 Example 4.4 A cast steel ring has a circular c i in di j ‘ Toss-section 2 cm in diameter and a mean circumference of 90 em. The ring is uniformly wound with a coil of 800 turns. (i) Calculate the current required to i 800 turns. (i) Produce a f 107 Wo in the ring. (ii) If a saw cut of 2 mm is made in the Ting, find pierce the flux produced by the current calculated in (i. (ii) Find te value of current, which will give the same flux as in (i). Assume the gap densi in iron gle! ingiage Gap density to be the same as in io! | | | | a6 | =972 | | | Solution: The steel ring is similar to the one given in Fig. 4.1 @ Flux, §=0.26 x 10 wo oa a A@ ‘Cross-sectional area = (2)? = 3.143 em? = 3.143 x 104 m? flux sectional area 26 x 107 3.143 x10 Corresponding to a flux density of 0.827 Wb/m?, ampere turns per metre length of flux path as obtained from the B-H curve of cast steel (Fig. 4.2) Flux density = = 0.827 Wb/m? H, =740 Length of mean flux path in the cast steel ring = mean circumference of the ring =90cm=0.9m | Thus total ampere turns, NI = 740 x 0.9 = 666 ‘Number of turns of the coil wound on the ring = 800 © Thus current in the coil = $69 = 0832 A Current in the coil = 0.832 A Number of tums in the coil = 800 Total ampere tums = 0.832 x 800 = 666 Length of air gap = 2 mm =2x 107m Now total ampere turns = ampere turns for the air gap + ampere turns for the iron portion Ampere tums for the air gap, AT, = 0.796 x B, x I, X 10° = 0.796 x By x 2x 10° x 10° = 1592 B, Now the ampere turns for the iron portion = HX Length of the mean flux path in the ring, J, = 90 — 0.2 = 89.8 cm= 0.898 m As B, =B, Hy=—& Absolute permeability of cast steel, = 7 i = 0827 740 = 1117x107 "Hence ampere tums for iron portion, AT, = ze x 0.898 AT, = at x 0.898 1 LT x 107 = 0.804 x 10° B, AT =AT, + AT,i Basic Blectrical Bnugineerin ee 666 = 1592.8, + 804 By = $96 0278 Whim = flux density * sectional area 278 x 3.143 x 10* 873 x 10% Wb 26x10 Wo . ate 1 is to be estimated with the air gap in the mag. ux of 0.26 x 10° Wh. flux 0.26 x10 Flux density = onal area 3143 x10 = 0.827 Whim Ampere turns per metre of flux path length in iron portion of the ring ata Magnetic flux (iii) Flux given in part () = Now the current in the coi netic circuit and for a value of flux density of 0.827 Wb/m* as obtained in part (i) = 740 Length of mean magnetic fiux path in the ring = 90 - 0.2 = 89.8 cm 898 m Ampere turns for the iron portion of the ring, AT; = 740 x 0.898 = 664 ‘Ampere turns for the air gap in the ring, AT, = 9.7% B, 1, x 10° 0.796 x 0.827 x2 x 107 x 10° = 1316 o Total ampere tums for the cast stecl ring = AT; + AT, = 664 + 1316 = 1980 | Number of turns in the coil wound on the ring = 800 : Thus the current in the coil = ve =2475A Example 4.5 An iron ring of mean circumference 1.0 m is uniformly wound with 400 turns of wire. When a current of 1.2 A is passed through the coil, a flux density of 1.15 Whim? is produced in the iron. Fi i ity of deny of 115 Wh ‘ind the relative permeability Solution: Number of tums on the coil wound on iron ring, N = ‘Curren through the coil, /= 1.2 A BE, Thus toral ampere turns provided on the ring = 3 ‘Mean circumference of the ring = 1.0 m ig = 4001.2 = 450 Thus the length of mean flux path in the ring = 1.0 m Hence ampere wes per metre of the fux path length, 41 = NE f 480 or Ha «. 10 ‘480 Flux density produced in the ring = 1.15 Wh/m? ‘Thus Hou, = B a lds. nt” ae_ Magnetic Cireuit Lis ative permeability of iron ring. pe, = — 480 x 4x x10 = 1905 umple 4.6 An clectromagnet is shown in . 4.4 whose area of cross-section of core is ?. Mean length of iron path is 50 em. It is ed by two coils each having 400 turns. When iin the coils is 1.0 A, the resulting flux @ sity gives a relative permeability of 1300, ate (i) reltictance of iron part of the magnet suit, (ii) reluctance of the air gap, (iii) total ee, (iv) total flux and (v) flux density in Fig. 4.4 air gap. Neglect leakage and fringing. Air gap 0.4. em ution: Figure 4.4 shows the eh 3s been shown by dotted lines, (Length of mean flux path in iron, | tromagnet, in which the magnetic Mux path Relative permeability of iron Reluctance of the magnetic flux path is given by sot Hol A Os Thus reluctance of iron portion, §, = ————=>——_—_, “ 4m X10 X 1300 x 12 x 10 ee = 255 x 10° ATAVb © (ii) Length of the flux path in the air gap 4 em ‘ =0.4x 107m Relative permeability of gap. 1, = 1.0 04x10 Thus reluctance of air g0p. S,= TIT aa os = 26.5 x 10° ATAVb = 2650 x 10° ATAVb Total reluctance offered by the complete magnetic circuit = S, +S, 55 x 10° + 2650 x 10° 1005 x 10° ATAVb ‘As per Ohm's law for magnetic circuit mmf = flux x reluctance ; mmf reluctance Total number of tums on two coils wound on electromagnet eS = 400 + 400 = 800 © Current through the coil = 1.0 A ‘Thus total flux =sD Basic Blectrical Enaineering_ mf produced by the coils = N/ = 800 x 1,0 = 800 AT Phus mmf produced by the coils = NF 0 800 29.275 x 10° Wb = 0.275 mWb O__, 204 Total Mi oe 5005 x 10 siete th ot sth (v) Flux density in the air gap = Signal area . 0.275 X10" _ 9.229 Wo/m? 12x 10 Example 4.7 An iron ring of mean length 60 cm has an air gap of 2 mm. Itis wound with 300 turns of wire. If the relative permeability of iron is 300 when a current of 0.7 A flows through the coil, find the flux density. Solution: Number of turns in the coil, N = 300 Current through the O7A Total ampere tums, AT = 300 x 0.7 = 210 es The magnetic circuit of the iron ring consists of two portions: (i) iron portion of | the ring and (ii) air gap in the ring connected in series. 4 ‘Thus total ampere turns 2 = ampere turns for iron portion + ampere turns for the air gap or AT =AT,+AT, B, Holt, xi (Ampere turns for the iron portion = H, x I, = 7 Mean length of the iron ring = 60 cm Length of air gap in the ring = 2 mm = 0.2 cm Thus length of mean flux path in the ring, J, = 60 — 0.2 59.8.cm 598 m. Relative permeability of iron, 4, = 300 Thus 7; B, Se. i 4x x10-" x 300 * 0.598 = 1585 B, Gi) Ampere tums for the air gap, AT, = 0,796 B. x1, x 10° I, = 0.796 B, x2 x 10°? x 108 = 1592 B, Substituting for AT, AT, and AT, in Eq, (i), 210 = 1585 B, + 1592 B, = 3177 B, or flux density, B, co = 0.0661 W/m? Example 4.8 A total flux of 0.0006 ring of cross-section 5.5 cm? and mean Wo is required in the air gap of an irot length 2.7 m with an ai f 4.5 mm Find the number of ampere turns required, Poi an air gap of 4- rial of the ring are as follows: ‘ints on the B-H curve for the mate H (ATI): 200, 400, 500, 600, 800, 1000 B (Whim): 0.4. 0.8. 