Professional Documents
Culture Documents
September 2008
Page 1
Tuesday 16 September
08:30
Registration + coffee
09:00
09:10
09:40
10:00
Reeves (BGS)
Repository Excavations and the Self Sealing of the Excavation Damaged Zone (EDZ) in
Mudrocks: An Overview
10:20
10:40
11:00
Tea / Coffee
11:30
11:50
Wibberley (Total)
Mechanics of fault-zone localisation in high-porosity sandstones and impact on flow efficiency
12:10
12:30
12:50
Lunch
September 2008
Page 2
14:00
14:20
14:40
15:00
15:20
15:40
16:00
Tea / Coffee
16:30
16:50
17:10
17:30
Agar (ExxonMobil)
What are the Potential Impacts of Low-offset Faults on Carbonate Reservoir Performance?
17:50
18:35
Wine Reception
September 2008
Page 3
Wednesday 17 September
08:40
Registration + coffee
09:00
09:30
Session 2
Fault/fracture mechanisms and mechanics
Haimson (University of Wisconsin)
The effect of the intermediate principal stress on shear band strike and dip in the siltstone
straddling the active Chelungpu Fault, Taiwan
09:50
10:10
10:30
Tea / Coffee
11:00
11:20
11:40
12:00
12:20
12:40
Lunch
13:30
13:50
Zhang (GRS)
Experimental study on self-sealing of indurated clay
September 2008
Page 4
14:10
Muhuri (Chevron)
Kinetics of Time-dependent Processes in Fault Zones: Implications for Fault Seal Analysis
14 :30
14 :50
15:10
Tea / Coffee
15 :40
Session 3
Fault Structure and Earthquakes
Bennington (University of Wisconsin)
Constrained Inversions of Geophysical Data in the Parkfield Region of California
16 :00
16 :20
16 :40
17 :00
17 :20
17 :40
19 :00
Conference Dinner
September 2008
Page 5
Thursday 18 September
08:40
Registration + coffee
09:00
09:30
Session 3 contd
Fault Structure and Earthquakes
Pitarello (Universita degli Studi di Padova)
Energy partitioning during seismic slip in pseudotachylyte-bearing faults (Gole Larghe Fault,
Adamello, Italy)
09:50
10:10
10:30
10:50
Tea / Coffee
Session 4
Faults and fluids
11:15
11:35
Guillemot (Andra)
Different scales of fracturing in the Callovo-Oxfordian argillite of the Meuse /Haute-Marne Andra
URL area, France
11:55
12:15
12:35
September 2008
Page 6
12:55
Lunch
Session 4 contd
Faults and fluids
13:45
14:05
14:25
14 :45
15:05
15 :25
15:45
Tea / Coffee
16:10
16:30
16:50
17:10
17:30
18 :00
Conference End
September 2008
Page 7
Posters
Tuesday 16 September
Bastesen
Extensional fault cores in carbonates; thickness-displacement relationships
Novakova (tbc)
Reactivation of brittle tectonic structures in the Sudetic Marginal Fault vicinity (in north east of Bohemian
Massif)
Cunningham (SRK Consulting)
The role of faulting in the concentration of Fe and Zn-Pb ores within the Paleoproterozoic Earaheedy Basin,
Western Australia
Bell (National Oceanography Centre)
Fault development and control on rift basin evolution in the Gulf of Corinth, Greece
Mller (University of Vienna)
Fault zone characteristics of a low-angle normal fault on northern Kea (Western Cyclades, Greece)
Alessandroni (Universita di Camerino)
Statistical analysis of stylolites and sheared stylolites in layered carbonate rocks: an attempt for a new
methodological approach
Kanjanapayont (University of Vienna)
Kinematics of the Klong Marui continental wrench fault, southern Thailand
Taylor (University of Manchester)
A three-dimensional approach to the interpretation of major fault zone properties
Wednesday 17 September
Ikari (tbc)
Pore pressure generation in sheared marine sediments
Smith (Durham)
Laboratory measurements of the frictional strength of a natural low-angle normal fault: the Zuccale fault,
Elba Island, Italy
Storti (Universita Roma Tre)
Influence of analytical methods on fault core rock particle size distributions obtained from laser-aided
analysers
September 2008
Page 8
Thursday 18 September
Lawther (University of Glasgow)
Fluid-fault-rock interactions in faults exhumed from seismogenic depths
Kirkpatrick (University of Glasgow)
Fault structure, slip and fluid flow interactions; insights from small seismogenic faults
Fachri (University of Bergen)
Sensitivity of fluid flow to faulted siliciclastic reservoir configurations
Pittarrello (Universita degli Studi di Padova)
Deep-seated pseudotachylytes from the Ivrea Zone metagabbros (Southern Alps, Italy)
Mittempergher (Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali)
Hydrogen isotopes in natural and experimental pseudotachylyte-bearing faults: the origin of fluids at
seismogenic depth
September 2008
Page 9
Tuesday 16 September
September 2008
Page 10
KEYNOTE:
New Insight on Structural Inheritance and Fault-Vein Permeability Structures in the
Colorado Mineral Belt, USA
Jonathan Saul Caine
U.S. Geological Survey, P.O. Box 25046, MS 964, Denver, CO, 80225, USA
jscaine@usgs.gov
A long history of mining and geologic mapping in the Front Range of the central Colorado
Rocky Mountains has resulted in an exceptionally rich dataset on the geologic structure of
epithermal ore deposits. These regional-scale data were among the first to lead geologists to
ponder the role of Precambrian structural inheritance in the localization of Tertiary mineral
deposits. Of particular significance was the idea that localization of epithermal, polymetallic
fault-veins in this region was controlled by a pre-existing crustal weakness, the Proterozoic
Idaho Springs-Ralston ductile shear zone (ISRZ). However, recent compilation of structural
and mineral deposit data from existing 1:24,000 geologic maps, reports, argon geochronology
on fault and hydrothermally altered rocks, and new structural data from outcrop in the Front
Range results in five major observations: 1) There is little correlation between the locations of
inferred mineral deposit-related plutons and the ISRZ or major brittle fault zones. 2) Mapped
features suggest that myriad directions of potential permeability structures existed during the
Tertiary and that metalliferous hydrothermal fluids may have flowed in many directions at any
given time during evolution of the Colorado Mineral Belt. 3) Small displacement fault-veins with
striated and cataclasized margins that carried ore bearing fluids show steep dips and either
preferential ENE trends well correlated with model paleostress directions for the Laramide
orogeny or radial trends around Late Cretaceous to Tertiary igneous intrusions. These
relationships hold regardless of co-planarity with preexisting foliations in metasediments or in
massive unfoliated metaigneous plutons. 4) The total gas 40Ar/39Ar age of alteration is older
than that of the brittle faults and none are Proterozoic. 5) There are only minor differences in
orientation and intensity of potential structures that may have controlled permeability from
within the ISRZ compared with similar structures outside the ISRZ. These observations
suggest that Proterozoic inheritance in the Front Range is not the primary control of mineral
deposit permeability structure, location, or orientation. Rather, responsible processes likely
include a) proximity to shallowly emplaced plutons, b) self-generated, hydro-fracturing-like
permeability due to thermally driven pore fluid pressure changes associated with pluton
emplacement; and c) competition between varying magnitudes and orientations of shallow
regional horizontal principal stresses, overburden load, and local stress perturbations related to
pluton emplacement.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
Page 12
Many fault zones are mechanically very heterogeneous and develop heterogeneous local
stresses. At depth, much of the fluid transport in active fault zones is through fractures that
subsequently become mineral veins. Measurements of many veins, mostly 2-6 m long (strike
dimension), with a maximum thickness of 10-25 mm, show that the aperture (thickness)
normally varies irregularly along the vein length; commonly by 20-40%, but occasionally by 5070%, of the maximum vein thickness. Such aperture variations may lead to flow channelling
and significantly affect fluid transport in fault zones. Most veins are extension fractures, the
stress acting perpendicular to them being the minimum compressive (maximum tensile)
principal stress, S3. For such fractures, we define overpressure as the total fluid pressure in the
fracture minus S3. In a fault zone where the local stress is heterogeneous, fracture
overpressure may vary irregularly. Here we use Fourier cosine series to provide analytical
solutions for the displacement and stress fields around a fracture opened by an irregular
overpressure. The solutions can be used to estimate the aperture variation of essentially any
fluid-driven extension-fracture. The results should improve our understanding of fluid transport
and flow channelling, as well as that of local stresses and displacements, in fault zones.
September 2008
Page 13
NOTES
September 2008
Page 14
Repository Excavations and the Self Sealing of the Excavation Damaged Zone (EDZ) in
Mudrocks: an Overview
H.J. Reeves, R.J. Cuss & J.F. Harrington
When a repository opening (tunnel, shaft, gallery or disposal vault is excavated, the stresses
acting in the rock are altered by the tunneling activities and by the removal of the rock from the
cross-section of newly-formed excavation. A zone of stress concentration is formed around all
the underground excavations in rock. Close to the walls of an excavation, the radial stress falls
and the tangential stress rises. The maximum shear stress is determined by the difference
between these two principle stresses. Depending on the stress field prior to excavation, the
shear stress close to the excavation can be sufficiently large for the stress path to enter the
domain of dilatants her deformation. Rapid radial de-stressing of the rock in the vicinity of an
excavation may also lead to localized extensile failure. Fractures formed in this way are
sometimes referred to as unloading cracks. Regardless of the precise rupture mechanism,
open fractures may be formed around excavations, leading to a region of enhanced
permeability known as the Engineering Damage Zone (EDZ).
