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JavaScript
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Java (programming language), Java (software platform), o
r Javanese script.
JavaScript
Paradigm
Multi-paradigm: scripting, object-oriented (prototype-based), im
perative, functional[1]
Designed by
Brendan Eich
Developer
Netscape Communications Corporation, Mozilla Foundation, Ecma In
ternational
First appeared May 23, 1995; 21 years ago
Stable release ECMAScript 6[2] / June 17, 2015; 11 months ago
Typing discipline
dynamic, duck
Major implementations
Chakra, SpiderMonkey, V8
Influenced by
Lua, Scheme, Perl, Self, Java, C, Python, AWK, HyperTalk
Influenced
ActionScript, AtScript, CoffeeScript, Dart, JScript .NET, LiveScript, ObjectiveJ, Opa, Perl 6, QML, TypeScript
JavaScript at Wikibooks
JavaScript
Filename extension
.js
Internet media type
application/javascript text/javascript (obsolete)[3]
Uniform Type Identifier (UTI) com.netscape.javascript-source[4]
Type of format Scripting language
Part of a series on
JavaScript
JavaScript syntax
JavaScript library
Unobtrusive JavaScript
JavaScript engine
Lists of Frameworks and Libraries
Ajax frameworks
JavaScript web frameworks
Comparison of JavaScript frameworks
List of JavaScript libraries
JavaScript unit testing frameworks
JavaScript Object Notation
See also

ECMAScript
v t e
JavaScript (/dv skrpt/[5]) is a high-level, dynamic, untyped, and interpreted programmi
g language.[6] It has been standardized in the ECMAScript language specification
.[7] Alongside HTML and CSS, it is one of the three core technologies of World W
ide Web content production; the majority of websites employ it and it is support
ed by all modern Web browsers without plug-ins.[6] JavaScript is prototype-based
with first-class functions, making it a multi-paradigm language, supporting obj
ect-oriented,[8] imperative, and functional programming styles.[6] It has an API
for working with text, arrays, dates and regular expressions, but does not incl
ude any I/O, such as networking, storage, or graphics facilities, relying for th
ese upon the host environment in which it is embedded.[7]
Although there are strong outward similarities between JavaScript and Java, incl
uding language name, syntax, and respective standard libraries, the two are dist
inct languages and differ greatly in their design. JavaScript was influenced by

programming languages such as Self and Scheme.[9]

JavaScript is also used in environments that are not Web-based, such as PDF docu
ments, site-specific browsers, and desktop widgets. Newer and faster JavaScript
virtual machines (VMs) and platforms built upon them have also increased the pop
ularity of JavaScript for server-side Web applications. On the client side, Java
Script has been traditionally implemented as an interpreted language, but more r
ecent browsers perform just-in-time compilation. It is also used in game develop
ment, the creation of desktop and mobile applications, and server-side network p
rogramming with runtime environments such as Node.js.
Contents [hide]
1
History
1.1
Beginnings at Netscape
1.2
Server-side JavaScript
1.3
Adoption by Microsoft
1.4
Standardization
1.5
Later developments
2
Trademark
3
Features
3.1
Imperative and structured
3.2
Dynamic
3.3
Prototype-based (Object-oriented)
3.4
Functional
3.5
Delegative
3.6
Miscellaneous
3.7
Vendor-specific extensions
4
Syntax
4.1
Simple examples
4.2
More advanced example
5
Use in Web pages
5.1
Example script
5.2
Compatibility considerations
6
Security
6.1
Cross-site vulnerabilities
6.1.1 Misplaced trust in the client
6.1.2 Browser and plugin coding errors
6.1.3 Sandbox implementation errors
7
Uses outside Web pages
7.1
Embedded scripting language
7.2
Scripting engine
7.3
Application platform
8
Development tools
9
Version history
10
Related languages and features
10.1
Use as an intermediate language
10.2
JavaScript and Java
11
References
12
Further reading
13
External links
History[edit]
Beginnings at Netscape[edit]
JavaScript was originally developed in 10 days in May 1995 by Brendan Eich, whil
e he was working for Netscape Communications Corporation. Indeed, while competin
g with Microsoft for user adoption of Web technologies and platforms, Netscape c
onsidered their client-server offering a distributed OS with a portable version
of Sun Microsystems's Java providing an environment in which applets could be ru
n.[citation needed] Because Java was a competitor of C++ and aimed at profession
al programmers, Netscape also wanted a lightweight interpreted language that wou
ld complement Java by appealing to nonprofessional programmers, like Microsoft's

Visual Basic (see JavaScript and Java).[10]

