A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary The Present Simple ‘The present simple is formed with a subject and the base form of a verb, Positive Sentences Subject + present conjugation of verb + objects 1/ You drive to work every day She / He /Itdrives to work everyday. You / We / They dive to work every da. Negative Sentences Subject + do not + base form of verb + objects 17 You dont not use a computer every day. She / He /It doesn't (does not) use a compute at work. I You / We / They don't (do not use a typewriter at work Question Form Wh? + do + subject + base form of vet ? When do you aive at work? What does he /she /ituse at work? ‘Where do ne / you / they keep the paper? R s Positive Negative I play }[r don't You play You don't tennis everyday. play tennis every He-She-it | plays He-She-1t | doesn't We-You-They | play Wwe-You-They | don't Interrogative ] Do 1 Do You play tennis everyday? Does He -She—It Do. We-You- They ‘By Aracall Gonzalez and Ivan Cesar Hemndndez 8 | EA HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Short answer positive at Short answernegative T do. 1 dont. you do. You don't. Yes, No, —————_| He-She-tt does. Heshe-t doesnt, fwe-vourthey — |do. We-You-they [don't Use Use the present simple to tak about activities or routines which take place ona regula basi, Regular habits and daily routines usually get up at 7 o'clock ‘She doesn't often go to the cinema, When do they usually have lunch? Facts ‘The Earth revolves around the Sun. What does ‘strange’ mean? Water doesn't boll at 20 degrees, Feelings | love walking around late at night during the summer, She hates flying! Wat do you like? I don’t want to lve in Texas, ‘Opinions and states of mind He doesn't agree with you. | think he is a wonderful student. ‘What do you consider your best accomplishment? Timetables and schedules The plane leaves at 4 pm. When do courses begin this semester? The train doesn't arrive until 1035, Time Expressions Cerymon present time expressions include: usually, aways. often, sometimes, on Saturdays, at weekends (en weekends US English), rarely, on accasion, never, seldom. ‘Adverbs of frequency include (form most often to least often) always ~ usually ~ often - sometimes ~ occasionally - seldom - rarely - never Ute sentence has one verb (eg. no auxary verb put the adverb in the middle ofthe sentence after the subject ‘and before the verb. Examples Tom usually goes to work by car. Janet never tes, She always goes by bus. i Gonzalez and Juan Cesar HernandezA HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘Adverbs of frequency come after the verb Examples am never late for work. Peter is often at schoo If the sentence has more than one verb (eg. auxiliary ver), put the adverb of frequency before the main verb. Examples can never remember anything! ‘They have often visited Rome, \When using adverbs of frequency in the question or negative form, put the adverb of frequency before the main verb, Examples She doesn't often vist Europe. Do you usually get up early? ay re Gonrier d 10A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary ‘The Present Continuous The present simple is formed with a subject the corresponding form of the verb To Be in present simple form and the ~ing form of a verb. Positive Negative 1 am 1 am not You are You aren't playing. playing. He -She—It is He~She~It isnt we-You-They | are We-You-They | aren't Interrogative an 1 we You laying ? is He~She~It Are We You- They Short answer positive ‘Short answer negative I am. 1 [am not. You are. you are not / aren't. Yes, No, He-She-t is, Heshert [is not /isnt |we-You-they _ [are. we-You-They | arenot/ aren't Use Things that are happening now, at the moment. What are you doing? ‘She's reading in the garden. ‘They're not standing inthe rain. 1s happening in a period around the present moment in time. T'm reading "The Surgeon's Mate" by Patrick O'Brian. Whose account are you working on? Ty Araceli Gonzler and nan Cesar Hemandez 15A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘She's studying hard for her final exam. Future plans and arrangements. |We're having leftovers this evening, ‘What are you doing tomorrow sftemoon? She isn't coming on Friday. Time Expressions ‘Common present continuous time expressions include: at the moment, now, today, this week, this month, ‘tomorrow, next week (for future arrangements), currently “The present continuous (progressive) is used to describe what is happening atthe moment. It is also used to describe a plan in the near future (this evening, next week, on Saturday, etc) IMPORTANT NOTES: The present continuous (progressive) is used only with action verbs. Bample: ‘Lam working at the moment NOT Lam believing you. ‘The present continuous (progressive) is also used to describe an action which is happening arcund this moment: Example: I'm reading Justin Time’ this week. Tm not reading the book at this particular moment, but around this time. [ Examples Usage _ ‘What are you cooking? Tom is studying for his exams at the moment. ‘Actions happening at the present moment. Itisn't raining now. We can go outside ‘What are you dong this weekend? Tm meeting Peter tomorrow moming, Planned future events (usually in the near future) We're driving to Albany this wookend. ‘We're currently working on the Smith account, What classes are you taking this semester? | We're studying Greek history this month, ‘Actions or events happening around the present ‘moment. cali Gonvllez and Iuan Cesar emia 16A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR —S ‘Grammar Summary ‘The Past Simple Verb To Be ‘The past simple is formed with a subject and the corresponding form of the verb "To Be" in past form. = F Positive 1 was 1 wasn't You were You weren't happy at school happy at school He~She-It was wasn't We-You-They | were weren't Was 1 Were You happy at school? Was He=SheIt Were We -You-They | ___ Short answer positive - fi was. 1 wasnt. you were You weren't Yes, No, He-She-tt was. He-shett [wasn't We-You-They [were [wevouthey [werent Ty Nace Gonglez and an Cesar Homsndez 24A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR : | Grammar Summary ‘The Past Simple The present simple is formed with a subject and a verb in past simple form. F 5 Positive Negative 1 I You You studied | maths at school dide't study | maths at school He-She—It He~She=It We You - They We~You- They Interrogative 1 You bid study maths at school? He-She—It ‘We You - They Short answer positive Short answer negative 1 1 You | You Yes, di. No, did't He-she-tt He-She-tt We-YousThey [We-You-They Use Use the past simple to talk about activities or routines which take place ata specified time in the past. Notice that all subjects take the same conjugation of the verb, Regular verbs end in ed visit - visited ‘enjoy - enjoyed Irregular verbs have various forms and each verb needs to be