Alcala AC Et Al. 2008 Review of The Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas - 4000nn

Philipp. Scient.
45: 161
2008, University of San Carlos
REVIEW ARTICLE
Review of the Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas
A.C. Alcala1, J.A. Ingles2 and A.A. Bucol1

Silliman University-Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental
Management, Silliman University, Dumaguete City 6200, Philippines
2
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), JBD Plaza, No. 65 Mindanao Avenue,
Bagong Pag-asa, Quezon City 1105, Philippines
1
ABSTRACT
The marine biodiversity of the four seas in southern
Philippines, namely, the Moro Gulf, the Davao Gulf, the
Sarangani Bay, and the Sulawesi Sea, was reviewed. The
biodiversity in the shallow marine waters is similar to those in
other parts of the country. The biodiversity is also in a similar
conservation status, that is, in various degrees of depletion.
But it is possible that there are marine species that are unique
to these seas. This is especially true of the Sulawesi Sea,
which is characterized by great variation in terms of habitat
and depth. The importance of the resources in the four seas
lies in the contributions of some species, such as tuna fishes,
to the livelihoods of coastal populations in the area.
INTRODUCTION
Some research and development projects on marine biodiversity
and fisheries have been conducted in the marine waters of southern
Philippines. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR) 2006 list of projects includes 11 coastal and marine resource
management projects dealing partly with marine biodiversity in the
shallow seas of southern Mindanao. Among the institutions and agencies
involved in marine biodiversity studies in the area are the Southern
Philippines Agribusiness, Marine and Aquatic School of Technology
2 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)
(SPAMAST) in Malita, Davao del Sur, the Davao del Norte State
College (DNSC) in Panabo City, Davao del Norte, the University of the
Philippines in the Visayas (Miagao, Iloilo), and the Mindanao State
University (Naawan campus). The development projects of the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Bureau of
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, usually in partnership with
international funding institutions, typically included research on fisheries
and biodiversity. The research findings of these aforementioned
institutions have been brought together in the present paper in an attempt
to construct a biodiversity profile of the whole area that can serve various
purposes such as establishment of marine protected areas. In the course
of this review, some gaps and deficiencies in our current knowledge on
the biodiversity of the area have been identified and discussed.
The socioeconomic importance of the southern Philippine seas
lies in the fact that more than 10 million people now live in the four
regions (Western Mindanao, Southern Mindanao, Central Mindanao, and
ARMM) in the vicinity of the four seas, namely, the Davao Gulf, the
Moro Gulf (including Illana Bay), the Sarangani Bay (including
Sarangani Islands), and the Sulawesi Sea. This population figure comes
from the National Statistics Office in 2002, and a substantial proportion
is probably directly and economically dependent on marine and coastal
resources of these seas. The four seas are known for their economic
importance (see Fisheries Statistics 20032005). Davao Gulf is a wellknown international shipping center. Samal Island in Davao Gulf is
known for pearl culture and tourism. Moro Gulf is well known for its
fisheries. Sarangani Bay, the home of the skipjack tuna, has become a
center for aquaculture for milkfish and top predatory fish species. The
Sulawesi Sea serves as a highway for movements of the tuna species and
other fish species, marine turtles, and cetaceans, among others.
Brief Description of the Study Seas
This review is focused on four seas: the Moro Gulf and the
Illana Bay as part of the Gulf (enclosed by the Zamboanga Peninsula, the
Lanao provinces, Maguindanao province and Sultan Kudarat province),
the Davao Gulf (enclosed by the Davao provinces and Compostela
Valley province), and Sarangani Bay (enclosed by Sarangani and South
Cotabato provinces). The Sarangani Strait separates the Sarangani and
Balut Islands at the southern tip of Sarangani and Davao del Sur
Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas
provinces from the Mindanao mainland. These three southern Philippine

seas are continuous with the Sulawesi Sea, the fourth sea covered in this
review. They have a diverse marine environment because of the variable
depths and the presence of shallow marine habitats that include coral
reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves. Different shallow marine
ecosystems dominate in some parts of the area according to information
provided by the DENR. Zamboanga provinces, Basilan, Davao Oriental
and Cotabato City are still relatively rich in mangroves. Davao del Sur
and Zamboanga del Sur lead in seagrass beds. Sarangani, Davao del Sur
and Zamboanga del Sur lead in coral reef ecosystems. However, the
present status of these ecosystems needs verification. The four seas are
interconnected (Fig. 1) and have a greater proportion of waters 1,000 m
and deeper, compared to other areas in the country such as the Palawan
area.
Figure 1. Map of the Sulawesi Sea. Isobath in meters. (Modified from: NASA
Blue Marble, Bathymetry: US Defense Agency)
Moro Gulf
The Moro Gulf is a deep body of water with an area of about
22,000 km2. About 40% of it is deeper than 2,000 m. Its deepest part near
its eastern portion is about 5,000 m. The western part of the Gulf is
shallow, less than 200 m deep, with extensive mangroves and coral reefs
(Zamboanga del Sur and Zamboanga Sibugay provinces) (Fig. 2). Within
the Gulf is the Illana Bay.
Illana Bay
Figure 2. Map of Moro Gulf. Isobath in meters. (Modified from: NASA Blue
Marble, Bathymetry: US Defense Agency)
Davao Gulf
Davao Gulf is about 7,300 km2 in area (Fig. 3). It is a fairly deep
body of water. The southern half is about 1,800 m deep. The deepest part
is near the mouth at 2,800 m. Only a thin strip near the shoreline is
shallow, with a depth of less than 100 m, where mangroves, seagrasses,
and coral reefs may still exist. Inside the bay is Samal Island, a
conservation and tourism island and site of giant clam (Tridacna gigas)
introduction by the University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute
and the Davao del Norte State College. A small, privately-owned island
with coral reef and mangrove in the northern part of the gulf belonging to
the province of Compostela Valley is also a conservation island. The
DENR has established a marine protected area mostly of seagrass beds
along the shore of Davao Gulf in this province.
Figure 3. Map of Davao Gulf and Sarangani Bay. Isobath in meters. (Modified
from: NASA Blue Marble, Bathymetry: US Defense Agency)
Sarangani Bay and Sarangani Islands

Sarangani Bay is the smallest body of seawater in the study area
(ca 480 km2) and generally shallower compared to the other two seas
(Fig. 4). Inside the bay, the water depth ranges from 200 m to 1,000 m.
At the mouth of the bay the depth reaches 2,000 m. The bottom
substratum is dominated by mud. The northern part of the bay contains
coral reef.
Off the southern tip of Sarangani and Davao del Sur provinces
are the Sarangani Islands composed of two small islands, Balut and
Sarangani, separated from the Mindanao mainland by the Sarangani
Strait. In the shallow waters around these islands are coral reefs. Currents
in the vicinity of Balut Island are almost constant and swift; one
measurement registered at 7 knots (A. Ong, pers comm). Currents are
probably due to the Mindanao Current flowing southward along the
eastern coast of Mindanao. In August 2006, a fish-kill involving coral
reef fishes occurred, which, according to the Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources (BFAR), was caused by the high sulfur content of the
water (A. Ong, pers comm). Beyond the 183 m isobath are deeper waters
ranging from 200 m to 1,946 m in depth. Sarangani Islands are well
known for rare shells. Although over-fished in terms of the major tuna
species, the Sarangani Bay and Sarangani Strait are still relatively rich in
pelagic fish species and are favorite areas for sport and recreational
fishing (A. Ong, pers comm).
The Sulawesi Sea: Topography and Oceanography
The Sulawesi Sea is a large marine ecosystem (LME) with
variable depths and varied bottom topography that partly explain its
complex oceanography (Tomascik et al. 1997). The Sulawesi Sea alone
is about 450,000 km2 in area. The total area of the Sulawesi Sea and the
Sulu Sea plus the Visayan inland seas (= Sulu-Sulawesi Sea Ecoregion of
WWF [Ingles & Trono 2004]), is about 900,000 km2. The Sulawesi Sea
lies at the center of the worlds highest marine biodiversity area
(DeVantier et al. 2004). The Sulawesi Sea, with which the southern
Philippine seas are continuous, varies in depth, reaching 4,000 to 5,780
m in the Sarangani Strait southwest of the Sarangani Islands and 1,000 to
4,200 m towards the southeast (Fig. 4). This highlights the importance of
the mesopelagic and bathypelagic realms suspected of favoring
speciation of certain marine species in this tropical sea (Madin 2008).
The North Equatorial Current influences the direction of surface
currents in the three Philippine seas and the Sulawesi Sea (Wyrtki 1961,
Villanoy 1988, Villanoy & Udarbe 1995) (Fig. 5). This current moves
westward. Upon reaching the sea area between northern Samar and
Catanduanes (Zheng et al. 2006), it splits into the Kuroshio or Japan
Current heading north and the Mindanao Current flowing south. During
the southwest monsoon months (June to November), the Mindanao
Current spits into two in the Sulawesi Sea, one stream proceeding south
and another stream flowing counterclockwise as the Equatorial
Countercurrent. During the northeast monsoon months (November to
May), the Mindanao Current flows south and southeastward and
proceeds counterclockwise as the Equatorial Countercurrent; and a small
component flows counterclockwise in the eastern portion of the Sulawesi
Sea and Moro Gulf.
The Mindanao Current joins with the current from the South
China to form the Indonesian Throughflow (Zheng et al. 2006) moving
Figure 4. The Islands in the Sulawesi Sea. Isobath in meters. (Modified from:
NASA Blue Marble, Bathymetry: US Defense Agency)
south via the Makassar Strait east of Kalimantan and allowing marine
propagules and migratory marine species from the Pacific Ocean, the
South China Sea and the Sulu Sea to reach the Indian Ocean (see
discussion on whales and dolphins).
The nature of the deep-water circulation in the four seas is not
clearly understood. But it is clear that the deep-sea currents are complex
partly because of the varied topography of the sea bottom.
The seawater quality of the Davao Gulf and the Sarangani Bay
as well as nearby areas has been assessed to be Marginal (barely
acceptable) for Sarangani Bay and General Santos, Satisfactory for the
western part of Davao Gulf but Unsatisfactory for Davao City and
Figure 5. (A) Surface current patterns in the Philippines and adjacent waters
during northeast and southwest monsoon (source: Villanoy & Udarbe 1995); (B)
Surface currents in December in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. (Source: Wyrtki
1961)
environs without giving the basis for such a classification (Philippines