The presence of an EDZ is acknowledged to be a particularly important issue in the
performance assessment for the disposal of radioactive waste. Interconnection of fractures in
the EDZ could lead to the development of a preferential flow path extending along the
emplacement holes, access tunnels and shafts of a repository towards overlying aquifers and
the biosphere.
The size and the properties of the EDZ depend on the excavation method, the state of stress,
the pore water pressure and the hydro-mechanical properties of the rock. Bedding plane
anisotropy can be an important factor. In clays and argillaceous rocks, the most pervasive
forms of damage are caused by stress redistribution and unloading. Three basic forms of
fracturing may be defined: (a) shear fractures, (b) tensile fractures, and (c) extensile fractures.
Recent experience during development operations in several Underground Research
Laboratories clearly demonstrates that the dominant mode of fracturing can be quite different
from one mudrock to another. Examples from tunneling operations in the Boom Clay and the
Opalinus Clay will be compared to show this variation.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
Page 16
Can strain maps be used as an indicator for the extent of fault zone damage?
Shackleton, R., Bond C.E., Munro, L., Shipton, Z.K., and Seed, G.
Areas of damage around faults are of interest for their potential role as a barrier or conduit for
fluids and gases; thus, fault damage zones influence groundwater resources, hydrocarbon
extraction and mineralisation, sub-surface waste disposal, and greenhouse gas storage.
Consequently, predicting the geomechanical and hydrological properties of damage around
faults and the spatial distribution of these zones is a key question for applied geoscience.
Previously, prediction of fault damage zone width has focused on fault length/displacement
profiles, which can be sub-grouped lithologically as a proxy for the geomechanical properties of
a given rock type. These studies give a wide spread in the observed scaling relationships
between fault length and displacement. Here, we use strain maps produced by fully threedimensional (non-plane strain) geomechanical restorations as a proxy for fault damage. The
geomechanical algorithm restores displacement on faults while minimizing strain in the
surrounding surface using a mass-spring solver. Prescribed mechanical properties govern the
behaviour of the surface and therefore, the distribution of strain around faults. To evaluate the
efficacy of the restoration in predicting fault damage, we compare the spatial distribution of
modelled strain to observed fault damage zones in well documented field examples of natural
reservoir analogues.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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entre for Integrated Petroleum Research, University of Bergen, Allgaten 41, 5007 Bergen,
Norway
2
University Centre in Svalbard, 9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
Fault damage zones in porous sandstones contain small-scale structures, notably deformation
bands, which may influence fluid flow in reservoirs. This study aims to characterize the
geometry of fault damage zone and especially the distribution of deformation bands using an
outcrop-based database. The bulk of these analogue data was gathered mainly in Utah and
Egypt. Processing of 106 damage zone scanlines reveals a non-linear relationship between the
damage zone width and the fault throw. The results also indicate a logarithmic decrease in
deformation band frequency away from the fault core as well as a fractal spatial distribution
responsible for the clustering of the deformation bands. Parameters such as the footwall and
hanging-wall positions or the folding of the damage zone are also analyzed with regard to the
damage zone width and the deformation band density in the media. This database reveals
several statistical trends that help to characterize damage zones of extensional faults in
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks.
The trends derived from this analysis can be used to simulate statistically the growth of the
damage zone, and the evolution of deformation band populations. These probabilistic models
can then be implemented in reservoir models in order to evaluate reservoir performance of fault
damage zones.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
Page 22
Excellent exposures of Cretaceous high-porosity sands and sandstones from the Bassin du
Sud-Est, France, allowed us to examine: (i) the role of tectonic loading path on cataclastic
deformation band network development; (ii) the development of larger ultracataclastic faults
during deformation, and (iii) the likely impact of deformation bands and faults on flow efficiency
in high-porosity sandstone reservoirs. For a study area which had been subjected mainly to late
Cretaceous shortening, a 250 m long outcrop recorded a persistent high density of reversesense conjugate deformation bands which did not appear to cluster around any mapped faults.
For two study areas which had experienced significant Oligocene-Miocene extension, a
moderate, undulating background density of normal-sense deformation bands was recorded,
which became focussed into clusters in places. Thus tectonic loading path and the nature of the
stress changes causing deformation may strongly influence strain distribution. Larger
ultracataclastic faults and discrete slip planes are found localised within or at the edges of some
of the deformation band clusters, demonstrably post-dating the deformation band cluster in one
case, but other clusters are present without larger faults within them. Hence these structures
formed by progressive localisation of deformation through deformation band clustering to form
the larger ultracataclastic faults, rather than in a damage zone which spreads with displacement
increase after fault initiation. Permeability measurements of these ultracataclastic faults suggest
that they may severely impact on flow efficiency during production of hydrocarbon reservoirs,
and sub-seismic prediction of such zones is therefore critical to production management. Lowdisplacement deformation bands however, have a variable effect on flow efficiency but impact
most when produced by tectonic shortening.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
Page 24
Strain accumulation and fluid flow in and around basin bounding fault zones of the
Leichhardt River Fault Trough, Qld. Australia
J. G. McLellan, Predictive Mineral Discovery Co-operative Research Centre, Economic
Geology Research Unit, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia
The Leichhardt River Fault Trough (LFRT) in the western Mount Isa Inlier, northwest
Queensland, provides a good example of a relatively well preserved rifted basinal architecture,
which allows a solid framework for rigorous testing of numerical scenarios in such a setting.
The Pb-Zn-Ag and Cu mineral endowment of the Mount Isa Inlier is world-class, and this
provides a strong foundation for current and future exploration in the region. To increase our
predictive capacity we must try to better understand the early deformational influence (basin
development) over fluid pathways and fluid driving mechanisms. The LRFT has undergone a
protracted deformational history and here the deformation, fluid flow and mineralization
processes are addressed by several simulations in the numerical code FLAC3D. During
extensional rifting, deformation is partitioned with major basin bounding structures
accommodating the majority of the strain, areas of high shear strain, dilation and fluid flow are
focused in basin bounding structures, particularly in and around the western basin margin. This
focussing mechanism on the western basin margin is the result of a self-organised behaviour
related to the asymmetry of the basin geometry. A thickening wedge to the west and a
basement detachment zone which influences the distribution of strain within the upper crustal
components of the system. Extension and topography play an important role in facilitating
downward migration of fluids deep into the system. Deformation induced dilatancy and
topography provide the required conditions suitable for brine reflux within the superbasins,
which is an important process for mineralising systems. Later basin inversion facilitates
potential mixing of shallow basinal and deep seated basement derived fluids before migration to
depositional sites primarily in the hanging-wall sediments of the Isa Superbasin. The hangingwall sediments and intersections of N-S trending basin bounding structures and E-W trending
structures are key areas for focusing shear strain, dilation, high cumulative fluid flux and
potential mineralization in the Leichhardt River Fault Trough, western Mount Isa Inlier.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
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September 2008
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NOTES
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Predictive Modelling of the Evolution of Fault Zone Structure: 3-D Sandbox and Field
Scale Modelling
D.A. Thornton, Rockfield Software Limited, Technium, Prince of Wales Dock, Swansea, UK
A.J.L. Crook, Rockfield Software Limited, Technium, Prince of Wales Dock, Swansea, UK
J.G. Yu, Rockfield Software Limited, Technium, Prince of Wales Dock, Swansea, UK
Predictive modeling of fault zone structure requires reconstruction of the stress and
deformation history using an integrated modelling framework that accounts for the
simultaneous evolution of the internal state of the rock formation due to the imposed
boundary conditions. This necessitates the concurrent computation of displacement, fluid
pressure and temperature history, together with the additional variables dependent upon the
specific physics included in the model.
This paper describes ongoing research on some of the key elements required for this class of
simulation methodology and, in particular, presents predictive 3-D simulations of fault zone
growth and discusses issues relating to the application of fully-coupled geomechanical and
fluid flow models to field scale applications. Issues addressed include:
1
2
3
4
The strongly coupled nature of the mechanical deformation and the flow fields.
Algorithms for prediction of the onset and evolution of faults.
Scale up from laboratory-scale sandbox tests to field scale models.
Appropriate constitutive models for the evolution of the material state boundary surface.
This work is an extension of a previously published study (Crook et al., 2006a, 2006b) that
focused on predictive modelling of structure evolution in sandbox experiments. The
computational approach adopts the Lagrangian finite element method, complemented by
robust and efficient automated adaptive meshing techniques, a constitutive model based on
critical state concepts, and global energy dissipation regularized by inclusion of fracture
energy in the equations governing state variable evolution. The modelling approach has been
benchmarked by forward simulation of two extensional sandbox experiments that exhibit
complex fault development. It is emphasized that no initial perturbations or fault seeding is
imposed so that structure evolves solely from the prescribed movement on the basal
detachment.