leamed, ‘think - thought ‘iy Rracell Gonadler nd Juan Cesar Hemindes 31AHANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘The past simple is used to express a finished past action which occurs ata specific moment in the past. ‘She visited Iran last month, They didn't go to Tom's party last weekend, |Where did you go on vacation last summer? Te flowing time signers often neste a specif point nim Last—2g0 in. (plus ayear or month) = yesterday -when pha phrase) Examples. ‘They had lunch at home last week. He lef the company many years ago Sasan bought anew carn May He telephoned send in Rome yestery. Tplayed golf when Iwasa teenager. Positive Form Subject «past form of verb + object) + time Examples ‘They flew to Chicago last month, Peter completed his course three weeks ago. ‘Negative Form Subject + did + not + base form of verb + objects) + (time) Examples They didn’t expect to see you at Christmas ‘She didn’t understand the question ‘Question Form (Wh2) + did + subject + base form of verb + (abjects)+ (time)? Samples Where did you study French? When did you arive last week? By Race Gonuiles and luan Coser Hemnindez 2A MANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR _Grammar Summary ‘The Past Continuous The past continuous is formed with the subject the corresponding form of the verb To Be in past simple form and a verb in ~ing form. oa a Positive Negative 1 was 1 wasn't You were You weren't playing. He~She=It was He~She~It wasn't ‘We-You-They | were We-You-They | weren't Interrogative ‘ Was, 1 Were You playing ? Was He~She-It Were We You - They Short answer positive ‘Short answer negative 1 vas. i wast. You were, You werent, Yes, No, He-She-tt was, He-shett [wasnt We-vouthey [were lwe-You-they | weren't iy Ava Goralec end Juan Cesar Hemandez 36A HANDBOOK oF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Use Usted below are uses with examples, and the stricture ofthe past continuous tense, ‘Something happening at a specific point of time in the past {was watching TV at 9 o'clock lastnight, They were working on the report at si ‘Something that was happening during a period of time in the past, We were studying during the recess Peter was sleeping during class. ‘Something that was happening when something important took place She was speaking on the phone when he arrived . When he won the game, was cooking. ‘Something that was happening white something else was happening She was working on her homework while Iwas preparing diner, ‘They were finishing the project while we were putting together the proposal Time Expressions Common time expressions used with the past continucus ‘at six nine o'clock, etc. during, while, when Araceli Gorvdlez and Ivan Cesar Hembade 7ple Past vs Past Continuous : ‘There are two principal past tenses used to make general statements about the past: The past simple and the past continuous. The two tenses are quit diferent. Use the past simple to talk about an event which happened ‘at some point in time in the past. Tom flew to Chicago last week Peter visited his friends in Florida two months ago. “The Basics: Past Continuous: yzélez and Juan Cesar Hemnéndez 40 By Araceli GA HANDBOOK oF ENGLISH GRAMMAR [The Bast continuous is usually used to refer to events happening at the same time that something important happened in the past They were doing their homework when she arrived, Jack was studying while Dave was cooking dinner. ‘The past continuous is also used to express what was happening at a precise moment inthe past, was attending a lecture at 2.30 yesterday afternoon, Alice was reading a book at six yesterday evening ‘By Araceli Gonzalez and Juan Cesar Hemander 41A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR | Grammar Summary ‘The Present Perfect ‘The present perfect is formed with a subject, the corresponding form of the verb To Have and the past participle form of a verb, studied law for years He-She-tt | has He-she-1t | hasnt studied law for years. We-You-They | have We-You-They | haven't Have |r Have | You studied law for years? Has He -She—It we - You - They Short answer positive It have, 1 haven't. have. He-Shett has. We-vousthey _[have. We-You-They [haven't y ‘By Araceli Gonzélez and juan Cesar Hemandee 49A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘The present perfect is used to say what has happened recently and has an effect on the present moment. We often use just, yet’ and already’ to express the relationship to the present moment. Examples Have you sean Mary yet? ‘They've already had dinner ‘She's just been to the dentist’, ‘The present perfect is also used to express something which has happened up to the present moment of time, Bamples Have you worked here fr along time? Peter's ived here since 1987. She hasn't had much fun this week. Positive Form Subject + have + past participle + objectis) Samples Peter’ lived here since 1987 We've been very busy today, Negative Form Subject + have + not + past participle + objects) Examples haven't been to class very often this month, ‘She hasn't had much fun this week. Question Form Wh?) + have + subject + past participle? Examples Have you worked here fora long time? Where have you been? Present Perfect for Unspecified Past \When speaking about an experience that has happened at an UNSPECIFIED point in time before the present ‘moment use the present perfect. Examples ve been to New York three times, They've lived in many places, She's stusied in London, NOTE: In this use of the present perfect, we are talking about things that have happened up to the present ‘moment. Whenever you speak about something that has happened up to now without ging @ precise point in time, use the present perfect. [US/English exception: [tis also accepted in US English to ask "Did you phone her yet?" as opposed to the more ‘common "Have you phoned her yet?" Past actions with results in the present. She's traveled in many parts of the word Lite experience Have you ever been to France? ‘They ve never seen a mountain, Unfinished actions (action still in progress.He's led in San Francisco for 10 years. How long have you worked for this company? By race Gonzlez and) Juan Cesar Hemandez 50A_HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRA “They/ve studied English for 3 years. "Note: In this respect the present perfect and present perfect continuous are very similat. Time Expressions ‘Common present perfect time expressions include: for (with a period of time), since (with an exact point in time), ever, never, yet, already, this week (month, year) Use of For, ‘Since" and "How long Use for to indicate a duration or period of time. Samples He has lived here for seven years. We have been here for six weeks. Shitley has played tennis fora long time, Use ‘since to indicate a specific point in time, amples ve worked here since 2004, She's gone to dancing lessons since Apri ‘Theyve been unhappy since they eft college. Use Hour long’ in the question for to ask about duration Examples How long have you played the piano? How long has he worked here? How long has she been with you? Ty Avo Conver and wan Cesar Nemindee 31A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Use Sometimes the past simple and the present perfect are confused. I is important to remember thatthe past simple is used to express a finished past action which occurs ata specific moment inthe past. The present perfect is used to express something that happened at an unspecified moment inthe past. For example, if Visited Pars in 2004, 1 could express this in two ways: Past Simple 1 visited Paris in 2004, went to Pais a few years ago. [Note that the moment in time is specifi - in 2004, afew years ago, Present Perfect ve been to Pais. Tve visited Pars, In this case, the moment of my vist is not specific. am speaking about an experience that Ihave had in my life Lup to this moment in time, This is the key to understanding the difference between the past simple and the present perfect. The past simple ‘expresses something which happened at a specific time in the past. The present perfect expresses something that have experienced in my life without giving the exact time, By Aah Gonder Bid van Cesar Hemancer 55Grammar Summary _ ‘The Imperative The imperative is formed with a verb in simple form without a subject. hee Ms, Positive Negative Sign in here please, Don't park in this area Use Use the imperative form when giving instructions or orders. ‘The imperative i also very common in writen instructions. Important Note: Be careful when you use the imperative, as is often considered impolite in English. It someone asks you for instructions, use the imperative. If, on the other hand, you would like to request that someone do something use a polite question form ‘There is only one imperative form for both 'you' singular and plural Bramples: Hurry up! Toke the first let, go straight on and the supermarket ison the left. Positive Base Form of Verb + Objects Tum the music down, please. Insert coins into the slot, Negative Do + Not + Base Form of Verb + Objects Do not smoke inthis building, Don't rush, Tm notin a hurry. ‘By Araceli Gonaalez and Juan Cesar Hemandez 57SH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary Modal auxiliary verbs [Modal Have to /iasto Must Ought to é Should | Necessity Need Don't have to / doesn’t have to Don't need to /needn't Can Ma Cant Must Prohibition ‘Oughtn't to May not Shouldn't ‘Strong obligation / duty in past | Had to Lack / absence of necessity in past _| Didn't have to Couldn't Mightn't Could Might Obligation Lack / absence of necessity Possibility / permission Prohibition in past Possibility / permission in past es Modis are verbs that modify other verbs. The most common modal are Con Should, Must Note that al subjects take the same form ofthe modal Postve Subject + Modal + Base Form of Verb + Objects amples He can play the piano. Tmust leave soon, Negative Subject + Model + Not + Base Form of Verb + Objects Examples ‘They can't visit next week. You shouldn't go to that film. By Nace Gonailes and Tuan Cesar Hemindez 66A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Question ‘Modal + Subject + Base Form of Verb + Objects Baamples Can you help me? What should I do? Gwing Advice with Should "Should is used when asking for or giving advice. Its also used when asking for suggestions. Examples I think you should see a decter, What type of job should I get? Expressing Abily with Can ‘Can’ is used to speak abltes. Samples He can speak Japanese. Can you play golf? ‘Asking for Permission with May “May is used to ask for permission, Samples May thelp you? May visit you this afternoon? NOTE:In spoken English, Can 1.2 often used instead of May 1.2" Modal Verbs of Probability Listed below are examples and uses of modal verbs of probability. Modal verbs of probability are used to express. ‘an opinion of the speaker based on information thatthe speaker has. Example: He must be at work, it's 10, o'clock. In this case, the speaker is 100 % sure that the person is at work based on the speaker's knowledge that the person in question usually works at during the day. Examples Usage ‘They must be in Spain by now. Use ‘must plus the verb when you are 100% (or almost 100%) sure that something isthe case, ‘She must have done well on Use ‘might or ‘may’ to express an opinion that you think has a ‘She might come this evening ‘good possibility of being true, David may invite Jessica to the match, Jack might have gone to France Jane could be at work Use ‘could’ to express a possibilty which is one of many, Peter could have arived ate This form is not as strong as ‘might’ or ‘may. Itis ust one of a number of possibilities. You can't be serious! Use ‘can't to express an opinion that you are 100% sure is NOT true They can't have worked until late. Notice thatthe past form remains ‘can’t have done ‘By Araceli Gonvliez and_Juan Cesar Heménder 7A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary ‘Verbs followed by the gerund or the infinitive. Use Verb + ‘ing’ OR Verb + Infinitive When two verbs are used together, the second verb is often in the gerund form (ing) or the infinitive. There are "no specific rules conceming which verbs take which form. Like iregular verbs, you willneed to learn which fore 2 verb takes, Common Verbs + Ying’ Ge, enjoy, quit, discuss, mind, can't stand, suggest Examples ‘They ge jogging on Saturdays. | don’t mind helping you, They can’t stand driving in trafic jams, Common Verbs + Iafinitive Promise, plan, refuse, want need decide, hope Bamples I promised to help him. Alice needs to stat that task He decided to quit his jb. ‘By Araceli Gonailez aid Juan Cesar Hemander BA _HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary ‘The Idiomatic Future The Idiomatic Future is formed with a subject, the corresponding form of the verb To Be and a verb in simple form : ° Positive Negative 1 J am going to am nat going to You are going to aren't going to He =She=It is going to isn't going to We-You-They | are going to aren't going to 1 You ‘going to play? He ~ She —It We~You- They Short answer positive Short answer negative It I am not You You are not / aren't He-She-tt Heshett fi not /isnt We-YousThey Wervou-they [are not / aren’. Use Future with ‘Going to! The future mith ‘going to's used to speak about future intentions or plans made before the present moment Use the following forms with "going to. Positive Subject + to be + going to + base form of verb + objects) Negative Subject + to be + not + going to + base form of verb + objects), By Araceli Gonadlez and Juan Cesar Hemndndes 7A_HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Question Question Word + to be + subject + going to + base form of verb? Baamples We are going to study