Environment Monitor 2003). This situation should be addressed by
agencies responsible for maintaining good water quality.
Earthquakes and Tsunamis
Fig. 6 shows a subduction zone, the Cotabato-West Sangihe
Trench), in the Sulawesi Sea and the Moro Gulf (Hamilton 1979). A
tsunami hit Cotabato and Lanao Sur in 1976 killing some 7,000 people.
An eyewitness living on Bongo Island off Cotabato City once described
to the first author the impact of that tsunami on this island. The Sulawesi
Sea, the Moro Gulf, and the Davao Gulf have been the epicenters of
many shallow earthquakes of magnitudes 7.0 or more from 19181973
(Fig. 7) (MRDP-CMBC 2003).
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this review is to assemble secondary data
and information inclusive of those from gray literature that will
contribute to the building of a biodiversity profile of the seas of southern
Philippines. The other objectives are the identification of the major
threats to the biodiversity and the determination of gaps in our current
knowledge of the biodiversity.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
This paper is a table review of the findings of research and
development projects on the biodiversity of southern Mindanao, whether
published or unpublished. The documents examined consisted of (1)
papers in refereed and non-refereed journals, (2) books, (3) unpublished
project reports, (4) newsletters, (5) maps and charts, (6) selected papers
posted on the Internet, and (7) posters produced by government agencies.
Telephone and e-mail facilities have also been used to access
information. The information gathered from the aforementioned sources
was supplemented with interviews from knowledgeable persons involved
in marine resource-related business in General Santos City and Davao
City. The data and information on the biodiversity of southern Philippine
seas are discussed in relation to those in other areas of the Philippines,
where possible, to give the reader an idea of how the biodiversity of
Figure 6. Island arc-elements in the central and southern Philippines. (Source:

Hamilton 1979)
11
Figure 7. Earthquake Map of Mindanao. (Source: MRDP-CMBC 2003 Baseline

Survey Report)
southern Mindanao compares with those in other parts of the country,

and to highlight gaps in our knowledge of the four southern Philippine
seas.
No statistics except the mean have been used in this report.
There are no SE estimates because the authors of the papers and reports
reviewed (except those dealing with fish density and biomass estimates
from MPAs and non-MPAs in the Visayas, Spratlys, Maguindanao and
Sultan Kudarat) did not include them.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Under this section, we present our findings on the biodiversity of
southern Philippines and compare it (where possible) with those of other
parts of the country.
Seagrasses, Mangroves, and Corals

The three shallow-water marine ecosystems common in the
Philippines are seagrass beds, mangroves and coral reefs. Their health
status indicates the conservation status of the marine environment as
well. Fig. 8 shows the species richness of seagrass and mangrove areas
in five localities, two protected areas (Sultan Kudarat and Maguindanao)
and three unprotected areas (Sarangani Bay, Davao Gulf, and Malalag
Bay). There were 6 to10 species of seagrass (Table 1) and 6 to17 species
of mangrove trees (Table 2). Also shown is the percentage of live hard
coral in six localities (two protected areas, Sultan Kudarat and
Maguindanao, and four others unprotected) ranging from 25% in
Maguindanao (protected in 2005) to 68% in Sarangani (unprotected in
1987).
Table 1. Seagrass species identified in southern Philippines. *Excluding Malalag

Bay
SEAGRASS
SPECIES
Potamogetonaceae
Halodule
uninervis
Halodule
pinifolia
ParilSangay
Cymodocea
serrulata
Bongo
Is.
Sarangani
Bay
Davao
Gulf*
Malalag
Bay
Cymodocea
rotundata
Syringodium
isoetifolium
Thalassodendron
ciliatun
Hydrocharitaceae
Enhalus
acoroides
Thalassia
hemprichii
Halophila ovalis
X
X
X
X
10
10
Halophila
spinulosa
Total
13
Table 2. Mangrove species identified in southern Mindanao. *Excluding

Malalag Bay
FAMILY
SPECIES
Rhizophoraceae
Rhizophora
mucronata
Rhizophora
apiculata
Ceriops
decandra
Ceriops tagal
Avicenniaceae
Sonneratiaceae
Combretaceae
Myrsinaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Lythraceae
Bruguiera
parviflora
Bruguiera
cylindrica
Bruguiera
sexangula
Avicennia
marina
Avicennia
alba
Avicennia
lanata
Avicennia
officinalis
Sonneratia
alba
Sonneratia
caseolaris
Terminalia
catappa
Lumnitzera
littorea
Lumnitzera
racemosa
Aegiceras
floridum
Aegiceras
corniculatum
Excoecaria
agallocha
Pongamia
pinnata
Prosopis
vidaliana
Pemphis
acidula
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Sarangani
Bay
Davao
Gulf*
Malalag
Bay
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Table 2. continued.
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Palmae
Nypa fruticans
Acanthaceae
Acanthus
ilicifolius
Dolichandrone
spathacea
Xylocarpus
granatum
Xylocarpus
moluccensis
Xylocarpus sp.
FAMILY
Bignoniaceae
Melaiceae
TOTAL 12
28
Sarangani
Bay
Davao
Gulf*
Malalag
Bay
X
X
X
X
X
17
10
16
In the country in general, areas with good seagrass meadows

harbor more than 10 species. The localities sampled did not exhibit a
high species richness for seagrass. For excellent mangrove forests, 20 or
more species are expected. An example is southern Palawan, which has
27 species of mangrove trees out of more than 30 species reported from
the Philippines (Matillano 2005). The remaining mangrove forest patches
in southern Philippines appear to show various degrees of disturbance.
The live coral cover at the lower end of the range (2540%) in southern
Mindanao appears to be similar to those on unprotected reefs in other
parts of the country. But protected coral reefs in the Central Visayas have
generally higher live coral cover, about 5060% (see Alcala et al. 2006).
Biodiversity in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
and Unprotected Areas
In the area, 31 MPAs have been established or are being
established (SUAKCREM unpubl data): one in Zamboanga del Sur, eight
in Sarangani, seven in Davao del Sur, 11 in Davao del Norte and one
each in Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, Compostela Valley, and Davao
Oriental. However, in only few of them is the biodiversity known. The
only available data are from two MPAs, and these are summarized in this
report. This is because monitoring through time has not been done for
most of the MPAs.
As most MPAs are located along shallow coastal areas, the
biodiversity reported from them concerns the shallow water species
15
Figure 8. (A) Seagrass species richness, (B) Mangrove species richness, and (C)
Live coral cover (%) in southern Mindanao. Sultan Kudarat and Maguindanao
sites are MPAs. (Sources: MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact Assessment 2005;
Mindanao State University-Naawan 1995; Calumpong et al. 1997a; Calumpong
et al. 1997b) Figure in parenthesis after site indicates number of stations
surveyed. Year indicates time of survey.
commonly distributed at water depths not exceeding 50 m. Essentially,