Although it was developed under the name Mocha, the language was officially call
ed LiveScript when it first shipped in beta releases of Netscape Navigator 2.0 i
n September 1995, but it was renamed JavaScript[11] when it was deployed in the
Netscape browser version 2.0B3.[12]
The change of name from LiveScript to JavaScript roughly coincided with Netscape
adding support for Java technology in its Netscape Navigator Web browser. The f
inal choice of name caused confusion, giving the impression that the language wa
s a spin-off of the Java programming language, and the choice has been character
ized as a marketing ploy by Netscape to give JavaScript the cachet of what was t
hen the hot new Web programming language.[13][14]
There is a common misconception that the JavaScript language was influenced by a
n earlier Web page scripting language developed by Nombas named C-- (not to be c
onfused with the later C-- created in 1997).[15][16][17] Brendan Eich, however,
had never heard of C-- before he created LiveScript.[18] Nombas did pitch their
embedded Web page scripting to Netscape, though Web page scripting was not a new
concept, as shown by ViolaWWW.[19] Nombas later switched to offering JavaScript
instead of C-- in their ScriptEase product and was part of the TC39 group that
standardized ECMAScript.[20][21]
Server-side JavaScript[edit]
Netscape introduced an implementation of the language for server-side scripting
with Netscape Enterprise Server in December, 1995, soon after releasing JavaScri
pt for browsers.[22][23] Since the mid-2000s, there has been a resurgence of ser
ver-side JavaScript implementations, such as Node.js.[24][25]
Adoption by Microsoft[edit]
Microsoft Windows script technologies including VBScript and JScript were releas
ed in 1996. JScript, a reverse-engineered implementation of Netscape's JavaScrip
t, was released on July 16, 1996 and was part of Internet Explorer 3, as well as
being available server-side in Internet Information Server. IE3 also included M
icrosoft's first support for Cascading Style Sheets and various extensions to HT
ML, but in each case the implementation was noticeably different to that found i
n Netscape Navigator at the time.[26][27] These differences made it difficult fo
r designers and programmers to make a single website work well in both browsers
leading to the use of 'best viewed in Netscape' and 'best viewed in Internet Exp
lorer' logos that characterised these early years of the browser wars.[28] JavaS
cript began to acquire a reputation for being one of the roadblocks to a cross-p
latform and standards-driven Web. Some developers took on the difficult task of
trying to make their sites work in both major browsers, but many could not affor
d the time.[26] With the release of Internet Explorer 4, Microsoft introduced th
e concept of Dynamic HTML, but the differences in language implementations and t
he different and proprietary Document Object Models remained, and were obstacles
to widespread take-up of JavaScript on the Web.[26]
Standardization[edit]
In November 1996, Netscape announced that it had submitted JavaScript to Ecma In
ternational for consideration as an industry standard, and subsequent work resul
ted in the standardized version named ECMAScript. In June 1997, Ecma Internation
al published the first edition of the ECMA-262 specification. In June 1998, some
modifications were made to adapt it to the ISO/IEC-16262 standard, and the seco
nd edition was released. The third edition of ECMA-262 was published on December
1999.[29]
Development of the fourth edition of the ECMAScript standard was never completed
.[30] The fifth edition was released in December 2009. The current edition of th
e ECMAScript standard is 6, released in June 2015.[31]

Later developments[edit]
JavaScript has become one of the most popular programming languages on the Web.
Initially, however, many professional programmers denigrated the language becaus
e its target audience consisted of Web authors and other such "amateurs", among
other reasons.[32] The advent of Ajax returned JavaScript to the spotlight and b
rought more professional programming attention. The result was a proliferation o
f comprehensive frameworks and libraries, improved JavaScript programming practi
ces, and increased usage of JavaScript outside Web browsers, as seen by the prol
iferation of server-side JavaScript platforms.
In January 2009, the CommonJS project was founded with the goal of specifying a
common standard library mainly for JavaScript development outside the browser.[3
3]
With the rise of the single-page application and JavaScript-heavy sites, it is i
ncreasingly being used as a compile target for source-to-source compilers from b
oth dynamic languages and static languages. In particular, Emscripten and highly
optimized JIT compilers, in tandem with asm.js that is friendly to ahead-of-tim
e compilers (AOT) like OdinMonkey, have enabled C and C++ programs to be compile
d into JavaScript and execute at near-native speeds, causing JavaScript to be co
nsidered the "assembly language of the Web",[34] according to its creator and ot
hers.
Trademark[edit]
"JavaScript" is a trademark of Oracle Corporation.[35] It is used under license
for technology invented and implemented by Netscape Communications and current e
ntities such as the Mozilla Foundation.[36]
Features[edit]
The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations,
unless explicitly specified otherwise.
Imperative and structured[edit]
JavaScript supports much of the structured programming syntax from C (e.g., if s
tatements, while loops, switch statements, do while loops, etc.). One partial ex
ception is scoping: JavaScript originally had only function scoping with var. EC
MAScript 2015 adds a let keyword for block scoping, meaning JavaScript now has b
oth function and block scoping. Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between e
xpressions and statements. One syntactic difference from C is automatic semicolo
n insertion, which allows the semicolons that would normally terminate statement
s to be omitted.[37]
Dynamic[edit]
Typing
As with most scripting languages, JavaScript is dynamically typed; a type is ass
ociated with each value, rather than just with each expression. For example, a v
ariable that is at one time bound to a number may later be re-bound to a string.
[38] JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of an object, including d
uck typing.[39]
Run-time evaluation
JavaScript includes an eval function that can execute statements provided as str
ings at run-time.
Prototype-based (Object-oriented)[edit]
JavaScript is almost entirely object-based. In JavaScript, an object is an assoc
iative array, augmented with a prototype (see below); each string key provides t
he name for an object property, and there are two syntactical ways to specify su
ch a name: dot notation (obj.x = 10) and bracket notation (obj['x'] = 10). A pro
perty may be added, rebound, or deleted at run-time. Most properties of an objec
t (and any property that belongs to an object's prototype inheritance chain) can

be enumerated using a for...in loop.

