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Chapter 1
Lifestyle Chemistry

1. The use of a substance depends on

its physical and chemical properties
1.1. Identify that a wide range of substances are used daily as part of our:
- Food
- Hygiene
- Maintenance of our health

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Food
Consists of substances such as simple and complex carbohydrates,
protein, fats and oils, vitamins, minerals, water, acids, bases, alcohols,
esters and many others.

Hygiene
Soap, shampoo, deodorant, toothpaste, cleansing creams and lotions, are
mixtures of chemicals like glycerol, fats and oils, salts and water.

Maintenance of our Health
Household cleaners and pesticides may be mixtures or compounds and
often contain methylated spirits, sodium hydroxide and salts

Chemical
Detergents

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1.2.Process and analyze information to identify the range of chemicals used
in every day living including:
Detergent, Lubricant, Pesticide, Solvent, Metal cleaner, Body hygiene
chemicals, Cosmetic And outline any precautions when using them

Lubricants

Pesticides

Solvents

Metal
cleaners
Body hygiene
chemicals

Cosmetics

Use
Cleans dishes and
clothes

Precautions
Corrosive = keep away
from eyes
Toxic = do not ingest
Flammable = keep away
from flames

Reduces friction e.g. in

bikes, cars and
machinery
Toxic = do not swallow, inhale,
Kill insects
spill on skin
To dissolve other stuff
Some are flammable, toxic,
e.g. turps, water
corrosive
Removes tarnish from
May be toxic or corrosive
metals
Soap, deodorant =
Many are toxic and will
reduce body odour.
cause allergic reactions if
Antiseptics = kill
swallowed
bacteria
Perfume = change
Sprays may be dangerous
smell. Make up =
to inhale
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Preservatives

change appearance
Prevent bacteria
growing in food

Eat minimal amounts

because they can have
negative effects

1.3.Explain that mixtures can be:

- Solutions that contain dissolved substances and are uniform throughout
- Suspensions containing particles that settle out, or form layers quickly
- Colloids with particles that remain suspended for long periods of time and
include:
Liquid-in-liquid (emulsion): oil-in-water + water-in-oil
Gas-in-liquid (foams)

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Solution
Is when a solvent and a solute completely mix and form a uniform or
homogenous mixture.
They allow light to pass through them without scattering
Types
Solid dissolved in a liquid = saltwater
Gas dissolved in a liquid = oxygen in water
Liquid in liquid = soft drink

Suspension
A mixture of fine particles suspended into a liquid, which can be called a
heterogeneous mixture.
The particles will settle on standing and can be filtered with filter paper.
Light doesnt pass through
Types
- Solid particles suspended in a liquid = soluble aspirin
- Liquid particles suspended in a liquid = fresh milk

Colloid
A homogenous uniform suspension Emulsified suspension
Light scatters
Types
- Emulsions:
- Oil in water = homogenized milk
- Water in oil = mayonnaise
- Gas particles suspended in a liquid (foam) = shaving cream
- Solid particles suspended in a liquid = paint

1.5. Plan, select appropriate equipment or resources for and perform a first-
hand investigation to produce a range of suspensions and colloids that are
used by consumers including
- Beaten or whisked eggs
- Salad dressing (oil/vinegar)
- Mayonnaise

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Beaten or whisked eggs
When an egg is cracked and whisked it forms a homogenous mixture even
though before being cracked it a suspension (the egg yolk is suspended in
the egg white
Therefore beaten or whisked eggs is a colloid

Salad dressing
The vinegar was poured into the oil and it was shaken until the mixture
looked uniform
After 1 minute of rest the mixture became suspended, with the olive oil
hovering over the vinegar
Therefore salad dressing is a suspension.

Mayonnaise

Ingredients
Method
1. Mix dry ingredients and
- teaspoon of sugar
mustard
- cup of vegetable oil
2. Beat egg yolks
- teaspoon of salt
3. Add step 1 and 2 together and
- teaspoon of mustard
mix well
- 2 egg yolks
4.
Add half the vinegar slowly and
- cup of vinegar
mix well

5. Add 3 tablespoons of oil one
drop at a time, beating
vigorously each time
6. Beat in the remaining vinegar
7. Add the remaining oil a
tablespoon at a time - beating at
the same time
8. Cover the beaker with glad
wrap and leave to rest

Therefore mayonnaise is an emulsified colloid with the egg yolks acting as
the emulsifier for the vinegar and the oil.

1.6. Use first-hand or secondary sources to gather, process , analyze and

present information to identify examples of suspensions and colloids and
outline one advantage of a mixture being in each form

Suspension
Pot of tea with tealeaves.
Advantage because parts can be separated easily, after a while the
leaves will fall to the bottom making it easy to pour the liquid into
another mug
Colloid
Margarine
Advantage because of the smooth texture, allows the margarine to be
spread easily

1.7. Perform first-hand investigations to demonstrate the effect of surface

tension on:
- The shape of liquid drops
- The formation of menisci
- The ability of some insects to walk on water
Surface tension is the result of strong forces between molecules in a
liquid, pulling them inward.

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Shape shape of liquid drops
Unbalanced forces on particles at the surface pull the liquid into around
spherical shape
The formation of the menisci
Meniscus is the curve in the upper surface of a liquid I a container.
Concave menisci is when molecules have a stronger attraction to each
other (cohesion)
Convex menisci is when molecules have a stronger attraction to the
container (adhesion)
The ability of some insects to walk on water
Pour some water onto a watch glass until it is full.
Carefully place a needle, horizontally, on the surface of the water.
The needle floats because of the surface tension, a combination of the
water pushing up and the strength of the surface film that holds up the
needle.

1.8. Explain surface tension in terms of the forces experienced by particles at

the surface of a liquid

Forces of attraction between the particles in a liquid hold it together

At the surface of the liquid, particles in contract with the air are attracted
downwards to other liquid particles but there is no balancing attraction
upwards
Thus the result is for particles to pull together as if there is a skin on the
surface

1.9. Describe surfactants as substances that affect the surface tension of a

liquid

Surfactants = surface acting agent, one that lowers the surface tension of a
liquid
E.g. Soap or detergent
Surfactants are useful as they break the surface tension of the water
which allows the them to clean surfaces

1.10. Process and present diagrammatic information to describe the effects

of soaps, skin cleansers and shampoos on the solubility of oil

The process of removing dirt from surfaces using a surfactant is shown:

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Step 1
The surfactant is added to the water containing the dirty substance
The soapy water wets the surface and the grease covering it
Step 2
The hydrophobic end of the molecule attaches its self to the grease, whilst
the hydrophilic end pulls against it
Step 3
The grease then becomes detached from the surface and remains
suspended in the soapy water until it is washed away

2. A wide range of cleaning products

are made from colloids and
surfactants
2.1. Perform a first-hand investigation to prepare an emulsion and compare
its properties to those of a solution and suspension

Homogenous

No

Yes

Heterogeneous Yes

No

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Homogenous

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Emulsions are mixtures of two immiscible liquids such as oil and water
that are suspended in one another indefinitely.
They contain emulsifying agents that stabilize them.

2.2. State the relationship between the properties of an emulsion and the
types of molecules present

Water based (oil in water)
Such as hand lotions, face cleansing
lotions and conditioners, contain some
oil or fat.
They are used to moisturize or protect
the skin and hair by placing oil onto the
surface.
These are miscible with water this
means that if a small amount is placed
into water and shaken or stirred it will
remain suspended.
The types of surfactant molecules
present are large molecules with very
polar chemical groups at one end.
This end becomes attracted to the polar

water molecules.
The other non-polar end of the surfactant is attracted to the non-polar oil
molecules.
Many of the surfactant molecules become positioned around the very
small droplets of oil, preventing them from merging together

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Oil based (water in oil)
Such as cold creams, night creams and hair
creams, contain some water.
These are immiscible with water and so if a
small amount is placed into water, the
emulsion will not be maintained.
They are useful to cleanse the skin, moisturize
very dry skin and hold hair in place.
The types of surfactant molecules present in
water-in-oil based emulsions are long starch
molecules or protein chains.
The chains wind among minute water
droplets and prevent them from merging
together

2.4. Outline the purpose of the emulsifying agent in a range of consumer

cleaning products

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Anionic
The molecules in emulsifying agents that are used in dishwashing and
laundry detergents have a negative end when they dissolve.
This allows them to keep oily substances away from any article that has
negatively charged surfaces, such as glass and crockery.
Cationic
The molecules in emulsifying agents that are used in fabric softeners and
hair conditioners have a positive end when they dissolve.
This allows them to keep oily substances away from any article that has
positively charged surfaces, as is often the case with plastic.

Non ionic
They do not ionize in solution meaning the molecules are polar but do
not contain electrically charged ions.
Suitable for detergents in front loading machines that depend largely on
friction for cleansing and not so much on the detergents cleaning ability
Amphoteric
These are molecules in emulsifying agents that are used in personal
cleaning products.
They can have positive ends in alkaline solutions and negative ends in
acidic solutions.
This allows them to keep oily substances away from some objects that
have positively charged surfaces or negatively charged surfaces they
are not strong cleaners.

2.5. Identify that soaps and detergents are emulsifying agents and
surfactants

Soaps and detergents are surfactants because = they lower the surface
tension allowing water to come into closer contact with grease/oil/dirt
Soaps and detergents are emulsifying agents because = they assist two
immiscible substances, such as oil and water, to mix Soaps and
detergents allow oil to disperse in water

2.6. Explain why cleaning agents must be surfactants and emulsifiers

A surfactant is needed to reduce the surface tension and allow the water
to wet the surface thoroughly
An emulsifier is needed to remove the grease/oil/dirt from the surface
and keep it suspended in the water so it can be washed away

2.7. Define the term biodegradable

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The ability of Substance to be broken down under the action of bacteria

and the other decomposers in the environment.