similar groups of shallow-water marine species have been reported
throughout the country, and deep-water, globally important biodiversity
such as whale sharks, dolphins, and dugongs have been observed only in
certain areas. The occurrence of these species in or near MPAs depends
on the presence of food sources. This is true for example of dugongs,
which are dependent on the presence of a couple of species of seagrass
used as food.
Seagrass and mangrove species. The 6,000-ha MPA in
Maguindanao was established on Bongo Island in 20022005 by the
local government unit of Parang, Maguindanao assisted by the BFARAutonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). The 1,200-ha MPA
in Sultan Kudarat was established in the barangays of Paril and Sangay,
municipality of Kalamansig also in 20022005, with the assistance of the
DENR. Both MPAs consist of coral reef, mangroves and seagrass beds
and are co-managed by the local government units and local
communities. The species of seagrass and mangrove in these two MPAs
and in unprotected sites in southern Mindanao listed in Tables 1 and 2
are common throughout the country.
Reef and reef-associated fish. The reef and reef-associated fish
species in southern Mindanao are listed in Appendix 1, based on the
20022005 monitoring reports on the two MPAs in Sultan Kudarat and
Maguindanao (MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact Assessment 2005, Nillos
et al. 2005a, 2005b) and from rapid-survey assessments made at few
selected sites in Sarangani Bay, Davao Gulf and Malalag Bay
(Calumpong et al. 1997a, 1997b; Mindanao State University 1995). A
total of about 350 species in 33 Families has been identified in
underwater visual surveys. This is only a rough estimate of the total
number of species found in the area as visual surveys generally
underestimate the true numbers. The majority of the species in the list
belonged to the category of small, indicator species, and only about 111
species in 13 Families were food or target species.
The 13 Families to which the food fishes belong were
Acanthuridae (surgeonfishes), Caesionidae (fusiliers), Carangidae
(jacks), Eppiphidae (bat fishes), Haemulidae (sweetlips), Holocentridae
(soldier fishes), Lethrinidae (emperor breams), Lutjanidae (snappers),
Mullidae (goat fishes), Nemipteridae (breams), Scaridae (parrotfishes),
Serranidae (groupers) and Siganidae (rabbitfishes). The acanthurids
consisted of 27 species, followed by scarids with 16 species, serranids
17
with 15 species, and caesionids, lutjanids, mullids, and siganids with

eight species each. The rest of the Families were represented by two to
five species. Carangidae, which comprises top predators, was represented
by only three species. No reef and reef-associated species were unique to
southern Philippines.
The two MPAs in Sultan Kudarat and Maguindanao had the
highest mean species richness, >100 species, while unprotected sites in
Sarangani, Malalag, and Davao Gulf had fewer species, indicating the
role of protection in maintaining species richness (Fig. 9). The most
noteworthy fish species found in these MPAs were the several large
bumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum) and the aquarium fish,
blue tang (Paracanthurus hepatus). The former was found in the two
MPAs, while the latter was limited to Paril-Sangay, Sultan Kudarat.
There was a wide range in the estimates of mean fish density in
the various sites in southern Mindanao. The highest estimate was in
Sarangani Bay (9,075 individuals per 500 m2), followed by Davao Gulf
(1,929 individuals/500m2), and was lowest in Malalag Bay (Fig. 10). It is
difficult to make a generalization on the basis of the data, but it is
obvious that the estimate for Sarangani Bay is an outlier.
The mean biomass of target fish species (Fig. 11) was highest in
Maguindanao (an MPA), 7.8 kg/500 m2 or 15.6 tons/km2. Davao Gulf, a
non-MPA, was second, with a biomass of 5.2 kg/500 m2 or 10.4
tons/km2. The rest were lower than 10 tons/km2. These estimates are in
the lower end of the scale for fully protected MPAs (e.g., Alcala 2001).
Mean number of species of macro-invertebrates. There were
only few macro-invertebrates such as giant clams, sea urchins, sea
cucumbers, and shells observed in southern Philippines. The mean
number of species ranged from 0 to 13.16 (Fig. 12), indicating their
depleted status. There have been reports of rare gastropod species but
documentation is lacking.
Mean density of holothurians and giant clams in Maguindanao
and Sultan Kudarat MPAs (Bongo Island and Paril-Sangay). The data
for three years on density of these two macro-invertebrate groups in the
two MPAs are shown in Fig. 13 for holothurians and Fig. 14 for giant
clams. The giant clams belong to two common species, Tridacna
squamosa and T. maxima. The effect of protection on giant clam density
is obvious, density being higher after a period of protection. However,
the density of holothurians was higher in take zones.
Figure 9. Fish species richness in southern Mindanao. Figure in parenthesis

indicates number of stations surveyed. Year indicates time of survey. (Sources:
MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact Assessment 2005; Mindanao State UniversityNaawan 1995; Calumpong et al. 1997a; Calumpong et al.1997b)
Figure 10. Southern Mindanao Mean Fish Density compared to Density in

Bohol Sea and South China Sea. Figure in parenthesis indicates number of
stations. Year indicates time of survey. (Sources: MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact
Assessment 2005; Mindanao State University-Naawan 1995; Calumpong et al.
1997a; Calumpong et al. 1997b)
19
Figure 11. Southern Mindanao target fish biomass by locality compared with
those in Bohol Sea and South China Sea. Figure in parenthesis indicates number
of stations. Year indicates time of survey. (Sources: MRDP-CMBC Annual
Impact Assessment 2005; Mindanao State University-Naawan, 1995;
Calumpong et al. 1997a; Calumpong et al.1997b)
Figure 12. Southern Mindanao mean macro-invertebrate species richness. Figure

in parenthesis indicates number of stations. Year indicates time of survey.
(Sources: MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact Assessment 2005; Mindanao State
University-Naawan 1995; Calumpong et al. 1997a; Calumpong et al. 1997b)
Figure 13. Mean holothurian density at the two MPAs in Maguindanao and
Sultan Kudarat in 20032005. TZ - take (fishing) zones; NTZ - No Take Zones.
(Source: MRDP-CMBC 2003 Baseline Survey Report)
Figure 14. Density of two common species of Tridacna in the two MPAs in
Maguindanao and Sultan Kudarat in 20032005. TZ - take (fishing) zones; NTZ
- no take zones. (Source: MRDP-CMBC 2003 Baseline Survey Report)
21
Diversity of Fishery Species

It is estimated that there are about 2,500 fish species in the SuluSulawesi Sea (e.g., DeVantier et al. 2004). The fishery species in this sea
is not known. A BFAR poster Marine Fishes of the Philippines shows
pictures of about 81 commercial species in 47 Families of cartilaginous
and bony fishes that are widely consumed throughout the country. The
top four specious Families in this poster in the order of abundance are
Carangidae, Serranidae, Scombridae, and Clupeidae, the first two being
reef-associated and the last two pelagic. The number of species in this
poster is definitely an underestimate.
In a 30-year study of coral reef fishes associated with MPAs in
central Philippines, Alcala & Russ (2002) estimated about 100 species of
food fishes. This number is also probably an underestimation.
Diversity of Species in Tuna Fisheries
Tuna fisheries mostly in southern Philippines and Sulawesi Sea
increased in landings from 10,000 tons in 1971 to over 200,000 tons in
1981 according to Ruben Ganaden of BFAR. Another report (Chee
1996) provides data on tuna landings, 325,000 tons in 1989 and 1990 and
300,000 tons in 1991. Langley et al. (2004) puts the 2002 total tuna
landings at 209,771 tons (146,436 tons commercial and 63,335
municipal). According to Noel Barut of the National Fisheries Research
and Development Institute (NFRDI), the total landed catch for all tunas
is more than 500,000 tons. For 2005, Regions 11 and 12 (Davao and
Cotabato provinces) produced 293,000 tons of fish (assumed to be
mainly tunas), and exported 84,288 tons in 2003, 77,356 tons in 2004,
and 54,708 tons in 2005 (Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines 2003
2005). Species landed were yellowfin (Thunnus albacares), skipjack
(Katsuwonus pelamis), frigate (Auxis thazard), bullet (Auxis rochei),
longtail (Thunnus tonggol) and bigeye (Thunnus obesus), the latter two
being relatively insignificant (Report of the Workshop on Philippines
and Indonesia research activities. Indo-Pacific Tuna Development and
Management Program 1983). Aprieto (1982) considers yellowfin,
skipjack, frigate and eastern little tuna (Euthynnus affinis) as the four
important tuna species. She pointed out that tuna migration (usually
understood as the physical movements of tunas in oceans around the
world) does not stop at capture but continues to move over long distances
in the form of canned products. Rasalan (1977) and Montilla & Bunag
(1957) mention the blue bonito (Euthynnus yaito) as a commercial tuna
species. Aside from the tuna species, non-tuna species caught off
southern Mindanao include blue marlin (Makaira mazara), sailfish
(Istiophorus platypterus), black marlin (Makaira indica), and swordfish
(Langley et al. 2004). The southern Philippine seas appear to have the
largest number and volume of large fishery species in the country.
The tuna species for export are the yellowfin and bigeye, for
canneries the skipjack, and for the local market the frigate, bullet and the
eastern little tuna. Major importers of chilled fresh tuna in 2002 were
Japan, USA, and Hongkong, and Canada, Germany, and Singapore for
canned tuna (Langley et al. 2004).
Tuna handline boats numbered ca 10,000 in 2002, but licenses
issued were less. General Santos had 2,000 vessels for handliners. Ring
net fleet in General Santos was about 500 vessels; about 41 (in Davao)
and 40 (in General Santos) were purse seiners.
Tuna Migrations. Movements to and from the Philippines of
tagged yellowfins, skipjacks, and bigeyes through the Sulawesi and other
seas in the Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea and other islands in the
western Pacific have been summarized in maps in the WWF Philippines
biophysical assessment (2003). These maps are reproduced in this report
(Figs. 1518). The impression is that tuna highways exist in these seas.
Comparison of Present and Past Fisheries. A reliable observer
(A. Ong) who has had wide and long experience on tuna fishing recalls
that tuna fishing was a year-round activity in the area in the 1970s1980s
when tuna species were abundant in Sarangani Bay and environs. At
those times yellow fin tuna and skipjack were the common commercial
fishes in the area. The skipjack trapped in fish corrals was easily caught
by hand. In Sarangani Bay, it was not unusual to catch 80 tons of
skipjack in one day in the 1980s. This fish at those times grew to large
sizes, 1015 kg, in contrast to their rarity and small size (1 kg) these days
(A. Ong, pers comm).
The yellow fin tuna has been over-fished in the seas of southern
Philippines and the adjacent Sulawesi Sea. Tuna long-liners and handliners now fish far out into the Indonesian Sulawesi reaching the
Halmahera and Taliabu Islands to as far as New Guinea in order to catch
sufficient fish volume for the export market estimated at US$33M per
year for the 3,000 hand-liners and US$50-60M for long-liners and other
gears catching yellow fins and other species (R. Lim, pers comm).
23
Movements of tuna released in the Philippines and recaptured Movements of tuna recaptured in the Philippines from
outside Philippine waters (Shipjack solid lines, yellowfin releases outside Philippine waters (Shipjack solid lines,
dashed lines, PRIMEX-SPC, 1993)
yellowfin dashed lines, PRIMEX-SPC, 1993)
Figure 15. Movement of Skipjack and Yellowfin Tuna to and from the
Philippines (Source: WWF-Philippines 2003)
Figure 16. Movement of Skipjack