French nest semester. ‘Where are you going to stay in France? She isn't going to take a vacation ths year Used for planned decisions. Planned decisions are decisions made BEFORE the moment of speaking Samples Tm going to study Languages at university next year. We're going to Stay atthe Hilton in New York next week. Used for predicting an action that you see is about to happen: fxamples ‘Watch out! You're going to hit that cart Look at those clouds. t's going to ran, Used for future intentions: Samples Tm going to be a policeman ven Igrow up, Katherine is going to study English wen she goes to University Ty Aracel Gonzar and van Car Hornndes meA HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary The Future Simple The Future Simple is formed with a subject, will and a verb in simple form, FO R MS Positive Negative 1 1 You You ‘ will play. will play. He~She—It He~She—It We Yeu - They ‘We~You - They Interrogative I You will play? He ~She-It We - You -They ‘Short answer positive Short answer negative 1 1 You You Yes, wl No, won't He-she-tt He-shestt We You"They |We-You-They iy Asal Gonzalez and an Cesar Hemindez aA HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Use ‘The future with ‘Wills used ina variety of situations discussing the future, Use the following forms with ‘wil, Notice that 'will or won't is used for ALL subjects. Positive Subject + will + base form of verb + objects) Negative Subject + will + not + base form of verb + objects) Question (Question Word) + will + subject + base form of verb? Used for spontaneous decisions. Spontaneous decisions are decisions made AT the moment of speaking, Examples Jack's hungry. il make her a sandwich Thats difficult help you withthe problem. Used for predictions: Examples tll snow tomorrow. She won't win the game, Used for scheduled public events Examples The concert will begin at 8 o'clock When will the train leave? The class won't start next week Used for promises Examples will you matry me? Tilhelp you with your homework after class. Time Expressions ‘Some time expression used with future simple are: Next week, month, year ete. in (year), tomorrow, the day after tomorrow ‘By Aral Gonzlley and Juan Cesar Hernindes 3OOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary Conditional 0 %= z="0 conditional is made up by two sentences, where one is the condition that must be futfiled so we get the result in the second sentence. It is formed with a sentence in simple present in the if © or condition and simple present in the second sentence or result, Us Conditional 0 Situations that are always true if something happens. | Note This useis similar to, and can usually be replaced by, a time clause using whet (example: When [am late, my father takes me to school) Iam late, my father takes me to school ‘She doesn’t worry if Jack stays out afterschool Conditional 0s formed by the use ofthe present simple in te i clause followed by a comma the present simple | in the result clause, You can also put the result clause first without using 2 comma between the clauses. Ihe comes to town, we have dinner. oR We have dinner he comes to town, By Aco Gonler and uan Cesar Memnindr 39A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary Conditional 1 ‘The first conditional is made up by two sentences, where one is the condition that must be fulfilled so that we get the result in the second sentence. Its formed with a sentence in present simple in the If clause or condition and will, can or may in the second sentence or result Use Conditional 1 (Often called the "real" conditional because its used for real - or possible - situations. These situations take place | ifa certain condition is met. Note In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means ‘if .. not’ In other words, "unless he hurries up. could also be written, fhe doesn't hury up’ 1iteains, we will stay at home, He will arive late unless he hurries up. Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his ralse Conditional 1is formed by the use ofthe present simple in the if clause followed by a comma will verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using a comma between the clauses, the finishes on time, we will goto the movies. oR We will goto the movies it he finishes on time. Ty Asai Gonzllez nd van Cosa Hemndnder 94A_HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary Conditional 2 ‘The second conditional is mede up by two sentences, where one is the condition that must be fulfilled 50 that we get the result in the second sentence. Its formed with a sentence in past simple in the If had he, she, you, we, they thought before I asked the ‘question? The past perfect continuous is used to express how long something had been going on before something important happened in the past. ‘By Avacel Gonviles and Wan Casav Homing 102A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary ‘The Passive Voice The passive voice is formed with a subject a form of the verb To Be and a ver’ in past participle. Use ‘The passive voice is used when focusing on the person or thing affected by an action. ‘The Passe is formed: Passive Subject + To Be + Past Particle ‘The house was buit in 1989. Itis often used in business when the object of the action is more important than those who perform the action, For Example: We have produced over 20 itferent models inthe past two years Changes to: ver 20 diferent models have been produced in the past two years. Ir the agentisimportant (the person, company or thing that des the action), use “by For Bample ‘Tim Wikon wrote "The Fight to Brunswick” in 1987 Changes: “The Flight to Brunnswick" was written in 1887 by Tim Wilson. Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive voice. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TENSES CHART SIMPLE PRESENT and SIMPLE PAST ‘The active object becomes the passive subject. ‘amfis/are + past participle wwas/were + past participle ‘Active: Simple Present Passive: Simple Present ‘The movie fascinates me, 1am fascinated by the movie. The movie bores Jack. Jack is bored by the movie. The movie surprises them, ‘They ate surprised by the move, ‘Active: Simple Past Passive: Simple Past The movie bored me. was bored by the movi. “The movie fascinated Jack Jack was fascinated by the movie. “The movie surprised them, They were surprised by the movie, iy Racal Gonzler nd wan Corer Hemindes 109A_HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Passive form: was/were + being + past PRESENT and PAST CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) amyis/are + being + past participle rticiple ‘Active: Present Continuous Tam helping Shannon. June ishelping Su and Ling ‘Active: Past Continuous 1 was cleaning the bathroom. They were cleaning the bedroom. ‘The bedroom was being cleaned by them. ‘Susan was cleaning the kitchen and patio, ‘The kitchen and patio were