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Microorganisms break down soap to smaller naturally occurring

molecules.
Soapless or synthetic detergents were not broken down by
microorganisms and remained in water systems creating foam.
Modern detergents, although still produced synthetically, can be broken
down by micro-organisms and so are considered to be biodegradable
They have an added advantage over soap in that they are effective as
cleaning agents in hard water and in cold water

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Long (more than 18 atoms) hydrocarbon chain = hard soap doesnt mix well
with water: sodium
Short hydrocarbon chain (less than 18) = soft soap irritable to the skin:
Potassium

3. Cleaning products used on the

human body must be compatible with
the physical and chemical properties
of the skin

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3.1. Perform a first-hand investigation to examine prepared slides of human

skin

Part of skin
Sweat glands

Nerve endings

Hair follicles
Oil (sebaceous) glands

Hair muscles

Blood vessels

Function
Excretion of water, minerals
and urea
Control body temp
Collect info about temp and
pressure from the environment
Growth of hair
Make slightly acidic oil to
protect skin
Contract to make hairs stand up
in the cold
Supply food and oxygen to all
skin cells and remove their
wastes
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3.2. Identify the role of the skin as: an organ to separate the body from the
external environment, an organ assisting body temperature control and an
organ to protect against entry by disease-causing organisms

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The skin is an organ to separate the body from the external environment.
The epidermis forms an effective barrier to separate the rest of the body
from the external environment.
The skin is an organ assisting body temperature control
Sweat glands, found in the dermis, produce a liquid that is released
through the pores in the epidermis.
When this liquid is released on the surface of the body it evaporates and
this in turn cools the body surface.
When the body becomes hot, the rate at which these glands produce
sweat or perspiration increases. As well as this, when the body becomes
hot, the blood vessels dilate, which allows loss of heat through the
epidermis. These processes help to maintain the body temperature at
37oC.
The skin is an organ to protect against entry by disease-causing organisms.
The skin protects our body against disease in a number of ways:
- The shedding of the top layer of skin helps prevent the entry of disease
causing organisms.
- The high concentration of salt in sweat creates an environment that is
inhospitable to many bacteria.
- The presence of skin microflora holds in check the small number of
pathogenic organisms that are on our skin surfaces.

Microflora are microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa

and viruses, that live in harmless association with our skin.
They are able to survive the acidic nature of our skin and sometimes
actually help us against the entry of pathogens (microorganisms that
cause disease).
The presence of the microflora limits the resources available for
pathogenic bacteria that may be able to survive the acidic, salty
environment.
The microflora also increase the acidic nature of the skin therefore
making it even more inhospitable to many pathogens.
Dry areas have a smaller population as opposed to moister areas such as
the armpits

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3.3. Define the term microflora and discuss the role of the microflora on skin
in different parts of the body

3.4. Discuss the term pH in terms of its ability to describe the acidity of a
substance

The pH scale can be used very effectively to describe the degree of acidity
of a substance.
The pH scale has the range of 0-14, where a pH of 7 is regarded as neutral.
Substances with a pH below 7 are regarded as acidic and substances with
a pH above 7 are regarded as alkaline.
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Indicators include: litmus paper, universal indicator paper or universal

indicator solution, methyl orange or phenolphthalein

3.5. Perform first-hand investigations to measure the pH values of a range of

skin and hair products

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Used products such as soaps, shampoos and detergents

We dissolved a measured amount of each substance into water and added
a couple of drops of universal indicator and tested with pH paper.

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3.6. Explain the relationship between the natural pH of the skin and the
action of: microflora, natural oil produced by glands in the skin and
perspiration

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**Remembering the skins pH is 5.5, so it is slightly acidic**

Microflora
Pathogenic microorganisms do not survive in an acidic environment
The natural microflora are adapted to the acid conditions of the skin so
they are able to live there they contribute to the maintenance of the
acidic environment
Natural oil produced by glands in the skin
The slightly acidic pH of the skin is largely as a result of the production of
oil by oil glands
Also the microflora feed on this oil and produce acids to also help
maintain the acidity
Perspiration
Sweat contributes to the natural pH of the skin.
Sweat from exercise is not as acidic as from heat and heat is not as acidic
then from fear

3.7. Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources for, and
perform a first-hand investigation to test manufacturers claim(s) on a
commercial product such as soap, shampoo or shower gel and use the
available evidence to analyze the results and discuss the validity of the
claim(s)

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Johnstons moisturizing body wash claimed to have pH of 5.5

Dissolved a small amount of the product into water and tested it first with
pH paper and then used the universal indicator solution.
Then compared the colors obtained from the tests to the pH scale
Claim was valid because both tested showed pH of 5.5

3.8. Identify and explain the use of common components of body soaps,
cleansers and shampoos and the reason for their use

The common components of most skin soaps, cleansers and shampoos

are: surfactants, oils, and fragrances, dyes, pH balances and ant microbe
agents.
The pH of these products should be compatible with that of the skin.

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Common components of soap, cleansers
Reasons for their use
and shampoos
To help water attach to and remove oil
Surfactants/emulsifiers
particles and dirt and allow the water
to carry these away
To replace natural skin oils and protect
Oils
the skin or hair from becoming dry
To make the product more attractive to
Fragrances
customers
To make the product more attractive to
Dyes
customers
To maintain the skins pH of 5.5
pH balances
To destroy or slow the growth of
Ant microbe agents
unwanted microbes

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4. The nature of a solvent plays an

important role in the application of a
mixture
4.1. Perform an investigation to gather data comparing the rate at which
capsules, tablets, enteric-coated tablets and slow release tablets dissolve

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Capsules
Contain the active drug within a hard or soft gelatin covering
The gelatin capsule dissolves readily I the stomach fluids and the contents
are released
Tablets
Designed to hold together until swallowed
After entering the stomach they disintegrate quickly
Slow release tablets
Release their contents slowly into the digestive tract so that the effect of
the drug can be maintained over a much longer period of time
Enteric-coated tablets
Are specifically designed to stay intact when in the stomach so that the
active ingredient does not irritate the stomach
The active ingredient is released into the alkaline environment o the small
intestine and then absorbed into the blood stream

Experiment
Placed each one in both alcohol and water.
As soon as placed in the liquid the stopwatch was started recording the
times

4.2. Identify water and alcohol as commonly used solvents

-
-
-

**Remembering**
Solution = solvent dissolves solute
Solute = substance that gets dissolved
Solvent = does the dissolving

Substances that dissolve in water: sugar and salt

Substances that dissolve in alcohol: grease and oil

4.3. Identify cosmetics and external medications where water is the solvent

Water is used as a solvent for facial cleaners, hair shampoo, conditioners,

moisturizers and some creams (oil-in-water emulsions).
Antiseptic solutions (e.g. Dettol) are dissolved in water before being used
to bathe wounds.

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4.4. Identify cosmetics and external medications where alcohol is the

solvent

Alcohol is used as a solvent for astringents such as facial toner and

aftershave, some antiseptics, perfumes, hair sprays and hair revitalizers
and personal insect repellents.
Iodine is dissolved in alcohol for use as a common antiseptic
Alcohol is also used in spray on painkillers.

4.5. Explain the relationship between the properties of solvents and their
use in cosmetics and external medications

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Water
Is a polar substance and is able to dissolve a wide range of polar and ionic
substances.
This makes water very useful for
- The base for emulsions in many cosmetics and medicines
- Dissolving many medicines before swallowing
- Diluting medicines so they are in the correct concentration
Alcohol
Has a non polar end and a partly charged end this makes it a useful
solvent as it can mix with water, dissolve polar substances, ionic
substances and also some non polar substances
It dissolves some medicines that are not soluble in water
Has a lower boiling point than water and thus evaporates more readily,
and better for some situations

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4.6. Identify data sources, gather, process, analyze and present information
from secondary sources to identify how subdermal implants release their
medication
Subdermal implant = device placed under the skin to release drugs into
the body at a controlled rate
Advantages:
Receive drug regularly at a controlled rate
No need to remember to take the drug
The drug goes directly into the bloodstream
Examples: contraceptive purposes, insulin for diabetics
Dermal patches = do the same as a subdermal implant but on the outside
of the skin only useful for drugs with molecules small enough to pass
through the skin e.g. nicotine

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5. The solubility of materials used in

drugs has an effect on the way in
which the body responds to them
5.1. Identify the parts of the digestive system

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the function of the digestive system is to break up food molecules until
they are small enough to pass through the walls of the blood vessels and
into the blood and furthermore into the cells

Part of digestive system
Function
Physically break up food into small pieces
Teeth
Produce an enzyme which starts the chemical
Salivary glands
digestion/breakdown of starch into glucose
Carries food from the mouth to the stomach
Oesphagus/food pipe
Produces hydrochloric acid and an enzyme called
Stomach
pepsin which digests/breaks down proteins into
amino acids
Secretes enzymes to digest food. Completes the
Small intestine
digestion of food. Absorbs digested food through its

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Large intestine
Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Gall bladder

wall into blood vessels and lymph vessels

Undigested food passes out of the body as fasces.
Absorbs water and some vitamins
Ring of muscle at the end of the large intestine.
Produces bile which emulsifies fats into small droplets
so they can be digested
Produces enzymes to digest food in the small intestine
Stores bile until it is needed

5.2. Outline the role of the stomach and the small intestine in breaking
down food

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The stomach
Has the role of beginning the breakdown of protein into amino acids.
It does this by churning the food with gastric juice.
The gastric juice, which is excreted from the walls of the stomach,
contains enzymes, to break down the proteins, and acid, to kill harmful
bacteria.
The small intestine
Produces enzymes that complete the digestion process.
It is also the organ from which digested foods are absorbed into the
bloodstream.
In the first section of the small intestine, called the duodenum, the partly
digested food is mixed with bile and pancreatic juice:
- The bile helps to break down fat and oil drops into smaller droplets
- The pancreatic juice helps to break down carbohydrates to simple sugars,
helps to complete the digestion of proteins and to break down fats into
fatty acids.
- The pancreatic juice also helps neutralize the acid from the stomach.

5.3. Discuss the difference in pH of the stomach and the small intestine

Stomach
Has a pH of around 3, owing to the presence of hydrochloric acid.
The low pH of the stomach allows it to kill harmful bacteria.
Also, this pH provides the conditions necessary for the enzyme pepsin to
begin the breakdown of the proteins present in the food that has been
ingested.
Small intestine
Bile from the gall bladder emulsifies the fat present in the food.
This bile is alkaline and helps to neutralize the stomach acid in the food.
The alkaline environment allows other enzymes like lipase, amylase and
protease to continue the digestion of the protein, starch and fat molecules
present in the food.