Tuna from Sulu, Sulawesi, and
Philippine Seas. (Source: WWFPhilippines 2003)
Figure 17. Movement of Yellow-fin

Tuna Sulawesi, Philippine, Sulu and
Seas (Source: WWF-Philippines
2003)
Figure 18. Movement of Big-eye

Tuna from Philippine, Sulawesi, Sulu
and Seas (Source: WWF-Philippines
2003)
25
Conservation Strategies. Some tuna fishers recommend the

exclusive use of hand-lines and the exclusion of other gears in catching
tuna because they claim that hand-lines are selective for large-size fish.
Use of hand-lines also makes it possible for small unskilled fishers to
participate in fishing, thus giving them an opportunity to improve their
lives. However, it is claimed that hand-lines catch more sexually mature
tunas, implying reduction of spawners. There is reason to believe that
tuna depletion has also been caused by the use of small mesh-size ring
nets (sinsoro) and baby seines that catch juvenile tuna. Taking small fish
reduces the value of the catch. Floyd and Pauly (1984) and Aprieto
(1982) have presented evidence on the possible role of fish aggregating
devices (payaos) in facilitating the capture of juvenile fish in and around
these devices. There are at present about 20 such fish aggregating
devices in Sarangani Bay. The practice of catching both large mature fish
and juveniles should be controlled to achieve sustainability.
There is evidence from length-frequency data that Philippine
tuna fishers catch a large proportion of juveniles. The median for tuna
catch by ring net is 25 cm, that for US purse seiners is 50100 cm, and
that for Japanese long-liners is 120 cm (Sakagawa 1996). Mullen et al.
(1996) give the median of length frequency distribution of yellowfin
caught by purse seine as 2530 cm (range 15195 cm). Miyabe et al.
(1996) confirmed the identification of these small juvenile yellowfins
and skipjacks caught in shallow waters off General Santos with the use
of mitochondrial DNA.
.
Fishery Species in Davao Gulf and their Conservation Status
For non-tuna fish species in Davao Gulf, Armada (2004) has
shown that catching of juveniles is a threat to sustainable fisheries. He
listed eight species of fish with their population parameters, one of which
is their extraction rates (E). All of these species appear to have high Es,
all exceeding 0.50 (0.580.70) due to overexploitation at the juvenile and
adult stages. These species belonging to Families Carangidae, Menidae,
Scombridae and Siganidae are Selar crumenophthalmus, Rastrelliger
brachysoma, R. kanagurta, Mene maculata, Auxis thazard, A. rochei, and
Siganus canaliculatus. The last-named species has the highest E due to
extremely high rate of exploitation occurring not only in Davao Gulf but
also all over the country. Armadas study should be repeated for other
fishery species.
The fishery yields for five groups of fish in Davao Gulf and
Moro Gulf caught by various gears in 1982 are shown in Fig. 19. Davao
Gulf has greater fishery production (0.11.0 ton/km2) compared with
Moro Gulf (0.10.2 ton/km2). These figures indicate a higher fishery
productivity for Davao Gulf.
Figure 19. Yields of pelagic fish species in Davao and Moro Gulfs in 1983.
(Source: Yesaki 1982)
Billfishes (Family Istiophoridae)

No study, published or unpublished, appears to have been made
on this group of commercially important pelagic species in the marine
waters under review. Interviews with two tuna fishers (A. Ong and R.
Lim) indicated their presence in the Sulawesi Sea. These species
certainly pass through the southern Mindanao seas and the Sulawesi Sea
because they migrate in the Indo-Pacific region based on the account by
Nakamura (2001).
Our informants stated that these fishes are strictly of local
commercial importance and there is no international market for them.
The reason is the fear of foreign buyers that these species accumulate
high concentrations of heavy metals.
27
Two species of billfishes have been identified by an undated

Fisheries Resource Management Project, BFAR poster Marine Fishes of
the Philippines. These two species are the Black Marlin (Makaira
indica) and Indo-Pacific Sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus). Both species
are widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical waters of the IndoPacific and sometimes extending to temperate waters (Nakamura 2001).
Cetaceans (Whales and Dolphins)
Thus far only one study has been made partly on the cetaceans of
Sulawesi Sea (Dolar & Perrin 1996). They reported six species, namely,
Stenella longirostris, S. attenuata, Lagenodelphis hosei, Grampus
griseus, Globicephala macrorhynchus, and Physeter macrocephalus.
Bautista and Tan (in manuscript) report nine sighting of four species of
cetaceans Kogia sima, Stenella longirostris, Grampus griseus, and
Tursiops aduncus. Dolar (1999), Perrin et al. (2002) and Dolar et al.
(2006) have reported on the marine mammals of the adjoining Sulu Sea.
Because of the large size of the Sulawesi Sea, it is almost certain that the
number of whales and dolphins will exceed that known for the
Philippines (27 species). The Longmanns beaked whale was reported
from Matina, Davao City in 2003. It is obvious that studies on the
cetaceans of southern Philippines need to be conducted (D. Torres, pers
comm).
Dolar (pers comm, unpubl list) recently reported a total of 27
marine mammal species in the Philippines, 26 species of cetaceans
(Order Cetacea) composed of 21 toothed whales and dolphins and five
species of baleen whales and one species of the Order Sirenia, the
dugong.
Kreb & Budiono (2005) suggest that the Indonesian throughflow (passes) east of Kalimantan, through the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas and
Makassar Strait carrying larvae and plankton from the Pacific Ocean to
the Indian Ocean. Similarly, these seas most likely provide a migratory
pathway for whales and dolphins. These authors have reported 12
species listed in Table 3 in the marine waters east of Kalimantan. These
listed species are also probably found in the southern Philippine marine
waters under review.
Whales and dolphins are threatened by fishing nets (ring nets,
gill nets, drift nets). Dolphins are often caught as fisheries by-catch from
the Sulu Sea (Dolar 1999, pers comm).
Table 3. Cetacean species list.