In this study, simulations for compression and inversion tectonic regimes are briefly presented
based on sandbox experiments investigating the evolution of doubly vergent thrust systems
(McClay et al, 2004) and the evolution of inverted listric systems (McClay and Buchanan,
1991). Simulations of 3-D extensional sandbox experiments performed by (Yamada and
McClay, 2003) will then be presented. These results, in conjunction with the previously
presented extensional tectonic simulations Crook et al. (2006a), show that the model is able
to reproduce the experimentally observed faulting style in all three deformational regimes; i.e.
the model is truly predictive.
The extension from laboratory-scale to field-scale necessitates coupling of displacement and
pore pressure evolution together with an appropriate treatment of the complex constitutive
response. For example: (i) overpressure development; (ii) porosity reduction induced by
mechanical and/or chemical compaction; and (iii) strengthening due to cementation, all alter
the position of the stress state relative to the state boundary surface, thereby either increasing
or decreasing the likelihood of fault formation. It is shown that in order to capture these
mechanisms the constitutive model must trace the evolution of a state boundary surface that
is defined in terms of the complete stress tensor rather than being only dependent on
porosity. While this class of model, formulated by extending critical state concepts, has
previously been adopted by several researchers (e.g. Luo et al., 1998; Pouya et al., 1998;
Dued et al., 2004), generally only mechanical compaction has been considered.
Furthermore, most previous studies have focused on relatively simple sedimentation
problems which do not require the additional complex computational framework necessary to
represent evolving faults with large relative displacements.
September 2008
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A field scale reconstruction with evolving fault architecture driven by tectonically induced
stress will be presented to illustrate the impact of differing assumptions for pore pressure
evolution on the predicted fault architecture, and also highlight several issues related to
practical field scale coupled geomechanical/flow modelling.
September 2008
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September 2008
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References
Buchanan, P.G. and McClay, K.R. [1991] Sandbox experiments of inverted listric and planar
fault systems. Tectonophysics 188, 97-115.
Crook, A.J.L., Willson, S.M., Yu, J.G., Owen, D.R.J. [2006a] Predictive modelling of structure
evolution in sandbox experiments. J. Struct. Geol. 28, 729-744.
Crook, A.J.L., Owen, D.R.J., Willson, S.M., Yu, J.G. [2006b] Benchmarks for the evolution of
shear localisations with large relative sliding in frictional materials. Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech.
Engng. 195, 4991-5010.
Deud, V., Dormieux, L., Maghous, S., Bathlmy, J.F., Bernaud, D. [2004] Compaction
process in sedimentary basins: role of stiffness increase and hardening induced by large
plastic strains. Int. J. Num. Anal. Meth. Geomech. 28, 1279-1303.
McClay, K.R. [1990] Extensional fault systems in sedimentary basins: a review of analogue
model studies. Marine and Petroleum Geology 7, 206-233.
McClay, K.R., Whitehouse, P.S., Dooley, T., Richards. M. [2004] 3D evolution of fold and
thrust belts formed by oblique convergence. Marine and Petrol. Geology 21, 857-877.
Luo, X., Vasseur, G., Pouya, A., Lamoureux-Var, V., Poliakov, A. [1998] Elastoplastic
deformation of porous media applied to the modelling of compaction at basin scale. Marine
and Petroleum Geology 15, 145-162.
Pouya, A., Djeran-Maigre, I., Lamoureux-Var, V., Grunberger, D. [1998] Mechanical
behaviour of fine grained sediments: experimental compaction and three-dimensional
constitutive model. Marine and Petroleum Geology 15, 129-143.
Schneider, F., Hay, S. [2001] Compaction model for quartzose sandstones application to the
Garn Formation, Haltenbanken, Mid-Norwegian Continental Shelf. Marine and Petroleum
Geology 18, 833-848.
Wangen, M. [2001] A quantitative comparison of some mechanisms generating overpressure
in sedimentary basins. Tectonophysics 334, 211-234.
Yamada, Y. , McClay, K. [2003] Application of geometric models to inverted listric fault
systems in sandbox experiments. Paper 1: 2D hanging wall deformation and section
restoration. J. Struct. Geol., 25, 1551-1560.
Yamada, Y., McClay, K.
3-D Analog Modelling of Inversion Thrust Structures,
in K. R. McClay, ed., Thrust tectonics and hydrocarbon systems: AAPG Memoir 82, pp. 276301
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, 610 Taylor Rd,
Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
2
Husky Energy, Suite 810 Scotia Centre, 235 Water St., St. Johns, NL, Canada
Many rift basins have undergone multiple episodes of extension with differing extension
directions. Do the normal faults that form during an early episode influence the development
of normal faults that form during subsequent episodes? Does this influence depend on the
characteristics of the early-formed faults (i.e., their number, density, length, displacement)?
To address these questions, we have conducted a series of scaled experimental (analog)
models with wet clay. Each model had two phases of distributed extension, and the
extension directions during the first and second phases differed by 45. Because the
characteristics of the fault populations at the end of the first phase depended on the total
magnitude of extension, we incrementally varied the total magnitude of the first-phase
extension from 18 to 35%. As the magnitude of extension increased, the number, density,
length, and displacement of the normal faults that formed during the first phase also
increased. In all models, the total magnitude of extension was 35% during the second phase
of extension.
The experimental models show that the characteristics of the fault populations that formed
during the first phase of extension profoundly affected the fault patterns that developed during
the second phase of extension. When the total magnitude of the first-phase extension was
small (~18%), only a few short normal faults developed during the first phase. This poorly
developed fabric associated with these first-phase faults had little influence on the
subsequent deformation. Specifically, the normal faults that formed during the second phase
of extension had orientations, lengths, and displacements similar to those in models without a
first phase of extension. When the total magnitude of the first-phase extension was greater
than ~20%, numerous large normal faults developed during the first phase, and they
significantly affected the subsequent deformation. Many of the first-phase normal faults were
reactivated as oblique-slip faults during the second phase of extension. Additionally,
numerous new normal faults developed during the second phase of extension. The secondphase normal faults were most likely to cut the first-phase normal faults when the magnitude
of the first-phase extension was small. Otherwise, most of the second-phase normal faults
nucleated at the first-phase faults or terminated against them. Generally, the second-phase
normal faults had anomalously short lengths compared to the first-phase faults, indicating that
the presence of the first-phase faults had inhibited the propagation and growth of the secondphase faults. Interestingly, the orientations of the second-phase normal faults were both
orthogonal and oblique to the direction of the second-phase extension. This suggests that the
formation of the second-phase normal faults was influenced by local perturbations of the
stress state associated with first-phase faults.
The model fault patterns resemble those observed on 3D seismic data from the Grand Banks
(e.g., Jeanne dArc basin), an area hypothesized to have undergone two non-coaxial
extensional phases. Thus, the models may provide templates for interpreting the fault
patterns and interactions in the Grand Banks as well as other regions with multiple phases of
extension.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
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September 2008
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NOTES
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September 2008
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NOTES
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Fault seal prediction of seismic-scale normal faults in porous sandstone: A case study
from the eastern Gulf of Suez rift, Egypt
Christian Tueckmantel1,2, Quentin Fisher1, Rob Knipe1,2, Henry Lickorish3 and Samir Khalil4
1
Centre for Integrated Petroleum Engineering and Geoscience, School of Earth and
Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT
2
Rock Deformation Research Limited, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT
3
22 140 Point Drive NW, Calgary, T3D 4W3, Canada
4
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
A study of normal faults in the Nubian Sandstone Sequence, from the eastern Gulf of Suez
rift, has been conducted to investigate the relationship between the microstructure and
petrophysical properties of cataclasites developed along seismic-scale faults and smaller
offset faults (deformation bands) found in their damage zones. This was to quantify the
uncertainty associated with predicting the fluid flow behaviour of seismic-scale faults by
analysing small faults in core, a common procedure in the petroleum industry. The
microstructure of the cataclasites was analysed as well as their single-phase permeability,
threshold pressure and grain-size distribution. Faulting occurred at a maximum burial depth of
~1 km. Cataclasites delineate major slip surfaces and build up damage-zone deformation
bands. Our results show that the lowest measured deformation-band permeabilities provide a
good estimate for the permeability of the major slip cataclasites. This suggests that cataclastic
permeability reduction is mostly established early in the deformation history. Stress at the
time of faulting rather than final strain seems to be the critical factor. For viable predictions it
is important that the slip cataclasites and deformation bands originate from the same host. On
the other hand, a higher uncertainty is associated with threshold pressure prediction, as the
lowest slip-cataclasite threshold pressure exceeds the highest deformation-band threshold
pressure by a factor of ~3. This may be due to microfractures introduced during exhumation
or sampling, which bypass thin deformation bands but do not affect thick slip cataclasites.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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Fault Facies methodology for systematizing analogue outcrop data to 3D fault grids in
reservoir models
Braathen1,2, A., Tveranger1, J., Fossen1, H., Schueller1, S., Espedal1
1
Centre for Integrated Petroleum Research, University of Bergen, Norway
2
University Centre in Svalbard, 9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
Fault facies methodology aims on systematic description and representation of faults
observed in nature. The approach has three steps; (i) establishing empirical relationships for
fault zoning, (ii) applying facies classification schemes on structural elements in the zones,
and (iii) assessing the systematic fault element characteristics by statistical analysis.
