Properties of Fluids, Continuum Hypothesis

Fluid mechanics is concerned with the behavior of materials which deform

without limit under the influence of shearing forces. Even a very small shearing
force will deform a fluid body, but the velocity of the deformation will be
correspondingly small. This property serves as the definition of a fluid: the
shearing forces necessary to deform a fluid body go to zero as the velocity
of deformation tends to zero. On the contrary, the behavior of a solid body
is such that the deformation itself, not the velocity of deformation, goes to
zero when the forces necessary to deform it tend to zero. To illustrate this
contrasting behavior, consider a material between two parallel plates and
adhering to them acted on by a shearing force F (Fig. 1.1).
If the extent of the material in the direction normal to the plane of Fig. 1.1
and in the x-direction is much larger than that in the y-direction, experience
shows that for many solids (Hooke s solids), the force per unit area t =
F/A is proportional to the displacement a and inversely proportional to the
distance between the plates h. At least one dimensional quantity typical for
the material must enter this relation, and here this is the shear modulus G.
The relationship
t = G? (?  1) (1.1)
between the shearing angle ? = a/h and t satisfies the definition of a solid:
the force per unit area t tends to zero only when the deformation ? itself
Fig. 1.1. Shearing between two parallel plates
2 1 The Concept of the Continuum and Kinematics
goes to zero. Often the relation for a solid bodis essentially plane. Then (6.20
7) provides the expression for the volume flow
per unit length of the channel, so here we have
?V
= 2prm?p
h3
12?1L
1 - 3
2B +
1
2B3 ;
for B <1 and ?V = 0; for B = 1 ,
where ?p = KL is the pressure difference p - p0 across the piston and
B = 2?L/(?p h). Since p0 is time independent we obtain from (6.212) a nonlinear
differential equation for ?p:
d(?p)
dt
=
AuP (t) - 2prm?p h3
12 ?1 L
1 - 3
2
2?L
?p h + 1
2 * 2?h
?ph+3
d VG/dp
;
for B <1 and
d(?p)
dt
= AuP (t)
dVG/dp
; for B = 1 . (6.216)
For a given piston motion xP = x0 sin(? t); x?P = uP (t) say, the equation is
integrated numerically giving the force acting on the piston. It is customary
to describe the damper characteristic by graphing F (uP ) since the circumscribe

d
area is a measure of the dissipated energy. This graph is displayed in
Fig. 6.15 for a Bingham Material with yield stress ? = 5000N/m2 and ? = 0
(Newtonian Fluid).
However the comparison is in so far misleading as damper using Newtonian
Fluids are not designed according to the principles outlined in Fig. 6.14.
These shocks absorbers have pressure dependent throttle openings. The work
done by the piston is here first converted into kinetic energy which is subseque
ntly
dissipated. This damper characteristic is nearly independent of vis202
6 Laminar Unidirectional Flows
Fig. 6.15. Damper characteristic
cosity and therefore independent of ambient temperature. (The dissipation
itself is of course due to viscosity).
6.4.2 Pipe Flow of a Bingham Material
Because of the kinematic restriction the steady flow of a Bingham material
through a circular pipe with radius R is also a unidirectional flow. As
explained in Sect. 6.3.1, for any material behavior we obtain a shear stress
distribution in the pipe linearly dependent on the distance from the center r:
trz = -tw
r
R
, (6.217)
where here again tw = KR/2 > 0 and K = -?p/?z . Wherever the material
flows, trz or tzr are the only nonzero components of the shearing stress
Fig. 6.16. Pipe flow of a Bingham material
6.4 Unidirectional Flows of a Bingham Material 203
deviator, whose second invariant we obtain as
1
2 t

ijt

ij = t2
rz . (6.218)
Using (6.217) and (6.218) we conclude that the fluid in the whole pipe will
not flow as long as the wall shear stress (3.61) is smaller then the yield stres
s,
i.e. tw < ?. For tw > ? a part of the fluid flows, and the stress -trz reaches
the value of the yield stress at the radius r = a:
a
R
= ?
tw
. (6.219)
In the region r > a the material therefore flows and it follows from the
constitutive relation (3.60) that
trz = ?1
du
dr
- ? , (6.220)
where the negative sign appears because du/dr < 0 . From (6.217) we find
an equation for du/dr, which when integrated with u(r = R) = 0 furnishes
the velocity distribution
u(r) = twR
2?1
1 - * r
R
+2 - ?R
?1