JavaScript has a small number of built-in objects, including Function and Date.
Prototypes
JavaScript uses prototypes where many other object-oriented languages use classe
s for inheritance.[40] It is possible to simulate many class-based features with
prototypes in JavaScript.[41]
Functions as object constructors
Functions double as object constructors along with their typical role. Prefixing
a function call with new will create an instance of a prototype, inheriting pro
perties and methods from the constructor (including properties from the Object p
rototype).[42] ECMAScript 5 offers the Object.create method, allowing explicit c
reation of an instance without automatically inheriting from the Object prototyp
e (older environments can assign the prototype to null).[43] The constructor's p
rototype property determines the object used for the new object's internal proto
type. New methods can be added by modifying the prototype of the function used a
s a constructor. JavaScript's built-in constructors, such as Array or Object, al
so have prototypes that can be modified. While it is possible to modify the Obje
ct prototype, it is generally considered bad practice because most objects in Ja
vaScript will inherit methods and properties from the Object prototype and they
may not expect the prototype to be modified.[44]
Functions as methods
Unlike many object-oriented languages, there is no distinction between a functio
n definition and a method definition. Rather, the distinction occurs during func
tion calling; when a function is called as a method of an object, the function's
local this keyword is bound to that object for that invocation.
Functional[edit]
A function is first-class; a function is considered to be an object. As such, a
function may have properties and methods, such as .call() and .bind().[45] A nes
ted function is a function defined within another function. It is created each t
ime the outer function is invoked. In addition, each nested function forms a lex
ical closure: The lexical scope of the outer function (including any constant, l
ocal variable, or argument value) becomes part of the internal state of each inn
er function object, even after execution of the outer function concludes.[46] Ja
vaScript also supports anonymous functions.
Delegative[edit]
JavaScript supports implicit and explicit delegation.
Functions as Roles (Traits and Mixins)
JavaScript natively supports various function-based implementations of Role[47]
patterns like Traits[48][49] and Mixins.[50] Such a function defines additional
behavior by at least one method bound to the this keyword within its function bo
dy. A Role then has to be delegated explicitly via call or apply to objects that
need to feature additional behavior that is not shared via the prototype chain.
Object Composition and Inheritance
Whereas explicit function-based delegation does cover composition in JavaScript,
implicit delegation already happens every time the prototype chain is walked in
order to, e.g., find a method that might be related to but is not directly owne
d by an object. Once the method is found it gets called within this object's con
text. Thus inheritance in JavaScript is covered by a delegation automatism that
is bound to the prototype property of constructor functions.
Miscellaneous[edit]
Run-time environment
JavaScript typically relies on a run-time environment (e.g., a Web browser) to p
rovide objects and methods by which scripts can interact with the environment (e
.g., a webpage DOM). It also relies on the run-time environment to provide the a
bility to include/import scripts (e.g., HTML <script> elements). This is not a l
anguage feature per se, but it is common in most JavaScript implementations.

JavaScript processes messages from a queue one at a time. Upon loading a new mes
sage, JavaScript calls a function associated with that message, which creates a
call stack frame (the function's arguments and local variables). The call stack
shrinks and grows based on the function's needs. Upon function completion, when
the stack is empty, JavaScript proceeds to the next message in the queue. This i
s called the event loop, described as "run to completion" because each message i
s fully processed before the next message is considered. However, the language's
concurrency model describes the event loop as non-blocking: program input/outpu
t is performed using events and callback functions. This means, for instance, th
at JavaScript can process a mouse click while waiting for a database query to re
turn information.[51]
Variadic functions
An indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function. The function can
access them through formal parameters and also through the local arguments obje
ct. Variadic functions can also be created by using the bind method.
Array and object literals
Like many scripting languages, arrays and objects (associative arrays in other l
anguages) can each be created with a succinct shortcut syntax. In fact, these li
terals form the basis of the JSON data format.
Regular expressions
JavaScript also supports regular expressions in a manner similar to Perl, which
provide a concise and powerful syntax for text manipulation that is more sophist
icated than the built-in string functions.[52]
Vendor-specific extensions[edit]
JavaScript is officially managed by Mozilla Foundation, and new language feature
s are added periodically. However, only some JavaScript engines support these ne
w features:
property getter and setter functions (supported by WebKit, Gecko, Opera,[53] Act
ionScript, and Rhino)[54]
conditional catch clauses
iterator protocol (adopted from Python)
shallow generators-coroutines (adopted from Python)
array comprehensions and generator expressions (adopted from Python)
proper block scope via the let keyword
array and object destructuring (limited form of pattern matching)
concise function expressions (function(args) expr)
ECMAScript for XML (E4X), an extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScrip
t (unsupported in Firefox since version 21[55])
Syntax[edit]
Main article: JavaScript syntax
Simple examples[edit]
Variables in JavaScript can be defined using the var keyword: [56]
var x; // defines the variable x, the special value undefined (not to be confused
with an undefined value) is assigned to it by default
var y = 2; // defines the variable y and assigns the value of 2 to it
Note the comments in the example above, both of which were preceded with two for
ward slashes.
There is no built-in I/O functionality in JavaScript; the run-time environment p
rovides that. The ECMAScript specification in edition 5.1 mentions: [57]
indeed, there are no provisions in this specification for input of external data
or output of computed results.
However, most runtime environments have a console object [58] that can be used t
o print output. Here is a minimalist Hello World program:
console.log("Hello World!");