Together, these steps define datasets that can be used to condition volumetric fault reservoir
grids.
The concept of fault facies encompasses the deformational products of any rock volume
affected by faults. The presented facies database describes extensional faults in sand-shale
sequences, with datasets from Sinai, Utah, Corsica, and Norway. The analogue database is
organized from the fault envelope downwards into core and surrounding damage zones, and
further into Facies Associations that consist of one or more Fault Facies. For example, the
Core Architectural Element is commonly made up of various fault rock membranes, lenses,
and fracture and deformation band sets. By considering for example lenses of host sandstone
as one Facies Association, several facies can be identified, based on the occurrence of
deformation band sets within the lenses. Statistical analysis of the fault facies database
establishes dimensions, geometries and scales of various structural elements. Critical
assessments of length and width relations of core and damage zone reveal complementary
empirical trends that can be used in fault scaling considerations.
In total, fault facies modeling represents a powerful reservoir assessment tool. It opens for
evaluation of fault-parallel flow, capillarity effects and communication between non-juxtaposed
cells.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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What are the Potential Impacts of Low-offset Faults on Carbonate Reservoir Performance?
Susan M. Agar1, Stephan Matthai2, Ravi Shekhar1, Isha Sahni1
1. ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company, Houston, TX 77007
2. Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ
Some of the world's largest hydrocarbon reservoirs are found in weakly deformed carbonate rocks at
shallow crustal levels (< 5 km). The assemblages of fractures, stylolites and low-offset faults that are
typically found in these reservoirs can have substantial impacts on the flow behavior, even though the
bulk strain is very low. Observations of outcrop analogs for these reservoirs in the Middle East and N.
Africa, as well as seismic interpretations, indicate that many low-offset faults in carbonate rocks can
develop substantial vertical and lateral continuity (100 m - 1 km) even though their normal and strikeslip offsets are on the order of 0.5 m - 25 m. Other common characteristics of these fault zones
include: a segmented character with numerous small relay zones, clearly-defined, discrete fault slip
planes between segments, very limited or no fault gouge development, very limited or no damage
zone development, incomplete cementation, alteration haloes and vuggy, karst / fault breccia-type
porosity.
The scale of continuity of these low-offset faults means that they can have significant impacts on flow
performance, acting either as conduits or baffles. If a low-offset fault acts primarily as a conduit, it can
provide pressure and fluid communication between different reservoir units that would otherwise
remain isolated by the lower-permeability beds between them. In this and the case of dominantly
baffling behavior, there may be substantial reductions in sweep efficiency. Consequently, these very
subtle faults are likely to have substantial economic impacts on hydrocarbon recovery.
Many of these faults are at or below the threshold for seismic resolution and core samples from
subsurface fault zones are commonly not available. As a result, many assumptions for the specific
architectures and mineralization of these faults are required for flow simulations. In an attempt to
understand the sensitivity of flow behavior to these assumptions, preliminary, generic flow
experiments have been undertaken to determine how much difference changes to the low-offset fault
architecture make to a flow prediction. Our initial results indicate that even with homogeneous matrix
properties the assumptions for the number of fault segments, the degree of overlap between the
segments and the extent of damage zone development can introduce substantial differences in flow
predictions for sub-km volumes of rock.
Recognizing the limitations of the modeling approaches used in these experiments, our preliminary
results for water injection, suggest that subtle changes in the fault zone characteristics can make
large differences in predicted times to water breakthrough. The results also reinforce the fact that
while well data provide information for a volume-averaged flow response, other approaches are
needed to gain insights to the impacts of specific geologic features on flow paths and velocities on
production timescales. In this work, our aim is to develop a better understanding of the specific lowoffset fault characteristics that have the greatest impact on the distribution of flow velocities in the
reservoir. Through this approach, we aim to improve strategies for hydrocarbon recovery and history
matching.
September 2008
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September 2008
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KEYNOTE:
A geometric model for the development of fault zone and fault rock thickness
variations
Conrad Childs1, Tom Manzocchi1, John J. Walsh1, Christopher G. Bonson2, Andrew Nicol3,
Martin P.J. Schpfer1
1
Fault Analysis Group, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
2
SRK Consulting (UK) Limited, Cardiff, UK, CF10 2HH
3
GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand.
The thicknesses of fault rock and fault zones and the fault normal separations for intact and
breached relay zones each show a positive correlation with fault displacement. The
displacement to thickness ratio for these different structures increases from intact relay zones
(median value = 0.28) to fault rocks (median value = 50). The frequently recorded positive
correlation between fault displacement and fault rock thickness is often interpreted as a
growth trend controlled primarily by fault rock rheology. However recognition of similar
correlations for the other fault components suggests a geometrical model may be appropriate.
In this model a fault initiates as a segmented array of irregular fault surfaces. As displacement
increases, relay zones separating fault segments are breached and fault surface irregularities
are sheared off, to form fault zones containing lenses of fault bounded rock. With further
displacement these lenses are progressively comminuted, and ultimately converted to zones
of thickened fault rock. The final fault rock thickness is therefore influenced strongly by fault
structure inherited from the geometry of the initial fault array. The model is one of progressive
strain concentration within a zone within which the active fault surface progressively
approaches, albeit along a potentially complex path, a more planar geometry. The large scale
range on which fault segmentation and irregularities occur provides the basis for application
of this model over a scale range of 8 orders of magnitude. The model is consistent with
outcrop observations of the internal structure of fault zones, the large variations in fault rock
thickness observed for a given displacement and with recently developed discrete element
models of fault zone evolution.
September 2008
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September 2008
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Wednesday 17 September
September 2008
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KEYNOTE:
How granulated/cracked fault border zones, and their pore fluids, interact with
earthquake rupture dynamics
James R. Rice, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, and Division of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
Recent contributions on fault zones include insightful field characterizations of their fine
structure, new laboratory experiments that reveal response in rapid and/or large slip, and new
theoretical concepts for modeling. The purpose of this talk is to review those new
perspectives, particularly those relating to damaged fault border zones and the fluids which
they host, and their impact on how we think about earthquake rupture dynamics.
Maturely slipped faults show a generally broad zone of damage by cracking and granulation,
but nevertheless suggest that shear in individual earthquakes takes place with extreme
localization to a long-persistent slip zone, < 1-5 mm wide, within a finely granulated,
ultracataclastic fault core. Relevant fault weakening processes during large crustal events are
therefore likely to be thermal and, given the damage zones and geologic evidence of waterrock interactions within them, it seems reasonable to assume pore fluid presence.
It is suggested that there are two primary dynamic weakening mechanisms during seismic
slip, both of which are expected to be active in at least the early phases of nearly all crustal
events. Those are (1) Flash heating at highly stressed frictional micro-contacts, and (2)
Thermal pressurization of fault-zone pore fluid. Both have characteristics which promote
extreme localization of shear. At sufficiently large slip, macroscopic melting will occur in cases
for which those processes have not efficiently enough reduced heat generation, and thus
limited temperature rise. Thermally driven decompositions may instead occur in lithologies
such as carbonates and, in silica-rich lithologies, formation of a thixotropic gel-like layer may
contribute to weakening at large slip.
Theoretical modeling based on mechanisms (1) and (2), as constrained with lab-determined
hydrologic and poroelastic properties of fault core material and high-speed friction studies,
suggests that earthquakes on mature faults might be plausibly described by those
mechanisms. Results suggest that faults may be statically strong but dynamically weak under
typical seismic conditions. Such allows major faults to operate under low overall driving
stress, with realistic seismic stress drops, a self-healing rupture mode, low heat outflow, and
an absence of shallow fault melting.
Another source of dynamic weakening, at least in mode II slip, comes from contrast across
the fault of far-field elastic stiffness and density of the bordering crustal rock. Recent work has
shown that contrast across the fault of permeability and poroelastic properties within fluidsaturated damage fringes along the fault walls has an analogous effect. Both allow for
reductions of effective normal stress during suitably directed non-uniform slip, like at a rupture
front, although the "preferred" rupture direction based on one effect may either align with, or
may oppose, that based on the other.
Other new perspectives in recent work involve understanding the interaction of rupture with
off-fault damage (branches, damage zones) and the induction of off-fault plasticity, together
with their interaction back onto rupture dynamics. As examples, in some cases the transition
to supershear may be suppressed, or at least ling delayed, by plasticity and, for dissimilar
materials, the inclusion of elasticity can reverse an elastically preferred direction.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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The effect of the intermediate principal stress on shear band strike and dip in the
siltstone straddling the active Chelungpu Fault, Taiwan
Bezalel Haimson1 and John Rudnicki2
1
University of Wisconsin, USA
2
Northwestern University, USA
The Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project (TCDP) was initiated in order to investigate the
rupture mechanism of the 1999 disastrous Chi-Chi earthquake (Mw 7.6). Two adjacent (40 m
apart) scientific boreholes were drilled, which intersected the fault at about 1120 m and
reached depths of 2000 m (hole A) and 1400 m (hole B). We conducted true triaxial
compression tests in the Pliocene Chinshui siltstone, which hosts the Chelungpu fault.