1.00.100 1193...Magentis oS ts fe The magnetic circuit of the iron ring consists of two parts, viz iron and the air gap, connected in series. Thus, total ampere turns requii tums for iron portion, AT, + ampere turns for gap, AT, ‘, @= 0.0006 Wb -sectional area of iron ring = 5.5 cm? = 5.5 x 104 m? density in iron portion = = 1.09 Whim? 0.0006 55% 107 B-H curve for the material of the ring as per the given data has been plot- _ ted in Fig. 4.5 which shows that ampere turns per metre of flux path length corresponding to a flux density of 1.09 Wb/m? = 600 Mean length of iron ring = 270 cm “Length of air gap, /, = 4.5 mm = 0.45 cm "Thus length of mean flux path in the iron portion of the ring, 4 1, = 270 - 0.45 = 269.55 cm = 2.6955 m _ Thus ampere tums required for iron portion, AT, = 600 x 2.6955 796 B, X I, x 10° 796 x 1.09 x 4.5 x 10° x 108 ) Ampere turns required for air gap 0 200 400 600 800 1000 —— H (ampere tums per metre) ——> Fig. 4.5 B-H curve for example 4.8 i imensi fhown in| Je 4.9 An electromagnet is of the form and dimensions as s . IL is made of iron of square section 4 cm side. A flux of 1.1 mWb is required he air gap. Neglecting leakage and fringing, calculate the number of ampere uired. Take the relative permeability to be 2000 at this flux density. i 6 is g tic circuit of the electromagnet shown in Fig. 4.6 e ie det pant Eonnoast in series, viz (i) iron portion C, (i) air gap, (ii) on D, and (iv) air gap.Basic Electrica ej 2 boned Total ampere turns required for this i red magnetic circuit = ampere turns requires for iron portion C + ampere turns requitee for air gap + ampere turns for iron porti D + ampere turns of air gap =AT¢+AT, + ATp + ATs or AT =ATe +ATy +2 AT, (Ampere turns required for iron por- tion C -1x 10° Wb doy x4 = 16cm? = 16x 10% m* Flux Cross-sectional area = Lix107 16 x 10 Relative permeability of iron = 2000 2 Flux density, B = = 0.6875 Wb/m‘ B Thus ampere turns per metre of flux pathlength, H = 77 0.6875, Soy 2272 4x x 10~7 x 2000 or Length of mean flux path in the iron portion C = 25 cm = 0.25 m Ampere tums required for iron portion C, AT¢ = 272 x 0.25 = 68 ‘The material for portions C and D are the same. Section is also the same. ‘Thus ampere tums per metre of flux path length, H = 272. Length of mean flux path in iron portion D = 30 cm = 0.3m ‘Thus ampere turns required for iron portion D, AT, = 272 x 0.3 = 82 Gii) Ampere tums required for air gap = 0.796 B, x1, x 10° = 0.796 x 0.6875 x 0,002 x 10° = 1094 Ampere turns required for two air gaps = 2 x 1094 =2188 Total ampeze tums required = 68 + 82 + 2188 = 2338 xample 4.10 A magnetic circuit consists of two portions of cast steel of the stlowing dimensions: (i) length 38 cm, cross-sectional area 205 cm’, and i) length 25 cm, cross-sectional area 255 cm?. In portion A of the magnetic circuit, there is an air ide. Find the gap 0.25 cm wide. Fi umber of ampere turns required to produce a flux of 0.018 Wb in the gaP- ‘eglect leakage. Take the BH curve as given in Fig. 42, i olution: Total ampere tums required by the magnetic cireui turns a i ircuit = ampere ‘quired by part A + ampere tums required by part B. coe @ Part A of the magnetic circuit consists of an i : ir gaP- ron portion and an ait £ ‘Thus the ampere turns needed for part A is the sum of ampere turas for ito" portion and the ampere turns for the air gap, ie. AT, = AT, + AT, Gi“Ampere turns, AT, : Flux = 0.018 Wb 0.018 205 x10~* “Ampere tums per metre of flux path length corresponding to a flux densi- ~ ty of 0.878 Wh/m’ as obtained from Fig. 4.2. = 760 Length of mean flux path in iron portion of part A os 8 — 0.25 ‘ 7.75 cm = 0.3775 m eek ‘Thus ampere turns required for iron portion of part A = 760 x 0.3775 = 287 Flux density in part A, By = = 0.878 Wh/m? .796 B, 1, x 10° .796 x 0.878 x 0.25 x 107 x 10° 747 ‘Ampere turns required by part A, AT, = 287 + 1747 = 2034 i) Flux in part B = 0.018 Wb Cross-sectional area of part B = 255 em? = 255 x 107 m? —0.018__ = 0.706 Weim? 255 x10 Material for the part B is the same as that of part A. As such ampere turns "per metre of flux path length corresponding to a flux density of 0.706 ~ W/m’ as obtained from Fig. 4.2 = 670 Length of mean flux path in part B = 25 cm = 0.25 m Thus ampere turns required for part B = 670 x 0.25 = 168 Hence total ampere turns required for complete magnetic circuit =AT,+AT, 2034 + 168 = 2202 Flux density in part B, B, = ple 4.11 Determine the ampere turns required to produce a flux of | ional area 3 cm’. mWb in an iron ring of mean diameter 58 cm and cross-secti ues of relative permeability for different values of flux densities in the iron are given below: BWbim*): 0.5 1.0 1.2 14 : uz 2500 2000-1500 1000 saw cut of 1 mm width is made in the ring, calculate the extra ampere turns for producing the same flux in the gap. Neglect leakage and fringing- a) Flux in the iron ring, = 0.38 x 107 Wb | Cross-sectional area of the ring = 3m? = 3x 10“ m* aa 038x107 ‘Thus the flux density in the iron ring = “34.3977 = 1.267 Whimae ane (b) sic Blectrical Engineering i curve is drawn as shown in Fig. 4.7. The rela. sper the given data, Bf, i ; As per the give f g to a flux density of 1.267 W/m? as a tive permeability correspondin; obtained from Fig. 4.7 is H, = 1300. ; ‘Thus ampere turns per metre of flux path length, . = Fax 10 x1300 Mean diameter of the ring = 58 cm Thus mean circumference of the ring = 7x 58 = 182.3 cm or the length of mean flux path in the ring = 1.823 m Total ampere tums required by iron ring = Axl =775 x 1.823 = 1413 Now a saw cut of 1 mm width has been made in the iron ring. As such there are two parts in series in the magnetic circuit of the ring, viz (i) iron por- tion, and (ii) air gap. Hence total ampere turns required = ampere turns required for the iron portion + ampere turns required for the air gap ie. AT=AT, + AT, Ampere turns required for iron portio The flux being the same, the flux density in the ring is given by, B = 1.267 Wb/m’ [as calculated in part (a)] Ampere turns per metre of magnetic flux path length = 775 Length of mean flux path in the ring = 182.3 — 0.1 = 182.2 cm = 1.822 m 3000 2000 a | 1000eee ree Thus ampere turns required for iron portion = 775 7 1422 = 1452 y turns required for air gap: Length of air gap in the ring = J mm =1x10? m "Ampere tums required for the gap = 0.796 BI, x 16 = 0.796 x 1.267 41 x10" x 1 = 1008 | Total ampere turns required. AT = 1412 + 1008 = 2420 Extra ampere turns required duc to a saw-cut = 242) - 1413 = 1007 SERIES-PARALLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT 4.8(a) shows a magnetic frame, in which magnetic circuits exist in paral- “eymmetrical pairs. The common section generally known as central core or nb is wound with a certain number of turns, establishing a total flux 9 wb. The consists of two outer limbs, which are mainly to provide 2 path to the metic flux. The total flux ¢ then divides into two parts and follows different hs ‘which recombine at the other end of the common section. Let the flux in ater limb C be @, and that in limb D be ¢,. Then O=046 (4.17) he electrical single line equivalent circuit for this magnetic cixcuit has bees in Fig. 4.8(b). ectrical equivalent of Eq. (4.17) is l=he+h (4.18) 5 = Reluctance of the path AB 5, = Reluctance of the path BCA and §, = Reluctance of the path BDA mmf = 6xS+ 9,5; 4195 mmf = x S + 052 ($20) ions (4.19) and (4.20) will become more clear when these are compared electrical equivalent [Eqs (4.21) and (4.22)] emf =IR+LR; (421) emf =IR+12R2 (422) 1 mmf 4 & \ ASTER oN_ Electromagnetic Induction ia _ FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 3 aday conducted the following experiment to obtain an electric current ith aid of magnetic flux. ‘Figure 5.1 shows a coil connected to a galvanometer G. When the magnet Kept inside the coil nothing happened as shown in Fig. 5.1 (a). But when north pole of the magnet was inserted in the coil as shown in Fig. $.1 (6). pointer was deflected momentarily on one side and the direc- ‘of current was found to be anticlockwise. When the magnet was withdrawn | obtained when the south pole of the magnet was inserted or withdrawn. but the - Girection of current in this case was reverse of that obtained with the north pole. { Fig. 5.1 Faraday’s experiment ‘Faraday summed up the results of the experiments described above in the farm of following wo hws, known 8 Faray laws of electromagnetic induc- Faraday’s first law states, that whenever the magnetic flux associated or linked with a closed circuit is changed. or alternatively. when 2 conductor cuts ‘or is cut by the magnetic flux. an emf is induced in the circuit resulting in an induced current. This emf is induced so Jong as the magnetic flux changes. © Faraday’s second law states that the magnitude of the induced emf generated in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux. - at c Om N cs circuit the load terminal 1, oad resistance D (b) © Fig. 1.23 tllustration of Norton's theoremBasic Electrical Engineering . i i iven linear, active network js The Norton's equivalent circuit of the given ; Shown in Fig. 1.23(d), Hence, the current flowing through the load resistance R jg, In In I= Ti i+ R _ Example on Norton's Theorem Example 1.11 Solve the circuit shown in Fig, 1.24 for the current in the | branch AB using Norton's theorem. 