A simple recursive function:

function factorial(n) {
if (n == 0) {
return 1;
}
return n*factorial(n - 1);
}
Anonymous function (or lambda) syntax and closure example:
var displayClosure = function() {
var count = 0;
return function () {
return ++count;
};
}
var inc = displayClosure();
inc(); // returns 1
inc(); // returns 2
inc(); // returns 3
Variadic function demonstration (arguments is a special variable). [59]
var sum = function() {
var i, x = 0;
for (i = 0; i < arguments.length; ++i) {
x += arguments[i];
}
return x;
}
sum(1, 2, 3); // returns 6
Immediately-invoked function expressions allow functions to pass around variable
s under their own closures.
var v;
v = 1;
var getValue = (function(v) {
return function() {return v;};
})(v);
v = 2;
getValue(); // 1
More advanced example[edit]
This sample code displays various JavaScript features.
/* Finds the lowest common multiple (LCM) of two numbers */
function LCMCalculator(x, y) { // constructor function
var checkInt = function (x) { // inner function
if (x % 1 !== 0) {
throw new TypeError(x + " is not an integer"); // throw an exception
}
return x;
};
this.a = checkInt(x)
// semicolons ^^^^ are optional, a newline is enough
this.b = checkInt(y);
}
// The prototype of object instances created by a constructor is
// that constructor's "prototype" property.
LCMCalculator.prototype = { // object literal

constructor: LCMCalculator, // when reassigning a prototype, set the constru

ctor property appropriately
gcd: function () { // method that calculates the greatest common divisor
// Euclidean algorithm:
var a = Math.abs(this.a), b = Math.abs(this.b), t;
if (a < b) {
// swap variables
t = b;
b = a;
a = t;
}
while (b !== 0) {
t = b;
b = a % b;
a = t;
}
// Only need to calculate GCD once, so "redefine" this method.
// (Actually not redefinitionit's defined on the instance itself,
// so that this.gcd refers to this "redefinition" instead of LCMCalculat
or.prototype.gcd.
// Note that this leads to a wrong result if the LCMCalculator object me
mbers "a" and/or "b" are altered afterwards.)
// Also, 'gcd' === "gcd", this['gcd'] === this.gcd
this['gcd'] = function () {
return a;
};
return a;
},
// Object property names can be specified by strings delimited by double (")
or single (') quotes.
lcm : function () {
// Variable names don't collide with object properties, e.g., |lcm| is n
ot |this.lcm|.
// not using |this.a*this.b| to avoid FP precision issues
var lcm = this.a/this.gcd()*this.b;
// Only need to calculate lcm once, so "redefine" this method.
this.lcm = function () {
return lcm;
};
return lcm;
},
toString: function () {
return "LCMCalculator: a = " + this.a + ", b = " + this.b;
}
};
// Define generic output function; this implementation only works for Web browse
rs
function output(x) {
document.body.appendChild(document.createTextNode(x));
document.body.appendChild(document.createElement('br'));
}
// Note: Array's map() and forEach() are defined in JavaScript 1.6.
// They are used here to demonstrate JavaScript's inherent functional nature.
[[25, 55], [21, 56], [22, 58], [28, 56]].map(function (pair) { // array literal
+ mapping function
return new LCMCalculator(pair[0], pair[1]);
}).sort(function (a, b) { // sort with this comparative function
return a.lcm() - b.lcm();

}).forEach(function (obj) {
output(obj + ", gcd = " + obj.gcd() + ", lcm = " + obj.lcm());
});
The following output should be displayed in the browser window.
LCMCalculator: a = 28, b = 56, gcd = 28, lcm = 56
LCMCalculator: a = 21, b = 56, gcd = 7, lcm = 168
LCMCalculator: a = 25, b = 55, gcd = 5, lcm = 275
LCMCalculator: a = 22, b = 58, gcd = 2, lcm = 638
Use in Web pages[edit]
See also: Dynamic HTML and Ajax (programming)
The most common use of JavaScript is to add client-side behavior to HTML pages,
a.k.a. Dynamic HTML (DHTML). Scripts are embedded in or included from HTML pages
and interact with the Document Object Model (DOM) of the page. Some simple exam
ples of this usage are:
Loading new page content or submitting data to the server via AJAX without reloa
ding the page (for example, a social network might allow the user to post status
updates without leaving the page)
Animation of page elements, fading them in and out, resizing them, moving them,
etc.
Interactive content, for example games, and playing audio and video
Validating input values of a Web form to make sure that they are acceptable befo
re being submitted to the server.
Transmitting information about the user's reading habits and browsing activities
to various websites. Web pages frequently do this for Web analytics, ad trackin
g, personalization or other purposes.[60]
Because JavaScript code can run locally in a user's browser (rather than on a re
mote server), the browser can respond to user actions quickly, making an applica
tion more responsive. Furthermore, JavaScript code can detect user actions that
HTML alone cannot, such as individual keystrokes. Applications such as Gmail tak
e advantage of this: much of the user-interface logic is written in JavaScript,
and JavaScript dispatches requests for information (such as the content of an email message) to the server. The wider trend of Ajax programming similarly explo
its this strength.
A JavaScript engine (also known as JavaScript interpreter or JavaScript implemen
tation) is an interpreter that interprets JavaScript source code and executes th
e script accordingly. The first JavaScript engine was created by Brendan Eich at
Netscape Communications Corporation, for the Netscape Navigator Web browser. Th
e engine, code-named SpiderMonkey, is implemented in C. It has since been update
d (in JavaScript 1.5) to conform to ECMA-262 Edition 3. The Rhino engine, create
d primarily by Norris Boyd (formerly of Netscape; now at Google) is a JavaScript
implementation in Java. Rhino, like SpiderMonkey, is ECMA-262 Edition 3 complia
nt.
A Web browser is by far the most common host environment for JavaScript. Web bro
wsers typically create "host objects" to represent the Document Object Model (DO
M) in JavaScript. The Web server is another common host environment. A JavaScrip
t Web server would typically expose host objects representing HTTP request and r
esponse objects, which a JavaScript program could then interrogate and manipulat
e to dynamically generate Web pages.
Because JavaScript is the only language that the most popular browsers share sup
port for, it has become a target language for many frameworks in other languages
, even though JavaScript was never intended to be such a language.[61] Despite t
he performance limitations inherent to its dynamic nature, the increasing speed
of JavaScript engines has made the language a surprisingly feasible compilation
target.