Rectangular prismatic specimens were prepared from three cores, one from the hanging wall
(depth of 891 m) in hole A, and two from the footwall (1251 m in hole A and 1285 m in hole
B). Specimens were subjected to constant least (3) and intermediate (2) principal stresses
and an increasing maximum principal stress (1) until brittle failure occurred (at 1,peak) in
the form of a shear band or fault. Several sets of experiments were conducted, each for a
fixed 3, and a 2 that was kept constant during testing but was varied from test to test
between 2 = 3 and 2 1,peak. Minor differences were observed between the two cores
from hole A, and more substantial ones between the two footwall cores in holes A and B
(Haimson et al, 2008). However, all tests showed a consistent pattern of significant increase
in 1,peak as 2 was raised above the fixed 3, in contrast to predictions based on the MohrCoulomb condition that neglects the intermediate principal stress effect. Similar increases in
elastic modulus and onset of dilatancy were also discerned. Some of the more important
observations were related to the induced faults attitude.
Upon reaching 1,peak, specimens invariably develop a through-going shear band or fault
that strikes subparallel to 2 direction and dips steeply in the 3 direction. Measurements
revealed that fault dip angle () decreases monotonically with increasing 3 for a constant 2,
and increases monotonically with 2 for fixed 3. This variation of with intermediate
principal stress is inconsistent with Mohr Coulomb theory, which asserts that the angle should
be independent of 2. The observations do indicate that for constant 3 fault dip angle
increases as the deviatoric stress state parameter (N) varies from
for axisymmetric
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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Excavation induced fractures in a plastic clay formation: observations at the HADES URF
Philippe Van Marcke, Wim Bastiaens, EIG Euridice, Boeretang 200, 2400 Mol, Belgium
The geological disposal of radioactive waste has been studied in Belgium since the early
seventies by the Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCKCEN). The research is focused on
the Boom Clay layer: a poorly-indurated clay that is found from a depth of 190 metres under
the site in Mol where it has a thickness of about 100 metres. It displays a plastic behaviour
which results in self-sealing properties and a relatively high convergence when excavating
galleries at depth. The hydraulic conductivity is in the order of 1012 m/s.
In 1980 SCKCEN started the construction of an underground research facility HADES. Its
purpose was to examine the feasibility to construct a repository and to provide SCKCEN with
an underground infrastructure for experimental research on the geological disposal of
radioactive waste. Not much knowledge and experience on excavating galleries in a deep
plastic clay formation was available at that time. The evolution of excavation techniques and
geomechanical understanding throughout time is reflected in the successive excavation
phases of HADES. By the later construction of a second shaft and new galleries by industrial
techniques (1997-2007) the feasibility to build an underground repository in the Boom Clay
has been demonstrated.
In 2002 the second shaft was linked to the existing underground infrastructure by the
connecting gallery. Several measurement and research programmes were carried out before,
during and after the construction works. The fracture pattern in the clay massif was
systematically observed. The focus was on shear planes, recognisable by their slickensided
surface. The fracture pattern consisted of two conjugated fracture planes: one in the upper
part dipping towards the excavation direction, the other in the lower part dipping towards the
opposite direction. The distance between fractures is a few decimetres and they originate at
about 6 metres ahead of the front. Borings performed shortly after the construction of the
gallery revealed the presence of fractures up to a radial extent of 1 metre into the clay. The
orientation of the observed fracture planes could be explained by the stress state around the
gallery.
In addition laboratory measurements and numerical modelling were performed to characterise
the geomechanical behaviour of the clay and to assess the impact of the excavation on the
clay massif. Several European Commission projects were dedicated to this subject:
SELFRAC, TIMODAZ and CLIPEX. The impact is probably limited by the sealing
mechanisms that have been evidenced by laboratory measurements. Furthermore it has been
evidenced that the behaviour of the Boom Clay is characterised by a strong hydromechanical
coupling, already noticeable at an unexpectedly large distance from the excavation, and by a
clear time dependency. Also the impact of the excavation on the hydraulic conductivity in the
surrounding clay formation was examined by measurements at different distances from the
gallery.
In 2007 the Praclay gallery was constructed perpendicular to the connecting gallery. The
fracture pattern was described and several parameters were measured to characterise the
geomechanical behaviour of the clay. Also the impact of the excavation on the hydraulic
conductivity in the surrounding clay formation was again examined.
September 2008
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September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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Modelling Fault Zone Development within Brittle Rocks, at Scales Ranging from Meters
to Several Kilometres.
Moir H.1, Lunn R.J.1and Shipton Z.K.2
1
Within crystalline basement rocks, permeable faults are a dominant feature of subsurface flow
systems. For example, research at the EUs Soultz-sous-Fort Hot Dry Rock test site (Evans
et al., 2005) show that 95% of flow at the test site occurs within a single fault zone at nearly 4
km depth. Consequently, predicting the permeability of faults is of major interest to many
industries including hydrocarbon exploitation, nuclear waste disposal, sequestering of carbon
dioxide and mining.
Current predictions of fault zone permeability are highly error prone, producing great
uncertainties in flow and contaminant transport simulations, both in terms of large scale flow
behaviour and in the detailed structure of the fault zone. To improve estimates of fault zone
permeability, it is important to understand the underlying hydro-mechanical processes of fault
zone formation. In this research, we explore the spatial and temporal evolution of fault zones
in brittle rock through development and application of a 2D hydro-mechanical finite element
model. We simulate the evolution of fault zones from pre-existing joints and explore controls
on the growth rate and locations of multiple splay fractures which link-up to form complex
damage zones. The simulations are carried out on different scales ranging from meters to
several kilometres and at all scales the natural heterogeneity of the host rock is considered.
September 2008
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September 2008
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September 2008
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Firstly we will show that in an elastic medium, the displacement on a static (nonpropagating) fault will be proportional to fault length. This may explain why the early layerbound faults tend to have low throws, while the later through-cutting faults have much
greater throws.
We will then model propagating faults. We will show that, once propagation starts, a fault
will continue propagating until it reaches a mechanical boundary. The main controls on
fault propagation are the friction coefficient and the differential stress. Faults may thus
nucleate first either in low friction layers (e.g. clays), or in brittle layers with high
differential stress (e.g. cemented sandstones). Similarly, faults will tend to terminate either
at high friction layers, or at ductile layers in which differential stress is low. If the
mechanical properties of the layers are known, it is possible to predict the differential
stress at which faults will finally cross these barrier layers to form through-cutting faults.
The model we present here therefore offers a method for predicting the fault distribution and
clustering within a mechanically layered succession.
September 2008
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September 2008
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September 2008
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The permeability of fractured clay rocks was dominated by the confining stress normal to
the fracture plane. This was validated by gas permeability measurements on a large
sample (D=260mm/L=616mm) with fractures oriented parallel to the sample axis. The
increase of the lateral stress from 3 to 18 MPa at 19 MPa axial stress led to a decrease
of axial permeability from 10-13 to 10-19 m2.
The permeability of damaged clay rocks decreased also with time due to the timedependent compaction of pores and fractures. On the pre-damaged samples, a
permeability reduction by a factor of 4 to 8 was observed over two months at a low
confining stress of 1.5 MPa.
The high swelling potential of the studied clay rocks led to the closure of fractures when
water was injected into the sample. This was confirmed by a pronounced decrease of the
gas permeability from 10-16 to 10-21 m2 after water resaturation was reached.
The re-sealed samples exhibited low permeability to gas and water of less than
10-20 m2 as it is usually observed on undisturbed clay rocks.
All these experimental results provide evidence for the high self-sealing capacity of the
studied clay rocks under the combined impact of reconsolidation and resaturation.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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Strong velocity weakening in fault gouges: results from rock analogue experiments
Andr Niemeijer1,2,3, Derek Elsworth1,3 and Chris Marone2,3
Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, USA
2
Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, USA
3
G3 Center and Energy Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, USA
Fluids are important in deformation processes in the upper- to middle crust where they exert
strong influence on frictional behaviour of fault gouges via mechanical (pore fluid pressure)
and chemical effects (solution-transfer processes). Despite these observations, not much is
known about the interplay of chemical and mechanical processes, primarily since the required
conditions are difficult to simulate in the laboratory (i.e. high temperature, low strain rate and
high strain). In this study, we report results from an experimental study on the shear
behaviour of simulated fault gouges of rock salt under conditions where pressure solution is
known to be operative. The experiments extend conditions previously studied to higher sliding
velocities and allow for comparison between two different experimental methods (i.e. biaxial
vs. rotary shear).