19 29 K 2v= a(t 22 82 7 a()) B Fig. 1.24 Solution: As per the Norton's theorem, first the Norton equivalent current J, is to be calculated by short circuiting the terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 1.24(a). 29 19 A 20v 10A 29 Te B Fig. 1.24(a) ‘The voltage source of 20 V in series with a 2 9 resistance can be replaced by a current source of 10 A in parallel with a resistance of 2 9 as shown in Fig. 1-24@). The two current sources are supplying the current in the same direction Source of (10 + 10) = 20 A. Also, . can be replaced i in parallel with the current source of 20 A as shown AS Bi 5 ee resistance 1Q A Do, es ®,. 220 i Fig. 1.24(b)__ DC Circuits a ; | 1Q Va Norton equivalent current, x20 af WA Next the Norton equivalent resistance x, 20 Cf 19 ‘ is to be calculated by disconnecting the | Joad resistance across terminals A and B eplacing the sources with their inter- sprees that is short circuiting the Fig. 1.24(c) j Noltage source and open circuiting the current source as shown in Fig. 1.24(d), The two 2.Q resistances are in parallel and the combination is in series with the 1. resistance, ic i 2x2 males l+1=2Q & 2Q 1Q | T—Wv—e a sc oc. 2a ont Fig. 1.24(4) p Thus, the Norton's equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.24(e). Current in the - Abad! resistence: i 5 load resistance of 8 is given by, at HALES e T= 78 x10 2 A (from A wo B) Thus, current flowing in the branch Fig. 1.24(e) AB of 8 Q resistance is 2 A from A to B. 1.11 NODAL ANALYSIS The nodal analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) unlike Maxwell's mesh analysis which is based on kirchhoff’s voltage law. Nodal analysis also has the same advantage i.e. a minimum number of equations to be written to Solve the network. For nodal analysis, node is defined as the point where more than two ele- ments are joined together. If there are N nodes in the circuit, then one of these node is choosen as the reference or datum node and equations based on KCL are written for the remaining (N — 1) nodes. At each of these (N ~ 1) nodes, a voltage is assigned with respect to the ref- erence node. These voltages are unknowns and are to be determined for solving the network.Fundamentals of Alternating Current | 6.1 INTRODUCTION In the earlier chapters, we have dealt with direct currents, which flow continuously in one direction only. If the applied voltage and the circuit resistance are kept constant, the magnitude of current flowing through this circuit remains constant over time. Due to change in applied voltage or circuit resistance, if the magnitude of current changes but flows in the same direction, then it is called pulsating current. When the current flowing in the circuit varies in magnitude as well as direction periodically, it is called alternating current. Thus, an alternating current or voltage is one, which periodically passes through a definite cycle, consisting of two half cycles—during one of which the current or voltage varies in one direction and during the other half cycle, in the opposite direction. The circuits in which alternating currents flow are called AC circuits. : Alternating current system is invariably used for large scale power genera tion, transmission and distribution, Alternating voltage can easily be stepped t? and stepped down efficiently with the use of transformers, Alternating current ee pena Simple in construction, efficient and more robust as com oe of teat aay on he fame concept and emi phase and phase difference, representation of # Quantities by phasors and behavi 1 i our of i i ini i Pe like resistance, inductance and rie Shee eat 1 PRODUCTION OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE en a conductor i i fe die: conincise eed if 4 magnetic field, an alternating emf is generale? an Memating emf will also be generated by changiNéa der a single turn rectangular coil rotating with constant angular veloci- “eradian per second ina uniform magnetic fel, its axis of revolution being dicular to the magnetic lines of force (Fig. 6.1). Let the time be measured the instant, the coil lies in the plane of reference XOX’. The angle 6 swept ime coil in a time 1 seconds is given by, 0= at acer velocity v of the coil sides, v = ar mis. r is the radius of the path in metres.Basic Electrical Engineering Substituting it in Eq. (6.4), the instantaneous value of emf Benerated x time 71s ¢ = Emax Si OF ; ’ vs Similarly. the expression for the induced alternating current is given by i i =Ippax Si Ot (65, nie fy If fis the frequency of rotation of the coil, i.e. the number of cycles Ph through per second, then. o@=2nf (63, Substituting for ‘@” in Eqs (6.5 and 6.6). Instantaneous emf generated, € = Ennax Sin (20 f 1 . (2% = Fan sin (Et a Instantaneous value of induced current, 1 =Ipgay Sin (277f )t = Ipax SiN (%): 6 where, T is called the periodic time and is the time taken to complete one cycle. If the emf values as given by Eq. 6.8 from instant to instant are plotted along Y-axis against time along X-axis, the resulting graph will be as shown in Fig. 6.2. Such a graph of voltage is called a sinusoidal alternating emf. The trace abcde of the graph completes one cycle and consists of two alternations, one positive and other negative. Such a wave will complete a certain number of cycles in one second, which is called the frequency of the wave and is expressed in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second (c/s). In practice, while drawing the ac waves, horizontal axis is marked out in radians or degrees instead of seconds. b 1 CYCLE qd Fig. 6.2 Sine wave of emfic Blectrical Engineering 152 | + : i f in Hz. «fis the frequency of the generated Faiuloe ae ‘teh total number of poles of the gen ‘ © ithe speed of generator iM IP in india is 50 Hz Standard frequency of generation adaptet is Z. 6.3.5 Periodic Time alternating voltage OF current to complete one cy), ime taken by an c Be periodic time. It is denoted by Tand Laat in seconds, Thea tionship between frequency and periodic time . given by, Periodic time, Z 61 6.3.6 Angular Velocity ‘The angular distance covered per secon resented by wand expressed in rad/sec. ity and frequency is given by. d is defined as angular velocity. It is... The relationship between angular velo. o=2nf (6.12) 6.3.7 Amplitude ‘The alternating wave shape shown in Fig. 6.2 has equal magnitude for the max. imum value of positive and negative half of the wave shape. This maximum value of the positive or negative half of the ac wave is called its amplitude. The amplitude of an alternating emf, voltage and current is expressed by E,,... V., and Ix. Fespectively. 