5.5. Account for the absorption of a drug and its action on the body in terms
of its solubility

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Orally (tablet, capsule etc.)

Generally, the more soluble a drug, the quicker will be its absorption and
the quicker the action on the body.
A drug must be stable enough to survive the body's digestive system.
Absorption can also be affected by the presence of other substances and
the nature of membranes through which the drug must be absorbed.
Drugs taken orally may be soluble in water, soluble in alcohol or not
soluble in either.
When an acidic drug is given in the form of a salt, it may precipitate in the
stomach initially but can be readily redissolved in the intestine and be
absorbed.
Sprays
Some drugs are prepared as sprays to act directly on the surface of the
throat or nose, or to be absorbed through the lining.
Some sprays are designed to be inhaled into the lungs This type of
administration can be very fast-acting.
Nasal sprays are usually aqueous solutions.
Creams
Skin applications are usually intended to reach the skin surface or the
lining of the sebaceous glands under the skin.
Many ingredients of skin applications are soluble in fats and oils, such as
the type found in the layers of the skin.

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its solubility

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Oral application
If a drug is soluble in water, it may be administered conveniently in a
number of ways, including orally (as solutions, or in capsules or tablets),
by inhalation, or as eye-drops, nose-drops or eardrops.
Some drugs will dissolve better in water-alcohol or glycerol solvents and
may then be administered as solutions, suspensions or emulsions.
Skin application
In some circumstances, a skin application may be intended to be absorbed
into the blood stream by passing through the lining of the glands.
- To help penetrate the lining they need to be fat-soluble.
- In this case, transdermal patches are used which have been impregnated
with drugs such as estrogen or nicotine.
Subdermal implants, on the other hand, are implanted into the body and
the drugs are released into the lymphatic system, not the bloodstream.
They may be placed inside the thigh or arm or in the stomach. This system
ensures a continuous slow release of the drug required.

5.7. Explain why the knowledge of the solubility of materials can be used to
design drugs for specific purposes

When drugs are being designed, scientists consider carefully where in the
digestive tract the drugs should be dissolved, ready to be absorbed into
the bloodstream.
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-
-
-

Scientists may need to ensure that a drug:

Dissolves when it reaches a location with a specific pH
Reaches its destination without being broken down
Is released within an appropriate timeframe.
It is important for scientists to test medicines thoroughly because the
digestive tract can affect the drug and because the drugs may cause
damaging side effects.

5.8. Identify vitamins that are water-soluble and those that are fat-soluble

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A, D, E and K are fat soluble

B and C are water soluble

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Chapter 2
Medical Technology:
Bionics

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1. Increases in Scientific understanding and

technological advances have broadened options for
maintaining humans as Functioning organism
Biomaterials

Biomaterials are substances that can be safely placed in contact with

living tissue without the tissue reacting against it.
They are synthesized from commercially available materials or purified
from naturally occurring substances like coral.
Biomedical device is an implant or device, made from biomaterials, which
can be placed in the body and will function there
The main biomaterials are:

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Metals

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Also known as alloys

The main alloys used in biomaterials are:
Titanium alloy: Biocompatible, unreactive, strong, easy to mold or shape, wears
out easily
Iron alloy (stainless steel): Strong, easy to work with, cheap to manufacture,
tendency to corrode, same tensile strength as titanium but more denser
Cobalt alloy: more expensive than stainless steel but more resistant to corrosion

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Strong, nonflexible, resist corrosion, low density, easily shaped when

wet, heat = permanently rigid

Plastics

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Ceramics

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Also known as polymers

The main polymers are:
Polyethylene: linear molecule = ultra high molecule weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE). Very strong, denser than normal polyethylene, resistant to abrasion
and cutting, impact and corrosion resistant, self lubricating, tends to stretch
under heavy loads
Silicones (experiment): withstands pressure, flexible, stretchy, strong, easy to
cut but not to tear, unreactive, becomes weak and falls apart when rubbed
against metal

Replaceable parts
Eyes

Cataracts are when the lens of the eye becomes cloudy, so that the person
can not see clearly
Cataract surgery = a small cut is made near the front of the lens
ultrasound dissolved the damaged lens vacuumed away replacement
is inserted
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Teeth

Crowns are used to cover broken teeth, or teeth were the nerve has died

Ear
Cochlear implant is a bionic ear, pioneered by a group led by Aus scientist,
Graeme Clarke. It is not the same as a hearing aid because implanted are
surgically implanted.
Some people are deaf because the inner ear is damaged.
Cochlear implants replaces the damaged part by converting sound to
electrical impulses and sending them to the brain.
There are five main parts of the bionic ear:
1. Microphone: picks up sound
2. Speech processor: select and arrange sounds picked up by the
microphone
3. Transmitter: receive signals from the speech processor and pass them
through the skin to the receiver/ stimulator
4. Receiver/stimulator: transform signals to electrical impulses
5. Electrodes: collects the impulses from the stimulator and sends them to
the brain via the auditory (hearing) nerve
Historical developments od cochlear implants:
1950s: auditory nerve stimulated
1961: William house implemented device
1978: Graeme Clark implanted first multi-channel cochlear implant
1980s: many cochlear implants used, with speech processor in pocket
1990s: miniaturization
Today: external component of implant fits behind the ear

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Valve is a device that controls the direction of flow of blood through the
veins of the heart.
The valve allows the blood to flow from left to right but if it trys to go
right to left (backwards) it will not be able to get through.

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Heart

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It is able to get through backwards an artificial valve is available
Historical developments of the artificial valve:
1950s: structure of heart valves studied using cadavers
1960: ball-in-cage valves implanted
1962: valves transplanted from cadavers with healthy hearts
1971: artificial tilt valves implemented
1978: valves that work like a bileaflet disc implanted

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1990s: wide use of transplants of valves from pulmonary veins to aorta

Biomedical Devices

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2. The regular beating of the heart and continuity of

the flow of blood through the heart and around the
body is needed to maintain good health
The heart
Structure of the heart

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Top two chambers = atria. Bottom two chambers = ventricles.

Atria pumps blood from the cells of the body through the veins
Ventricles pumps blood into arteries which carry the blood around the
body
The ventricles have thicker walls because they have to pump blood
around the body
Diagram of the heart:

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Valves prevent blood from flowing backwards

The valves have strong flaps which are attached to cords connecting with
contracting muscles allowing them to only open one way
There are three types of blood vessels:
Artery: carry blood away from the heart (thick muscular wall)
Vein: carry blood back to the heart (thinner)
Capillary: substances diffuse in and out of them (tiny)

Circulation of blood
The five steps of the circulation of blood are:
1. Deoxygenated blood comes into the right atrium, then to the right
ventricle of the heart.

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2. From the right ventricle it is pumped to the lungs where it becomes

oxygenated.
3. Once oxygenated, it returns to the left atrium and then moves to the left
ventricle.
4. From the left ventricle it is pumped to the rest of the body.
5. After circulating through the body it is returned to the right atrium.

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Heartbeat

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Heart beats because: when ventricles contract they pump blood at a high
pressure into the arteries, causing the walls to stretch and create a pulse.
Measure a pulse in our wrists, temple or neck, by every time an artery
stretches and crosses an area of bone close to the surface
Experiment: When we exercise our pulse rate is higher this is because:
The muscles use more energy
To get this energy the muscle cells must burn more glucose using oxygen
To do this the blood must flow faster, thus the heart must pump faster.
When listening through a stethoscope we hear:
Lub noise: valves closing between the atria and ventricles
Dub noise: valves in the arteries closing
The contractions of the heart are controlled by electronic impulses.
These impulses are measured by an electrocardiograph and printed out
as electrocardiograms
Part of an electrocardiogram:

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 P wave: electrical signals

make atria contract causing blood to
be forced into the ventricles
QRS wave: electrical signals
makes ventricles contract and at the
same time the valves between atria
and ventricles close (lub) so blood
can not flow back into the atria and
it is pumped into the arteries
T wave: electrical signal
spreads back over the ventricles in
the opposite direction causing valves
between ventricles and arteries to
close (dub)

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The cardiac muscle is contactable tissue that makes up the walls of the
heart
The heart beats when the cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes.
Specialized cells in the wall of the right atrium called the sinotrial node
and A/V node send out electrical impulses to make the muscle contract
and relax.

Problems with heartbeat

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Artificial Pacemakers can be used for life threatening abnormalities in

heart contraction rates
Tachycardia = heart beats too fast (100 beats per minute)
Bradycardia = heart beats too slow (50 beats per minute)
Cardiac arrest: heart stops pumping effectively muscles of the ventricles
start beating fast and irregularly without pumping blood
Arrhythmia occurs when conduction of impulses from the sinotrial node
is impaired

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Pacemakers
The natural pacemaker of the heart is the sinotrial node
Artificial Pacemaker: a small electrical device, implanted in the chest to
help the heart beat at a regular rhythm through electrical pulses.
There are two types of pacemakers:
Fixed rate: continually sends out electrical impulses at the same rate
Demand: sends out impulses if the heart beat is irregular
Historical developments of artificial pace makers:
1920: William Einthoven invented the electrocardiograph
1931: first artificial pacemaker
1950: external cardiac pacemaker developed
1958: first internal pacemaker: operated by a battery needed frequent
charging
1960: mercury zinc battery capable of lasting 1 2 years
1969: first demand- pacemaker
1970: lithium iodine batteries were developed
1990-2007: smaller, longer lasting pacemakers

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Advantages of technological advances for pacemakers:

Technological advance
Development
Advantage
Implemented under the
No wires passing through
Long lasting batteries
skin
the skin
No corrosion
Last longer
Casing that does not
corrode
Leads can be pushed
No need for surgery
Flexible electrical leads
through blood vessels to
reach the heart
No infections
Biocompatible substances Implemented without
rejection
Smaller
Smaller and lighter
Miniaturization
Smaller
Less effected by external
Integrated
radiation
circuits/microchips
Can be calibrated by
Reduces the need for
Transmit and sense and
remote control
further surgery
store information using
electromagnetic radiation

The two main materials used in pacemakers are:
- Titanium alloys: biocompatible, corrosion resistant, low density, non
toxic, smooth, flexible
- Polymers: biocompatible, corrosion resistant, low density, non toxic,
strong

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There are four valves in heart:

1. The entry to the aorta (aortic valve)
2. The entry to the pulmonary vein (pulmonary valve)
3. The right atrium (tricuspid valve)
4. The left atrium (mitral valve)
The function of these valves is to allow blood to flow in one direction
Faulty valves can arise from:
Damage by infection
Deformed from birth
They cause blood to flow backwards, meaning that the heart can not
pump blood effectively causing tiredness and shortness of breath
Experiment: A ping pong ball inside a funnel symbolizes a heart valve:
Exhaling: ball is suspended symbolizing blood flowing forward
Stop exhaling: ball covered the hole symbolizing blood being stopped to
not allow it to go backwards
There are two main types of manufactured heart valves:

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Ball in cage

The blood pushes the ball out of the way as it flows through. If the blood
trys to flow backwards it pushes the ball against the ring sealing the
space

Bileaflet valve

Opens to allow the flow of blood and then closes prevent its backflow
Less turbulence than ball in cage

Materials

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There are three main materials used in artificial heart valves:

Pyrolytic carbon: durable, strong, lightweight, smooth to allow the even flow of
blood to prevent clots
Metal alloys: durable, strong, lightweight, corrosion resistant
Teflon: durable, strong, lightweight, forms a smooth non-sticky surface, which
allows blood to flow smoothly without, clots.