Example script[edit]
Below is a minimal example of a standards-conforming Web page containing JavaScr
ipt (using HTML 5 syntax) and the DOM:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Minimal Example</title>
<body>
<h1 id="header">This is JavaScript</h1>
<script>
document.body.appendChild(document.createTextNode('Hello World!'));
var h1 = document.getElementById('header'); // holds a reference to
the <h1> tag
h1 = document.getElementsByTagName('h1')[0]; // accessing the same <
h1> element
</script>
<noscript>Your browser either does not support JavaScript, or has it tur
ned off.</noscript>
</body>
</html>
Compatibility considerations[edit]
Main article: Web interoperability
Because JavaScript runs in widely varying environments, an important part of tes
ting and debugging is to test and verify that the JavaScript works across multip
le browsers.
The DOM interfaces for manipulating Web pages are not part of the ECMAScript sta
ndard, or of JavaScript itself. Officially, the DOM interfaces are defined by a
separate standardization effort by the W3C; in practice, browser implementations
differ from the standards and from each other, and not all browsers execute Jav
aScript.
To deal with these differences, JavaScript authors can attempt to write standard
s-compliant code that will also be executed correctly by most browsers; failing
that, they can write code that checks for the presence of certain browser featur
es and behaves differently if they are not available.[62] In some cases, two bro
wsers may both implement a feature but with different behavior, and authors may
find it practical to detect what browser is running and change their script's be
havior to match.[63][64] Programmers may also use libraries or toolkits that tak
e browser differences into account.
Furthermore, scripts may not work for some users. For example, a user may:
use an old or rare browser with incomplete or unusual DOM support,
use a PDA or mobile phone browser that cannot execute JavaScript,
have JavaScript execution disabled as a security precaution,
use a speech browser due to, for example, a visual disability.
To support these users, Web authors can try to create pages that degrade gracefu
lly on user agents (browsers) that do not support the page's JavaScript. In part
icular, the page should remain usable albeit without the extra features that the
JavaScript would have added. An alternative approach that many find preferable
is to first author content using basic technologies that work in all browsers, t
hen enhance the content for users that have JavaScript enabled. This is known as
progressive enhancement.

Security[edit]
See also: Browser security
JavaScript and the DOM provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver sc
ripts to run on a client computer via the Web. Browser authors contain this risk
using two restrictions. First, scripts run in a sandbox in which they can only
perform Web-related actions, not general-purpose programming tasks like creating
files. Second, scripts are constrained by the same origin policy: scripts from
one Web site do not have access to information such as usernames, passwords, or
cookies sent to another site. Most JavaScript-related security bugs are breaches
of either the same origin policy or the sandbox.
There are subsets of general JavaScript ADsafe, Secure ECMA Script (SES) that pr
ovide greater level of security, especially on code created by third parties (su
ch as advertisements).[65][66] Caja is another project for safe embedding and is
olation of third-party JavaScript and HTML.
Content Security Policy is the main intended method of ensuring that only truste
d code is executed on a Web page.
See also: Content Security Policy
Cross-site vulnerabilities[edit]
Main articles: Cross-site scripting and Cross-site request forgery
A common JavaScript-related security problem is cross-site scripting, or XSS, a
violation of the same-origin policy. XSS vulnerabilities occur when an attacker
is able to cause a target Web site, such as an online banking website, to includ
e a malicious script in the webpage presented to a victim. The script in this ex
ample can then access the banking application with the privileges of the victim,
potentially disclosing secret information or transferring money without the vic
tim's authorization. A solution to XSS vulnerabilities is to use HTML escaping w
henever displaying untrusted data.
Some browsers include partial protection against reflected XSS attacks, in which
the attacker provides a URL including malicious script. However, even users of
those browsers are vulnerable to other XSS attacks, such as those where the mali
cious code is stored in a database. Only correct design of Web applications on t
he server side can fully prevent XSS.
XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser
authors.[67]
Another cross-site vulnerability is cross-site request forgery or CSRF. In CSRF,
code on an attacker's site tricks the victim's browser into taking actions the
user didn't intend at a target site (like transferring money at a bank). It work
s because, if the target site relies only on cookies to authenticate requests, t
hen requests initiated by code on the attacker's site will carry the same legiti
mate login credentials as requests initiated by the user. In general, the soluti
on to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden form field, and not
only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effect
s. Checking the HTTP Referrer header can also help.
"JavaScript hijacking" is a type of CSRF attack in which a <script> tag on an at
tacker's site exploits a page on the victim's site that returns private informat
ion such as JSON or JavaScript. Possible solutions include:
requiring an authentication token in the POST and GET parameters for any respons
e that returns private information
Misplaced trust in the client[edit]
Developers of client-server applications must recognize that untrusted clients m
ay be under the control of attackers. The application author cannot assume that
his JavaScript code will run as intended (or at all) because any secret embedded