Species
1.
Tursiops truncatus
2.
Stenella attenuata
3.
Stenella longirostris
4.
Stenella longirostris, sp. (with short beak)
5.
Orcaella brevirostris
6.
Stenella l. roseiventris
7.
Tursiops sp.
8.
Pseudorca crassidens
9.
Peponocephala electra
10. Globicephala macrorhynchus

11. Tursiops aduncus
12. Neophocaena phocaenoides
In the Sulawesi Sea, our informant reported that tuna fishers are
heavily penalized if caught capturing whales and dolphins. A
certification process is in effect which denies access of tuna products to
tuna exporters violating the ban on these endangered species (A. Ong,
pers comm).
Dugong
The dugong is definitely present in the southern part of the
Davao Gulf. Several sightings have been made by R. Lucero and
colleagues off New Argao, Malita, Davao del Sur in 2005 (R. Lucero,
pers comm). This endangered mammal was observed to swim singly or
as a group of three individuals, including a calf. Apparently, these
animals were used to the presence of boats about 50 m away. The
animals probably fed in the area where three species of seagrass used as
food occur. The population size is not known but it is most likely very
small. Reports indicate the presence of dugongs in the Sarangani group
of islands, where seagrass beds are present. The third site with confirmed
dugong (two adult individuals) is the Paril-Sangay area in Sultan
Kudarat, part of the Moro Gulf, in 2005 (MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact
29
Assessment Report 2005). These individuals apparently must have fed on

seagrass beds outside of the site observed because of the absence of
seagrass at the observed site. It is inferred that the animals inhabit the
coastline of Sultan Kudarat and Sarangani provinces in western
Mindanao. One individual was found dead in Sarangani sometime before
2005.
The dugong has been reported in other parts of the Philippines
(Guimaras Strait, Palawan) and is threatened by dynamite blasts and in
some cases is directly hunted (Marsh et al. 2002, L. Dolar, pers comm).
Sea Turtles
Only three species of sea turtles (hawksbill, green and
leatherback) have thus far been reported in the seas off southern
Philippines. Five species have been reported in the Sulu-Sulawesi Sea
(DeVantier et al. 2004).
In Davao City, the beach of Matina Aplaya has been a nesting
site of the hawksbill for some time now and hatchlings have been
returned to the sea. In 2003, 512 eggs of the hawksbill hatched; the
hatchlings were returned to the sea at this site (Torres et al. 2004, J.
Guirjen, pers comm). The area is a protected marine turtle sanctuary
through the initiative of Mr. Leo Avila of Davao City, who has been
waging a campaign to conserve sea turtles in the area.
At Lupon, Davao Oriental, hawksbill, green and leatherback
turtles have been reported (The Marine Protected Area Management Plan
20052009, Municipality of Lupon, Davao Oriental).
Up to 30 green turtles per night were observed nesting on
Panikian Island, Zamboanga del Sur (D. Torres, pers comm.). Green sea
turtles are often released back to Sarangani Bay after capture (newspaper
account, Philippine Star, February 15, 2007).
In the western coast of Mindanao, the beaches of Klid (sitio of
Barangay Paril) and Danauan Island (also in Paril), both in Kalamansig,
Sultan Kudarat province have been used by green and hawksbill turtles
as nesting sites for several years. Since 2003 the local community has
been protecting the nests and the hatchlings were allowed to return to
Illana Bay, which is part of Moro Gulf (MRDP-CMBC Impact Report
for 2005). Similarly, on the island of Bongo, off Cotabato City, the beach
at Barangay Limbayan has been an egg-laying site of the two species.
Local communities have protected the nests, and hundreds of hatchlings
have been allowed to return to the bay in 2003 and 2005.
Sea Turtle Migrations in the Sulawesi Sea. Since no tagging of

hatchlings in southern Mindanao was done, it is not known where these
hatchlings go. But some information exists on turtles tagged outside the
Philippines that were reported to reach southern Mindanao. Ramirez de
Veyra (1994) reported that a green turtle tagged on Yap Island,
Micronesia in 1991 was caught in a fish gear in Glan, South Cotabato on
17 January 1992 and must have traversed the Sulawesi Sea. This animal
died before its scheduled release. One (No. 27961) of the four
leatherback turtles tagged in Papua was tracked by satellite telemetry
from Jamursba Medi Beach to Davao Gulf in 2002, traversing the
Sulawesi Sea (Fig. 20) (Dermawan 2004). Thus, data showing that sea
turtles hatched in southern Mindanao migrate across the Sulawesi Sea are
lacking. However, based on the two examples mentioned above, it is
likely that those hatchlings from Davao, Sultan Kudarat and
Maguindanao do so.
Figure 20. Route of leatherback turtle from New Guinea to Davao Gulf. (Source:
Dermawan 2004)
31
Sea Turtle Movements from and within the Philippines. The

movements of green sea turtles tagged in the Turtle Islands, Sulu Sea,
have been on the whole within the Sulu Sea (Fig. 21), except for one
animal recovered dead in the Sulawesi Sea off East Kalimantan (Sagun
2004). The rest of the tagged animals were recovered in the Sulu
Archipelago and the Visayan Seas. Torres et al. (2004) included data
from reports on green turtles tracked by satellite telemetry from Pulau
Redang and Sarawak in Malaysia, from Thailand, and from the Turtle
Islands to Balabac Island. In the late 1970s, one of the several hawksbill
turtles we tagged in Negros Oriental was caught by a fisherman in
Masinloc, Zambales, but the tag was not returned to us. Earlier, Meylan
(1982) mentioned a report of a single hawksbill tagged in the Turtle
Islands, Sabah that traveled a straight-line distance of 713 km in 40 days
to the Philippines.
Threats to Sea Turtles. Gill nets and direct hunting remain the
major threats to sea turtles. This is particularly true in southwest and
western Philippines (including the Spratlys), where fishers (some of
whom are local government officials) have been hunting turtles and even
trading them with foreigners.
Figure 21. Movements of green sea turtles tagged in the Turtle Islands, Sulu Sea.
(Source: Sagun 2004)
Whale Sharks (Rhincodon typus)

Records of the occurrence and movements of the whale shark
through and in the Sulawesi Sea are lacking. One animal was reported in
the vicinity of General Santos in 2006.
Migration in the Sulu and South China Seas. Whale sharks like
tunas and billfishes migrate over long distances across seas belonging to
different political jurisdictions. Eckert et al. (2002) monitored the
movements of six whale sharks from the Sulu Sea to the South China Sea
under the political jurisdiction of the Philippines, Malaysia and Vietnam.
Two of the sharks traveled 4,567 and 8,025 km. Because of this
migration, conservation of this species requires agreement among these
three countries.
Whale sharks are now protected in many parts of the country but
are still threatened by indiscriminate fishing. From the popular press, it
appears that eco-tourism has helped in the conservation of the whale
shark especially in Donsol, Sorsogon.
Plankton and Fish Spawning Sites
Three studies on plankton in the Davao Gulf have been brought
to our attention: those by Mindanao State University at Naawan (1995),
Monteclaro (2002) and Abunal (2000). The Mindanao State University
study deals with both phytoplankton and zooplankton but does not
specifically refer to fish plankton. Monteclaro reported on the
zooplankton of Davao Gulf, which he found equally abundant during the
northeast and southwest monsoon months but exhibited more biomass
during the southwest monsoon. Abunal (2001) found fish eggs and fish
larvae throughout the year but mostly during August. Six fish families
(but not including the Scombridae) dominated the fish larval
composition. The author concluded that commercial fish species,
including tuna and reef fish, spawn and are nursed in Davao Gulf. More
detailed studies are needed to identify fish larvae to species before
making such a conclusion.
Studies on fish eggs and fish plankton, especially those of
commercial species, are very important in determining the sources of
propagules that maintain fishery species populations. The importance of
such studies is enhanced if correlated with ocean currents. Information
from Noel Barut of NFRDI indicates that the seas under review are tuna
33
spawning grounds. The surface currents in the Sulawesi Sea would

transport fish larvae from the Pacific Ocean, where, according to Jose
Ordoez of BFAR (pers comm), tuna also spawns. Because tuna
individuals of varying sizes from small juveniles to adults were seen in
the Sulu Sea, Moro Gulf and Sulawesi Sea, these seas are likely to be
spawning sites.
Spawning sites of coral reef fish elsewhere appear to be reef
areas where several species of Serranidae (groupers) and other fish
groups congregate to form spawning aggregations at favorable times of
the year. Practically nothing is known on these aggregations in the
Sulawesi area as well as in other Philippine seas.
A fish plankton study in the South China Sea was made in April
2004 by two graduate students from the University of the PhilippinesVisayas and Silliman University (Floren 2008). Fish larvae of demersal
species were taken in the vicinity of coral reefs of northern Palawan and
the North Danger Reef (Pugad-Parola Atoll) in contrast to pelagic fish
larvae taken in the more oceanic sampling stations in between.
Sea Snakes
No study has been done on the sea snakes in the southern
Philippine seas and the Sulawesi Sea. But fishers have reported sea
snakes from Sarangani Bay and Sarangani Strait. Sea snakes in the
Pacific region have been reviewed by Rasmussen (2001). There is a
need to determine the species and their numbers for comparison with the
Visayas, which has about a dozen species (Alcala 1986).
Migratory Shore, Sea and Aquatic Birds
There are probably more than 180 species of migratory birds
wintering in the Philippines, some of them aquatic, sea, and shore birds
(Jensen et al. 2005). Seabirds are good indicators of schools of fish, and
their presence in a specific sea area serves as a guide to fishers where to
fish. Sea birds follow well-known flyways to various parts of the
Southern Hemisphere. McClure (1974) summarized the information as of
the early 1970s. Three East Asian migration routes to various parts of
Indonesia and Australia pass through the Philippines via the chain of
islands, the Sulu Sea and the Sulawesi Sea. The information on ringed
birds accumulated by the project Migratory Animal Pathological Survey
in the 1960s and 1970s showed recoveries of 25 species on Mindanao,