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Angioplasty

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Arteries are often blocked by plaque.

Heart arteries are Conarary arteries.
Conarary arteries supply oxygenated and nutrient filled blood to the heart
muscle
Plaque are fatty deposits the build up inside the walls of blood vessels
Plaque can cause diseases, block blood vessels, harden the artery walls
(arteriosclerosis) and weaken the walls of blood vessels = effecting the
blood flow to and from the heart.
The two main ways of unblocking arteries:

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Blocked Arteries

This involves a thin,

flexible catheter
(tube) with a balloon
at its tip and a stent
around it, is threaded
through a blood
vessel to the affected
artery.
Once in place, the
balloon is inflated to
compress the plaque
against the artery
wall.
The catheter is then
removed with the stent remaining, allowing blood flow through the
artery.

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Bypass surgery

Involves getting a saphenous vein from the patients leg a using it to

bypass the plaque build up in the Conarary artery.
By doing this it completely diverts the direction of blood flow around the
plaque build up.

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If you have blockages in three or more coronary arteries, your doctor is

likely to recommend bypass surgery. But if you have one or two blocked
arteries and neither is the vital left coronary artery, you may chose either.

Heart Transplants

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An artificial heart is a device that keeps the heart beating for a short
amount of time while the patient waits for a donor.
When the donor heart is transplanted a constant immune rejection
medication must be taken to combat contracting other diseases
Impact on society of heart transplants:
People can live longer and have a better quality of life
Because people live longer the older age will live longer and hence need
care (health care and elderly homes)

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3. The wide range of movements, continual absorption

of shocks and diseases make the skeletal system
venerable to damage but new technologies are
allowing the replacement of some damaged structures

The skeleton

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There are four parts of the skeletal system:

Bones: The dense, semi rigid, porous, calcified connective tissue forming
the major portion of the skeleton of most vertebrates.
Muscles: A tissue composed of fibers capable of contracting to effect
bodily movement:
Tendons: A flexible
but inelastic cord of
strong fibrous
collagen tissue
attaching a muscle to a
bone
Ligaments: a band of
fibrous tissue
connecting two bones
at a joint.
Cartilage: the smooth
covering over the ends
of joints
Function of skeleton =
provide support and
shape for the body,
protect internal
organs and allow
movement
Diagram of the human
skeleton
Experiment: when
placing chicken wings in hydrochloric acid for two days, they were taken
out and were: rubbery, soft and easy to bend. This was because:
The hydrochloric acid dissolved minerals such as calcium from the bones.
Since calcium makes bones hard and strong, the bones were flexible
because they lacked it

Spongy and compact bones

Compact bone provides for support, it has little ability to absorb shock.

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Spongy bone is not as hard or strong as compact bone but it is lighter and
is able to absorb shock better

Joints

Joints allow bones to move in different directions.

Synovial Joints

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Double hinge
Sliding

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Type of joint
Ball and socket
Hinge

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Synovial joints: are a joint enclosed in a capsule and lubricated by a fluid.
Synovial joints, their location, and the type of movemnt they allow:

Pivot

Locations
Shoulder, hip
Fingers, elbow knees

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Thumb
Spinal bones, tarsal
bones on the foot
Neck

Movement
Circular motion
To and from, single plan,
like a door
Side to side, to and from
Flattened or slightly
curved surfaces move
across each other in two
planes
One bone rotates
around the other

Cartilage forms the layer between bones, allows a smooth movement of

joints - reducing friction and cushioning impact between two bones
Synovial Fluid comes from the synovial membrane, it lubricates the joint
to reduce friction

Replacing joints

The most common materials for replacing joints are:

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Silicones

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The properties of silicone that make it suitable for use in biomaterials

include:
Flexible
Elastic
Insoluble
Impervious
Inert (acid resistant)
Absorbs impact
Low friction surface
Silicone would be the most suitable substitute in coating small joints in
fingers and toes
This is because it is biocompatible and is as strong and flexible as natural
joints

UHMWPE

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Properties of UHMWPE
Biocompatible
Similar density to living tissues

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Ultra, high, molecule, weight, polyethylene, is a polymer made from

thousands of ethylene joined together.
It is mostly used to replace cartilage in joints because:

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Durable

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Low friction
Hard, strong and resists deformity
Highly elastic

Reasons for suitability

Will not be rejected
Will not cause problems because it has
the same weight
Lasts a long time with out
replacements
Reduces friction in the joint
Will maintain its shape
Stretches with joint and will absorb
impact

Polyethylene Coating
Artificial joints are coated in polyethylene because:
- Smoother = reducing friction
- Easier to compress = helps absorb impact
- If they werent coated the metal would rub against the bone and
accumulate joint problems

Superalloys

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A superalloy is made from a mixture of metals such as:

Titanium alloy
Molybdenum alloy
Cobalt chromium
It is suitable for the ball and stem of large joints because:
High strength = to be able to support weight
Low density = to feel the same as the natural joint
Biocompatible = so it doesnt react
Inertness = so it doesnt corrode or rust
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Superalloys are much stronger than polyethylene materials such as

UHMWPE but additionally have higher density and much lower flexibility.
Therefore making them useful for different parts of an artificial joint

Implementation of artificial joints

Joints can either be cemented or un-cemented into place

Cemented

The cement is a chemical called methyl methacrylate

This is mixed with a catalyst which makes the cement form long polymer
chains into the surrounding bone tissue
This makes a strong bond between the replacement and the surrounding
bone

Uncemeted

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Implants that arent cemented are made with microscopic pores so the
bodys own tissue can grow into and around the implant to hold it in place

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Cemented implants dont last as long as uncemeted

Recovery after the operation is much quicker with cemented

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Advantages and Disadvantages

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4. Life support systems can be used to sustain life

during operations or while the body repairs itself

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The respiratory
system is the
biological system
that introduces
respiratory gases
to the interior and
performs gas
exchange.
A diagram of the
respiratory
system:

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The alveoli are the final branchings of the respiratory tree (end of the
bronchioles) and act as the primary gas exchange units of the lung.
Experiment: balloons representing lungs attached by a glass tube
representing the trachea, in side of a glass jar representing the chest, with
rubber across the opening of the jar representing the diaphragm.
Pulling down on the rubber: the size of the inside cavity of the chest is
increased so pressure inside is less than outside air pressure, the air

Parts of respiratory system

Nasal passages
Trachea (windpipe)
Larynx (voice box)
Bronchi
Alveoli
Capillaries

Epiglottis

Functions
Warm and filter air
Carry air from throat to bronchi
Allow for speech
Carry air from trachea to lungs
Fill with inhaled air so exchange of
gases can occur
Form a network of blood vessels
around alveoli
Prevents food entering the trachea
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when we swallow

rushes to equalize and the balloons fill up.

Pushing up on the rubber: the inside cavity of the chest is deceased, so
pressure inside is greater than outside pressure, air is pushed out and
balloon empties

Cardio-pulmonary Resuscitation

Cardio-pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) consists of two parts:

EAR (expired air resuscitation): supplying air to the lungs when the
person is not breathing
ECC (external cardiac compression): maintaining heartbeat by external
compression, so as to keep the blood circulating around the body
CPR can maintain life when the heart has stopped beating because
exhaled air contains some oxygen (17%)
Therefore oxygen can be supplied to lungs by expired air resuscitation
Experiment: limewater goes cloudy (milky) with inhaled air and very
cloudy with exhaled air
Therefore exhaled air has more CO2 than inhaled air

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When the patient has functioning lungs the artificial lung used:
Is a mechanical device that forces air in and out of the lungs
To ensure carbon dioxide is removed and replaced with oxygen at the
same concentration.
When the lungs are diseased or not functioning:
An IMO (intravenous membrane generator) is used.
This device is inserted into one of the large veins that lead into the right
atrium
The blood is oxygenated and CO2 removed before the blood reaches the
heart
This bypassing the lungs, allowing them to recover
The operations that would require an artificial lung are:
Lung surgery

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Artificial lungs

Life support systems

Life support systems is medical equipment that assists or replaces

important bodily functions, enabling a patient to live who otherwise
might not survive
Two of these include:

Heart lung machine
- A Heart lung Machine consists of a chamber that receives the blood from
the body, which is then pumped by the machine through an oxygenator.
- The oxygenator removes the CO2 and adds oxygen. The pump then
pumps this newly oxygenated blood back to the body
- Used in Heart and lung transplants and bypass surgeries (because they
need to stop blood pumping in the heart) when a person has a very
diseased heart

Kidney dialysis machine

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-
-

Is a machine, which takes over the role of the kidneys if they are damaged,
diseased, or undergoing a kidney transplant.
Blood is diverted through the dialysis machine, waste such as urea is
filtered from the blood and the blood is then returned to the body

5. The use of non invasive or minimally invasive,

medical techniques has greatly reduced risks to
patients and has increased our understanding of how
the body works
Tools for diagnosis