We find that steady state friction is very similar for both the direct shear and rotary shear
configurations (for pure salt gouges in the presence of brine at a normal stress of 5 MPa, slip
rates of 0.03-10 m/s and shear strains up to 10). However, at sliding velocities higher than
previously obtained in the rotary shear configurations (i.e. > 10 m/s) and high strains, we
find that samples of rock salt weaken significantly and ultimately slide unstably (i.e. stick-slip)
in the double direct shear experiments. Sliding experiments on a chemically inert material (i.e.
quartz) under the same conditions do not show this significant weakening. Rate and state
frictional (RSF) parameters determined from velocity-stepping tests are large compared to
values reported on other materials (a >0.05 and b >0.05). The mechanical data suggest that
the gouges dilate significantly during sliding, with steady state porosity increasing with
increasing sliding velocity. We infer that steady state friction and the associated strong
velocity weakening are a results of competition between displacement-dependent dilation and
time-dependent compaction (pressure solution). Increasing sliding velocity leads to less net
compaction per unit displacement, resulting in higher porosities and less contact area,
resulting in lower friction.
These data document the need to expand the range of conditions for detailed experiments on
quartzose fault gouges to include the hydrothermal conditions expected in the upper- to
middle crust.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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The nature of the San Andreas Fault at seismogenic depths: Insight from direct access
via the SAFOD boreholes
Evans, James. P., Bradbury, Kelly E., Jeppson, Tamara, Springer, Sarah D1, and Solum, J.2,
Department of Geology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4505
1
Now at: Chevron Overseas, Houston, TX. 2U. S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA
2
Now at: Shell Exploration Research, Houston, TX.
We characterize the physical properties, microstructures, and composition of faulted rocks of
the San Andreas fault encountered in the SAFOD borehole, which intersected the San
Andreas fault zone at depths of 2.4 to 3. 1 km vertical depth, and over a map distance of ~ 1
km. These data provide a window into large-scale fault structure from the surface to 4 + km
depth. We combine petrography and XRD of cuttings and a small amount of core, detailed
analysis of electric image log data, and borehole geophysical data to constrain the structure
and composition of the faulted rocks at depth. The westernmost fault is the largest fault
encountered and correlates to the Buzzard Canyon fault is approximately 45 m wide,
separates Salinian granodiorite on the southwest from a Salinian-derived arkosic section on
the northeast and contains fine-grained quartzofeldspathic cataclasites and calcite. The
middle fault zone lies at 2530 mmd, is localized in a clay-rich sedimentary unit between the
upper and lower arkoses and is a diffuse >65 mmd steeply dipping wide, low-velocity, high
gamma, clay-rich fault zone with numerous sheared clay fabrics. The deepest faults
juxtaposes arkosic rocks and fine-grained sedimentary rocks, and was cored during phase
one and phase 3 drilling. It is brittly damaged with little textural or mineralogic evidence of
fluid driven alteration, and may be a small fault within the active San Andreas Fault zone.
Each fault zone is marked by an increased abundance of altered and cataclastically deformed
grains as seen in cuttings. Analysis of image logs indicates the presence of structural blocks
with distinctly different bedding orientations, and fracture distributions throughout the section
roughly correlate with the presence of faults and low Vp and Vs values. The seismic
velocities and other geophysical signatures, and their relationships to the rock types are
highly variable. The Buzzard Canyon fault at depth contains abundant calcite and iron-oxide
alteration; and the middle fault has numerous clay-filled veins, features consistent with
extensive subsurface fluid flow. The deepest fault does not show evidence of alteration
resulting from extensive fluid flow. The deepest faults appear to correlation with the region
where the borehole is actively deforming via creep [Zoback et al], and up dip from the
hypocenters of the small earthquakes that appear to occur below the borehole. The entire
zone between the Buzzard Canyon and San Andreas [senso stricto] faults at depth appear to
contain a series of southwest-dipping faults and damage zones that bound blocks with a
variety of bedding and fracture orientations. If the deeper zone of cataclasite and alteration
intensity connect to the surface trace of the San Andreas fault, then this fault zone dips 80
85 southwest, and consists of multiple slip surfaces in a damage zone up to 250300 m
thick. This is supported by borehole geophysical studies, which show this area is a region of
low seismic velocities, reduced resistivity, and variable porosity. The microstructures and
alteration textures observed in the borehole are clearly associated with slip at the top of the
seismic region of the SAF, and are similar to textures observed in exhumed faults, lending
credence to using exhumed faults as proxies for faults at depth.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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Displacement Field In The Borderlands Of The San Andreas Fault, Durmid Hill, Ca and
the Origin of Late Sinistral Faults
Steven Wojtal, Department of Geology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH 44074
steven.wojtal@oberlin.edu
Adjacent to the San Andreas fault (SAF) in the Salton Trough, hinges of folds are consistently
oblique to the SAF trace. Folds formed above thrust faults with ramp-flat geometries.
Boudined marker beds record hinge-parallel stretching concurrent with folding. Within 2 km of
the SAF where folds are tight to isoclinal, thrust faults are locally vertical to overturned.
Continuous deformation contributes to fold flattening here. Farther from the SAF, thrust faults
are gently folded or subhorizontal, suggesting footwall imbrication prevailed during
deformation. Continuous deformation is not apparent here. Sequential reconstructions of the
deformation yield a displacement field with consistent with progressive dextral shearing
parallel to the SAF and flattening perpendicular to the fault.
The latest structures here are broad zones of sinistral shearing - sinistral faults - that trend
~15-35 to the SAF. Sinistral shear zones have orientations comparable to Riedel X
fractures, but (1) they are not discrete faults, and (2) no other macroscopic Riedel shears
occur here. The late origin, diffuse character, and orientation of the sinistral shear zones are
consistent with formation parallel to directions of maximum sinistral shearing within a general
shear zone.
Folding, boudinage, and continuous deformation are likely products with interseismic
displacement. Folds, thrust faults, and late sinistral faults may be active during seismic
events, but their geometries and character are also consistent with incremental transpressive
dextral shearing.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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Fault Interactions and the Growth of Faults on Earthquake and Geological Timescales
A. Nicol1,2, J. Walsh2, C. Childs2, V. Mouslopoulou2 and M. Schpfer2
1
GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
2
Fault Analysis Group, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Fault interactions are an essential feature of the vast majority of fault systems, whether they
are characterised by soft-linkage or hard-linkage (Walsh & Watterson 1991). Fault
interactions in soft-linked fault systems are reflected in the ductile deformations that
accommodate displacement transfer (e.g. relay ramps in normal fault systems), whilst
interactions in hard-linked fault systems arise from physical linkage of faults and the related
coupling of their growth. Whether a fault system is hard-linked or soft-linked, fault interaction
reflects the strain concentrations and shadows arising from short-term stress-dependent
behaviour of faults. In this talk, using fault growth constraints from both ancient and active
rifts, we show that this short-term behaviour, which is associated with variable displacement
rates and earthquake clustering, is responsible for the emergence of interdependent
displacement histories. Each fault is a vital element of a system that displays a remarkable
degree of kinematic coherence which produces, and maintains, a hierarchy of fault size
throughout deformation. As a consequence, on spatial scales greater than an individual fault
and over temporal scales greater than several earthquake cycles, the behaviour of individual
faults can be relatively predictable, with all faults in an array interacting to produce a system
that is geometrically relatively simple and coherent. A key to improving our understanding of
earthquake occurrence and fault growth is establishing the temporal and spatial length scales
over which this order occurs.
Walsh, J.J., Watterson, J. 1991. Geometric and kinematic coherence and scale effects in
normal fault systems, In The Geometry of Normal Faults, Roberts, A.M., Yielding, G.&
Freeman, B., eds, Geol. Soc. Lond. Sp. Pub. 56, 193-203.
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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KEYNOTE:
Quantifying Fault Slip rates and Earthquake Clustering along Active Normal Faults in
Central Italy: Insights from Cosmogenic Exposure Dating and Numerical Modelling
Patience Cowie1, Richard Phillips1, Gerald Roberts2, Ken McCaffrey3 and Tibor Dunai1
1
September 2008
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NOTES
September 2008
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Thursday 18 September
September 2008
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KEYNOTE:
Seismogenic Permeability
Pradeep Talwani, Dept. of Geological Sciences, Univ. South Carolina. USA
The role of fluids in triggering seismicity was first realized following the impoundment of the Hoover
dam on the early 1940s. As the number of examples of reservoir induced seismicity (RIS) grew in the
1960s, the role of increases in fluid pressures in their occurrence came from the studies of seismicity
that followed high-pressure fluid injections in the deep Arsenal well near Denver. Colorado. As the
spatio-temporal pattern of RIS began to be accurately monitored with increasingly dense seismic
networks, it was found that the seismicity was primarily related to the diffusion of pore pressures along
critically stressed, saturated fractures. The hydraulic property controlling pore pressure diffusion is its
hydraulic diffusivity c, which is directly related to its intrinsic permeability k. For nearly 100 cases of
induced seismicity, c was found to lie between 0.1 and 10 m2/s, and k between 5x10-16 and 5x10-14 m2
a range we have named seismogenic permeability ks. Theoretical analysis of these observations shows
that the diffusion of pore pressures can be identified with Biots slow compressional wave through
porous, saturated media. The relative amounts of fluid mass transfer and pore pressure diffusion
depend on the fracture permeability. For fractures with k=ks pore pressure diffusion dominates, leading
to a build up in pore pressure. For k<ks there is no increase in pore pressure, and for k>ks fluid mass
transfer dominates without an increase in pore pressure. Support for the empirically inferred ks came
from dedicated experiments near Nice, France, and Kobe, Japan. In both cases when water was added,
faults with k>ks were associated with aseismic fluid flow, while the nearby fractures with k=ks became
seismic. These results suggest that seismogenic permeability is an intrinsic property of fractures where
pore pressure diffusion results in seismicity.