some in Davao, Lanao and Zamboanga provinces. The species consisted
of egrets (including the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis), night herons
(Gorsachius spp.), and sterns (Sterna spp.). Egrets are birds of swamps
and coastal areas throughout the country. Frigate birds (Fregata sp.)
ringed from islands in Southeast Pacific have been reported to fly to
central Philippines via the Sulawesi Sea. Pelagic sea birds of the Family
Diomedeidae (albatrosses) and the Family Procellariidae (shearwaters)
probably traverse the Sulawesi Sea in their migrations. The Family
Sulidae (boobies) move around and nest on small islands (e.g.,
Tubbataha islets in the Sulu Sea), and are likely to be found on small
islands in the Sulawesi Sea.
Marine Species Unique to the Sulawesi Sea Area
The marine biodiversity in southern Philippine seas have many
species common to the rest of the country. This is due to ocean water
circulation that distributes marine propagules over a wide area. Because
of this, species endemism is low in marine ecosystems. However, some
endemic species exist in some areas. For example, some rare species of
corals are found only in southern Palawan and South China Sea (Morales
et al. 2005) (Fig. 22). In the Sulawesi Sea rare cowries and cone shells
are found on Balut Island in the Sarangani Group of Islands (Fig. 23)
(http://www.shellhorizons.com/details.asp?ProductID=CT-106&Page=1;
http://www.shellauction.net/auction_shell.php?id=115216; http://www.
schnr-specimen-shells.com/cervus.jpg).
The Sulawesi Sea is the home of a very important fish from the
standpoint of evolution, the coelacanth. The second known coelacanth
species (Latimeria menadoensis) was caught off North Sulawesi in 1997
(Erdman 1999). Fricke et al. (2000) suggested that the population is very
small and requires conservation measures but the probability that the
coelacanths of North Sulawesi are derived from a different area and
drifted there with oceanic currents, probably from the southern
Philippines or remote Pacific islands through the southerly Mindanao
current, cannot be eliminated. If this species were to be found in
Philippine part of the Sulawesi Sea, the country can be proud to be home
to this remarkable fish. Thus far, the search for this species by
Conservation International in the Sulawesi Sea has yielded negative
results. A group of Filipino divers is reportedly searching for Latimeria
in the Sarangani Islands.
35
The tunas, billfishes, whales, dolphins, dugong, whale sharks, sea

turtles, and pelagic sea birds are generally considered globally significant
species because of their ecological and economic impacts. They exhibit
migratory behavior and are valued as food and/or tourism species.
Figure 22. Two rare species of Acropora, (top) A. fastigata (bottom) A.

multiacuta from southern Palawan. (Photo by Brian Stockwell)
Cypraea herasei
Conus thomae
Conus cervus
Figure 23. Three species of rare shells found in Balut Island, Sarangani Province
(Sources:
www.shellauction.net,
www.shellhorizons.com,
www.schnrspecimen-shells.com)
37
Offshore MPAs
Thus far, only few shallow-water MPAs have been established in
the study area. The way to move forward is not only to establish more
shallow-water MPAs but also to establish MPA in areas with deeper
waters. Sulawesi Sea, because of its large area, appears to offer
opportunities in this direction, as MPAs can be an effective means to
conserve large migratory fish stocks (e.g., tuna) as well as other globally
important biodiversity. The only example of deep-water (high seas) MPA
is the Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary in the Mediterranean
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary). A major
constraint is getting regional and international agreements for
management. Areas near island groups between the Philippines and
Indonesia (Fig. 4) are ideal for establishing deep-water or high seas
MPAs. There already exist international and regional management
frameworks for such MPAs such as the United Nations Law of the Sea
Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, International
Maritime Organization and Regional Management Organizations, and
Fish Stock Agreements.
MPAs and Tourism
MPAs have been shown to be effective as tools for fishery
management and conservation of biodiversity (e.g., Alcala 2001). One
good idea is to include, in addition to regular tourism, recreational
fishing in the design and planning of MPAs in southern Philippines,
where a potential for recreational fishing for large pelagic fish still exists.
Fishing for pelagic game species with the intention of returning the
captured fish after photographing them could attract tourists interested in
recreational fishing. This activity outside of no-take zones could bring in
income that could be used for the protection and management of MPAs.
The Sarangani group of islands could well be considered for recreational
fishing (A. Ong, pers comm).
The role of MPAs in tourism is amply demonstrated by successes
in the Central Visayas, particularly Bohol and Negros Oriental (Alcala et
al. 2006).
Threats to Marine Biodiversity

Threats to marine biodiversity in other parts of the country also
exist in southern Philippines as already discussed above. Some fishing
gears (e.g., fish aggregation devices, beach seines) catch or facilitate the
capture of adult and juvenile fish. Dolphins and sea turtles are still part
of commercial fishing by-catch. Dugongs, whale sharks, turtles and
whales are often actively hunted. Target fishes, such as groupers and
even dugongs, are still fished using cyanides and/or blasting materials.
Many species of target or food fishes, mollusks (e.g., giant clams,
cowries, cone shells) and echinoderms (e.g., sea cucumbers) are overharvested.
The only way to address these threats to the biodiversity of
southern Philippines is to conduct massive educational and information
campaigns with the objective of changing attitudes and behavior of our
people and offering them alternative, non-extractive uses of biodiversity
such as tourism. These activities are made difficult because of poverty
that drives people to engage in destructive fishing, but they can be done.
Non-monetary rewards and incentives ideally complement educational
and conservation campaigns.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This review of research studies and development projects in
southern Philippine seas and the Sulawesi Sea, based on available
published and unpublished reports and papers, shows that the shallowwater biodiversity of the area studied does not differ much from those in
other similar areas of the country in terms of (1) species composition and
(2) ecological/conservation status. Unprotected coastal and marine areas
in southern Mindanao are comparable with unprotected areas in other
parts of the country. Protected areas in southern Philippines have better
biodiversity quality than unprotected ones.
Southern Philippine seas have, however, biodiversity and fishery
species (primarily tunas) that do not occur in large numbers in other parts
of the country, upon which an estimated six million people depend
directly for livelihood and income.
The marine environment of southern Philippines is more complex
than those in other parts of the country because of the bottom
topography, oceanography and vastness of the Sulawesi Sea. These
39
physical and environmental features are the primary reasons for the
enormous marine resource production and development potentials of
southern Philippines. These features can account for the uniqueness of
the biodiversity of the Sulawesi Sea compared with the other seas
surrounding the country. Among the unique species are the tunas and the
Manado coelacanth, but there are probably more unique species waiting
to be discovered in the depths of this vast ocean.
While there are geological processes (e.g., earthquakes and
tsunamis) in the southern Philippine seas and the Sulawesi Sea that can
cause occasional environmental disturbances, the area appears to be
generally stable.
The primary role of stakeholders is to eliminate the gaps in our
knowledge of the area through more studies, to protect the environment
and the marine biodiversity and to manage the marine resources for
sustainable development through action programs such as the
establishment of shallow-water and deep offshore MPAs and the
implementation of measures to stop the exploitation practices leading to
resource depletion and environmental degradation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. There are many gaps in our knowledge of the oceanography and
biodiversity of the seas of southern Philippines and the Sulawesi
Sea. More studies to determine the biodiversity of the area and
its oceanography are needed. Some of these studies would
require sophisticated equipment such as submersibles being
proposed by American oceanographers to study inner space
speciation in the Sulawesi Sea.
2. Without using sophisticated research equipment, much can be
achieved toward understanding biodiversity by establishing more
shallow-water MPAs with provisions for regular monitoring over
time as well as strengthening the management of existing ones.
These MPAs will be useful in bringing back depleted demersal
fishery species and can play an important role in attracting
tourists for economic development (e.g., recreational fishing).
3. There is a need to establish large, high seas or offshore MPAs
encompassing deep areas in the high seas used as migration
routes and spawning/nursery grounds of large pelagic and
migratory species. The Sarangani and Balut Islands can be part