There are two types of medical techniques for diagnosis:

Techniques that use very small incisions or have a minor effect on the
body
These include techniques such as:

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Minimally Invasive medical techniques

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Keyhole surgery (endoscopy)
An endoscope is a tube, which can be inserted into the body through small
incisions or body openings.
Which contains optical fibers to study the inside of the body
Advantages:
- Endoscopes allow the surgeon to view inside the body without having to
make large incisions and in some cases without having to make an
incision at all (nose, mouth, anus)
Disadvantages:
- Endoscopes allow only a small area to be illuminated at a time
- A picture of the whole diagnostic area must be built up from smaller parts
- Endoscopy may not detect some conditions
Used to: study areas of problems in the body, remove gall stones, to look
for cancer, look for blockages in the fallopian tubes
Impact on understanding of how the body works:
- Real life image of the inside of the body
- Therefore helping doctors understand what it looks like

Non - invasive medical techniques

Techniques that investigate the human body without surgery or that do

not affect the bodys normal functioning
These include techniques such as:

X-ray machines
X-ray machines are high frequency electromagnetic radiation, that passes
through soft tissues and leaves an image of hard tissues, such as bones, on
photographic film
Advantages
- Quick and painless

36

They help radiologists identify cracks, infections, injury, and abnormal

bones.
- They also help in identifying bone cancer.
- X-rays help in locating alien objects inside the bones or around them.
Disadvantages
- X-rays makes our blood cells to have higher level of hydrogen
peroxide, which could cause cell damage.
- A higher risk of getting cancer from X-rays.
- The X-rays are able to change the base of the DNA causing a mutation.
Used to: detect bone abnormalities and to detect breast cancer
Impact on understanding of how the body works:
- For the first time doctors were albe to see inside the body without
cutting it open
- Allowed doctors to see bone fractures and study the healing process

Ultrasound
Ultrasound uses high frequency sound waves to form pictures of organs
inside the body, which reflect the sound waves.
Advantages:
- Quick, painless and inexpensive
- Safe =sound waves are low energy/harmless
Disadvantages:
- Ultrasound pictures are not always clear
- A technician is needed to conduct it
Used to: monitor valve problems, monitor the development of embryos
and to look for the presence of gall stones
Impact on understanding of how the body works:
- Provided great info about the development of the human embryo
- Helped doctors understand the actions of heart muscles and valves

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
An MRI is a technique where large magnetic fields are used to obtain 3D
images of the inside of the body
Advantages:
- Can provide cross sectional images, building up a 3D image of the area
- Provides more information than x-rays
Disadvantages:
- Affected by movement
- Very expensive
- Makes some patients feel claustrophobic
Used to: detect spine, joint or muscle problems, detect Brain tumors and
abnormalities and Heart or blood vessel problems
Impact on understanding of how the body works:
- Improved understanding of the structure and functions of the body
components
- Increased knowledge of how the brain functions

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Chapter 3
Information systems

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1. Information systems are many and

varied and depend on the transfer of
energy from place to place
1.1 Identify a range of information systems used daily

Some information systems used daily include:

- Talking and listening: in person, telephone, radio and television
- Reading written info: in newspapers, magazines, letters
- Electronic: using computers and faxes

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Verbal: includes words both spoken and written (email, talking)

Non-verbal: no words (smoke signals, sign language)
Short distance: in person (facial expressions)
Long distance: not in person (radio)
Electronic: uses electricity to communicate (TV)
Non-electronic: doesnt need electricity (photographs)

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1.2 classify information systems as: Verbal and nonverbal, Short distance
and long distance, Electronic and non-electronic

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Code common to both parties

- Pictures, words and music are examples of codes.
- The sender deliberately uses agreed conventions or codes, which must
be learned, to construct a message.
Message:
- A message to be transferred electronically may have to be coded
again, so that it can alter the carrier current or wave in a systematic
and consistent way.
- The two ways of doing that are by either analog or digital means.
Transmission of coded message
- Once the carrier current or wave has been coded, it is sent to the
required destination.
- Modern communication systems use either an electric current or
electromagnetic waves to carry messages.
Decoder
- Two steps are now involved in extracting the message
- The first detects and separates the code from the carrier current or
wave.
- The second involves converting that code into a form that the
receivers senses can detect and interpret to make meaning.

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1.3 Outline the basic pattern of the information transfer process as: code
common to both parties, message, transmission of coded message and
decoder

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Situation

Code

Transmission

Decoding

Talking to
another person
Sending a fax
Watching TV

Language

Sound waves

Ear and brain

Digital signals
Language

Printer
Aerial and TV

Listening to
radio

Language

Electric current
Electric current,
radio waves
Electric current,
radio waves

Areal and radio

speakers

1.4 Recall phenomena and events where different forms of energy are used
Different types of energy include: Chemical, heat, light, magnetic
electrical, kinetic, potential, solar, sound, electromagnetic and nuclear
Energy changes that occur:
Appliance
Energy change
Electrical Heat
Electric kettle
Electrical Heat and light
Toaster
Solar Electrical
Solar cell
Electrical Electromagnetic radiation and heat
Microwave
Chemical Electrical
Torch battery
Chemical kinetic and heat
Car using petrol
as fuel

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1.5. Gather and process first-hand and secondary information on the basic
pattern of the information transfer process in the following systems:
- Land connected telephone
- Mobile phones
- Television
- Radios
- Compact Disc players
To outline features that the systems have in common and use available
evidence to discuss the applications of these systems

Remembering the information transfer process refers to:

code message transmission decoder




Land connected telephone
Info transfer process
Sound coded by microphone to electrical signals transmitted
through electrical cables Speaker in receiver Decoded to sound
Application: Communication

Mobile Phones
Info transfer process
Sound coded in microphone transmitted via microwaves from
tower to tower detected by receiving mobile decoded sound.

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Application: Communication

Television
Info transfer process
Sound and light coded by camera and microphone transmitted
through electricity cables converted to radio waves and transmitted at
transmitting tower detected by aerial decoded by TV sound and
light pattern
Application: Entertainment

Radio
Info transfer process
Sound coded by microphone transmitted through electricity cables
converted to radio waves detected by aerial decoded by radio
sound
Application: Mass entertainment

Compact disc players
Info transfer process
Sound coded by microphone laser light decoded by player
electrical sound.
Application: entertainment

What they all have in common
They all involve energy transformations, coding of information, electric
currents and decoding devices.
They are all electronic, that is, they require electricity.
They are capable of transmitting information over long distances (except
compact disc player)

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1.7. Gather and process information from secondary sources to develop a
timeline of communication systems introduced to society and use the
available evidence to analyze the impact these systems have had on society
and predict possible future directions in communication technologies

Communication
system
Land connected
telephones

Television

Radio

Mobile phones

Impact on society
Long distance communication
Increased speed of communication
People could work from home
People could keep in touch easier
People could call for help if they were in trouble
Rapidly spread news events to people i.e. impending
disasters
Entertainment
Advertisements
Up to date news bulletins
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Compact disc
players

Music
Two way communication i.e. talkback
Different types of music could be stored in one device
Fast access
Increased capacity to store info in a small space

Future directions in communication technology
Decrease size = more portable
Increase in schooling/education through computers
More shopping will be done electronically rather than physically

1.8. Discuss the advantages of using a range of information systems

Some systems lend themselves better to specific applications.
- For example, the coding systems used in FM radio are not destroyed
by natural phenomena, such as electrical storms, during transmission.
- AM radio can be transmitted over greater distances than FM radio but
the signals may be interfered with by electrical storms and other
nearby communication equipment.
Access to a choice of systems is inherently more reliable. For example,
international telephone calls can go via cable or satellite. If one fails, the
other can take over.
If you are an advertiser, the choice of radio, TV, print or Internet means
that your message is more likely to be received and appropriately
interpreted by the receiver.

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2. Electromagnetic radiation can be

modulated to carry different types of
information
2.1. Identify the types of waves in the electromagnetic spectrum currently
used for communication systems as:
- Visible light
- Infra-red
- Microwaves
- Radio waves, which include: TV, FM radio waves and AM radio waves

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Properties of a wave
Waves are produced by vibrations.
They carry or transmit energy.











A wavelength is the distance between two successive points on a wave
(crests)
The frequency is the number of waves passing a point each second,
measured in hertz (Hz).

The electromagnetic spectrum
Is a series of waves, which consist of fluctuating electric fields and which
vary in frequency and wavelength






Types of waves used for communication systems are:
Visible Light: optical fibers
Infra-red: laser optical fibers and remote control devices
Microwaves: satellites and mobile phones
Radio waves: TV, FM and AM radio

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2.2.Perform a first-hand investigation to observe ways in which waves can

be modulated to carry different types of information

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Modulated waves are modified or changed.

Radio waves are modulated because:
- An unmodulated wave would be very weak, with only very long
aerials being able to detect them
- Everyone would transmit at the same frequencies so there could
only be one radio station in each area
The carrier wave is the basic wave being transmitted from a radio station
The modulation in AM and FM radio is different:
- AM (amplitude modulation): carrier wave is modulated by adding
the wavelengths of the sound wave from the microphones to the
carrier wave
- This then changes the amplitude of the carrier wave producing an AM
signal
- FM (frequency modulation): carrier wave is modulated by adding
the frequency of the sound wave from the microphones to the carrier
wave
- This then changes the frequency of the carrier wave producing an FM
signal

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2.3. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of using microwaves and

radio waves in communication technologies

2.4.Identify communication technologies that use energies from the
electromagnetic spectrum for communication purposes

44


Electromagnetic wave

Communication technologies that use

these electromagnetic waves
Faxes, phones, computer-based
communication transmit digital
information at the speed of light
through optical fibers in the phone line
Remote control devices for TV and
radio
Land based telephone systems,
satellite TV communication and mobile
phones
TV, FM radio stations
AM radio stations and two-way radios

Visible light

Infra-red

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FM radio waves
AM radio waves

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Microwaves

45

3. Electromagnetic waves have

different properties which are utilized
in a range of communication systems
through air and space
3.1.Identify that where information systems cannot be physically linked the
information may be transmitted in wave form through the atmosphere or
space

cu

Communication systems that have a physical link include: landline

phones and faxes
Communication systems that dont have a physical link are transmitted in
waveform as electromagnetic radiation passes through the atmosphere or
space

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3.2.Identify the properties of energy from the electromagnetic spectrum

that make it useful in communication technologies including its:
- Speed of travel
- Ability to travel in a straight line
- Ability to be reflected

Can be reflected

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Property
Travels at 300 000 000 ms-1
Travels in a straight line in a uniform
medium

Application
Information is relayed almost instantly
If the medium changes, the waves will
be refracted. If the medium is uniform,
waves can travel directly to their target
Waves can be reflected off satellites
and along optical fibers.