being cleaned by Susan, Passive: Present Continuous ‘Shannon is being helped by me. Suand Lng ate being helped by June, Passive: Past Continuous ‘The bathroom was being cleaned by me, Passive form: haveshas been + past pa ‘PRESENT PERFECT, PAST PERFECT and FUTURE PERFECT had been + past participle ciple ‘etive: Present Perfect. Thave mailed the gift Jack has mailed the gifts Passive: Present Perfect ‘The gift has been mailed by me. “The gifts have been mailed by Jack. ‘Active: Past Perfect Passive: Past Perfect Steven Spielberg had directed the movie. ‘The movie had been directed by Steven Penny Marshal had dircted those movies. Spielbera. The movies had been directed by Fenny Marshal “Ketve: Future Perfect Passive: Future Perfect John all have ished the project next month ‘The project wll have been finshed by next ‘They will have finished the projects before then. month. ‘The projects will have been finished before then FUTURE TENSES Pasive forms: vill + be + past particle ifare going to be + past patipe Bete: Future with WILL Passive: Fature with WILL Tilmal the aft The ft willbe maid by me. Jack wl mal the ats ‘he gts willbe mal by Jack ‘ative: Future with GOING TO Passive: Future with GOING TO Tam going to make the cake. The cake is going to be made by me. Sue two cakes |_two cakes are going 1o.be made by Sue_| By Wvacel Gonvalex and luan Coser Hemndez 10A_ HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRESENT / FUTURE MODALS ‘The passive form follows this patter: modal + be + past participle ‘Active: WILL / WON'T QWILL NOT) Pa WiLL/ WON'T (WILL NOT) Sharon will invite Tom to the party ‘Tom willbe invited to the party by Sharon, Sharon won't invite Jeff to the party. Jef won't be invited to the party by Sharon. (Sharon will notinvite Jef to the party) elf wil nt be invited to the party by ‘Sharon ‘Active: CAN / CAN'T (CAN NOT) Passive: CAN / CAN'T (CAN NOT) ‘Mai can foretell the future. The future can be foretold by Mai Terry cant foretell the future, “The future can't be foretold by Terry. (erry can not foretell the future) (he future can not be foretald by Terry) ‘Active: MAY / MAY NOT Her company may give Katya 2 new office. Passive: MAY / MAY NOT Katya may be given a new office by her The lazy students may not do the homework. ‘company. MIGHT / MIGHT NOT The homework may not be done by the lazy Her company might give Katya a new office. students The lazy students might not do the homework. MIGHT / MIGHT NOT Ketya might be given a new office by her | company. ‘The homework might not be done by the lazy students ‘Active: SHOULD / SHOULDNT Passive: SHOULD / SHOULDNT Students should memorize English verbs. English verbs should be memorized by Children shoukin't smoke cigarettes. students. Cigarettes shouldn't be smoked by children. ‘Active: OUGHT TO Passive: OUGHTTO Students aught to learn English verbs. English verbs ought to be memorized by (negative ought tis rarely used) students ‘Active: HAD BETTER / HAD BETTER NOT ‘Students had better practice English every dy. Children had better not drink whiskey. Passive: HAD BETTER / HAD BETTER NOT English had betterbe practiced every day by students Whiskey had better not be drunk by chieen “Active: MUST / MUST NOT “Tourists must apply fora passport to travel abroad. Customers must not use that door. Passive: MUST / MUST NOT ‘A passport to travel abroad must be applied for. ‘That door must not be used by customers. ‘Active: HAS TO / HAVETO She hasta practice English every dey Sera and Miho have 1 wash the dishes every day. DOESN'T HAVE TO/ DON'T HAVE TO Maria doesnt have 1o clean her bedroom every day. ‘The children don’t have toclean thelr bedrooms every day. Passive: HAS TO / HAVE TO English has to be practiced every day. ‘The dishes have 19 be washed by them every day. DOESN'T HAVE TO/ DON'T HAVE TO Her bedroom doesn't have to be cleaned every day, ‘Their bedrooms don't have tbe cleaned everyday a1 By race Gonviles and uan Cozar WeminderA_WANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘Active: BE SUPPOSED TO Passive: BE SUPPOSED TO 1 am supposed to type the composition. ‘The composition is supposed tobe typed | am.not supaosed to.cany the stories in the book by me. Janet is supposed toclgan the ving room. ‘The stories in the book ate not suppo‘ed to She isn't supposed to eat candy and gum. be copied. ‘They are suposed to make dinner forthe family The lving room is supposed tobe cleaned They atent supposed to make dessert by Janet. Candy and gum aren't supposed to be eaten by her Dinner forthe familys supposed to he ‘made by them. Dessert ent supp them PAST MODALS “The past passive form fellows this pattern ‘modal + have been + past participle ‘Active: SHOULD HAVE / SHOULDN'T HAVE ‘The students should have learned the verbs. Passive: SHOULD HAVE/ ‘SHOULDN'T HAVE ‘The children shouldn't have broken the window. ‘The verbs should have been leamed by the students ‘The window shduln'thave been ‘broken by the children. ‘Active: OUGHT TO TL Passive: OUGHT TO Students ought to have leamed the verbs ‘The verbs ought to have been leamed (negative ought tos rately used) by the students. ‘Active: BE SUPPOSED TO (past time) Passive: BE SUPPOSED TO (past time) nas supposed to type the composition, The composition was suposed to be 1 wasnt supaosed to copy the story in the Book ‘yned byme Janet was supposed to clean the living room. ‘The storyin the book wasn't supposed She wasn‘t supposed to eat candy and gum. tobe conied. Frank and Jane were supposed to make dinner. ‘The living room was supposed to be ‘They weren't supposed to make dessert. cleaned by Janet. Candy and gum weren't supposed to ‘be eaten by her, Dinner was supposed to be made by them Dessert wasn't supposed to be made by them, ‘Active: MAY / MAY NOT ‘That firm may have offered Katya a new job, The students may not have writen the paper. MIGHT / MIGHT NOT That firm might have offered Katya a new job. The students might not have written the paper. Passive: MAY / MAY NOT Katya may have been offered a new job by that firm. ‘The paper may not have been written by the students MIGHT / MIGHT NOT Katya might have been offered a new job by that frm ‘The paper might nat have been written by the students By Nace Gonuilez and lan Cesar Hemindez a2A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary Relative Clauses Introduction Here is @ brief review of adjective clauses and relative pronouns. Pan adjective clause is used to describe @ noun: Phe car, which was red, belonged to Young-Hee DA relative pronoun is usualy used to introduce an adjective claus: 'Young-Hee, who is a Korean student, lives in Victoria. ‘The main relate pronouns are: Pwo: use for humans: P tans, who is an architect, lives in Berlin. P wich: used for things and animals P marke has a dog which follows her everywhere. “Phat: vse for humans, animals and things out see below) P marive