Mechanics

IB 12

Kinematics The Study of Motion

Symbols:

s = distance or displacement

v = final speed or velocity

u = initial speed or velocity

a = average acceleration

Equations:

s
t

also v

uv
2

v v u

t
t
v u at

so
s vt

or

1
s ut t 2
2
2
2
v u 2as

uv
t
2

Condition for applying

equations for uniformly
accelerated motion:

must be constant, smooth acceleration

equations use average acceleration = instantaneous if acceleration is constant

average vs. instantaneous: over a period of time vs. at one instant

Example: Two friends bicycle 3.0

kilometers north and then turn to bike
4.0 kilometers east in 25 minutes.

a) What is their average speed?

distance/time
7.0 km / 25 min =
0.28 km/min x 60 min/hr =
16.8 = 17 km/hr

b) What is their average velocity?

displacement/time
5.0 km/ 25 min =
0.20 km/min x 60 min/hr =
12 km/hr
Angle: 53o west of north

Constant Velocity

Time (s)
Distance (m)
Velocity (m/s)
Acceleration (m/s2)

0
0
25
0

1
25
25
0

2
50
25
0

3
75
25
0

4
100
25
0

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Constant Acceleration

Time (s)
Distance (m)
Velocity (m/s)
Acceleration (m/s2)

a) What does the slope of a position-time graph represent?

b) What does the slope of a velocity-time graph represent?

0
0
5

3
5
5

10
10
5

23
15
5

Instantaneous velocity - derivative

Instantaneous acceleration - derivative

c) What does the area under a velocity time graph represent?

displacement - integral

Dropping
1. A stone is dropped from rest from the top of a tall building. After 3.00 s of free-fall, what is the displacement of the stone?
What is its velocity?

s = ut + at2

v = u + at

s = at2 = -45 m

v = -30 m/s

discuss change of frame of reference downward is positive

How would these graphs change in the presence of air resistance?

Terminal velocity: no acceleration constant velocity Fg = Fair

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IB 12

Throwing Up
A ball is thrown straight up in the air (shown
here stretched out for clarity.) Sketch velocity
and acceleration vectors at each instant.

A football game customarily begins with a coin toss to determine who

kicks off. The referee tosses the coin up with an initial speed of 6.00
m/s. In the absence of air resistance, how high does the coin go above
its point of release? How long is it in the air?
v2 = u2 + 2 as
02 = (6)2 + 2(-10)s
s = 1.8 m

v = u + at
0 = 6.00 + (-10)t
t = 0.6 s x 2 = 1.2 s

discuss change of frame of reference downward is positive

Projectile Motion: resultant of two independent components of motion

1. Vertical: constant acceleration (in absence of air resistance)

2. Horizontal: constant velocity no horizontal acceleration

Horizontal Projectile

A ball is shot horizontally off a cliff that is 100. m high at a speed of 25 m/s. How long
does it take to hit the ground? How far away from the base of the cliff does it land?

y-direction:

x-direction:

s = ut + at2
-100 = 0 + (-10)t2
t = 4.5 s

s = ut + at2
s = 25 (4.5) + 0
s = 113 m

Angled Projectile
IB 12

1. Break initial velocity into horiz and vert components

2. maximum height occurs after time

3. maximum range occurs after fulltime and at 450
4. air resistance: not as high nor as far show on diagram
A football was kicked with a speed of 25 m/s at an angle of 30.0o to the horizontal. Determine how high it went and where it landed.
Components

time:

Height:

x: cos 300 = vi/25 m/s

v = u + at

s = ut + at2

vi = 21.7 m/s

0 = 12.5 m/s + (-10)(t)

s = (12.5 m/s)(1.25 s) + (-10 m/s2)(1.25 s)2

t = 1.25 s

s = 7.8 m

y: sin 300 = vi/25 m/s

total time = 2(1.25) = 2.5
vi = 12.5 m/s

Range:
s = ut + at2
s = (21.7 m/s)(2.5 s) + 0
s = 54 m

Statics and Dynamics The Study of Forces

Newtons Laws of Motion
1. An object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion at a constant speed in a straight
line (constant velocity) unless acted on by unbalanced forces. (An object continues in uniform motion in a
straight line or at rest unless a resultant (net) external force acts on it.)
2. When unbalanced forces act on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the resultant (net)
force. The acceleration will be directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the objects
mass. (The resultant force on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the object.)
3. For every action on one object, there is an equal and opposite reaction on another object. (When two
bodies A and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and opposite to the force that B exerts on A.)
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Newtons Second Law

F = p / t

For constant mass

F = (mv) / t

F = m (v / t)

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F=ma

2nd Law or 3rd Law?