of the high seas or offshore MPAs.
4. In agreement with Indonesia, a large MPA should be established
for deep-sea monitoring and studies on unique/rare species
(including the coelacanth) and oceanographic processes.
5. Because of the over-exploitation of the yellow fin tuna and other
species, conservation and control measures (e.g., regulating/
banning non-selective gears such as payaos, fine-mesh beach
seines, superlights) are needed.
6. Information, Education and Communication (IEC) and studies
on the large migratory species in the Sulawesi Sea should be
conducted by academic institutions in southern Philippines.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The financial support of WWF is gratefully acknowledged. Dr.
Louella Dolar Perrin, an authority on marine mammals, kindly supplied
copies of papers on marine mammals of the Sulawesi Sea. Roger Lim,
Alex Ong, Pinky Ong, our friends in General Santos and Davao City,
shared with us their vast knowledge and experience on the tuna fisheries
of the Sulawesi, Sarangani Bay and Moro Gulf. Girlie Gumanao of
Davao del Norte State College, Dr. Alexander Campaner, the President
of Southern Philippines Agribusiness, Marine and Aquatic School of
Technology (SPAMAST) and Ruth Lucero a faculty member of this
school, kindly gave us lists and abstracts of their research projects.
George G. Campeon, DA Regional Director kindly supplied us papers on
plankton. Noel Barut, gave us information and copies of published
papers on fisheries statistics and status of the tuna fisheries. Dan Torres
kindly supplied us information on sea turtle movements. Our assistants at
SUAKCREM, Jasper Maypa, Julius Guirjen, Emily Layos, Estrilda
Cruz-Am, and Gianani Gloria all assisted in various ways that enabled us
to complete this report. Jasper Maypa prepared the illustrations. Finally,
we thank the two anonymous referees for their comments and
suggestions.
41
Appendix 1. List of reef and reef-associated fish species in southern Mindanao.

*Include Davao Oriental, Davao del Sur and Samal Island.
FISH
FAMILIES
Apogonidae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
Apogon aureus
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Sarangani Bay
Apogon angustatus
Apogon
bandanensis
Apogon compressus
X
X
Apogon sealei
Apogon sp.
Meiacanthus sp.
X
X
Chaetodon
baronessa
Chaetodon bennetti
Chaetodon
citrinellus
Chaetodon kleinii
X
X
Chaetodon lineatus
Chaetodon
ocellicaudus
Chaetodon auriga
Chaetodon
melannotus
Chaetodon
mertensii
Chaetodon meyeri
X
X
Escenius midas
Chaetodon lunula
X
X
Meiacanthus
atrodorsalis
Meiacanthus
grammistes
Plagiotremus
rhynorhynchus
Chaetodontidae
Malalag
Bay
Archamia
zosterophora
Cheilodipterus
macrodon
Cheilodipterus
quinquelineatus
Blennidae
Davao
Gulf *
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Appendix 1. continued.
FISH
FAMILIES
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Chaetodontidae
Chaetodon
octofasciatus
Chaetodon
ornatissimus
Chaetodon
punctatofasciatus
Chaetodon raffflesi
X
X
Chaetodon
rainfordi
Chaetodon sp.
Malalag
Bay
X
X
X
X
X
Chaetodon
speculum
Chaetodon spinus
Chaetodon
trifascialis
Chaetodon
trifasciatus
Chaetodon
ulietensis
Chaetodon
unimaculatus
Chaetodon
vagabundus
Chaetodontoplus
mesoleucus
Forcipiger
flavissimus
Forcipiger
longirostis
Forcipiger sp.
Hemitaurichthys
polylepis
Heniochus
acuminatus
Heniochus
chrysostomus
Heniochus
diphreutes
Heniochus varius
Davao
Gulf *
Sarangani Bay
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Hemitaurichthys
polylepsis
Coradion altivelis
Coradion
chrysozonus
Corasion sp.
X
X
43
FISH
FAMILIES
Cirrhitidae
Labridae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Cirrtichthys sp.
Cirrtichthys falco
Cirhitichthys apinus
Paracirrhites
forsteri
Anampses
caepoleopunctatus
Anampses
meleagrides
Anampses twisti
Bongo
Is.
X
X
X
Bodianus
mesothorax
Bolbometopon
muricatum
Cheillio arenatus
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Cirrhilabrus
cyanopleura
Cirrhilabrus
punctatus
Cirrhilabrus sp.
X
X
Coris aygula
X
X
Coris dorsomacula
Coris schroedi
X
X
Cheilinus undulates
Coris gaimard
Cheilinus trilobatus
Coris batuensis
X
X
Cheilinus celebicus
Cheilinus
diagrammus
Cheilinus fasciatus
X
X
Bodianus diana
Cheilinus chlororus
Malalag
Bay
Bodianus axillaris
Cheillio
bimaculatus
Cheillio inermis
Davao
Gulf *
X
X
Sarangani Bay
X
X
FISH
FAMILIES
Labridae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
Diproctacanthus
xanthurus
Dischistodus
melanotus
Epibulus insidiator
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Malalag
Bay
Halichoeres chrysus
Halichoeres
hortulanus
Halichoeres
margaritaceus
Halichoeres
marginatus
Halichoeres
melanurus
Halichoeres
melapterus
Halichoeres
prosopeion
Halichoeres
richmondi
Halichoeres
scapularis
Halichoeres sp.
Hemigymnus
melapterus
Hologymnosus
annulatus
Hologymnosus
doliatus
Labrid sp.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Labrichthys
unilineatus
Labroides bicolor
X
X
X
Macropharyngodon
negrosensis
Novaculichthys
taeniorus
Davao
Gulf *
Gomphosus varius
Labroides
dimidiatus
Labroides
pectoralis
Labropsis australis
Sarangani Bay
X
X
45
FISH
FAMILIES
Labridae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Oxycheilinus
digrammus
Oxycheilinus
unifasciatus
Pseudocheilinus
octotaenia
Pseudanthias
huchtii
Pseudanthias sp.
Oxymonocanthus
longirostris
Stethojulis sp.
X
X
Thalassoma
hardwicke
Thalassoma lunare
Thalassoma
lutescens
Thalassoma
purpureum
Thalassoma
quinquevittatum
Xyrichtys pavo
Cheilodipterus
artus
Cheilodipterus
quenquelineatus
Cheilodipterus sp.
Apolemichthys
trimaculatus
Centropyge bicolor
Centropyge
bispinosus
Centropyge nox
Chaetodontoplus
mesoleucus
Genicanthus
lamarck
Malalag
Bay
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Centriopyge tibicen
Centropyge vrolikii
Davao
Gulf *
Choerodon
anchorago
Pomacanthidae
Sarangani Bay
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
FISH
FAMILIES
Pomacanthidae
Pomacentridae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Sarangani Bay
Pomacanthus
imperator
Pomacanthus
navarchus
Pygoplites
diacanthus
Abudefduf
vaigiensis
Abudefduf
sexfasciatus
Acanthochromis
polyacanthus
Amblyglyphidodon
aureus
Amblyglyphidon
curacao
Amblyglyphidodon
leucogaster
Amphiprion clarkii
Malalag
Bay
X
X
X
X
X
X
Amphiprion
occelaris
Amphiprion percula
Amphiprion
peridareion
Amphiprion
frenatus
Amphiprion
perideraion
Amblyglyphidodon
leucogaster
Davao
Gulf *
X
X
X
X
Chromis acares
Chromis
amboinensis
Chromis analis
Chromis atripes
Chromis caudalis
Chromis
margaritifer
Chromis nitida
Chromis
retrofasciata
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
47
FISH
FAMILIES
Pomacentridae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Sarangani Bay
Davao
Gulf *
Chromis sp.
Chromis ternatensis
Chromis viridis
Chromis xanthura
Chryseptera
brownriggii
Chryseptera
caeroleolineata
Chryseptera cyanea
Chromis weberi
Chrysiptera
leucopoma
Chryseptera
parasema
Chryseptera
rollandi
Chryseptera sp.
X
X
Chryseptera talboti
Cirrhilabrus sp.
Dascyllus
melanurus
Dascyllus
reticulatus
Dascyllus
trimaculatus
Lepidozygus sp.
Paraglyphipodon
melas
Paraglyphipodon
nigroris
Pomacentrus
alexanderae
Pomacentrus
amboinensis
Pomacentrus
bankanensis
Pomacentrus
boroughi
Pomacentrus
brachialis
Chryspetera starcki
Dascyllus aruanus
Malalag
Bay
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
FISH
FAMILIES
Pomacentridae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
Bongo
Is.
Sarangani Bay
Davao
Gulf *
Malalag
Bay
Pomacentrus
cuadalis
Pomacentrus
coelestis
Pomacentrus
lepidogenys
Pomacentrus
molluccensis
Pomacentrus reidi
Pomacentrus sp.
Pomacentrus vaiuli
Pomachromis
rollandi
Neoglyphidodon
melas
Neoglyphidodon
nigroris
Neopomacentrus
azysron
Neopomacentrus sp.
Zanclidae
ParilSangay
X
X
X
X
X
X
Stegastes
fasciolatus
Stegastes nigricans
Stegastes sp.
Zanclus cornutus
129
188
81
80
84
TOTAL 8
196
TARGET
SPECIES
Acanthuridae
Acanthurus bleekeri
Acanthurus
caudalis
Acanthurus
dussumieri
Acanthurus mata
X
X
X
Acanthurus lineatus
Acanthurus
lituratus
Acanthurus
nigricans
X
X
X
X
49
FISH
FAMILIES
Acanthuridae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Acanthurus nigroris
Bongo
Is.
Davao
Gulf *
Acanthurus
thompsonii
Ctenochaetus
binotatus
Ctenochaetus
striatus
Ctenochaetus
strigosus
Ctenochaetus
tominiensis
Naso annulatus
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Naso hexacanthus
Naso lopezi
X
X
Naso minor
Naso unicornis
Paracanthurus
hepatus
Zebrasoma scopoas
X
X
Zebrasoma
verifellum
Aulostomidae
Aulostomus
chinensis
Caesionidae
Caesio
caerulaureus
Caesio cuning
Caesio lunare
Caesio teres
Malalag
Bay
Acanthurus
nigricauada
Acanthurus
nigrofiscus
Acanthurus
olivaceus
Acanthurus
pyroferus
Acanthurus sp.
Naso lituratus
Sarangani Bay
X
X
FISH
FAMILIES
Caesionidae
Carangidae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Pterocaesio
lativittata
Pterocaesio marri
Pterocaesio pisang
Pterocaesio tile
Selaroides
leptolepis
Megalaspis cordyla
Bongo
Is.
Haemulidae
Holocentridae
Lethrinidae
Platax tiera
Plectorhinchus
chaetodonoides
Plectorhinchus
goldmanni
Plectorhinchus
lineatus
Plectorhinchus
lessonii
Myripristis sp.
Sargocentron
caudimamaculatum
Lutjanus biguttatus
X
X
Lutjanus bohar
X
X
X
Monotaxis
grandoculis
Lutjanidae
Gnathodentex
aureolineatus
Letthrinus lentjan
Malalag
Bay
Platax pinnatus
Sargocentron
punctatissimum
Sargocentron sp.
Davao
Gulf *
X
Seriola sp.
Eppiphidae
Sarangani Bay
X
X
51
FISH
FAMILIES
Lutjanidae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Lutjanus decussates
Lutjanus fulvus
Lutjanus lutjanus
Lutjanus sp.
Macolor niger
Nemipteridae
Davao
Gulf *
Aphareus furca
Mullidae
Sarangani Bay
X
X
Mulloidichthys
vanicolensis
Parupeneus
barberinoides
Parupeneus
barberinus
Parupeneus
bifasciatus
Parupeneus
cyclostomus
Parupeneus indicus
Parupeneus
multifasciatus
Upeneus tragula
Monotaxis
grandoculis
Pentapodus sp.
X
X
Scolopsis bilineatus
Scolopsis lineatus
Scolopsis ciliatus
Scaridae
Malalag
Bay
Cetoscarus bicolor
Chlorurus sp.
Scarus bleekeri
Scarus dimidiatus
Scarus forstenii
Scarus ghobban
Scarus globiceps
Scarus frenatus
FISH
FAMILIES
Scaridae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Bongo
Is.
Sarangani Bay
Davao
Gulf *
Scarus microrhinos
Scarus lepidus
Scarus niger
Scarus psittacus
Scarus scaber
Scarus sordidus
X
X
Scarus sp.
Cephalopholis
miniata
Cephalopholis
argus
Cephalopholis
sexmaculatus
Cephalopholis
urodeta
Cephalopholis
boenak
Cephalopholis sp.
Scarus tricolor
Serranidae
Diploprion
bifasciatum
Epinephelus
fasciatus
Epinephelus mera
Pseudanthias
ventralis
Variola louti
Siganidae
Siganus
atripectoralis
Siganus
canaliculatus
Siganus corralinus
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Epinephelus sp.
Plectropomus
leopardus
Pseudanthias
huchtii
Pseudanthias tuka
Malalag
Bay
X
X
X
X
X
X
53
FISH
FAMILIES
Siganidae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Siganus guttatus
Siganus
punctatissimus
Siganus spinus
Bongo
Is.
OTHERS
SPECIES
Balistidae
X
X
69
60
Balistoides
conspicillum
Balistapus
undulatus
Balistapus sp.
Melichthys vidua
Sufflamen bursa
35
46
30
X
X
X
X
X
Pseudobalistes
flavimarginatus
Ostracion cubicus
Ostracion meleagris
Ostracion sp.
Monacanthidae
Centriscidae
X
X
Monacanthus
longirostris
Unidentified
monocanthid
Aeoliscus strigatus
Aeoliscus chinensis
X
X
Sufflamen
chrysoptera
Sufflamen frenatus
Ostraciidae
Malalag
Bay
Siganus vulpinus
112
Davao
Gulf *
X
X
Siganus puellus
TOTAL 14
Sarangani Bay
X
X
FISH
FAMILIES
Tetraodontidae
INDICATOR
SPECIES
ParilSangay
Canthigaster
amboinensis
Canthigaster
coronata
Canthigaster papua
Canthigaster sp.
Canthigaster
solandri
Canthigaster
valentinii
Arothron
nigropunctatus
Bongo
Is.
Sarangani Bay
Davao
Gulf *
X
X
X
X
Microdesmidae
Nemateleotris
magnifica
Pinguipedidae
Parapercis
cylindrica
Parapercis
clathrata
Callionymidae
Ptereleotris evides
Scorpaenidae
Pterois volitans
X
X
X
X
Pterois radiata
Synodontidae
Plotosidae
TOTAL
X
X
Saurida gracilis
Synodus sp.
X
X
Plotosus lineatus
11
33
Pterois antennata
Scoraenopsis sp.
Malalag
Bay
X
19
17
15
55
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About the Authors

