GENERALIZED LOAD MODELING IN THE PRESENCE OF

HARMONICS AND DISTORTION

Elham B. Makram
IEEE, Senior Member

srinivas varadan
IEE, Student Member

Clemson University
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0915
Abstract- The importance of using better loadmodels in
power system analyses is specifically addressed in two parts.
While the first part presents a new time domain load
modeling technique that is based on actual recorded steady
state power system measurements, the second shows the
incorporation of the developed load model into a harmonic
loadflowprogram that is based on the bus admittance matrix
method. The developed load model, a peqectly general one,
can be used to model linear or nonlinear lo& in the presence
or absence of harmonic distortion. Since the developed load
model is based on physically realizable network elements,
several harmonic relatedproblems can be addressed using the
suggested approach. The problem of power factor correction
in the presence of harmonics and distortion is used as an
example to show the eflcacy of the suggested method.

Figure 1. Relation between Voltage and Current.

Given the load voltage and current, the transfer function
can be describd parametrically or non parametrically [5,6,7].

Relating the voltage and current at each frequency through

the transfer function however assumes that the load is linear
and can therefore not be used in a general sense [3].
It is important to note at this stage that the time domain
method of load modeling is more advantageous as it can
account for time varying parameters in the transfer function
itself and is not limited to modeling of linear loads alone.
The Weighted Least Squares OrJLS) method and the optimal
recursive method Kalman Filter) shown in reference [81 are
extremely effective in time domain load modeling.
Other modeling techniques depend on the physical nature
of the device in question. Xia and Heydt [9,lOl showed a
nonlinear load model of a thyristor converter and its use in a
harmonic load flow program (HARMFLO) [111. In another
commercially available software package (V-HARM), a
nonlinear load is modeled by a set of current sources [121 at
each harmonic frwluency.
Therefore it can be seen that despite these recent
advances in load modeling, no generalized load model that
can model both linear and nonlinear loads in the presence or
absence of harmonic distortion, is presently available or is
used in any commercially available harmonic software
package.
This paper presents a time domain load modeling
technique that is based on actual recorded measurements of
voltage and current. Two examples of the proposed load
modeling technique are listed to provide a better
understanding of the load modeling process. The
incorporation of the proposed load model into a harmonic
load flow program that is based on the construction of the
bus admittance matrix at each harmonic frequency is shown
later and finally the problem of power factor correction is

Ke-words-Load Model, Harmonics, Distortion.

INTRODUCTION
Accurate modeling of power system components is
essential from an academic and a monetary point of view.
While previous studies have mainly concentrated on
generator, line and transformer models, they have often
undermined the importance of load characteristics [11. While
this fact can be easily comprehended considering the large
numbers of load types, it is important to realize the need for
one generalized load model that can model both linear and
nonlinear loads in the presence or absence of harmonic
distortion [2].
Load modeling techniques can be classified as frequency
domain methods or as time domain methods [3]. In either
case, the load impedance is described by a transfer function
[4,5]between the load voltage and current as shown in
Figure 1. Equation (1) relates the load voltage and the load
current through the sought transfer function, which in this
case is the load admittance.
i(t> = g(t> v(t>
(1)
where i is the current, v, the voltage and g the load
admittance.

addressed
124

0094-2898193 $03.00 0 1993 IEEE

LOAD PARAMETERS IN TIME DOMAIN

where N and M are the number of harmonics in the voltage

and current respectively. Vn and In represent the RMS
values of the nth harmonic voltage and current respectively.
a n and Pn represent the phase angles of the nth harmonic
voltage and current respectively. The current i(t) may be
alternately expressed as

The generalized load model is based on actual recorded1

data and is an extension of the ideas proposed in reference
[13,14]. Although reference 1131 proposed such a model
during the process of defining the reactive power Component
in the presence of harmonic distortion, load modeling was
not its main concern.
Given the voltage, v(t), at the load bus and the current,
iT(t), passing through the load at that bus, the network
parameters shown in Figure 2 can be calculated using the
principles listed below.
The total load current ( iT(t) ) is split into components
that are orthogonal to the voltage. That part of the total
current that corresponds to uncommon harmonics with the
voltage is called the generated component (ig) [14]. This
component can be readily separated from the total current
from a cursory glance at the DFT spectra of the voltage and
the total current. The current ( ip ) is the component in
phase with the source voltage and is modeled as the current
through a resistor. The quadrature current ( iq ) is split up
into an inductive reactive component ( il ), a capacitive
reactive component ( ic ), and a residual component ( ir ).
The component (ig) exists only when there are uncommon
harmonics between the load voltage and the current. The
residual component ir(t) exists when complete extraction of
orthogonal components cannot be done. This component is
orthogonal to the voltage and is shown in Figure 2 as the
current flowing through a "Black Box". For load modeling
applications however, this "Black Box" may be replaced by a
current source of appropriate magnitude and phase angle at
each common harmonic frequency or as an equivalent
impedance at each harmonic frequency.