6.4 ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE The alternating voltage or current wave shape completes a certain number of cycles in one second, each cycle consisting of an identical positive and negative half cycle. The value of the quantity in such a wave shape changes from instast to instant. It becomes maximum at a certain instant only. In specifying such # varying quantiy (current or voltage), its maximum or peak value is rarely used. Serve ie value of the alternating current or voltage is mor or virtual value of the ltsalag goat Fe ee ‘llags waver ly for all types of alternating current and Normally the is y the current is measured by the amount of work it will do o tht amount of heat it will produc 7 e. i ing current is defined as that value Sai, (ee ee eteFundamentals of Alternating Current 4 188. put subscripts are omitted while representing the rms values of currents and ‘ges. Simple symbols V and / indicate the rms value of voltage and current sively. per the above definition, an expression is developed for the rms current and ‘oltage of an alternating wave shape in terms of the mean values of the same tity. Figure 6.3 shows the positive half cycle of a non-sinusoidal alternating nt wave shape. The wave is divided in m equal intervals with the instanta- cs digs This wave is applied to 22 t 2 t ; t\, (i Rx£).(8 Rx£).....(2 Rx 4) joutes Thus, the total work done in r seconds on applying alternating current wave P+ +..472 4 12" ¥ Rt joules aresistance R = m | im Fe Fig. 6.3. Rms value of ac wave : Let / be the value of the direct current, that while flowing through the same | Tesistance (R Q) does the same amount of work in the same time (1), then f P+ip+..ti, PRxt= xRt Thus, Rms value of alternating current, J = J Mean value of (i)” (6.13) Similarly, rms value of the alternating emf, E= Mean value of (e)? (6.14) Hence, the rms value of a quantity concerning to any type of alternating wave Shape is obtained as follows:| Basic Electrical Engineering 154 | Be vlectrical Enge in (i) Take the squares of the ordinates at equal intervals over one Positi Veh hay cycle. (ii) Take the mean val (iii) Take the square root of t (ii) Analytical Method The work done by an alternating current resistance R in time dt is *Rat. The total work ice. time period Tis given by, Jues of the above. his mean value. t of instantaneous value F connecteg done during one complete cy ‘ jc We f i?Rdt Let / be the value of direct current, that while flowing through the same resi ance R does the same work in the same time 7, then a 2 To PRT = fi? Rede LyT 2 = reli ivdt Lata gl? (Ff i ai] (15) gic “pip, ]” imilarly, Ve [ 7 j, v ai] (616) 6.4.2. Rms Value of Sine Wave (i) Graphical Method Instantaneous value of current for the sinusoidal wave shape is given by, : i= Ing, sin 8 ee (hula aee cycle of this current wave. In order to find out of this wave shape, plot the square curve, i-¢- the - 2p ind, curve ?? = ? = Prag sin?@, The square curve, i? is plotted by plotting a number of P= 1, sin? @ Fig. 6. I ig. 6.4 Sinusoidal ac wave and (current)? waveAlternating Current 4, 188 ints p such that mp = (mn)? and then joining, all these points by a smooth ve, uch a curve is also shown in Fig. 6.4, In order to find out the mean valet the square curve, draw a line AB ata height 12,,./2 above the horizontal axis . Now the total area of the square curve is equal to the area of the rectangle ABC. 2 us, mean value of /? x 27 = Or, mean value of (i?) = ‘Hence, rms value of current of sine wave, 1 = {Mean value of (i i 2 Trae = S =0,707 1, v2 max , maximum value of Ris value of current for sine wave = a pea (6.17) _ Similarly, rms value of voltage for sine wave maximum value of voltage = 18) v2 9 _ (ii) Analytical Method __ Rims value of the sine wave of current or the voltage can also be determined by analytical method. Sinusoidal alternating current is given by 1 = Iggy Sin O Mean value of (i?) over one complete cycle, Me Lf a at =p firtao=[,, sinoexao 2n | ny — k 2 mn t = fe | sin? a9 i zs - Butsin? g= e528 ee Thus, mean value of (i2) over one complete cycle eae: Qn i ei"Electrical Engineering c Blectrical “— 166 | __ Basic a F, [9_ sin 20 =n 12 4 bo 2 Fos Fra — fom yg = ~ 2% 2 Foacan vase of Hence, rms value of current = ‘Mean value of (i) : Tox = m2. = 0.707 “4-2 42 4 etm Thus, for sinusoidal waveform, rms value of current = 0.707 times 1, rms value of voltage = 0.707 times jy maximum value of current. Similarly, maximum value of voltage. 6.4.3 Rms Value of Half Wave Rectified Current A half wave rectified current wave shape is one, in which the current flows only for half the time during one cycle of alternating current wave shape. In order tp calculate the rms value of this current wave shape, the instantaneous values of current have to be summed over the half period, i.e. from 0 to 7, but averaged oz for the whole cycle, i.e. from 0 to 2m. Thus, rms value of current, ss 2 a v2 = | lefts xz ft g2e gin? r (af! a) [a] sin oxo] ‘eal (28) a] Hence, rms value of current for half wave rectified wave = 0.5 x max value of current oo 6.5 AVERAGE VALUE However, if the arithmeti nt 7 tic mean j inte zero for sinusoidal as well itwil 2 as for non-sinusoi is symmetrical. In 5 Sinusoidal i ave S area rasuch ase, as much current ‘ieani, Larsen roe ® opposite direction during the mest haf eyele: T™*™ e next half cycle:Basic Blectrical Engineering 174 4 io E, ‘ a “1 x) = pallens sin (2 a Ro+Xx Phase difference between current and voltage wave shapes, 1A) — (cor + oF) ” (or tan +) jE oh ata! 5 = -(1a0 at «) Hence current wave lags the voltage wave shape by an angle, ad ssa (1m R ) oO Frequency of the wave shapes, f= 3 6.9 PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY Figure 6.12 shows a phasor OA representing the maximum value of alternating quantity following sine law, i.c. OA = Iggy. Let this phasor rotate about a fixed axis O at a uniform angular velocity in the anti-clockwise direction. In Fig. 6.12 phasor OA has been shown, when it has rotated through an angle 6, from te position it occupied when the current was zero. The projection of the phasor 04 on the vertical axis is OB, which is equal to OA sin 6, i.e. the instantanews value of current at an angle 6. Thus, the instantaneous values of the current 2 obtained by taking the projection of the rotating phasor on the vertical axis. Te: values of current corresponding to various values of (different positions f rotating phasor OA are given by, oo 90° [ 180° | 210° | 270° | 360° ‘fel [elo bef] 6.12 py i "RASOr representation of alternating quantity‘Alternating Current L175 pice’ | oe Thus, a phasor 1s a straight I ne of fixed magnitude rotating about one of it nds at a uniform angular velocity. Phasors are frequently used while d allifg with alternating current circuits, lealing _ Mipigure 6.13 shows a current phi ~ poth the phas or [lagging the voltage E ra be tain Tl afl clockwise decion chine case aval evpety. Figure 6.13 (a) shows the condition when the instantancous value of voltage E is zero and becoming positive, an instant later, where as the instanta- vets value of curtent /is negative (equals OA and diminishing. After arte of a period, the instantaneous value of voltage becomes positive cach | ihereas current is positive (equal to OA’) and increasing [Fig. 6.13 (by). The positions of these {Wo phasors after next quarter of a period are shown in | Fag 6.13 ©). The phase angle @ between the voltage and current phasor remains ve ton in all the three cases discussed above. Hence, the relative position of the voltage phasor with the current phasor at any instant is the same. Fig. 6.13 Phasor representation of two alternating quantities : f 6.10 PHASOR DIAGRAM The above discussions clearly reveals that si voltages can be represented by phasors. In pra cuit, more than one sinusoidal quantity is invol represented on the same diagram by phasors inclined at different angles to the teference phasor. If all the phasors have the same frequency, they will rotate with the same angular speed @. Their phase will change with time, indicating that their magnitude changes with time but the phase difference between any two phasors will remain same with time. The relative position of phasors (i.e. phasor difference) is important for ac calculations. The graphical representation of the phasors of sinusoidal quantities at the same frequency with proper phase telationships is called a phasor diagram. 