3.3. Describe the individual properties of visible light, radio waves (AM, FM,
TV waves) and microwaves and relate these to their use in communication
systems

Visible light
Travels at the speed of light, in straight lines and can be reflected along
optical fibers: so it can scan pages in fax machines and transmit digital
info through optical fibers almost instantly.

Microwaves
Travel at high speeds and can be reflected: instantaneous communication
Travels in straight lines: so the repeater stations must be in sight of each
other

Radio waves (FM)

46

The audio signal changes the frequency of the carrier wave producing an
FM signal: affected less by electrical interference and produce a higher
quality transmission of sound.

Radio waves (AM)
The audio signal changes the amplitude of the carrier wave producing an
AM signal: allowing it have a greater range than FM

Radio waves (TV)
A wider bandwidth than radio stations: Carry both sound and visual
information

3.4. Plan choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand

investigation to compare the quality of reception of AM and FM radio waves

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Method
1. Set the radio at AM
2. Wrap the radio in foil. Test its signal. Test it with no foil
3. Set the radio to FM. Repeat step 2
4. Record results

Variables
Independent: AM and FM radio waves
Dependent: quality of reception as measured by the range of frequencies
detected by a cathode ray oscilloscope.

Results
Quality of reception (loudness)
Radio station
Wrapped in foil
Not wrapped in foil
Soft
Loud
AM 954 kHz
Soft
Loud
AM 1170 kHz
Loud
Loud
FM 104.1 kHz
Loud
Loud
FM 96.9 kHz

Conclusion
Amplitude
AM greater range Lots of
AM
changes when
than FM (longer
interference from
audio signal
wavelength)
electrical
added
appliances
Frequency
FM usually
Less interferences
FM
changes when
narrow range
(electrical
audio signal
(shorter
appliances use
added
wavelength)
frequencies closer
to AM)

47

4. Geostationary satellites relay and

transmit information from the other
side of the world
4.1. Gather, process and analyze information from secondary sources to
identify the satellites used for live telecast from other regions of the world
to Australia and vice versa and to present reasons why communication
satellites have different aerials and positional orbits

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A satellite is an object that moves around the planet in a circular or

elliptical path (this path is called an orbit)
Four functions of satellites:
1. Communication
2. Prediction of weather
3. To obtain military info
4. Monitoring the environment in scientific research
The first use of satellites: in 1962, Telstar, was put in orbit to transmit
telephone calls and transatlantic TV broadcasts
The speed of the satellite being placed in orbit is important = the speed
must be correct for their altitude so it can stay in orbit.
For AUS, satellites are used for live telecasts and telephone calls from
other regions of the world.
Uplink: info transmitted to the satellite from earth
Downlink: a signal which has been collected, boosted, had its frequency
changed and sent to earth
Satellites absorb energy from the sun by solar panels which store it as
chemical energy for during the night
Satellite footprint = area it can send and receive messages
Satellites have different aerials and positional orbits because:
- Aerials: because they use different frequencies to transmit and receive
on
- Positional orbits: low: below

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Type of
Typical
satellite orbit altitude (Km)
36 000
High earth
orbit
Medium earth 10 000
orbit

Low earth orbit 1000

Satellite use
TV and telephone transmission
Provides continuous contact for an area
Land images
Weather forecasts
Telephone communication (changes to
different satellites as one moves out of
range
High altitude, artic + Antarctic communication

48

4.3.Explain why the satellite must be at a height where its revolution period
is the same as that of the Earths period of rotation

A geostationary satellite is a special geosynchronous satellite, and is one

that orbits the Earth at the same period as the period of rotation of the
Earth so that its position in the sky relative to any position on Earth is
always the same
An object in such an orbit has an orbital period equal to the Earth's
rotational period (one sidereal day), and thus appears motionless, at a
fixed position in the sky, to ground observers
Thus, if they are travelling with exactly the correct speed they never
actually get any closer to the Earths surface.
Tracking stations on Earth use radio signals to activate small rockets on
the satellite to keep them in the correct orbit.

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4.2. Explain why an Earth-based satellite dish must always face the
geostationary satellite communicating with it

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The receiving dish on earth must be large as the signal is relatively weak -
- due to the satellite dish being quite distant at approximately 36,000 km.
As a result of this the satellite dish must face the same direction at all
times to ensure that signals are received and retransmitted in the correct
directions to the intended receivers.
These satellites are used for communication because they always have the
same line of sight access to a specific region of the earth

49

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5. Information can be transmitted in
the form of electrical impulses
5.1. Gather, process, analyze and present information from secondary
sources to identify energy transfers involved in coding and decoding
information by digital technologies.

There are two types of info systems:

- Analog: info is transmitted as a wave
- Digital: info is transmitted as numbers
50

Digital technology uses pulsed electrical or electromagnetic signals as the

transmitting code.
- For example, computer based technology is coded into a series of
zeros and ones (binary)
Energy is transferred in computer dial up internet through the telephone
line, the receiving computer modem changes the analog electrical signal
back to a digital electrical system
Energy is transferred in optical fibers by the message being sent as a
series of digital energy pulses, which are then changed to digital electrical
pulses and analog electrical signals

5.2. Identify communication technologies that transform one type of energy

into electrical energy

Some examples of communication technologies that transform different

types of energy into electrical energy are:

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5.3. Describe the transmission of images using digital technologies in terms

of scanning of the input image along very thin lines

Info is copied in a fax machine:

- The page is read a series of very fine lines.
- Laser light is shone onto the page in very thin lines and light reflected
from each point is detected.
- The reflection or absorption of light at each point is recorded as a
digital electrical signal by the fax machine.

This image is transmitted by:

- The reflected light is converted to electrical signals.

in

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Communication Technology

Type of energy transformed into

electricity
Sound

Microphone, telephone, radio, TV,

music
Light
Faxes, bar codes, CDs, DVDs, TV
camera
Kinetic
Electric keyboard
- The input digital signal is transmitted through the landline telephone
- It is received by the targeted fax machine as a digital electrical signal
- Using a printer, this receiving machine converts the digital signal back
to an image on a page

5.4. Explain how the coding of the image into a series of zeros and ones
allows its transmission and ultimate decoding

Binary code is a number system that uses only zeros and ones to
represent any number
For example the number 10 is: 1010
51


Because: 16 8 4 2 1

8 + 2 = 10 and the number one in each code represents a number that ha
been used, any that havent been used are kept as zeros

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Electronic digital devices work by digitizing an image, i.e. dividing it into a

grid of dots.
- Each dot is either on or off, depending on whether it is black or white.
- Electronically, each dot is represented by a bit that has a value of
either 0 (off), or 1 (on).
- In this way, the device translates a picture into a series of zeros and
ones (called a bit map) that can be transmitted like normal computer
data.
- On the receiving side, a device reads the incoming data, translates the
zeros and ones back into dots, and reprints the image.

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6. Electrical energy can be converted
to light energy for use in optical fiber
communication systems

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6.1.Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the transmission of

light through an optic fiber

ks

We had a light with optical fibers connected to it, when the lights shone
through we were able to see the pinpoint of light.
This showed how small they are, as well as how light can be transmitted
through a piece of fiber

wa

An optical fiber is a thin strand of material, that allows light to be passed

through it.
An optical fiber cable is may optical fibers, each with its own cladding,
embedded in insulating material and coated with plastic to form a single
cable
The glass in optical fibers is made so that light is unable to emerge side
ways from the glass.
This is achieved by covering
the glass with a cladding of
denser glass or plastic.
As light travels from the inner
glass core to the denser
cladding, it bends so much
that, instead of leaving the
glass, it is reflected back into
it - this process is known as
total internal reflection.
Properties of optical fibers that make it relevant as communication
carriers:
- Transparent to light

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6.2.Outline properties of optical fibers as communication carriers

53

- Cheap
- Tough
- Flexible
- Easy to install even a over long distances
- Durable
- Non-corrosive
However if a fiber is damaged it is very difficult to fix

6.3.Outline the principle of total internal reflection and relate this to the
advantages of fiber optics over more conventional carriers of information

Total internal reflection occurs when:
- Light travelling from a more dense to a less-dense medium hits the
boundary between them.
- Some degree of reflection back into the denser medium (internal
reflection) always accompanies refraction.
- When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, total
internal reflection occurs, i.e. all the light is internally reflected.
Optical fibers, using laser-generated light, can transmit many more
messages at one time than coaxial cable or microwaves.
The pulses of light are produced millions of times per second and pass
along the optical fiber being reflected from the walls several thousand
times per meter.
Glass and plastic fibers as thin as a few micrometers in diameter can be
used to transmit light with very little loss of intensity.
Even if the fibers are bent the critical angle is rarely exceeded and the
signal will be transmitted.

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6.4. Outline the differences and the relative merits in the use of fiber optic
cables and metal cables to transmit and receive information

The advantages of optical fibers over metal and coaxial cables are:
- Have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means that
they can carry more data per second, e.g. can transmit several
gigabytes of data per second.
- Are not affected by radio waves, so there is no static
- Are much thinner and lighter than metal wires
- Are less susceptible to corrosion than metal cables
- Can handle digitally coded light (the natural form for computer data),
as well as analog signals
- Can multiplex thousands of voice channels together over a single
optical fiber
- More secure, as information cannot be intercepted easily.
The disadvantages of optical fibers are:
- The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are expensive
to install.
- They are more fragile than wire and must be spliced together
precisely and carefully.
54

Repeaters need to be added every 55-65 kilometers to boost the signal

strength.
Telephone companies are steadily replacing traditional metallic
telephone lines with fiber optic cables.