Net force on ball: not zero
so it accelerates not in
equilibrium
Fnet = Fg = mg

Action-Reaction pairs:
Earth pulls ball down
Ball pulls Earth up
FEB = -FBE
mA = -Ma

Net force on block: zero

at rest in equilibrium
Fnet = FN - Fg = 0

Action-Reaction pairs:
Earth pulls block down
Block pulls Earth up
block pushes down on table
table pushes up on block

Fg

Translational equilibrium: net force acting on object is zero no acceleration

1. Find the resistive force F caused by the drag of the water on the boat moving at a constant velocity in the diagram shown.

IB 12

2. Find the tension in each cable supporting the 600 N cat burglar pictured.

600 997 796

3. A 20.0-kg floodlight in a park is supported at the end of a horizontal beam of negligible mass that is hinged to a pole, as shown. A cable at
an angle of 30.0 with the beam helps to support the light. Find (a) the tension in the cable and (b) the horizontal and vertical forces
exerted on the beam by the pole.

a)

400N

b) Rx = 346 Ry = 0

4. How would your answers change if the mass of

the beam shown above was not negligible?
T increase
show how reaction force is oriented

5. Indicate the direction of the reaction force from the floor and
the reaction force from the wall for the situation shown below.

FW

FN
Fg1
Fg2
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Ff

Weight, Mass, and the Normal Force

Mass
1) the amount of matter in an object
2) the property of an object that determines its resistance to a
change in its motion (a measure of the amount of inertia of
an object)

IB 12

Weight:
the force of gravity acting on an object
Property:
Varies from place to place

Symbol : Fg or W
Units : N

Property:
Remains constant

Symbol : m

Units : kg

Elevators: In each case, the scale will read . . . the normal or reaction force, not the weight

Calculate
the
acceleration
of the man
in each
case.

F=0

F = ma

F=ma

F=ma

FN Fg = 0

FN Fg = m a

FN Fg = m a

Fg = m a

FN 700 = 0

1000 700 = 70 a

400 700 = 70 a

700 = 70 a

FN = 700 N

a = +4.3 m/s2

a = - 4.3 m/s2

a = -10 m/s2

Inclined Plane Assume the box shown is in equilibrium and draw the . . .
Free-body diagram

Head-to-tail vector diagram

Concurrent vector diagram

Concurrent vector diagram with
perpendicular components

FN
Ff

Fg

IB 12
Calculate the force of friction acting on this box if it accelerates down the
incline at a rate of 0.67 m/s2.
4.5 kg

Fnet = ma = 4.5 (0.67) = 3.0 N

Fg|| = mg sin = 15 N
Ff = 12 N

200

Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform Circular Motion constant speed and constant radius

Period time take for one complete cycle

symbol: T units: s

1. The direction of the objects instantaneous velocity is always tangent to the circle in
the direction of motion.

2. Since the direction of the objects motion is always changing, its velocity is always
changing therefore the object is always accelerating and is never in equilibrium.

3. Direction of net force towards the center - centripetal

Formulas:

V bar = distance / time

V bar = circumference / period
V bar = 2r / T
V = 2r / T

V bar = 2r / T
ac = v2 / r

ac = (2r / T)2 / r
ac = (42r2 / T2) / r

F=ma
F c = m ac
Fc = mv2 / r

ac = 4 2 r / T2

The phrase centripetal force does not denote a new and separate force created by nature. The phrase merely labels the net force pointing
toward the center of the circular path, and this net force is the vector sum of all the force components that point along the radial direction.
1. The model airplane shown has a mass of 0.90 kg and moves at a constant
speed on a circle that is parallel to the ground. Find the tension T in the
guideline (length = 17 m) for a speed of 19 m/s.

IB 12
2. At amusement parks, there is a popular ride where the floor of a rotating cylindrical room falls away, leaving the backs of
the riders plastered against the wall. For a particular ride with a radius of 8.0 m and a top speed of 21 m/s, calculate the
reaction force and the friction force from the wall acting on a 60. kg rider. Which of these is the centripetal force?

3. A 2100-kg demolition ball swings at the end of a 15-m cable on the arc of a vertical circle. At the lowest point of the
swing, the ball is moving at a speed of 7.6 m/s. Determine the tension in the cable.