i(t) = iT (t) - ig(t)

(4)

where ig(t) corresponds to the current contribution due to the

presence of uncommon harmonics between the voltage and
current
The quadmture component of the current is given as
(t) =: i(t) - ip(t) = i~ (t) + il (t) + idt) .

The average power P is the active power component due

to the inphase current and is given as

'j

v(t) i(t) dt

P =T

The network resistance R is given as

2

R= V/P

(7)

where P is the average power as given in (61, i(t) is the load

current due, to common harmonics only, v(t) is the source
voltage and V is the R M S value of the source voltage:.
The network capacitance is expressed as a function of
the load voltage and the total load current as shown in
equation (8).
T

Figure 2. General Equivalent Network and Current

Components.

where T is the time period of the waveform.

The network inductance is given by

Given the measured voltage, v(t), and current, i(t) as

v(t) =

fiZVn cos(not + an)

n=l

and

(5)

(2)

L=-

i(t)

TO

125

w(t) dt

where w(t) is defined as

t
w(t) = Alternating part of Iv(t)dt
0

R = 1.1547 pu,
L = 6.2696 mpu and
C = 25.0138 ppu.

(10)

Since the quadrature component, inductive component

and capacitive components are available at this stage,
equation (5) can be used to find the residual current
component. It must be noted that except for the active
power component, which is in phase with the load voltage,
all the other proposed current components are orthogonal to
the load voltage. Therefore the power components can be
computed in terms of these orthogonal current components
easily.
Two numerical examples are presented to illustrate the
developed load modeling technique.

Although the method yields both an equivalent

inductance and an equivalent capacitance, it is to be noted
that the network is net inductive or capacitive. However, in
the present application of load modeling the effective
cancellation of inductance and capacitance is implicit and so
both L and C are maintained as in Figure 2.
The "Black Box" exists in this case and can simply be
replaced by a current source of value -ir(t), where ir(t) is
given as
idt) = 0.1221 sin(wt) - 0.51991sin(30t)

(15)

The "Black Box" may also be expressed as an impedance

at each fi-equency as

ExamDle 1
Consider the following recorded data:

Z1 = 8 . 1 9 0 ~and
~
Z3 = 1 . 1 5 4 ~ ~

v(t) = ficOs(0t) and

iT(t) =
cos(ot-30) .

43

Using the principles of the developed method, the

equivalent current network may be represented as in Figure 3
with the following values:

where the subscript represents the harmonic order.

The generated component of current also exists in this
case and is represented by a current source of value ig(t)
where ig(t>is given as

R = 1.1547 pu and
L = 5.3051 mpu.

INCLUSION OF THE LOAD MODEL

INTO A HARMONIC LOAD FLOW
PROGRAM

It is important to note that, the "Black Box" does not

exist in the absence of harmonic distortion.

As mentioned earlier, the developed harmonic load flow

program is based on the bus admittance matrix method [121.
The bus admittance matrix(Ybus) is built at each frequency
of interest and since the injected current vector is known at
each frequency, the bus voltage vector can be obtained from
equation (17).
Ibus(w) = ybus(W).vbus(O)
I
I
I
Figure 3. EQuivalent Network for Example 1

The developed software is thus based on similar

principles as in reference [12], however, the proposed load
model is included. Other network components such as
generators, lines and transformers are modeled in the
developed softwareas in reference [161.

ExamDle 2
Consider the following recorded data:
v(t) = fi
-[ cos(wt) + O . h s ( 3 ~ t ]) and
iT(t) = 4 2 [cos(wt-30) + 0.6cos(3wt+30)
+ o.o5cos(5Wt+3o) I .