*1 - * r
R
++ . (6.221)
For ? = 0 we recover the well known form for Newtonian fluids. In the region
r < a (6.221) yields the constant velocity in the center of the pipe as
umax = twR
2?1
*1 - a
R
+2
= twR
2?1
1 - ?
tw
2
, (6.222)
and finally we obtain the volume flux as
?V
= ptwR3
4?1
1 - 4
3
?
tw
+
1
3
 ?
tw
4!
. (6.223)
7 Fundamentals of Turbulent Flow
7.1 Stability and the Onset of Turbulence
We shall now follow on from the discussion of laminar pipe flow. There we
determined that the pressure drop is proportional to the volume flux, a result
which agrees with experiment only for Reynolds numbers smaller than
a critical Reynolds number. If this critical Reynolds number is exceeded
the pressure drop increases sharply and finally becomes proportional to the
square of the flux through the tube. At the same time there is a striking
change in the behavior of the flow.
Below the critical Reynolds number straight particle paths parallel to the
pipe wall with a unidirectional or laminar flow motion are seen, so that this
flow form has the name laminar flow. The particle paths can be observed by
using a glass tube, where color is introduced into the fluid at one point, and
so a streakline appears, which, for steady flow, coincides with the pathline.
In laminar flow a fine thread appears which will only spread out from the
very small effect of the molecular diffusion.
If the Reynolds number is increased sufficiently, the flow becomes very
clearly unsteady: the thread waves back and forth and spreads out much
faster than would be expected from molecular diffusion. At only a small distance
from where the color is introduced, the thread has mixed with the fluid.
This form of flow is called turbulent flow. A characteristic sign of turbulent
flow is the strongly increased diffusion which expresses itselfy is of a more ge
neral form,
e. g. t = f(?), with f(0) = 0.
If the material is a fluid, the displacement of the plate increases continually
with time under a constant shearing force. This means there is no relationship
between the displacement, or deformation, and the force. Experience shows
here that with many fluids the force is proportional to the rate of change of
the displacement, that is, to the velocity of the deformation. Again the force

is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. (We assume

that the plate is being dragged at constant speed, so that the inertia of the
material does not come into play.) The dimensional quantity required is the
shear viscosity ?, and the relationship with U = da/dt now reads:
t = ?
U
h
= ? ?? , (1.2)
or, if the shear rate ?? is set equal to du/dy,
t(y) = ?
du
dy
. (1.3)
t(y) is the shear stress on a surface element parallel to the plates at point y.
In so-called simple shearing flow (rectilinear shearing flow) only the xcomponen
t
of the velocity is nonzero, and is a linear function of y.
The above relationship was known to Newton, and it is sometimes incorrectly
used as the definition of a Newtonian fluid: there are also nonNewtonian fluids which show a linear relationship between the shear stress t
and the shear rate ?? in this simple state of stress. In general, the relationsh
ip
for a fluid reads t = f( ? ?), with f(0) = 0.
While there are many substances for which this classification criterion suffices
,
there are some which show dual character. These include the glasslike
materials which do not have a crystal structure and are structurally liquids.
Under prolonged loads these substances begin to flow, that is to deform without
limit. Under short-term loads, they exhibit the behavior of a solid body.
Asphalt is an oftquoted example: you can walk on asphalt without leaving
footprints (short-term load), but if you remain standing on it for a long time,
you will finally sink in. Under very short-term loads, e. g. a blow with a hamme
r,
asphalt splinters, revealing its structural relationship to glass. Other
materials behave like solids even in the long-term, provided they are kept
below a certain shear stress, and then above this stress they will behave like
liquids. A typical example of these substances (Bingham materials) is paint:
it is this behavior which enables a coat of paint to stick to surfaces parallel
to the force of gravity.
The above definition of a fluid comprises both liquids and gases, since neither
show any resistance to change of shape when the velocity of this change
tends to zero. Now liquids develop a free surface through condensation, and
in general do not fill up the whole space they have available to them, say
1.1 Properties of Fluids, Continuum Hypothesis 3
a vessel, whereas gases completely fill the space available