6.10.1 Phasor Diagram Using RMS ao mmeter and voltmeter are invari-, The electrical measuring i like MI a easuring instruments hi id as ee ably calibrated to read the rms values of the ac quantities. Ths " is ae Convenient to draw phasor diagram using rms values of current and voltage. inusoidal alternating current or tice, when we solve any ac cir- Ived. All these quantities can be | E Values178 Basic Electrical Engineering AC CIRCUITS ed and current flowing are constant wit, f the circuit could be attempted simply ma 6.11 BEHAVIOUR OF In de circuits, voltage appli time. As such the solution of Obm’s law, stated in the form of an equation: Applied voltage Current flowing in the circuit, I= Resistance offered by the citar ts, voltage applied to the circuit and the current flowing q | | In ac change from instant to instant. Thus, the above simple relationship wij, not good in these circuits. The variation of current with respect to time set | netic effects and variation in emf set up electrostatic effects. Both these ef, | must be taken into account while dealing with ac circuits. Magnetic efecs 9 be appreciably large with low voltage, heavy current circuits Elects effects are usually appreciable with high voltage circuits. 6.12 AC CIRCUITS CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY Figure 6.17 (a) shows an ac circuit consisting of a pure resistance, to which » alternating voltage v = V,,, sin at has been applied. In this case, the appli POWER CURVE () {o) + FIG 6.17 Purely resistive circuitsion Tentlemenstle®fAlierntiting Ciirrent Lary xge has to overcome only the resistive drop due to the cusrent flowing in th © ee ‘The instantaneous value of current is given by, ¥ Vow sin a 4 R E Vines. 1 As. R max Instantaneous current, f= Tyg, Sin OF e Hence, current flowing in this circuit follow the sine law and is in phase with Itage, it i ine Ym 7 the applied voltage, its maximum value being ne Accordingly, the wave shapes of applied voltage and the current flowing through istive circui nS igh the resistive it are shown in Fig. 6.17 (b). The corresponding phasor diagram of the Seas shown in Fig. 6.17 (c). 6.12.1 Power in Resistive Circuit Power drawn by this circuit at any instant is the product of the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current, i.e. Pzevxi = (Vinay SiN Of) X Imax Sin @t) = Vinax Iinax SiN? 1 = 3 Vina Inns (1 — €08 2 01) 1 1 = 5 Vinx Ian ~ 3 Vis as 08 2 01 1 The expression of power consists of a constant part of value 2 Vanax Jraax and a fluctuating part 4 Vinax Imax COS 2 ot. The frequency of the fluctuating power is twice the applied voltage frequency and its average value over one complete cycle is zero. Hence average power in this circuit is, 1 = 5 Venn fax = Yo» =W (6.27) in a purely resistiv circuit is equal to the product of the rms oe hai power plotted on the basis of the values of voltage and current. The curve of Product of ordinates of voltage and current shown in Fig. 6.17(b). at a given instant has also beenBasic Electrical Engineering _ Bu oe 6.13 AC CIRCUITS CONTAINING JNDUCTANCE ONLY ‘Amac circuit having an inductance of L henry and negligible resistance shown in Fig. 6.18 (a). A sinusoidal alternating voltage is applied to this Ci as a result of which ‘alternating current flows in the circuit. The alternatin, i rene it will set up a magnetic field that is alten Mat rent flowing in the in its magnitude W! duced emf ofte ds upon (i) rate of chan emf at any instant, i di eek 7 rrent flowing in this circuit of inductance L henry equation indicates that itis an oppo. d opposite to the self-induced emf aS by ing in nature, i to an alternating in tude of which depen the coil. Hence, self-induced where, i is the value of cur that instant. The negative sign in the above ing emf. Hence, the applied emf is equal an every instant. di toy ( = Thus, applied voltage, v = or, __ the applied voltage, v = La Let the applied voltage to the circuit be represented by, 0 = Vinax SiN OF (6.28) di oe Li = = Vinay Sin OF Be di = sin or: dr Integrating both sides of this equation, i V, is j= sin at: dt Vinax OL (-cos wt) = Vow gs ae sin( ar — From this exy ne te value, when sin ncaa is observed that the current attains its maxi™ 7 Me) becomes unity and th i ie maxi rent V. imum value of cu nung = LOR oL the expressi sion for the cur rent can be rewri written as, J vax Sin ( ss 5) (62 ‘Thus,Pundamentaty of Alternating € urrent {18 Comparing Bass (6.28 and 6.29) for the applied vollupe and the current, it is aly seen ht ctr ips ela the applied Yolage by an angle Ww 90" yo, 1a purely Mnductive clrouit, the ¢ utfent flowin ‘| i i Wi in the circuit laps the rage applied to the cireutt by an angle of 90" as shown in Fig. 6.180), . The quantity @/ is culled the inductive reactance and is denoted by X, and is presse i HIN, ' y, The X;, © lim Yims a Vxv2 vy ixan 7 ® $$, L t i Saree a) SiN ———e ¥% Fogg Sin cr S ie alien ene \ * 1% Dyan Si (OX = 22) Tao aoe 3607 @— ¢ (b) ’ © Fig. 6.18 Purely inductive circuitaes) The phasor diagram represents the rms values of ap! 6.13.1 Power in Purely Inducti 1s power in an ac circuit is gi of this circuit is shown in Fig. 6.18(c), where y n plied voltage and current, respectively, 1 ve Circuit jiven by, Instantaneou Psvxi i ae = Vinay Sin COX Trnax S11. (or ) == Vyaay Jasx 8101 OF COS OM oy =~ Vaux ax Sin 2 OF ‘Average power for one complete cycle poe Nos f x Average of (sin 2 wt) =0 Hence, the total power consumed by a purely inductive circuit is zero, 6.14 AC CIRCUITS CONTAINING CAPACITANCE ONLY Figure 6.19(a) shows an ac circuit containing a capacitor of capacitance C farads. Let an alternating voltage given by v = Viyqx Sin Of be applied to the above circuit. Charging current in the capacitive circuit is given by. i = C x Rate of change of potential difference = c# (6.30) The applied voltage v sin or Vinax ‘Thus, fac4 (vi, si = C7; Vinay Sin ot) = CO Vina, COS OF = OC Vay, Sin (or + 2) = Vinx = Tac Sim (ot + m/2) : Tmax, Sin (cot + 2) Thus, maximum current, J,,,, = i Voc ‘The term ig catts aq ac * called the capacitive reactance and is denoted bY ¥c expressed in ohms. A compari mparison of Eqs (6.30 and 6,31) for applied “a Fundamentals ¢ of Alternating aa ng Current 183 = Vig Sin (@) V Fry Sin ct © Fig. 6.19 Purely capacitive circuit f and current clearly reveals that current Jeads the applied voltage by an angle 2/2 | 090° as shown in Fig. 6.19(b). i Hence, in a capacitive circuit, current | applied to the circuit by 90°. The phasor diagram of s' Fig. 6.19(c). flowing in the circuit leads the voltage uch a circuit is shown in 6.14.1 Power in Purely Capacitive Circuit Instantaneous power in an ac circuit is given bys i pr=vxi = [(Venax Sit 1) X Cinax sin (of + 7/2))]Basic Blectrical Engineering 164) = Vonax Anas 1 wd Vyutlaat sin @t cos @t sin 2 of + for one complete cycle Average powel : x Average of (sin 2 @r) = 0 1 P= > Vann Anas Thus, the total power consumed by a purely capacitive circuit is zero, | Examples on Simple AC Circuits . Find the current that will flow through a coil of negligible £60 mH, when connected to 230 V, 50 Hz single phase rrent if the frequency is (a) decreased to 20 Hz, © Example 6.13 resistance and inductance o! supply, What will be the cu (b) increased to 60 Hz and (c) increased to 100 Hz. Solution: Inductance of the coil, L = 60 mH 60x 109H Frequency of supply = 50 Hz Inductive reactance, X, = 27 fL = 2x 50 x 60 x 10% = 18.86 Q Current flowing through the coil, 7= —— x L 230 = is36 =12.2A (a) The frequency of the applied voltage is decreased to 20 Hz. Inductive reac tance at this frequency, X, = 22x 20 x 60 x 103 =7543.Q Current flowing through the coil = =239- 7543 = 30.49 A (b) Frequency of the applied Voltage = 60 Hz Inductive reactance at 60 Ha, X, = 2m x 60 x 60x 107 1X), x10" = 22.639 Current flowing through the coil, J= 230_ 26: = 10.164 100 Hz = 2m 100% 60% 10-3 =37.72Q (©) Frequency of applied Voltage = Inductive reactance at 100 Hi a z,Current flowing through the coil in this case = —230_ 4 3772 hee =61A gxample 6.14 A capacitor of 100 UF is connected ac le phase supply. Calculate (i) the reactance of the capaci ent and (iil) the maximum current. Toss a 200V, 50 Hz sin- | ‘or, (ii) rms value of cur- Solution: ee (i) Capacity of the capacitor = 100 uF =100x 10°F alee 1 @C ~ aye este tel a ao 2m x 50 x 100 x 107 =U8Q (i) Rms value of applied voltage = 200 V Rims value of the current drawn by the capacitor Vv jpaee Xe " Capacitive reactance, X¢ 200 = Fpg 929A (ii) Maximum current, fn, = V2 =6.29 J2 =8.87A > Summary In this chapter, fundamental concepts and terminology related with alternating current, production of alternating voltage, root mean square value, average value are discussed. Phasor representation of an alternating quantity and phasor diagram are discussed in details. Finally, the behaviour of AC circuits containing single elements like resistance, inductance and capacitance is explained. > Points to Remember (Generated instantaneous value of emf ¢ = Emax Sit Instantaneous value of current i = Impax Sin OF (ii) Periodic time T= 1/f ie 1/7 > (ii) RMS value V= [ES v ai] Mean value of (7)?AC Series Circuit 7.1. INTRODUCTION ‘The circuits in which voltage and current varies both in magnitude and direction with time are called ac circuits. The ac circuits are made up of combination of Tesistance R, inductance L and capacitance C. The behaviour of each single ‘lement on application of sinusoidal voltage has already been discussed in Chapter 6. In this chapter, the series combination of RL, RC and RLC circuits are dis- cussed. Various methods of measurement of power in an ac circuit, effect of fre- quency variations and resonance in RLC series circuit are also discussed. 7.2. SERIES RL CIRCUIT Consider a circuit consisting of resistance R in series with an inductance L, con- nected across an AC supply at a frequency of f Hertz as shown in Fig. 7.1. Let, V be the rms value of the applied voltage Vp. the voltage across the resistance R V,, the voltage across the inductance Land 7 the rms value of the current flowing in the circuit. As the two parameters of the circuit are connected in series, the same current will flow through both of them. As such it is very con- venient to draw the phasor diagram of such a circuit by taking the rms value of current flow- ing in the circuit as the reference phasor. As discussed in Chapter 6 the voltage V_ across the resistance is in phase with the current I Fig. 7.1 Inductive circuitBasic Electrical Engineering ee one — oe across the inductance leads the current by 99° i ~ is circuit, following steps should be fol eg lov td a) whereas the voltage V; to draw the phasor diagram of th hasor, OA in hasor OB in (i) Draw the current p the horizontal direction, (ii) Draw the voltage p phase with the current phasor repr, ing the voltage Vp. ‘Sen, iii) Draw a phasor BC at right angles to the current phasor and in a leading \ direction, representing the voltage \ Vis hea’ (iv) Join OC, which represents the pha- c. sor sum of the two voltages Vp, and Phasoy V, and hence the applied voltage. ee as 4 1 The complete phasor diagram as explained, has been shown in Fig. 7.2 Fig. 7.2 nae of from which it is clear that the current flow- L series circuit ing in this circuit lags the applied voltage by an angle i.e. if, 2 = Voygx Sin OF then, i =Ipax Sin (@t- 9) Moreover, applied voltage, V= VV + UY Gy where, Vp = IR voltage drop across resistance R and, V, = IX, inductive voltage drop Thus, applied voltage V = Jury + ux, =1yR+X; Y. qa or, current flowing through the circuit, J = oe 2 2s The term 4/R? +X? is usually called the impedance of the circuit and 18 denoted by a symbol Z, It is expressed in ohms. Thus, impedance of the circuit Z= /R?-+ X? a a ‘urrent, re asi NIS ‘The current flowing throu . igh the circui i i ya angle 9, which is given by (Fig. 7.2), hit aps pbhind sb aepllod on a stant Ve 2 tay t Xe Ye TR ¢=tant se a_______ AC Series Circuit 2 afte ‘The waveforms of the applied voltage and the current hich clearly shows that current in an inductive circuit angle 9, which is called—power factor angle. are shown in Fig. 7.3 lags the voltage by an Voyag SiN Cot ~ 1 Tangy Sith (ax ~ 9) Fig. 7.3. Wave shapes of RL series circuit 7.3. SERIES RC CIRCUIT 7.4 shows an ac circuit containing resistance and capacitance in series d connected to a single phase ac supply of frequency f hertz. t, V be the rms value of the voltage applied to the circuit Vp the voltage drop across R which is equal tolR Ve the voltage drop across capacitance which is equal to IX¢ J the rms value of current flowing in the circuit. ~The phasor diagram for such a circuit Can be drawn by taking the current as ref- erence phasor (OA). The voltage drop Vg Across the resistance is in phase with the “current (OB). The voltage across the “capacitance Ve lags the current by 90° C). The phasor OC in Fig. 7.5 is the Sor sum of two voltages Vp and Vo. Hence, phasor OC represents the upplied oltage. Thus, in a capacitive circuit, cur- Fig. 7.5. Phasor diagram of t leads the voltage by an angle ¢ . As RC series circuit h power factor of these circuits is always leading.Electrical Engineering 104 | Basi aoe Referring to Fig. 7.5 applied voltage is given by, v= (verve = fare + Key 21 +KO Vv ‘Thus, current drawn by the circuit, / = Tax +x? % where, 4/R?+ X2. is the impedance of this circuit, i.e. Za R'+Xe a v Hence, current tao, ag flowing through the circuit leads the voltage by an angle ¢, whichiy Current given by (Fig. 7.5) tan) “Cte! Be eaten EE ae o=tan’ xe i) Voltage and current wave shapes concerned to this circuit are given it Fig. 7.6, which clearly shows that the current in the capacitive circuit leads the voltage by an angle ¢, which is called the power factor angle. v= Vq'sin ot i=Jq sin (+ 9) Fig. 7.6 Wave shapes of RC series circuit 7.4 ‘SERIES RLC CIRCUIT ‘This type of ac series circui eters ate connected seca {OFS @ general case, in which all the te? 1 series Great by eenag, TE CtCuit can be reduced to a simple R omitting respectively the capacitance. i ie__- 2 SMG SB ten Girollts sistance from the general circuit. R 7.7 shows an ac circuit in which ce R, inductance L and the capaci-. /— Ye —+— v, LF, Care connected in series. An ac sup- ‘at a frequency f hertz is applied to this I it. re : Vf V; be the rms value of the voltage applied to the circuit. Fig. 7.7 RLC series circuit Vp, the rms value of voltage across the resistance R. V,, the rms value of the voltage across the inductance L. Vc, the rms value of the voltage across the capacitance C J, the rms value of current flowing through the circuit, - “74.1 Case-1(V, > VQ) | The phasor diagram of this circuit can be drawn by taking the rms value of "current as a reference phasor. It is represented in Fig. 7.8 by OA. The voltage | drop Vp actoss the resistance R is in phase with the current and is represented OB. The voltage V, across the inductance L leads