in the code could be extracted by a determined adversary. Some implications are

:
Web site authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates because
the raw source code must be sent to the client. The code can be obfuscated, but
obfuscation can be reverse-engineered.
JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security. If
a site verifies that the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invali
d characters out of fields that should only contain numbers, it must do so on th
e server, not only the client.
Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript can't be relied on to prevent
operations such as right-clicking on an image to save it.[68]
It is extremely bad practice to embed sensitive information such as passwords in
JavaScript because it can be extracted by an attacker.
Browser and plugin coding errors[edit]
JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some o
f which may have flaws such as buffer overflows. These flaws can allow attackers
to write scripts that would run any code they wish on the user's system. This c
ode is not by any means limited to another JavaScript application. For example,
a buffer overrun exploit can allow an attacker to gain access to the operating s
ystem's API with superuser privileges.
These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox,[69] Internet Explore
r,[70] and Safari.[71]
Plugins, such as video players, Adobe Flash, and the wide range of ActiveX contr
ols enabled by default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have flaws explo
itable via JavaScript (such flaws have been exploited in the past).[72][73]
In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as b
uffer overflows by running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges
.[74] Google Chrome similarly confines its page renderers to their own "sandbox"
.
Sandbox implementation errors[edit]
Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside the sandbox, with the pri
vileges necessary to, for example, create or delete files. Of course, such privi
leges aren't meant to be granted to code from the Web.
Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the Web has played a role in
vulnerabilities in both Internet Explorer[75] and Firefox.[76] In Windows XP Ser
vice Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's privileges in Internet Explorer.[77]
Microsoft Windows allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to b
e launched as general-purpose, non-sandboxed programs (see: Windows Script Host)
. This makes JavaScript (like VBScript) a theoretically viable vector for a Troj
an horse, although JavaScript Trojan horses are uncommon in practice.[78]
Uses outside Web pages[edit]
In addition to Web browsers and servers, JavaScript interpreters are embedded in
a number of tools. Each of these applications provides its own object model tha
t provides access to the host environment. The core JavaScript language remains
mostly the same in each application.
Embedded scripting language[edit]
Google's Chrome extensions, Opera's extensions, Apple's Safari 5 extensions, App
le's Dashboard Widgets, Microsoft's Gadgets, Yahoo! Widgets, Google Desktop Gadg
ets, and Serence Klipfolio are implemented using JavaScript.
The MongoDB database accepts queries written in JavaScript. MongoDB and NodeJS a
re the core components of MEAN: a solution stack for creating Web applications u

sing just JavaScript.

The Clusterpoint database accept queries written in JS/SQL, which is a combinati
on of SQL and JavaScript. Clusterpoint has built-in computing engine that allows
execution of JavaScript code right inside the distributed database.
Adobe's Acrobat and Adobe Reader support JavaScript in PDF files.[79]
Tools in the Adobe Creative Suite, including Photoshop, Illustrator, Dreamweaver
, and InDesign, allow scripting through JavaScript.
OpenOffice.org, an office application suite, as well as its popular fork LibreOf
fice, allows JavaScript to be used as a scripting language.
The interactive music signal processing software Max/MSP released by Cycling '74
, offers a JavaScript model of its environment for use by developers. It allows
much more precise control than the default GUI-centric programming model.
Apple's Logic Pro X digital audio workstation (DAW) software can create custom M
IDI effects plugins using JavaScript.[citation needed]
ECMAScript was included in the VRML97 standard for scripting nodes of VRML scene
description files.[citation needed]
The Unity game engine supports a modified version of JavaScript for scripting vi
a Mono.[80]
DX Studio (3D engine) uses the SpiderMonkey implementation of JavaScript for gam
e and simulation logic.[81]
Maxwell Render (rendering software) provides an ECMA standard based scripting en
gine for tasks automation.[82]
Google Apps Script in Google Spreadsheets and Google Sites allows users to creat
e custom formulas, automate repetitive tasks and also interact with other Google
products such as Gmail.[83]
Many IRC clients, like ChatZilla or XChat, use JavaScript for their scripting ab
ilities.[84][85]
RPG Maker MV uses Javascript as its scripting language.[86]
Scripting engine[edit]
Microsoft's Active Scripting technology supports JScript as a scripting language
.[87]
The Java programming language introduced the javax.script package in version 6 t
hat includes a JavaScript implementation based on Mozilla Rhino. Thus, Java appl
ications can host scripts that access the application's variables and objects, m
uch like Web browsers host scripts that access a webpage's Document Object Model
(DOM).[88][89]
The Qt C++ toolkit includes a QtScript module to interpret JavaScript, analogous
to Java's javax.script package.[90]
OS X Yosemite introduced JavaScript for Automation (JXA), which is built upon Ja
vaScriptCore and the Open Scripting Architecture. It features an Objective-C bri
dge that enables entire Cocoa applications to be programmed in JavaScript.
Late Night Software's JavaScript OSA (a.k.a. JavaScript for OSA, or JSOSA) is a
freeware alternative to AppleScript for Mac OS X. It is based on the Mozilla 1.5
JavaScript implementation, with the addition of a MacOS object for interaction
with the operating system and third-party applications.[91]
Application platform[edit]
ActionScript, the programming language used in Adobe Flash, is another implement
ation of the ECMAScript standard.
Adobe Integrated Runtime is a JavaScript runtime that allows developers to creat
e desktop applications.
CA, Inc.'s AutoShell cross-application scripting environment is built on the Spi
derMonkey JavaScript engine. It contains preprocessor-like extensions for comman
d definition, as well as custom classes for various system-related tasks like fi
le I/O, operation system command invocation and redirection, and COM scripting.
GNOME Shell, the shell for the GNOME 3 desktop environment,[92] made JavaScript
its default programming language in 2013.[93]
The Mozilla platform, which underlies Firefox, Thunderbird, and some other Web b
rowsers, uses JavaScript to implement the graphical user interface (GUI) of its
various products.
Qt Quick's markup language (available since Qt 4.7) uses JavaScript for its appl

ication logic. Its declarative syntax is also similar to JavaScript.