September 2008
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The selected fault segment belongs to the Gole Larghe Fault Zone, which crosscuts the
tonalitic Adamello batholith (Italian Alps) (Di Toro et al., 2005). The fault segment was
exhumed from ~10 km depth, typical for earthquake hypocenters in the continental crust, and
records a single seismic rupture, as proved by field and microstructural evidences. Frictional
heat per unit fault area was estimated from the pseudotachylyte average thickness (Di Toro et
al., 2005) and Q results ~27 MJ m2. Surface energy was estimated from internal microcrack
density (Chester et al., 2005) in several plagioclase clasts entrapped in the pseudotachylyte,
and Us ranges between 0.10 and 0.85 MJ m2. Since the internal fragmentation of the
plagioclases clasts is negligible in the wall rocks, this estimate is considered as representative
of the surface energy adsorbed by coseismic fragmentation in the slipping zone.
It follows that, in the studied fault segment, about 9799% of the mechanical energy was
dissipated as heat, and less than 3% adsorbed as surface energy. We conclude that at 10 km
depth most of the energy exchanged during an earthquake is heat.
Comment [GDT1]: Non
chiuderei un lavoro o un abstract
dicendo che quanto diciamo ci
trova daccordo con qualcun altro,
anche perch le loro stime non
riguardano i terremoti, ma dati di
laboratorio in condizioni non
sismiche.
Chester, J.S., Chester, F.M., Kronenberg, A.K., 2005. Fracture surface energy of the
Punchbowl Fault, San Andreas System. Nature 437, 133136.
Di Toro, G., Pennacchioni, G., Teza, G., 2005. Can pseudotachylytes be used to infer
earthquake source parameters? An example of limitations in the study of exhumed faults.
Tectonophysics, 402, pp. 3-20.
Kostrov, B., Das, S., 1988. Principles of earthquake source mechanics. Cambridge University
Press, London.
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Particle size distribution analysis in pristine and faulted quartz-rich, poorly cohesive
sandstones: influence of analytical procedures in laser diffraction analysers
Fabrizio Balsamo1, Fabrizio Storti1, Marco Congia2 and Valentino Polchi2
1
Particle size distributions of pristine clastic rocks are modified by comminution and cataclasis
during faulting and, in particular, they undergo a generalized size shift towards finer values.
This tectonically-induced progressive size decrease is governed by several factors including
the environmental conditions of deformation, cleavage and microfracture sets inherited within
particles, the degree of cementation etc. Particle size distributions play a first order role on the
frictional and hydraulic properties of fault zones, particularly when the clay content is very low.
Establishing field relationships between fault displacement and the related evolution of
particle sizes plays a first order role for making predictions of fault zone hydrology. Availability
of laser diffraction analysers provides the possibility of fast and detailed particle size analysis
in poorly cohesive or loose materials. Modern particle size laser analysers adopt different
technical solutions and provide the possibility to use a wide variety of analytical methods. This
implies accurate investigations on the possible influence that analytical methods may exert on
the final results obtained by different procedures from the same instrument.
In this contribution, we present particle size data from pristine and faulted poorly cohesive
Pliocene sandstones of the Crotone basin, in Southern Italy. Particle size data were obtained
by a Malvern Mastersizer 2000 laser diffraction analyser, spanning in size from 0.00002 to 2.0
mm. We performed specific test analyses by using different analytical procedures including
the comparison of results from wet and dry methods, the variation of duration and intensity of
ultrasonic particle mobilisation preceding laser activation, the variation of centrifugal pump
speed etc. Results highlight the need of preliminary methodological tests to set up the most
appropriate analytical procedures before planning systematic particle size analyses by laser
diffraction.
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kn =
d n
d
, ks =
,
d wn
d ws
where n and are the normal and shear effective stresses, respectively, at the edges of the
tectonic fault; wn and ws are the relative normal and shear displacements of the edges,
respectively.
We present the results of experimental measurement of the mechanical rigidity of the deep
Nelidovo-Ryazan tectonic fault (extension is about 800 km) and auxiliary faults of order II and
III relatively Nelidovo-Ryazan fault. The kn and ks values were determined on basis of the
recording nonlinear effects of the propagation of low-amplitude seismic waves across the
faults. In order to determine kn and ks values we used the seismic method of diagnosis based
on recording the amplitude variation of seismic waves propagating through a fault. Tectonic
faults were considered as a flat layer, whose elastic properties differ from the corresponding
characteristics of the enclosing rock massif. In the case of normal incidence of longitudinal or
transverse wave, the normal kn (correspondingly, shear ks) rigidity of the fault is determined
according to the following formulas:
kn =
CP
TP K 2 1
ks =
CS
TS K 2 1
where , CP, and CS are the density of medium and the velocity of propagation of longitudinal
and transverse waves, respectively; TP, and TS are the periods of the corresponding waves; K
is the ratio of maximum amplitudes of displacement velocities in the seismic waves before
and after the fault.
Seismic waves caused by chemical explosions in open pits mines of the Moscow district and
local impulse microoscillations of relaxation type.
In studied faults: kn = 0.05-0.19, ks = 0.012-0.034 MPa/mm for fault of order I; kn = 0.28-0.1,
ks = 0.08-0.29 MPa/mm for fault of order II, and kn = 0.5-2.0, ks = 0.2-0.5 MPa/mm for fault
of order III (over a period of measurements).
The research shows that rigidity of the faults varies in time (in the ranges indicated above).
Moreover, temporal variations of the rigidity of tectonic faults of the same periodicity correlate
with time variations in the microseismic background amplitude in the frequency band 0.1-2 Hz
(the correlation coefficient ranges from 0.52 to 0.63 at a significance level not less than
0.95).
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Different scales of fracturing in the Callovo-Oxfordian argillite of the Meuse /HauteMarne Andra URL area, France
D. Guillemot (Andra), P. Lebon (Andra)
The Andra Underground Research Laboratory (URL) is located in the eastern part of the Paris
basin within a Callovo-Oxfordian argillite ranging from 420 to 550 m between underlying
Dogger limestone and overlying Oxfordian limestone. The site has been chosen away from
the main regional lineaments as the Metz-Hunsrck fault and the Vittel fault.
A comprehensive geological and geophysical surveying has been carried out in this area in
order to identify and quantify fracturing at different scales: from satellite images and 2D
seismic (pluri-km scale) to outcrops survey and 3D seismic (km to hm scale) and to core and
bore-hole imaging as well as underground observations in the shafts and URL drifts (dm to m
scale).
Major faults visible on geological maps and 2D seismic can be divided into (i) NW-SE and
NE-SW cover faults directly rooted in the basement (as Marne trough) (ii) NW-SE cover
structures de-coupled from basement structures (as Poissons fault system), (iii) NE-SW cover
faults disconnected from any basement faults (as Gondrecourt trough). Recent hydrogeology
results show that the flow gradient orientation greatly differs in the Dogger and in the
Oxfordian limestone in the vicinity of Marne and Poissons fault systems, what confirms the
lack of communication between the two and the sealing role of the faulted Callovo-Oxfordian
argillite.
Subseismic fractures (a few meters throw) are only visible on 3D seismic images. None of
them extend shallower than the Bathonian.
Minor brittle structures (mainly tectonic joints) have been observed on limestone outcrops.
Their azimuth distribution is bimodal as for major faults (N030-050 and N130-150) in both
Oxfordian and Dogger limestones with different trends in Liasic and Infra-Liasic levels. The
density (2 to 4 joints/m) is higher near the regional faults. Surveys in drillings and shafts have
confirmed these azimuth distributions. Their density at depth and away from faults is 1 to 2
joints/m, frequently filled with calcite. The lithology controls the nature and the density of
these tectonic features. The Callovo-Oxfordian argillites are characterized by the absence of
tectonic features and the scarcity of joints (a few tens along 1300 m of core drilled). Joints
origin is clearly related to early diagenetic phenomena (compaction figures, S-shaped subvertical joints, compaction cone). They are systematically filled up with calcite or celestite.
It can be taken advantage to establish a parallel between the tectonic structuring and the
regional stress field. A great number of stress measurements (by hydraulic fracturing
techniques in various boreholes, by shaft convergence monitoring and by systematic
analyses of borehole breakouts) were carried out within the limestone-clay-limestone
sequence. The orientation of the minor horizontal stress (N65E) is found to be in good
agreement with geological considerations. Its magnitude is higher in the central part of the
argillite formation than in the limestones even though the major horizontal stress is almost
constant or increases slightly with depth. Models suggest that limestone formations are more
deformable over long time than predicted by laboratory tests, due to slow rate non-elastic
deformation processes such as pressure-solution. A de-coupling is suspected between
stresses within the upper part of the sedimentary pile and the basement at the triasic salt
level.
In conclusion, this part of the Paris basin area recorded only weak brittle deformation. Major
faults do not allow significant fluid transfer. Off of the fault areas the Callovo-Oxfordian argillite
shows only scarce diagenetic mineral filled joints. Both tectonic structures and stress field
seem differently behave above and below the triasic salt level.