the current phasor by 90° ). The voltage Ve across the capacitance lags the current by 90° and is wn by phasor BD. Phasor BC and BD are in direct opposition and hence ir resultant is given by, BE = BC - BD (assuming BC to be greater than BD) __ Hence, the applied voltage will be the shasor sum of the phasors OB and BE, ely OE. Referring to Fig. 7.8, (OE) = (OB)? + (BE)? = (OB) + (BC- BD) V = Vio + (Vi Vo? = (IR) + (IX, - 1X)? =P UR + &,-X0) Vs IVR? +(X,— Xo)" Current flowing in the series circuit is given by, L - (7.10) ye +(X,— Xo)? Hence, impedance of RLC series circuit, Z= YR? +(X,Basic BI 196 | or I xe [oe ze) Resultant reactance, As the voltage drop across the voltage across the capacit the current in the circuit lags factor of such a circuit 18 then | = @= tan dance, th 7.4.2 Case-Il (Ve > Vi) In case the voltage across the capaci- tance is greater than the voltage across the inductance, the resultant circuit becomes capacitive. The phasor diagram in such ¢ modifies to the one shown, in Fig. 7.9, from where it is observed that the current is leading the applied voltage. Thus, the power factor of such a circuit is leading. Hence, if the resultant reactance is positive, the current lags behind the applied voltage (the lagging power factor) and if it is negative, the current leads (the leading power factor), 7.5 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS 7.5.1 Active Power Instantaneous Power drawn neous values of Voltage and current, Thus, instantaneous Power = yy; Let the instantaneous value : inductance has been assumed prea, no resultant circuit becomes inducg yectricn. Ne q } 2 L “ Ze ir i{o wl fy Oy thay Ne. Hg the applied voltage by an angle @, The ee jagging. The angle of lag # is given by, 1 Resultant reactance ene Resistance a Fig. 7.9 Phasor diagram of RLC series circuit Ve > VJ by an ac circuit is equal to the product of instai® a of applied voltage to a cizcuit be given Moy @ Fore gene can 2 anit ‘ Se, the current flowing i cireui i = cute = flowing inthe ac circuit is assumed 0 tag } the instant taneous Value of Current is given by, 6) ubstituting Eqs. (Wag 716) toa ’ - (7.14),AC Series Circuit | : = eee a Instantancous power = Ving SiN OX Iu, Sin (eat — Gy 1 = Vow tnas (C08 @ ~ cos (Zax ~ 6) 1 1 = 3 Vanna Poe C08 O~ 3 Vinay fy C08 (2. 08 ~ 6) (TAT) - pquation 7.17 for the instantaneous power consists of two components. 1 “i | * ‘ ., > Yow Ty COS G Which remains constant irrespective of time, and 1 1 Anax COS (2 OF ~ @), indicating the variation of this component of (i) power at twice the supply frequency, ~ However, the average value of this component over one complete cycte is it does not contribute towards the average value of power drawn Hence, average power over one cyele is given by, 1 P= 5 Vinay finax CO8 @ V, 1, = x raed v2 2 i: P=ViIcos (7.18) Inthe above expression, V and / are the rms values of applied voltage and current flowing in the circuit. Thus, the average power drawn by a circuit is found out by multiplying the rms values of voltage and current by cos 9, com- monly termed as power factor. The average power is also called as active power taken by the circuit and is measured in watts. 7.5.2. Apparent Power The product of rms values of voltage and current in ac circuits is normally "greater than the active power drawn by the circuit. Such a product is termed as _ apparent power and is measured in volt-ampere (VA). Thus, Apparent power = Vx / (7.19) 7.5.3 Reactive Power ~ Inac circuits, current lags or leads the applied voltage by an angle ¢. As such, ~ current can be resolved into active and reactive components, ‘The reactive com- "ponent of current is equal to / sin g. Power drawn by the cireuit due to reactive - component of current is called reactive power. Hence, Reactive power = VI sin ¢ 1.20)Basic Electrical Engineering eS ee 7.5.4 Power Factor As discussed above, the apparent power is the product of rms values Of vo} is less than the apparent power by and current, whereas the active power l ‘ tain factor. This factor, equal to the ratio of active power to apparent poy, = called the power factor of the circuit. For sinusoidal voltage and curren y.." the power factor is given by ‘ Power factor = yy veforms follow the sine law, power factor jg lied voltage and the resultant current fig, ing in the circuit. Power factor is normally called lagging when the current jo, the applied voltage and leading when the current leads the voltage. Thus, fg power factor consideration, the applied voltage is always regarded as the refer ence quantity. Power factor for the ac circuits can VIc08 — cos VE Hence, in circuits whose wa’ cosine of the angle between the app! be written as (Figs 7.2, 7.5, 7.8 and 79) Np Power factor = cos @= Vy = _ R _ Resistance Thus, power factor = 008 9= 5 = jrsciance 02 The power factor for an inductive circuit is always lagging whereas it is always leading for a capacitive circuit. 7.5.5 Active and Reactive Current Figure 7.10 shows a phasor diagram in which current J is lagging behind the voltage by an angle ¢. The current can be resolved into two components. | () OA = [cos 6, in phase with the voltage termed as active or power com i ponent of current. The power contributed by it is equal to VJ cos 6. Gi) AB =/sin ¢, in quadrature with the voltage and called reactive on wal less component of current. Hence, active component of current = Reactive component of current Tcos 6 Fig. 7.10 Active and reactive component of currentpatanced SUPPLY and load, 3. tl ‘skal sso discussed rw 80 92 peor 9 shows three rectangular PEE RR), YY; and BB, fixed 120° : ant, The ends of each coil are brought ut to the sliprings on the shaft. Let the shee coils mentioned above be rotated anti-clockwise with constant: angular Siocty in a uniform magnetic field fetween the poles N and S. Figure 9,1 shows a particular pos ion of the coil GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE EMF Fig. 9.1 Generation of three-phase emf RR, in which the emf generated is zero. The emf generated in this coil will depend upon the position of the coil with respect to the uniform magnetic field. When the coil RR, has moved through 90° from the position shown in Fig. 9.1, the generated emf becomes maximum (Fig. 9.2). Similarly the emf generated is zero again at 180° from the position shown in Fig. 9.1, thus completing half the cycle of the generated emf wave. The value of generated emf is negative maxi mum at a position of 270° from its initial position of the coil RR, and zero at 360°. The variation of the generated emf in the coil RR, while it is being rotated, has been plotted in Fig. 9.3, with respect to its Position, assuming the position shown in Fig. 91 ERR, + emf Fig. 9.3 Wave shapes Finish ——"__t '] Stiprings Start ——| Fig. 9.2. Loop ‘RR,’ at instant of maximum entf as the initial one. C eyy) 2 he on of three phase emsjcal Engineering _ Basic Blectris ae Se) a y © wi * 278 | vy ig exactly similar, But fixed at i ie FeSPect 9 o4, i Since om Easel) the same wave shape as that Of coil RRR, ated in if Has ' the emf genera lags by 120°, Similarly, same wave shape, but lag) The wave shapes of the generated i ed lines. ; 9.3 by Sat 4-phis balanced voltages are generated, when threg 7 ea eee notated in an uniform magnetic field. Moreover, the fixed 120° apart are roti i hae Ve he generated emf in coil BB, will also be exactly 4 by : sae by 240° with respect to that of coil ae J emt in coils YY; and BB, have beg, shoe! m instay, taneous values of generated emf Y 7 BB, (phase B) are given by, eg = Exyax Si 6 i 6, = Eyyax Sin (6 ~ 120°) om p = Emax Sin (0 - 240°) : (93) where, Ey, is the maximum value of the generated emf in each of the coils ang Gis the position of the coils RR, (phase R) from its initial position. The rms val. ues (Vey, Vyys Vay) Of these three emfs have been represented by phasors in ig. 9.4. eet supply system is balanced, when the line to line voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced in phase by 120° with respect to each other, A 3-phase supply system is unbalanced, when either of the three voltages are unequal in magnitude or the phase angle between them is not equal to 120°. 