TypeScript is a programming language based on JavaScript that adds support for o
ptional type annotations and some other language extensions such as classes, int
erfaces and modules. A TS-script compiles into plain JavaScript and can be execu
ted in any JS host supporting ECMAScript 3 or higher. The compiler is itself wri
tten in TypeScript.
Ubuntu Touch provides a JavaScript API for its unified usability interface.
webOS uses the WebKit implementation of JavaScript in its SDK to allow developer
s to create stand-alone applications solely in JavaScript.
WinJS provides a special Windows Library for JavaScript functionality in Windows
8 that enables the development of Modern style (formerly Metro style) applicati
ons in HTML5 and JavaScript.
Development tools[edit]
Within JavaScript, access to a debugger becomes invaluable when developing large
, non-trivial programs. Because there can be implementation differences between
the various browsers (particularly within the Document Object Model), it is usef
ul to have access to a debugger for each of the browsers that a Web application
targets.[94]
Script debuggers are integrated within Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari, Googl
e Chrome, Opera and Node.js[95][96][97]
In addition to the native Internet Explorer Developer Tools, three debuggers are
available for Internet Explorer: Microsoft Visual Studio is the richest of the
three, closely followed by Microsoft Script Editor (a component of Microsoft Off
ice),[98] and finally the free Microsoft Script Debugger that is far more basic
than the other two. The free Microsoft Visual Web Developer Express provides a l
imited version of the JavaScript debugging functionality in Microsoft Visual Stu
dio. Internet Explorer has included developer tools since version 8 (reached by
pressing the F12 key).
In comparison to Internet Explorer, Firefox has a more comprehensive set of deve
loper tools, which include a debugger as well. Old versions of Firefox without t
hese tools used a Firefox addon called Firebug, or the older Venkman debugger. A
lso, WebKit's Web Inspector includes a JavaScript debugger,[99] which is used in
Safari. A modified version called Blink DevTools is used in Google Chrome. Node
.js has node-inspector, an interactive debugger that integrates with the Blink D
evTools, available in Google Chrome. Last but not least, Opera includes a set of
tools called Dragonfly.[100]
In addition to the native computer software, there are online JavaScript IDEs, d
ebugging aids are themselves written in JavaScript and built to run on the Web.
An example is the program JSLint, developed by Douglas Crockford who has written
extensively on the language. JSLint scans JavaScript code for conformance to a
set of standards and guidelines. Many libraries for JavaScript, such as three.js
, provide links to demonstration code that can be edited by users. They are also
used as a pedagogical tool by institutions such as Khan Academy[101] to allow s
tudents to experience writing code in an environment where they can see the outp
ut of their programs, without needing any setup beyond a Web browser.
Version history[edit]
See also: ECMAScript Versions, and ECMAScript Version correspondence
JavaScript was initially developed in 1996 for use in the Netscape Navigator bro
wser. In the same year Microsoft released an implementation for Internet Explore
r. This implementation was called JScript due to trademark issues. In 1997 the f
irst standardized version of the language was released under the name ECMAScript
.
The following table is based on information from multiple sources.[102][103][104
]

Version Release date

Equivalent to Netscape
Navigator
Mozilla
Firefox Internet
Explorer
Opera Safari Google
Chrome
1.0
March 1996
2.0
3.0
1.1
August 1996
3.0
1.2
June 1997
4.0-4.05
3[105]
1.3
October 1998
ECMA-262 1st + 2nd edition
4.06-4.7x
4.0
5[106]
1.4
Netscape
Server
6
1.5
November 2000 ECMA-262 3rd edition
6.0
1.0
5.5 (JScript 5.5
),
6 (JScript 5.6),
7 (JScript 5.7),
8 (JScript 5.8) 7.0
3.0-5 1.0-10.0.666
1.6
November 2005 1.5 + array extras + array and string generics + E4X
1.5
1.7
October 2006
1.6 + Pythonic generators + iterators + let
2.0
28.0.1500.95
1.8
June 2008
1.7 + generator expressions + expression closures
3.0
11.50
1.8.1
1.8 + native JSON support + minor updates
3.5
1.8.2 June 22, 2009 1.8.1 + minor updates
3.6
1.8.5 July 27, 2010 1.8.2 + new features for ECMA-262 Edition 5 compliance.
4.0
Related languages and features[edit]
JSON, or JavaScript Object Notation, is a general-purpose data interchange forma
t that is defined as a subset of JavaScript's object literal syntax. Like much o
f JavaScript (regexps and anonymous functions as 1st class elements, closures, f
lexible classes, 'use strict'), JSON, except for replacing Perl's key-value oper
ator '=>' by an RFC 822[107] inspired ':', is syntactically pure Perl.
jQuery is a popular JavaScript library designed to simplify DOM-oriented clientside HTML scripting along with offering cross-browser compatibility because vari
ous browsers respond differently to certain vanilla JavaScript code.
Underscore.js is a utility JavaScript library for data manipulation that is used
in both client-side and server-side network applications.
Mozilla browsers currently support LiveConnect, a feature that allows JavaScript
and Java to intercommunicate on the Web. However, Mozilla-specific support for
LiveConnect is scheduled to be phased out in the future in favor of passing on t
he LiveConnect handling via NPAPI to the Java 1.6+ plug-in (not yet supported on
the Mac as of March 2010).[108] Most browser inspection tools, such as Firebug
in Firefox, include JavaScript interpreters that can act on the visible page's D
OM.
asm.js is a subset of JavaScript that can be run in any JavaScript engine or run
faster in an ahead-of-time (AOT) compiling engine.[109]
JSFuck is an esoteric programming language. Programs are written using only six
different characters, but are still valid JavaScript code.
p5.js[110] is an object oriented JavaScript library designed for artists and des
igners. It is based on the ideas of the Processing project but is for the web.
Use as an intermediate language[edit]