(17)

SUMMARY OF CASE STUDY

(13)

The power system shown in Figure 4 is a 44 KV

system that was used as an examde during the course of this

(14)

126

v(t) = fi {0.2822~0~(0t-28.648)
+ 0.00160c0~(3~t-22.49
1)
+ 0.01152~0~(5~t-162.36)
+ 0.01274cos(7wt+145.22) }

yielded the same results for similar cases, several test cases
were studied. The highlights of this case study include
1. use of the developed load model that is based on
actual power system data and
2. study of the problem of power factor correction in the
persence of harmonic distortion.
Table 1 shows the harmonic content of the injected
current at bus 7L. It must be noted that in any given power
system it is not possible to correctly determine the exact
loading conditions under which the measurements are made.
Since the developed method requires that both voltage and
current measurements be available, it is necessary that the
bus voltage at bus 7L be first calculated using the table of
actual recorded current data at bus 7L.

and the load current may be expressed as

iT(t) = - 45 (cos(wt+100) + O.O27cos(3wt)

+ 0.151cos(5wt) + 0.1335cos(7wt) ].(19)

For the above set of voltage and current values,
application of the developed principles yields the following
load parameters:
R = 0.3016pu,
L =: 2.3932 mpu, and

Table 1. Actual Injected Currents at Load Bus 7L

5
7

0.15 1
0.1335

147.00
9 1.OO

44 KVBUS
3

BUS 3

6. OMVAR

44KV

12.5KV
BUS 3 L

BUS2L

BUS4L

I
1. 0 5 W A R

(18)

3. LMVAR

idt) = 0.0195cos(wt-37.263)
+ 0.0443cos(3wt+l19.03)
+ 0.2687~0~(5@t-2
1.589)
+ 0.2308~0~(7~.1t-77.305)

eo)

The load was then replaced by the parameters found

above and the bus voltages at all other busses found using
the developed software. It was found that using the current
source model or the proposed load model did not make a
difference as far as the load flow solution was concerned.
However using the proposed load model simplified the
calculation of the power components.
The problem of power factor correction was then
considered. The fundamental power factor at bus 7L in the
base case was found to be 0.9210. In order to improve the
power factor to unity, a capacitor bank of value 120KVAR,
designed by the conventional method of power factor
correction, was installed. The fundamental power factor after
installation of the said capacitor bank was found to be
0.9306. Using the developed method a capacitance was
placed at bus 7L to annul the effect of the calculated load
inductance at all fmuencies and the power factor improved to
0.9818.

0.75MVAR

T
4.16KV

BUS7L

6-PULSE

DRIVE A

1 2 5 0 HP

Figure 4. Example 44KV System

The voltage at bus 7L obtained by the developed
method, using the injected currents shown in Table 1may be
expressed as

CONCLUSION
This paper clearly gives load modeling a ph:ysical
meaning in terms of realizing each current component as
Blowing through a physical device such as a resistor or an
inductor or a capacitor. While the inclusion of the proposed
lload model into a harmonic load flow program showed that
using the current source model or using the proposed load
model did not make a difference as far as the load flow
solution is concerned, it was shown that the power
components can be easily obtained even in the presence of
harmonic distortion by the developed software. The process
of equivalent linearization greatly helps in providing a
physical basis for load modeling. Application of the
127

A.S . Morched, P. Kundur, "Identification and

Modeling of Load Characteristics at High
Frequencies." IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
and SvstemS, vol PWRS-2, No. 1, Feb 1987, pp.
153-160.

developed principles to the problem of power factor

e presence of harmonic distortion showed that
method works better than the conventional
ack Box" as a function of
frequency as shown in the examples show another
application of the load model. Nonlinear buses that have
current injection can be conveniently absorbed into the bus
admittance matrix. Therefore, the developed method can be
used very effectively in studying the effects of a customer's
nonlinear load on the power system and/or other loads.

N.G. Hingorani, M.F. Burbery, "Simulation of AC

System Impedance in HVDC System Studies." IEEE
Transacu'ons on Power Apparatus and Svstems, vol
PAS-89, Np. 516, May 1970, pp.820-828.
R.G. Brown, Introduction to Random Signal Analysis
and Kalman Filtering. New York: John wiley and
Sons, 1983.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledgethe financial support
of the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) and the
Clemson University Electric Power Research Association
(CUEPRA 1.

D. Xia, G.T. Heydt, "Harmonic Power Flow Studies

Part I-Formulation and Solution." 7
Q
II Power, vol PAS-101. N0.6,
June 1982, pp. 1257-1265.
D. Xia, G.T. Heydt, "Harmonic Power Flow Studies
Part 11-Implementation and Practical Application."
IEEE Transactions on Power aoparatus and Svstems,
vol PAS-101, No.6, June 1982, pp. 1266-1270.

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128