9.3 PHASE SEQUENCE The order in which the phase voltages of a 3-phase system attain their peak ot maximum positive values is called the phase sequence of the system, The phase Sequence RYB normally means that the red phase is followed by yellow phase, mi is followed bythe ee phase. When the voltage of the red phase is at its ’s Maximum val jue, the 7 i i i P Phase 240° behind its positive maxi. Pit We value as shown in Figs 9,3 and Figure 9.4 shows the y erated in a 3-phase alematon oa Phase voltages have been showy phasors. The Phase se rae Voltages is RYB and 120° Phase sequence : Fig. 9.4 ‘ EMFs tem can be cheney of a particular sys- Representation of three by hie s 6y phasors ‘changing the Connections of any two phases:Ky seal Engineering ] Basie Hlectrica! OE ss 280 | ac | ree phases of the system—(i) stir Connection ; ecting the ¢ of intereonn nesh connection (ii) delta or ™ 9.5 STAR CONNECTION 9,5, are reconnected as shown in Fig. 96 in phases of Fi. c v P ined together {0 form a neutral point, thus Reduci he neutral wire is also taken oy, ‘ the The three isolated which R,, Y, and B, and j a - of conductors to three. the total number of conductors (0 aa : system will be a 3-phase, 4Awii em, Such interconnection of the three ha 2rietion and is designated by a symbol Y. The junction of yy three wires is normally called ar or neutral point. If ig, iy and iy are the instay. taneous values of the currents 11 the three phases, then their sum should be equa, to zero to satisfy the property of interconnec jon. These currents may be sented by the following equations for a 3-phase symmetrical balanced system, sin 0 sin (6’— 120) lig = Ipyay Sin (0" - 240°) ig + iy + ip = Jag [sin 07+ sin (6”~ 120°) + sin (8’~ 240°)] =0 Thus, in a balanced 3-phase star connected circuit, the sum of the instanta- neous currents in the three phases is always zero or the current in the neutral conductor is zero at every instant. es is called star c ig = Trax iy = Jovan Fig, 9. 9.6 Three-phase Star connectiona Z | ~~ guTA CONNECTION isolated phases of Fig. 9.5 are connected to form ae se Me fing end of one phase being joined to the finishing ‘a ot as west chown in Fig. 9.7. This arrangement reduces the total numberof ot pias Bg three. For a symmetrical, balanced circuit, the ciculating curece™, 0 d delta must always be zero, i.e. the sum of the instantaneous valu of on ifthe three phases should be ze aes el three phases are given by, TO at every instant. The instantaneous emf of the ep = Emax Sin 0 ey = Ens Sin (@- 120) en = Emax Sin (0-240) ent ey +m = Emax [sin 6 + sin (0 - 120) + sin (8— 240)) =0 ‘his type of arrangement of three phases of the system is called delta or mesh connection and is designated by the symbol, A. Ty Fig. 9.7 Three-phase delta connection CTED 9.7 LINE AND PHASE QUANTITIES IN STAR-CONNE! CIRCUIT ; sawbik Vyyand V; Asstar-connected system has been shown in Fig. 9.6, in sie eth = Ven Vn ate the mms values of the phase voltages. ‘The voltages ae and Vp» are obtained from the phase voltages 4S a = Ven + Vi Line voltage across terminals R and Y, Var E th + CV) = Ven — Vow Phas difference) = Vew282 asic Electrical Engineering a) gaan: i cross terminals iene, sony ie otage eee Tv Hence te f E tine voltage across terminal ined by subtracting vectorialy, y.“°* connect stem are obt ages in a star-connected 5} ae obtained are equal and s & i 2 cerned phase voltages apart, that is Vyp is by ging Vay by 120° and Var is lagging Vix by 129°, maintaining the phase sequence ao charg reas e oa Phase Voltages yy, Vyy and Vqy have been represented i Fi 9.8, assuming the phase secon the system as RYB and taking Vw as the reference phasor. The line voltage y ie abuained by adding Vay and Vyy (-Vry) vectorially. The other Tine voltage Vip and Vg are obtained in a similar manner, The complete phasor lage hhown in Fig 9.8, in which the phase cure, showing phase and line voltages is sI is lagging its own phase voltage by an angle @. Referring to Fig. 9.8, it jg clear that the line voltages are 30° ahead of the phase voltages and are ire Line voltage Vey = Vaw ~ Vow = 2 Vey cos 30° =2 Vy x V3/2 = V3 Vy Similarly, line voltage, Vip = V3 Vyy = V3 Vix and the line voltage, Vag = V3 Vay = V3 Vi, Hence, in a star-connected 3-phase system, Line voltage, V, = /3 phase voltage a) 4)ree Phane Nystems to Fig. 6, 1s quite obyiny ie efor 1 288 U8 that the Urrey © MHD the tin, getercurrent Hence, 18 Alar connected 4 Phase system, qual to inne eo Line current, fy phase current, dy 5 jo between the line cutventy and the cor : ne ge 4 nding tine vor, ycase of lagping loads and (age vei (i 9) In case Of leading loads apes is LINE AND PHASE QUANTITIES jy PELTA-CONNECTED cinculy 96 iu-connee ted system, the starting end of Jetta nad {of another phase, so a9 to form 4 closed cireuit shine ail in which the phase currents f,, 4, and 1, ave ae F cl 20°, Currents in the line conductors are now different than the placed by 120 and displ nts, Let the currents in the three line conductors be Tn Vy and Ty, e currents, L : ( phate ° i 9,7, itis seen that the fine current Jy is equal to the phasor difference from Fs " ae phase currents 4, and J,, that is ol Line current Jy = 1, ~ 1, = 2 Iy, c08 30° = 3.1, 4 phase jy, Connected to the fin. - Figure 9.7 shows equal in magnitude Similarly, line current Jy = 1, ~1, = J3 ly om i" Line current fy = J3 Jy, Hence, in a balanced 3-phase delta-connected system, as Line current f, = ¥3 Jon in magnitude and are displaced ‘The three line currents Jp, Jy and J, are equal in edly ce SRN EEG 5 ing a true 3-phase system as shown Fig. 9.7, it is obvious by 120°, caus forelne iagram of the system, Referring to Fig. 9.7, the complete phas ted circull nel delta-conne' x diagram of Fig. 9.9 Phasoasic Blectrical Engineering 5 284 the li seaas ara coat oe. piace Noni 8 HAM cog that ine . = Line voltage, Vi = phase voltage, Via : PHASE SYSTEMS WITH 9.9 POWER IN THREE~ BALANCED LOAD _ i 4reuit is V 60s @. Thus, power 1 to a single phase ac circu be Spee syst is Vin fa cos @ where Vin and Typ, - the rms valet ott ejtage and current respectively and Cos } the power factor of the ‘= the angle between the phase voltage and the corresponding phase ¢ Hence, the total power fed to a S-phase system with balanced Nad rent = 3.x power per phase = 3 Van by 608 O ‘e hase systems are connected either in star or in delta. Three-ph 9.9.1 Power in Three-Phase Star Connected Circuit In star-connected circuit, V, = V3 Vpn T=ln Substituting these values in Eq. (9.8), an expression for power is obtained » terms of line voltage and line current. Total power = 3 x % x1, cos @ = V3V, x1, xcos ¢ Total power = 3 line voltage x line current x power factor oO 9.9.2 Power in Three-Phase Delta Connected Circuit In a delta-connected circuit, Y= Va : t= V3hy Substituting these in Eq. (9.8), Total = A power =3¥, x fe x cos @ =V3 Vi xh, xX cos ¢ = V3 x line voltage x fi ot fonck ,, ge X line current x power factor Wiens ohh ele ad dary that the ag, for power in a 37 three phases and is given by, NS the same irrespective of the Total Power = V3 ¥, 1, cos @ ll