As JavaScript is the most widely supported client-side language that can run wit
hin a Web browser, it has become an intermediate language for other languages to
target. This has included both newly created languages and ports of existing la
nguages. Some of these include:
Oberon Script, a full implementation of the Oberon Programming Language that com
piles to high-level JavaScript.[111]
Objective-J, a superset of JavaScript that compiles to standard JavaScript. It a
dds traditional inheritance and Smalltalk/Objective-C style dynamic dispatch and
optional pseudo-static typing to JavaScript.
Processing.js, a JavaScript port of Processing, a programming language designed
to write visualizations, images, and interactive content. It allows Web browsers
to display animations, visual applications, games and other graphical rich cont
ent without the need for a Java applet or Flash plugin.
CoffeeScript, an alternate syntax for JavaScript intended to be more concise and
readable. It adds features like array comprehensions (also available in JavaScr
ipt since version 1.7)[112] and pattern matching. Like Objective-J, it compiles
to JavaScript. Ruby and Python have been cited as influential on CoffeeScript sy
ntax.
Google Web Toolkit translates a subset of Java to JavaScript.
Scala, an object-oriented and functional programming language, has a Scala-to-Ja
vaScript compiler.[113]
Pyjamas, a port of Google Web Toolkit to Python (translates a subset of Python t
o JavaScript)
Dart, an open-source programming language developed by Google, can be compiled t
o JavaScript.
Whalesong,[114] a Racket-to-JavaScript compiler.
Emscripten, a LLVM-backend for porting native libraries to JavaScript.
Fantom a programming language that runs on JVM, .NET and JavaScript.
TypeScript, a free and open-source programming language developed by Microsoft.
It is a superset of JavaScript, and essentially adds optional static typing and
class-based object-oriented programming to the language.
Haxe, an open-source high-level multiplatform programming language and compiler
that can produce applications and source code for many different platforms inclu
ding JavaScript.
ClojureScript,[115] a compiler for Clojure that targets JavaScript. It is design
ed to emit JavaScript code that is compatible with the advanced compilation mode
of the Google Closure optimizing compiler.
Kotlin, a statically-typed language that also compiles to Java byte code.
As JavaScript has unusual limitations such as no separate integer type, using fl
oating point languages that compile to JavaScript commonly have slightly differe
nt behavior than in other environments.
JavaScript and Java[edit]
A common misconception is that JavaScript is similar or closely related to Java.
It is true that both have a C-like syntax (the C language being their most imme
diate common ancestor language). They also are both typically sandboxed (when us
ed inside a browser), and JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standar
d library in mind. In particular, all Java keywords were reserved in original Ja
vaScript, JavaScript's standard library follows Java's naming conventions, and J
avaScript's Math and Date objects are based on classes from Java 1.0,[116] but t
he similarities end there.
The differences between the two languages are more prominent than their similari
ties. Java has static typing, while JavaScript's typing is dynamic. Java is load
ed from compiled bytecode, while JavaScript is loaded as human-readable source c
ode. Java's objects are class-based, while JavaScript's are prototype-based. Fin
ally, Java did not support functional programming until Java 8, while JavaScript
has done so from the beginning, being influenced by Scheme.

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Further reading[edit]
Bhangal, Sham; Jankowski, Tomasz (2003). Foundation Web Design: Essential HTML,
JavaScript, CSS, PhotoShop, Fireworks, and Flash. APress L. P. ISBN 1-59059-1526.
Burns, Joe; Growney, Andree S. (2001). JavaScript Goodies. Pearson Education. IS
BN 0-7897-2612-2.
Duffy, Scott (2003). How to do Everything with JavaScript. Osborne. ISBN 0-07-22
2887-3.
Zakas, Nicholas C. (2012). Professional JavaScript for Web Developers (3rd ed.).
Wrox. ISBN 978-1-118-02669-4.
Flanagan, David (2006). JavaScript: The Definitive Guide (5th ed.). O'Reilly & A
ssociates. ISBN 0-596-10199-6.
Flanagan, David (2011). JavaScript: The Definitive Guide (6th ed.). O'Reilly & A
ssociates. ISBN 978-0-596-80552-4.
Goodman, Danny; Eich, Brendan (2001). JavaScript Bible. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
0-7645-3342-8.
Goodman, Danny; Markel, Scott (2003). JavaScript and DHTML Cookbook. O'Reilly &
Associates. ISBN 0-596-00467-2.
Harris, Andy (2001). JavaScript Programming for the Absolute Beginner. Premier P
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