Work, Power and Efficiency

Work: product of force and displacement in the direction of the force
Formula:
W = (F cos ) s

Units:
N m or Joules (J)

W = F s cos
is angle between F and s

Power:
1) the rate at which work is done

Formula:
P = W/ t
= E/t
= Q/t

Alternate Formula:
P=W/t
= (F cos d) / t
= F v cos

2) the rate at which energy is transferred

Type:
Scalar but can be positive or
negative
Units:
J/s
= Watts (W)
Type:
Scalar

Efficiency:
Formula:
1) ratio of useful work done by a system to the total work done by the system
2) ratio of useful energy output of a system to the total energy input to the system
3) ratio of useful power output of a system to total power input to the system

e = useful out/
total in
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1. A 45.0-N force is applied to pull a luggage carrier an angle = 50 for a distance of 75.0 m at a constant speed.IB 12
Find the work done by the applied force.
W = F s cos
WA = (45.0 N)(75 m) cos 50o = 2170 J

2. a) How much work is done dragging the 5.00 kg box to the top of the hill shown if the hill exerts an
average friction force of 5.0 N?

b) Compare your answer to the amount of work done lifting the box straight up to the top of the hill.

c)

Calculate the power expended if the box is dragged to the top in 15 seconds.

d) Calculate the efficiency of dragging the box rather than lifting the box.

Determining Work Done Graphically

Work = area under curve
W=bh
W=Fs
W = (avg force) (displacement)

Work = area under curve

W=bh
W=fs

1. Work done by a constant force

2. Work done by a constantly varying force

ex. stretching a spring

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Energy
1.

2.

3.

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4.

Types of Energy
1. Kinetic energy

5.

Formulas:
1. EK = mv2

(energy of motion)

2. Gravitational Potential energy (energy of position)

2. EP = mgh

3. Elastic potential energy

3. Eelas = kx2

4. Internal energy (thermal energy)

4. Q = mct

5. Chemical Potential energy (stored in chemical bonds) Electrical energy Light energy

5. Ee = Pt = VIt = I2Rt = V2/R t

Q = mL

Conservation of Energy Principle

In an isolated system, the total amount of energy remains constant.
1. A motorcyclist is trying to leap across a canyon by driving horizontally off the
cliff at a speed of 38.0 m/s. Ignoring air resistance, find the speed with which the
cycle strikes the ground on the other side.

2. What is the speed of the box at the bottom of the incline if an average frictional force
of 15 N acts on it as it slides?

160 N

20 meters
300

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Linear Momentum and Impulse

Linear Momentum: the product of an objects mass and velocity

A 1500. kg car is traveling east at a

speed of 25.0 m/s.

inertia (inertial mass)

m = 1500 kg
scalar

Compare its inertia, momentum, and

kinetic energy.

IB 12
Formula:

Units:

p = mv

kg m/s

momentum

kinetic energy

p = (1500) (25)
= 3.75 x 104 kg m/s, east
vector

Ek = (1500)(25)2
= 468750 J = 4.69 x 105 J
scalar

Alternate formula for

kinetic energy:

How does the momentum of an object change?

A net external force acts for a finite amount of time
Impulse:
(the change in momentum of a system)
the product of the average force and the time interval over which the force acts

Units:

Type:

Ns or

vector

Usually . . . Force is not instantaneous and is not constant

kg m/s

Derivation of Impulse Formula

p
t
p F t
(mv) F t
mv F t (if mass is constant)
J p F t mv
F

Graphically, the impulse is

J = Favg t = area

If force is linear:
J = Fmax t

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Bouncing and Impulse

IB 12

A 0.50 kg basketball hits the floor at a speed of 4.0 m/s and rebounds at 3.0 m/s. Calculate the impulse applied to it by the floor.
Calculation:

In general:

p mv

p mv
p 0.50kg (4.0 (3.0))
p 7.0kgm / s

p m v f vi
p m v f vi
Velocity vs. time graph for bounce

Force

Velocity

Force vs. time graph for bounce

Time

Time

The Principle of Conservation

of Linear Momentum:

The total momentum of an isolated system remains constant.

pbefore = pafter
Types of Interactions

1. Bouncy

2. Sticky

3. Explosion

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Collisions
Elastic collision: a collision in
which the total kinetic energy is
conserved

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Inelastic collision: a collision in
which the total kinetic energy is not
conserved

Where does some of the mechanical energy go in an inelastic collision? energy of deformation, internal energy, sound energy

1. A freight train is being assembled in a switching yard, and the

figure below shows two boxcars. Car 1 has a mass of m1 =
65103 kg and moves at a velocity of v01 = +0.80 m/s. Car 2, with
a mass of m2 = 92103 kg and a velocity of v02 = +1.3 m/s,
overtakes car 1 and couples to it. Neglecting friction, find the
common velocity vf of the cars after they become coupled.

2. Is this collision elastic or inelastic? Justify your answer.

3. A ballistic pendulum is sometimes used in laboratories to

measure the speed of a projectile, such as a bullet. A ballistic
pendulum consists of a block of wood (mass m2 = 2.50 kg)
suspended by a wire of negligible mass. A bullet (mass m1 =
0.0100 kg) is fired with a speed v01. Just after the bullet
collides with it, the block (with the bullet in it) has a speed vf
and then swings to a maximum height of 0.650 m above the
initial position (see part b of the drawing). Find the speed v01
of the bullet, assuming that air resistance is negligible.

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