is decorating @ house that Hans designed. There are two main kind of adjective cause: P vion-defining clauses: give extra information about the noun, but they re not essentiak “The deskin the corner, which f covered in books, is mine. {We don't ned this infomation in order to understand the sentence. “The desk the comer is mine" is good Sentence on its cum —we sil know which desk srefered to Note that nn defning clauses are usualy Separated by comes, and that i nt usually used inthis ind of context) "Poefining clauses: ive essential information about the noun: the package that arrived this moming son the desk. (We need this information inorder to understand the sentence. Without the relative clause, we don't know which package is being refered to. Note that that is often used in non-defining relative causes, and they are not Separated by commas) Adjective Clauses ‘an adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like ‘an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions ke "which?" or “what kind of” Consider the following examples: Adjective the red coat Adjective clause the coat whieh I bought yesterday Like the word “red” in the fist example, the dependent clause “which I bought yesterday” in the second example ~ by Aracal Gonzi and Juan Cesar Henan 118‘modifies the noun “coat” Note that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an adjective usualy comes before, In formal writing an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns "whol," "tha." or “which,” In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when itis not the subject ofthe adjective clause, but you should usually include the relative pronaui in formal, academic writing informal “The books people read were mainly religious. formal ‘The books that people read were mainly religious, informal ‘Some firefighters never meet the people they save, formal ‘Some firefighters never mest the people whom they save, Here are some more examples of adjective clauses the meat which they ate was tainted This clause modifies the noun *meat” and answers the question "which meat? ‘about the movie which made him ery ‘This clause modifies the noun “movie” and answers the question “which movie?” they are searching forthe one who borrowed the book ‘The clause modifies the pronoun “one” and answers the question “which one?" Did [tell you about the author whom I met? ‘The clause modifies the noun “author” and answers the question "which author? ‘You can use a relative pronoun to link one phrase or clause to another phrase o clause. The relative pronuns are “who” "whom." "that" and "which" How to Form Relative Clauses Imagine, a gilis talking to Tom, You want to know who she is and askaa friend whether he knows her. You could say: gids talking to Tom, Do you know the gi? ‘That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing - you want to know who the git i Do you know the gi. ‘As your friend cannot know which gil you ae talking about, you need to put in the additional information ~ the gil stalking to Tom. Use "the gir" only in the frst part ofthe sentence, in the second pat replace it with the ‘lative pronoun (for peaple, use the relative proncu "who". So the final sentence is Do you know the gil who is talking to Tom? ‘By Araceli Gonzalez and Juan Cesar Hemandez 19A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Relative Pronouns Telative ae Sees beample wo subject or object pronoun for people Lip yw aes esp tidy | bjsherstj peeeun ronnie” “Teegeeenataatoting on vin [ering toa whole sentence Me could ead which surprised me whose possession for people animals and things ee ‘object pronoun for people, especialy in non- whom defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who) {was invited by the professor whom 1 met at the conference. ‘subject or abject pronoun for people, animals and that things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible) ‘Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun? {don't lke the table that stands in the kitchen, Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for subject and ‘object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows: If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun isa subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used, the apple which is lying on the table If the relative pronoun isnot followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses the apple (which) George lay on the table Relative Adverbs ‘A telative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand. This isthe shop in which I bought my bike. ‘This isthe shop where I bought my bike relative rete meaning use Example whee infon which refers toa time expression the day when we met him were injatwhich refers toa place the place where we met him why forwhich refers toa reason the eeason why we met him By Araceli Gonzdlez and juan Cesar Nemandez, 120A_MANDBOOK oF ENG Defining Relative Clauses Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas. Imagine, Tom sin 2 room with five girs. One git is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this gi. Here the relative clause defines which ofthe five girls you mean, Do you know the git whois talking to Tom? Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions. ‘A seaman is someone who works on a ship. ‘Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped, (Sentences with a relative clause without the ‘lative pronoun are called Contact Clauses) The boy (who/wihom) we met yesterday is very nce, 'Non-Defining Relative Clauses ‘Non defining relative clauses (also called non-identifving relative clauses or non-restrictve relative clauses) give ‘additional information on something, but do not define it Non-defining relative clauses are putin commas. Imagine, Tom is in @ room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows ths gir. Here the relative clause is non-defining because inthis situation it is obvious which gi you. mean, Do you know the gir whois talking ta Tom? Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that (Object pronuns in non-defining relative clauses must be used. Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, i very nice. How to Shorten Relative Clauses? Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand, told you about the woman who lives next door. ~ told you about the woman living next door. Do you see the cat which i ing on the roof? - Do you see the cat lying on the roof? By Areal Gonzi and Juan Car Hetaindar 12A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR __ Grammar Summary Indirect Questions Indirect Questions are questions that do not follow the usual structure of questions they begin with a questions word followed by the structure of a positive sentence. Use Consider the following situation: You are talking to a man at a meeting that you have never met, However, you know his name and also that this man knows a colleague named Jack. You turn to him and ask: Whereis Jack? ‘The man seems a litle bothered and says he doesn't know. He isn't very friendly. You wonder why he seems bothered, It's probably because you didn't introduce yourslf, did't say ‘excuse me” AND (most importanty) asked a direct question. Direct questions are often considered ruck when speaking to strangers. To be more polite we often use indirect question forms. Indirect questions serve the same purpose as direct questions, but are considered more formal, When using an indirect question, use an introductory phrase followed by the question itsef in postive sentence structure. Connect the two phrases with the question word or ‘if in the case the question isa ‘yes, ‘no! question. Here's how to doit Introductory phrase + question word (ori) + positive sentence Examples: ‘Whereis Jack? > I was wondering if you know where Jack is? When does Alice usually ave? » Do you know when Alice usvally arrives? Here are some of the most common phrases used for asking indirect questions. Many of these phrases are {questions (ie, Do you know when the next tain eaves?) while others are statements made to indicate a ‘question (2, ! wonder if he will beon time). Do you know ..? wonder / was wondering Can you tell me ..? Do you happen to know .? Thave no ides Ym not sure 1 like to know. Have you any idea . Sometimes we also use these phrases to indicate that we'd like some more information. not sure I don't know. {By Araceli Gonsdlez and Juan Cesar Hemandes 123Examples Do you know when the concert begins? wonder when he will arve, ‘Can you tell e how to check out book? Tm not sure what he considers appropriate. | don't know if he is coming to the party this evening Imagine this: You are standing on the corner waiting fr the bus. A man walks up and asks, "What time ist?" You answer politely, but cant help thinking "That was kind of rude Ifthe man had asked: "Excuse me, do you know what time its?" you'd probably feel that the man was polite, Direct questions (.e. What time is it?) are coften considered impolite when speaking to strangers. Indirect questions (ie. Do you know what time iti?) are cften preferable when speaking to those we don't know. iy Aral Gonzalez and Juan Cesar Hemandez aaA HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Grammar Summary Reported Speech Use General Rules Direct and indirect speeches are two ways used in reporting what someone has said. They are ‘mostly used in spoken English. I fs important to eam how the transformation goes so as to be accurate in your interactions with the others. The makeover of a direct utterance to indirect speech has to abide to some rues that we should tak about in this paper. First Td lke to draw your attention that once the reporting verb (eg. SAV, TELL) is in the present simple [She says] or the present perfect (He has told us] or the future simple tense [They will tll you] there's no change of tense at al, © She says, “John prefers tea” ‘© She has told us that John prefers tea Yet once the reporting verb is in the past (¢9. SAID, TOLD, REPORTED? ets), many changes occur ‘depending of course on the tense used in the moment of speaking 1. In irect speech the reporter repeats the original words of the speaker: Leila said, “The cat has broken the vase.” 2 In the indirect (feported) speech the reporter gives the exact meaning of the speaker's ttterance without necessarily repeating the exact words of the speaker, said (that) the cat had broken the vase. In indirect (teported) speech the tenses have to be changed in a way thatthe reporter (you) goes a step. ‘back inthe time line with each tense. For instance, ifthe tense in the time of speaking (divect speech) is the present it becomes past in the reported speech. Iti in the past iti reported inthe past perfect, ifitisin the future, itis reported in the conditional and so on. Study tis, By Aral Gonziler and wan Cesar Hemdndor 131TENSE CHANGES Direct Speech Indirect Speech [orien fia ams fare doing fas were tong fave has done fod done im a ha ao ould da ilo cd do Fan do Fouls do frst do fad todo feed do Giant havetodo utd do [Bout nave done : [val Rave dane Jeune NB: These tense changes are automatic only after past tense reporting verbs (cai, tol, informed, explained, eto. SOME OTHER EXPRESSIONS (SIGNIFIERS) SUCH AS THE ADVERBS OF TIME AND PLACE ALSO CHANGE Direct Speech Indirect Speech here here row 2 then i tris i that esterday ____fthe day before (09 the previous day [the previous week/montiyeat/Monday ee [he day after (00 the folowing day [last neek/month/year/Monday et ferorer [fen weeXmanjea7febrany/Sunday cc the folowing weekrmonthyes/febray/Sandy free years ago [ives years before: Fs [ay tonight hat day hat night— NB: These equivalents are not to be taken for rules. WITH EXAM PAPERS: During the exam, the students’ main purpose is not the evel of their fluency in English but the ability to get good grades. Therefore, they are mostly interested in how to get the correct answers. Their first concem is to get them the simplest and the easiest way. So, here are some helpful tricks which, ‘once grasped, pave the way for the students to achieve their goal with confidence. The tenses with auxiliaries (am/is/are/was/were/have/has/have been etc) in the direct, speech are the easiest ones to report because the auxllary is to be your key focus, You need only to deal with the awiliory and forget about the main verb, That's why the "continuous"; and "perfect" ‘tenses ae the easiest to do, Look at these examples: 8 Afacel’ Gonzalez and juan Cesar Hemandez 132A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR - John said, "Tam going to look for a larger flat” John said that he ios going to look fora larger flat. Sue said "t have dane my homework.” ‘Sue said that she had done her homework. This is also true with modal verbs (wil, can, must, may, etc). Our emphasis should go to them and keep the main verbs untouched, John said, “The pupils may go home eater this aftemoon* John said that the pupils might go home earlier that afternoon, ~The teacher said, "The best students willbe rewarded ~ The teacher said thatthe best students would be rewarded. Mustation Leila said,” 4 bas won the prize Lelia said (that) All fad won the prize. past present future (had) (have/has) Leila said, “The boys are playing chess” Leila said the boys were playing chess, past present future SS > (orere) (ore) oe {eke said,” some peope wav pang the achoa fea” ee id that) some pooped ea psning the schoo fence pase perect pot present focare ——_____“""__ Gad been) (wae / ware) tt ‘By Araceli Gonzélec and Juan Cesar Heméndez 133ee A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘THE PRESENT TENSE ‘The present tense becomes the past tense except for reporting a general truth In this case the present tense doesn't change. EXAMPLE She said, "The capital city of Morocco ts Rabat” She said thatthe capital city of Morocco Us Rabat “The teacher said, “Elephants have good memory’ ‘The teacher said that Elephants have good memory. ‘Apart from reporting general truths, the rule isto be respected. The simple present tense First off, ou have to learn your Irregular Verbs. Ifyou don't learn them well they can make a lot af mess in your paper no matter how well you grasp the rules. 