6.5. Process and analyze information from secondary sources to compare

and contrast copper cables with fiber optic cables in relation to:
- Carrying capacity
- Cost
- Rate of information transfer
- Security


Property
Carry capacity

Fibre-optic cables
Carry enormous
amounts of info
several GBs per
second
Lots of messages
can travel at once
(multiplexing)
Similar costs at
Price of fibres
present to
should fall
manufacture
Fewer repeaters
cables
needed (so less
Cost of copper
costs)
expected to rise as
Overall cost is less
it becomes rarer
(and decreasing)

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Cost

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Copper cables
Carry less info

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Rate of info transfer

Electrons travel
more slowly along
copper cable

Security

Relatively easy to
tap info

Faster it uses
visible or infra red
light which travels
at a speed of
300000000 m s-1
More secure
almost impossible
tap into info as
cables cannot be
split and rejoined
Info is transmitted
more precisely
there is less
distortion and
loss of info

55

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Chapter 3
Disasters

57

1. Disasters may be natural or caused

by human activity
1.1. Identify disasters as events associated with large-scale environmental or
structural damage and/or loss of life

Disaster = an unfortunate event that involves large scale environmental

or structural damage. It may not involve loss of life

1.a. Gather and process information from first-hand and secondary sources
to identify insurance compensation for natural disasters to discuss the
definitions and terminology used in insurance contracts

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Insurance Term

Home

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Fixtures

Contents
Fittings

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Collectables
Replacement valve

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Specified items

Sum insured

Meaning
Fully enclosed, used for domestic
purposes, can be locked up
Permanently attached or fixed to the
home
Not permanently attached to home.
Any item that can be removed without
damaging the home
Contents that are listed separately i.e.
jewellery
Have to be insured separately i.e. CDs
The cost to rebuild on the site at todays
prices
Amount of insurance cover purchased
for the home

1.2. Identify a range of natural disasters, with the aid of specific Australian
examples
Type of natural disaster
Bushfire

Aus example
Ash Wednesday fires in
Vic and SA 1983.

Info

Drought

Droughts in parts of
south-eastern Australia
2003 to 2007 and still
ongoing in many areas.

The highest
recorded bushfire
death toll ever in
Australia (period).
Killed 72 people,
and destroyed
more than 2000
homes
Farmers were
worried because
lack of rain can
quickly lead to
destruction of
58

Cyclone

Hailstorm

Cyclone Tracy in Darwin

1974

Sydney hailstorm, 1999

Newcastle earthquake,
1989

Earthquakes

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crops, food and

water running out
and stock dying.
Hundreds of
millions dollars of
damage to
buildings
49 people killed
Most costly Aus
disaster but no
lives lost
1.5 billion dollars
of damage
5.5 on the Richter
scale
14 people killed

Type of disaster
associated with human
activity
Landslide

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Aus example

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1.3. Identify a range of disasters associated with human activity using

specific Australian examples

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Thredbo, 1997

Info

Transport accidents

Glenbrook train crash,

1999

Salinity

Salinity in the Murray

Valley

Bridge collapse

Derwent River in

The road, above

the lodge that slid
down, appears not
to have been
maintained
properly.
18 people died
Inadequate
training of
personnel,
unclear
procedures, with
greater priority
being given to 'on-
time running'
than safety.
Caused by over
watering by
irrigators,
resulting the
raising of the
water table that
contains saline
water.
A ship hit a pylon
59

Tasmania in 1975

of the bridge,
causing one span
to collapse.
Twelve people
died

1.4. Identify specific Australian examples where nature and human activity
have combined to produce disasters such as dust storms, shipwrecks,
landslides and accidents

An activity may have been well planned or carried out but a change in
conditions could cause a disaster.
Examples of this are:

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Dust storm in Melbourne in 1983
- Resulted from a change in conditions.
- The farmland around Melbourne had been farmed and managed well.
- After a dry period, a freak storm built up which carried millions of tones
of topsoil off the farms into the centre of Melbourne.
- It caused damage in the city.

Floods in Illawara in 1998
- In cities, flooding can occur if the drainage systems built by people cannot
cope with the storm water.

Disasters associated with human activity can be caused by:
- Equipment breaking down
- Poor maintenance leading to equipment failure
- People not following instructions or regulations properly
- Communication systems failing.

1.b. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to

create a database of natural disasters that have occurred within Australia
since 1970 to include: when it occurred, where it occurred, consequences of
the disaster, techniques employed to reduce the incidence of damage next
time, techniques employed to monitor disaster in the future.

When it occurred: Cyclone Larry march 2006
Where it occurred: QLD around the Innisfail area
Consequences of disaster: Thousands of home and businesses destroyed and
banana crops wiped out
Techniques employed to reduce the incidence of damage next time:
improving warning systems and building structure that will withstand cyclones
Techniques employed to monitor disaster in the future: Satellite
observations of emerging weather patterns and analysis of data obtained and
analysis of evacuation plans to improve them

60

2. Technological developments have

improved our ability to monitor and
predict weather patterns
2.1. Define the term atmospheric pressure and describe the movement of
air currents between areas of high and low pressure

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Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area due to the weight of the
atmosphere (a layer of gases).
These gases are kept in place by the force of gravity.
The pressure of the atmosphere is measured in hectopascals. (1
hectopascal = 100 Pascals 1 Pascal is a unit of pressure equal to one
Newton per square meter)
Air moves from a place with high air pressure to a place with low air
pressure - This movement of air is what we notice as a breeze or wind.
On a weather map the air pressure in different places is shown by lines,
called isobars, drawn through points with the same air pressure.
High pressure system = air movies anticlockwise, hectopascals increase
towards the centre
Low pressure system = air move clockwise, hectopascals decrease
towards the centre

Isobars close together places that are not far apart experience a large
difference in air pressure. As a result, the winds in this region will be
strong.
Isobars far apart the difference in air pressure between two places is
not very large. As a result, the winds will be quite gentle.

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2.2. Identify that the distance between isobars on a weather map indicates
the relative change of atmospheric pressure in an area

61


2.b. Gather secondary information and use the available evidence to
compare changes in the relative air pressure in an area over time and relate
changes to changing weather patterns

-
-
-

Map indicates for Sydney:

Light winds: isobars are far apart
SE/NE winds: the high-pressure system off the coast insinuates
anticlockwise winds around the centre of the system. With winds coming
from the southwest and then north east directions
Some showers: diagonal lines represent patches of rainfall. And the
south west winds will bring moisture laden air from the ocean which may
cause some showers

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2.3. Describe the relative pressures involved in the formation of tropical

cyclones and tornadoes

Cyclones

Cause

Warm, moist air is rising

and more air id being
drawn in to replace it.
This causes the air
pressure at the surface to
drop
Low

in

Pressure at the centre

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Tornadoes
Fast moving, cold, dry air
moves across warm air.
The warm air tries to
move upwards quickly,
causing a tall, twisting
column of air
Low
Over a small area of land

Winds

Strong winds blow in a

spiral pattern

Strong winds blow in a

spiral pattern

Associated weather

Heavy rain, floods, huge

seas and storm surges

Usually rain, hail and

violent winds

Time it lasts

Days to several weeks

10 15 minutes

Th

Over oceans near

equator

Where they from

2.c. Perform an investigation using second-hand data and use the available
evidence to trace the movement of a tropical cyclone

-
-
-
-

Tropical cyclone Larry occurred in northern QLD in 2006

Originated: The coral sea off the coast of QLD
Date classified as a cyclone: 4am March 18th
Where it crossed the Aus coast: Innisfail, QLD
Path of the tropical cyclone:
62

en
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-
-
-
-

Meteorology is the study of the weather and climate.

To predict the weather, meteorologists need to measure quantities like:
Air pressure
Humidity
Temperature
Wind speed and direction.
These measurements have to be carried out not just in one place, but over
the whole country.
The basic tools for measuring these characteristics include:
Thermometer for temperature
Barometer for air pressure
Anemometer for wind speed
Hygrometer (or wet and dry bulb thermometer) for humidity.
The methods for measuring characteristics of the weather (and their
accuracy) have improved thanks to electronics and computers:
Data logging equipment allows unstaffed stations to carry out
measurements at regular intervals 24 hours per day. This data can then
be retrieved when needed. As a result, 'weather stations' may be placed in
the most inhospitable places and left to record information without a
person to run it.
Satellites orbit the Earth and make measurements of the atmosphere.

in

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-
-
-

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2.4. Describe technological advances that have contributed to increased

understanding of meteorology

63

This includes simply taking photographs to show cloud movement as well

as remote sensing technology to measure other characteristics of the
atmosphere.

2.5. Describe the relationship between the monitoring of weather patterns

by radar and laser light and the analysis of reflected wave patterns by
computers

Radar uses radio waves it excels at piercing bad weather, but it needs
raindrops, hail or snow to get a signal.
Lidar uses laser light it struggles to go through thick clouds or heavy
rain, but it can get you wind (measurements) in clear air, because it relies
on aerosols.
From the collection of this data, wind speed and direction can be
determined over large areas.
Lidars higher frequency radiation will be reflected by smaller particles
than lower frequency radiation of radar, allowing it to determine wind
characteristics in clear conditions.

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2.6. Explain why satellite photographs of cloud patterns have improved the
reliability of interpretations of weather regularities and knowledge of global
weather patterns

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Full-earth images of satellites help Australian weather forecasters trace

the life cycle of weather systems, particularly those approaching from
surrounding oceans.
Satellites provide Australian forecasters with better data about air
pressure, cloud patterns and solar radiation estimates.
With this info scientists are able to predict more accurately their
behaviour in the future

Th

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3. Even with current technology,

disasters such as earthquakes and
bushfires are not easy to predict
3.1. Outline differences in P, S and L energy waves produced by an
earthquake

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-

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Where they travel

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An earthquake is a movement in the Earth's crust.