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Fault imaging in the western US using high resolution seismic reflection methods
Lee M. Liberty, Department of Geosciences, Boise State University, 1910 University Dr.
Boise, Idaho 83725-1536 USA
lml@cgiss.boisestate.edu
208-426-1166
High resolution seismic reflection studies show faults act as barriers to lateral flow and
conduits to vertical flow in alluvial aquifers. These data also constrain fault geometries and
slip rates for neotectonic studies. I present three examples from the western US. At an
underground nuclear blast site in Nevada, the water table reflector is offset in alluvium more
than 10 m across both pre- and post-blast fault scarps. Five axial seismic profiles that cross
near the blast zone show shallow groundwater is strongly influenced by 40 year old blastrelated faulting. Groundwater flow at blast depths is controlled by the permeability distribution
in the deeper alluvium and underlying volcanic rocks. The >2km offset between the structural
center of the basin and the topographic center of the basin implies axial channel migration
with basin formation. These higher permeability fluvial channels intersect the blast chimney
and may influence contaminant migration rates and directions. Faults that strike normal to
regional groundwater flow directions also may imply anomalous deep groundwater flow
directions. In the Pahsimeroi Valley, Idaho, seismic images from the upper few hundred
meters show depth to impermeable basement rocks and fault geometries correlate with
gaining and losing reaches of local streams. Surface springs align with cross-basin faults,
mixing deep and shallow groundwater. Here, adequate stream flow for fish and groundwater
for irrigation requires an accurate water budget. Seismic imaging of the upper few hundred
meters across the Seattle fault zone, Washington State show steeply dipping Tertiary and
younger strata separate the Seattle and Tacoma Basins. The blind tip of the Seattle fault
forms a synclinal growth fold into the Seattle Basin and a fault propagation fold with a forelimb
breakthrough on the Seattle uplift. Lidar-identified lineaments from a M7 or greater
earthquake in about 900-930 A.D. represent folding along a backthrust and a forelimb
breakthrough fault along the south edge of the Seattle Basin.
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NOTES
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Large scale Hydraulic Properties of Faults and Fault Zones of the Central Aar and
Gotthard Massifs (Switzerland)
Olivier Masset & Simon Loew
The present paper focuses on the role of fault and fault zones on larger scale hydraulic
properties of the crystalline rocks of the central Aar and central Gotthard massifs in
Switzerland, based on a compilation and interpretation of inflow data from 25 long and deep
traffic tunnels and hydropower galleries. The Aar and Gotthard massifs belong to the
European crust and are both composed of pre-Variscan polyorogenic and polymetamorphic
basement rocks intruded by Variscan magmatic rocks of granitic and granodioritic
composition. They strike parallel to the Alpine edifice and are separated by PermoCarboniferous and Mesozoic sediments, and locally, by a third smaller crystalline massif
named Tavetsch massif. Although they were initially interpreted as autochthonous and thus
coined as massifs, they both have been thrusted over underlying sediments, strongly
internally deformed, rotated and uplifted during the Tertiary Alpine orogeny.
It is commonly admitted that in crystalline rocks by far most of the groundwater flow takes
place in fractures. Among these fractures, faults and fault zones can produce outstanding
inflow rates when intersected by deep underground excavations. In the studied underground
excavations, the total early time and late time inflow rates are controlled disproportionally by
brittle faults and their damage zones. However, faults and particularly fault zones are very
heterogeneous features in terms of geometry and hydraulic properties and their local
properties are extremely difficult to predict without local predrillings. This study provides not
only data about fracture geometries and statistics, which are normally used to constrain flow
models of fractured rocks, but direct information about the spatial and rate distribution of
groundwater flow as determined from tunnel observations.
This paper first compares fault and fault zone architectures from both massifs in varying
lithologies. We show that faults and fault zones of the central Gotthard massif are in general
more brittle than faults or fault zones of the central Aar massif and that lithology impacts the
conductance of faults, as derived from tunnel and gallery inflows, to a lesser extent than brittle
tectonic overprint. In the second part, inflow data from 25 tunnels and galleries are used to
derive large scale equivalent rock mass hydraulic conductivities based on simple analytical
flow models. We discuss the influence of all fracture and inflow types on the derived
equivalent hydraulic conductivity and their spatial distributions. We show that clear trends in
the evolution of the large scale hydraulic conductivity with depth can only be seen, when
singular large inflows from brittle faults are excluded. The transmissivities derived from larger
fault inflows show no decrease with depth in the first 1500 meters below ground surface.
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NOTES
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NOTES
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Contrasting Styles of Faults and Fault Rocks in the Rio Grande Rift of Central New
Mexico, USA: Their Relationships to Rift Architecture and Groundwater Resources
Jonathan Saul Caine, Scott A. Minor, and Mark R. Hudson
U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO, USA
jscaine@usgs.gov
Fault zones within and flanking Neogene basins of the Rio Grande rift show great diversity in
architectural style, orientation, scale, age, displacement magnitude and direction, fault rocks,
cements, permeability structure, and geochemistry. These parameters were characterized in
detail for a number of representative fault zones throughout the central rift to understand their
role in the evolution of the rift and their influence on paleo-fluid-flow and present-day
groundwater resources. Several characteristic groups of faults were recognized: 1) Steep
ENE- and NE-striking faults involving Proterozoic crystalline basement and Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks. These faults show possible pre-Neogene strike-slip and possible normalslip reactivation. Their late extensional reactivation postdates hydrothermal alteration
extensional strain, suggesting thermal weakening had a role in localizing these faults possibly
during the early stages of rift evolution. 2) NNW- to NNE-striking, steep normal faults in
poorly lithified Neogene basin-fill sediments. These faults have pervasive clay-rich cores that
preserve little evidence of cataclasis as well as unusual, deeply incised grooves and
convolutions within the clays, particularly at the margins of the fault cores. When present,
sparse damage zone structures are deformation bands and no open, fault-related fractures
were observed. Yet, siliciclastic sediments adjacent to the uncemented fault cores are
variably and commonly asymmetrically cemented by coarse calcite and occasional silica. The
ubiquitous presence with the basin-fill, northerly trend, and dominantly normal slip of these
faults is consistent with accommodation of E-W extensional strain throughout the evolution of
the rift. 3) NW- to NE-striking, steep, normal and strike-slip small displacement faults in
Pliocene basaltic rocks. These faults form distributed networks of slip surfaces within
monoclinal fold limbs, no development of central clay-rich fault cores, and are related to the
later stages of rift evolution.
Characteristics of fault zone architecture indicate fundamental differences between faults in
the rift flank, basin-fill, and volcanic tablelands. Crystalline rocks tend to have well-developed
damage zones composed of open fracture networks surrounding cataclastic, clay-rich fault
cores. The resulting architectural style could make these faults combined conduit-barriers to
present-day groundwater flow. In contrast, the architecture and macroscopic textures in faults
in poorly lithified basin-fill sediments suggest particulate flow in the paleo-saturated zone was
an important deformation mechanism. This resulted in these faults being partial barriers that
cause anisotropic paleo- and present-day groundwater flow. The distributed, uncemented,
open slip-surfaces of faults in the volcanic rocks suggests they may act as conduits for
present-day groundwater flow. Lack of evidence for major faults at the mountain front-basin
interface suggests recharge to the basin is not impeded, whereas faults in the basin fill may
compartmentalize the aquifer under pumping stresses from domestic groundwater use.
Individual fault groups have distinctive geochemistry related to their origin and evolution. For
example, illite dominates hydrothermally altered fault cores in crystalline rocks. In contrast,
kaolinite is dominant in faults cutting both Proterozoic and Paleozoic rocks, and smectite
dominates faults in basin sediments. Al and Fe are prevalent in Proterozoic basement faults,
whereas Ca and Ba are prevalent in basin faults.
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Steps between strike-slip fault segments appear to obey a power-law scaling relationship. If a
region displays seismically-resolvable pull-aparts, there are also likely to be a predictable
number of sub-seismic pull-aparts. Pull-aparts can play an important role in controlling fluid
transportation in low porosity rocks. A flow model is developed to estimate the flow rate
through individual pull-aparts. The pull-apart flow model produces similar flow rates to the
pipe flow model with a length to displacement (L/W) ratio of 1, but is closer to the fracture flow
with an L/W ratio of 10. The flow rate is smaller in the pipe flow model than in the fracture flow
model where the aperture of a fracture or the radius of a pipe is small, because the impact of
fluid viscosity on the average flow rate is significant. The flow rate is larger in the pipe flow
model than in the fracture flow model where the aperture of a fracture or the radius of a pipe
is large, because the impact of fluid viscosity on the average flow rate is insignificant. The
flow model is expanded to incorporate the power-law scaling of a population of pull-aparts, to
show how different scales of structures can contribute to overall fluid movement through a
faulted rock mass.
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KEYNOTE:
Extraordinary permeability associated with major W-E rock-mass discontinuities
cutting Carboniferous strata in northern England and central Scotland - some
cautionary tales
Younger, P., University of Newcastle
Please see insert.
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Burlington House
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