1. Lela said “I have a big car” => She said that she had a big car 2. Lelia sald, "always drive to school” => She sad (that) she always drove to school 3. Leila said "I never go to work on foot” => She said that) she never went to schoo! an foot. The focus here is primarily on the ouxiliry as shown previousl, whereas the main verb is retained Lelia and Sue said, ‘We are making cakes" “They said that they were making cakes, Se sid "Lela is washing some dishes inthe kitchen” Sue sid that Leila wes ashing some dishes in the kitchen” Leila said “Sue Gt feeling well” Leila said that Sue wasnt feeling well™ ‘The present perfect “HAVE” or "HAS" only bear the change, Both of them become "HAD". That's al. Lela said, “Peter has sold his old cat" Lela said that Peter had sold his old ca. All said, "We have made the biggest mistake" Ali said that they hod made the biggest mistake, Peter said, "Tania has never been to Marrakech” Peter said that Tania had never been to Marrakech, John said, "Ihave not visited Marrakech yet" John said that he had not visited Marrakech yet, By hace Gonzilex and Wan Cesar Wernndes 134A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR THE PAST TENSE ‘The first thing you have to care too much about here is your IRREGULAR VERBS. Ifyou don't know the Past participle of a gwen verb everything will collapse and all the rules you master are useless. So be Careful, itis @ matter of Right oF Wrong. Also you have to deal with the pronouns and the signifier: careful, ‘The Simple Past 1, Deter sad“ ost my keys in the tran yesterday" ‘eter said that he had lost is keys inthe tain the day before 2. Juliana said, "Iwas extremely nervous last week" Juliana said that she had been extremely nervous the previous week. 3. Hassan said, "We went to bed early lat night” Hassan said that they had gone to bed eatly the night before 4. Vicky said, adh’ take 2 taxi home lastnight” ‘icky said that She hadn't taken a taxi home the previous night. 5. ella said, “Ivead this book a few years ago,” 6. Lela said that she had read that book afew years before. ‘The Past Continuous "was" and "were" become “had been’ 1. Beter said, “Twas having a shower” eter said that he had been having a shower. 2. The boy said, "We were at home playing chess.” The boy said that they hod been at home playing chess. ‘The Past Pefect 'No change except forthe pronouns, 1. Peter said, "The children had worked hard~ ‘eter said thatthe children had worked hard. 2. The boys said, "We had done our homework.” ‘The boys said that they had done their homework. Rep Mopal 4s it was mentioned above the modal “will” becomes “would”. Pay attention to the pronouns and the adverbs of ime and place (signifier) Leila said, Tvl see you here tomorrow." ‘© Leila said that she would see me there the day after. Hassan sald, "T won't go to work by car tomorrow” Hassan said that he wouldn't go to work by car the following day. Lela said, "The neighbours would complain!" Leila said that the neighbours would have complained. Peter said, "TW see what Icon do for you! Peter told me that he would see what he could do for me, aaeeee ay aes Gover and van Cera Heeinden 135A HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ‘The teacher said, "Someone should clean the chalkboard” ‘The teacher said that someone should have cleaned the chalkboard. ‘The teacher said, "You needn't bring your School bags tomorrow afternoon.” “The teacher said that we dldn’t hove to bring our school bags the next aftemoon, John said, "Lam sorry, but couldn't help you!” John said he was sory, but he couldn't have helped us. Sue sai, “Leila may have problems with her old car ‘Sue said that Lelia might have problems with her old car. Vicky said "T must go home!” Vicky said that she had to go home. a erereeeee THE IMPERATIVE ‘What you have to retain about the use of the imperative in the direct speech is that it tums into the infinitive with “to” in the reported speech. If the speaker uses a negative imperative, the reporter should place "NOT before the infinitive. The reporting verbs are generally, (as, tell, order) He said, “speak up, please!” He asked me to speak up. ‘She shouted, "Don't touch anything ‘She ordered me not to touch anything. Mother said, "Get your hair combed" Mother ordered me fo get my hair combed. Father said, "Don't be funny!” Father told me not to be funny. ‘The teacher said, “Do it again! 10, The teacher told us zo do it again, REPORT QUESTIONS Before al, the reporting verbs used with questions are various, (asked, wanted to know, inquired ‘wondered, etc). There are normally two sorts of questions LL Yesyo questions fare you ready?) With question words {why do you look so tired?) 1. When reporting a YES/NO question use "i" or whether” appropriately, Hassan, “Are you ready?" Hassan asked me ifT was ready. Lela, "Do the boys do well at school?” = Leila asked the teacher whether the boys did well at school IL When the question uses a question word, use it, to. John, "Where were you last night?” John wanted to know where I had been the previous night, = Peter sai, “Does she always have breakfast at home?” - Peter wanted to know if she always had breakfast at home: iy Araceli Gontlez and an Cesar Heminde 136‘Sue said, "May I use your mobile phone?” = Sue asked if she might use my mobile phone. COMPOUND SENTENCES Reporting long speeches is not really an easy game; however itis not complicated. Once you learn how ‘to manage simple sentences you can do the same for compound or complex utterances. “©The clerk, "Take these papers to the manager and make sure she reads them before you leave her office” ‘© The clerk asked his assistant to take those/the papers to the manager and to make sure she ‘read them before he left her office. © Lela said, “I wouldn't buy a luxurious car if were as rch as you are, but I would rather buy a large house’ © Peter told Cindy that he wouldn't have bought a luxurious car if he had been as tich as she &, buthe would rather have bought a big house. SPECIAL CASES. Sometimes the reporting becomes completely based on the introducing (reporting) verb. Here, the complication dwells in the fact that the content of the direct speech i ether an advice, a confession, comparison or else, ‘Sue said, “My scooter slike ajaguart™ ‘Sue compared her scooter toa jaguar. Lela said, “Tf were you, I'd be patient. Leila advised me to be patient 1 Araceli Gonziles and Juan Coser Nemes 137 pa