The crust is made up of a number of plates, which float on the material
beneath.
While the continents feel like 'solid ground' they are in fact rafts that are
afloat.
As the plates move into different positions, they cause tremors or
earthquakes.
An earthquake produces a number of waves in the earth's crust. There are
three types, P, S and L waves:
P (Primary) waves: are compression waves they travel fastest and
can travel through both liquids and solids.
S (Secondary) waves are transverse waves they travel slower than
the P waves and cat go through liquid.
L waves are the slowest waves they are surface waves, which travel
along the surface of the crust as a ripple. They cause most of the damage.
P waves
Through the body
of the earth
Fast- 8 km/h
Compression

Th

Relative speed
Type of wave

Compression:
Transverse:

S waves
Through the body
of the earth
4.5 km/h
Transverse

L waves
Along the surface
of the earth
3.2 km/h
Transverse

3.2. Identify energy transfers and transformations involved in L waves as

they travel along the earths crust

Potential energy in rocks kinetic energy in rock vibrations

Kinetic energy of rocks kinetic energy of buildings swaying and
vibrating

65

3.a. Gather and process information from secondary sources on the use of:
seismographs, Richter scale and Mercalli scale to record and monitor
earthquakes

Seismograph = produces a picture called a seismogram which represents

the movement of the Earth's crust at the observation station.
Richter scale = rates earthquakes on the magnitude of the energy released
Determined by the amplitude of the waves from the seismogram
Mercalli Scale = subjective measure of the intensity of an earthquake
based on the effects as observed by onlookers

3.3. Explain how the difference in time of arrival of P and S waves can be
used to locate an earthquake epicentre

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The P-S time is the amount of time that passed between the arrival of the
P-waves and the arrival of the S-waves.
The speed of the two waves is well known
and so the P-S time can be used to
calculate how far the centre of the
earthquake was from the observatory
Time = Distance/ Speed

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3.4. Describe the difficulties of monitoring and predicting earthquakes

ks

in

They happen deep underground, usually impossible to reach with

measuring equipment.
We cannot get measuring equipment into the right place so predicting
exactly where and when they will occur is almost impossible
Furthermore, the earthquake may be so severe that it will actually
destroy the equipment set up to measure it.

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3.5. Identify some of the conditions that can combine to trigger a bushfire,
including dry weather, high temperatures and flammable vegetation

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-

Conditions that trigger a bushfire:

1) Dry weather
2) High temperatures
3) Flammable vegetation
Conditions in our country can produce situations where all three
requirements for fire are abundant:
Periods of hot dry weather can leave plants dead and dry
Materials left in and around homes provide a fuel source.
Hot weather is often associated with strong winds. This wind provides a
great oxygen supply for the fire and can carry sparks, starting new fires in
other places.
Many of our native trees and shrubs contain chemicals in their sap which
are very flammable.

66

Some areas of our country are hilly or mountainous. A fire started at the
bottom of a hill will quickly race uphill since hot air rises.

3.c. Gather, process and analyse information to identify types of native

vegetation that promote the spread of bushfires

Eucalypts: constantly shed bark and leaves which are slow to decompose,
causing an accumulation of fuel. Also the leaves have oils in them which
are highly flammable
Acacias (wattles): tend to explode in a hot fire

3.d. Gather, process and analyse information on the use of natural resources
to retard the progress of fire including: water and natural plants

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-
-

Plants that show resistance: kurrajong, white cedar and South African
butterfly iris
Water can be used to retard fires:
Large planes can drop large volumes of water onto a fire
Homes can be protected by filling gutters and drainpipes with water
Water cools the combustible material below its ignition point so the
oxygen needed for combustion is not available

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3.6. Describe the effect of the slope of the land and intensity of the wind on
the speed of the bushfire

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The wind:
Supplies oxygen for the fire
Blows the fire across the landscape.
The landscape can be flat or hilly. A hilly landscape is more
dangerous:
It makes access for fire fighters more difficult
Hot air rises so that the heat from a fire at the foot of a gorge will rise and
dry out vegetation higher up possibly igniting it.
Fires, which have reached the top of a ridge, can 'jump' from one ridge to
the next, sometimes hundreds of metres away, as sparks are carried
across by wind

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3.e. Gather, process and analyse secondary information to identify

precautions that can be taken to minimise the likelihood of damage by
bushfire including the removal of flammable material and shrubs

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Precautions that can be taken:

Fire resistant building materials
Have a source of water available
Clearing gutters of shrubs
Back burning when weather conditions are favorable
Clearing land to produce firebreaks
Early detection: lookout towers, infra red photog, satellite remote sensing
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3.f. Perform an investigation to compare the flammability of dry and fresh

leaves

Dry vegetation is more flammable than fresh vegetation as it ignites

quicker

3.7. Identify and describe some of the energy transfers and transformations
associated with bushfires

Plant matter burns: chemical energy heat and light energy

Hot air moves upwards: chemical energy of plants kinetic energy of air

3.8. Discuss the reduction of fuel by controlled burns and backburns in

reducing the risk of bushfires

There are two ways in which fire fighters fight fire with fire:

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1) A controlled burn
Should only be done on days of little or no wind
is lit in an area where natural growth has produced plant material which
may become a fire risk in hot weather when it has dried out.
The job of the fire is to burn up all the plant material which may pose a
risk in summer so that there will be less fuel around when summer
comes.

2) A back burn
Is intended to help put out a bushfire
Is lit to make the bushfire run out of fuel faster.
Is lit in front of the bushfire as the bushfire burns.
A back burn is successful if it is lit close enough to the main fire so that, as
the main fire approaches, the wind it generates draws the flames and heat
of the backfire into itself
This will then mean that, as the main fire and back burn join together, the
fires run out of fuel and can be brought under control.

3.g. Gather and process information to explain what steps should be taken if
caught in a bushfire

If you are driving a car
Stay in your car
Pull over to the side of the road
Stop the car and turn off the engine
Wind up all the windows and close all the vents
Keep down lo
Use blankets or towels to cover up exposed skin
Sound the horn at intervals

If you are in the bush
Seek shelter: creek bed, behind a rock

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If you have time remove as much fuel from around you

Stay low to the ground = hot air rises
Cover all exposed skin
Dont try to outrun it = the fire is faster
Dont go uphill = fires travel faster uphill

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If you are at home
Stay in the house = protect yourself from the high radiant heat levels and
flames
Close windows and vents = prevent embers entering the house
Close heavy curtains and shutters = restrict the entry of heat
Turn off all electricity and gas = prevent explosions
Move furniture to the centre of the room = reduce the risk of it catching a
light
Wet the roof, walls, garden and lawns = reduce the risk of spot fires

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4. Warning devices can also be used

to detect disasters associated with
human activity
4.1. Describe the energy transformations involved in the operation of a
range of commonplace warning and protection devices, including: smoke
detectors, fire alarms and sprinkler systems

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Smoke detectors
Atomic energy kinetic energy of alpha particles kinetic energy of
electrons electrical energy sound energy

Fire Alarms
The sprinkler system detector senses the change in heat or light energy
electrical energy kinetic energy of bell sound energy

Sprinkler systems
Heat or light energy of fire electrical energy kinetic energy of
running water

Located on the ceiling away from any kitchens or bathrooms and near
areas of high fire risk. E.g. near fuels

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4.a. Analyse information and use available evidence to identify appropriate

locations for smoke and fire detectors in a workplace

4.c. Plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand

investigation to construct a working alarm or safety device

A fire alarm has a bimetallic strip inside of it.

A bimetallic strip is two flat pieces of metal glued together. When the strip
is heated, each metal expands at a different rate causing the metal to bend
so it makes contact and completes the circuit ringing the bell.
As it cools down the bimetallic strip will straiten back out, stopping the
bell
Gold rod = bimetallic strip. Red circle = bell. Blue box = will hit the bell
when the circuit is closed

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Evacuation drill procedure
An alarm such as
continuously ringing bell
Escape routes

4.d. Gather information from secondary sources to identify evacuation drill

procedures and assess their appropriateness in an emergency situation

Meeting place

Practice drills

First aid

Essential Features
This must be clearly audible and recognised
Must be simple, easy to follow and
remember, clearly marked and there must be
alternatives available in case of blockages
Must be safe, central, known to all people,
able to be safely reached by everyone, be
away from high risk areas and be accessible
Must be a list of all people and a designated
role caller
Should be held at regular intervals with
everyone participating
Designated first aid people must ensure that
there is equipment available at the meeting
place

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5. Emergency services also assist in

the prevention or minimization of
disasters
5.1. Identify the role of and account for the need for coordinated help
services in times of potential disaster including: police, fire brigade,
ambulance, State Emergency Service, Rural Fire Service and community
organisations

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The coordination of essential services in times of potential disaster is

important because:
It ensures that the maximum use can be made of each service and they
dont overlap
Helps ensure a rapid and effective response to as many people as possible

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Police

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Ambulance

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Fire Brigade

State emergency service (SES)

Rural Fire Service

Community Organisations

Roles
Providing specialist rescue
services
Crowd and traffic control
Putting out fires
Preventing fires
Land based rescue services
Directs medical operations
Treating injured people
Transporting the injured to
hospital
Organising flood and storm
relief
Search and rescue options
Temporary repairs to homes to
prevent further damage
Putting out and preventing fires
in rural areas
Land based rescue services
Communication
Catering and welfare
Salvos: Food supplies and
temporary shelter
Vinnies: Provides clothes and
blankets
Red Cross: personal/welfare
info as well as medical supplies

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5.a. Gather and process information from first-hand and secondary sources
to identify: the phone numbers for the relevant services in the local region,
the disasters that each service deals with, the sequence of coordinated help
involving these services

Fire Brigade
Phone call (000) closest brigade to the incident is notified fire
engine(s) sent to the site.
Land based rescue services and preventing and putting out fires

5.2. Assess impacts of technological developments on the warning that can

be provided about impending disasters

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Some technological developments help provide warning of impending

disasters while others help with activities during and after the disaster.
Warning systems include:
Better monitoring systems to help predict weather
Earthquake dangers
Flood and bushfire danger
Improved communications networks using satellite systems, radio and
telephone to detect and warn people of changing conditions.
Support systems during and after disasters include:
Improved infrastructure such as roads to help transport
Improved paramedic facilities such as ambulance and search and rescue
services.
Technology has greatly improved the way in which society copes with
disasters by providing early warning signs.
Technology has allowed warnings through early recognition of potential
hazards in weather conditions, flooding, and even volcanic activity
These early warnings rely on availability of broadcasting techniques such
as radio and television.

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