Angel C. Alcala is the principal Filipino scientist in a research program on
land vertebrates and marine biodiversity regarded as an outstanding
contribution to Philippine biological sciences. The studies deal with
ecology, taxonomy, and conservation biology based in Silliman University,
Dumaguete City, spanning 1955 through the present. Alcalas fieldwork
from 1954 to 1999 resulted in the addition of 50 new species of amphibians
and reptiles, with comprehensive studies on these Philippine species and
minor contributions on birds and mammals. Alcala also pioneered the use
of the concept of no-take marine reserves to conserve marine biodiversity
in 1974 in collaboration with local communities and government units. He has established a dozen
marine reserves in the central Philippines, some of them highly successful in preserving marine
biodiversity, promoting marine biological and oceanographic research, and encouraging
environment-friendly, tourism-related activities that have improved incomes of local communities.
Presently a Professor Emeritus of Biological Sciences and the Director of the Silliman University
Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental Management (SUAKCREM), Dr. Alcala is
concurrently the Director of the Commission on Higher Education Zonal Research Center at
Silliman University.
Jose A. Ingles is a senior fisheries specialist with extensive experience in

fisheries stock assessment and coastal resource assessment studies in major
fishing grounds throughout the Philippines. Equipped with academic
degrees in zoology, marine biology, and natural science and special
training in tropical fisheries resource assessment, he has carried out
research activities in the fields of fisheries resource assessments, coastal
resource management, and biology of commercially important
invertebrates, particularly crabs. As a professional biologist, Ingles served
at the Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanology of the University of the
Philippines in the Visayas (UPV) where he became Full Professor in 2000. In 2002, he joined WWF
Philippines to lead the Ecoregion Conservation Program of the Sulu Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion
Program. Since 2007, he became the Tuna Strategy Leader of the Coral Triangle Network Initiative
of WWF, working with the private sector and utilizing markets and trade to put tuna in the coral
triangle countries on its path to sustainability.
Abner A. Bucol holds a degree in Biology and has worked with various
terrestrial and marine conservation projects, serving as field and research
assistant. He is presently a researcher at the SUAKCREM, and co-author of
an upcoming book Directory of Marine Reserves in the Visayas with Dr.
Angel C. Alcala and P. Nillos-Kleiven.

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Philipp. Scient.

Review of the Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

A.C. Alcala1, J.A. Ingles2 and A.A. Bucol1

2 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

provinces from the Mindanao mainland. These three southern Philippine

4 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Sarangani Bay and Sarangani Islands

6 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

8 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

environs without giving the basis for such a classification (Philippines

10 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Figure 6. Island arc-elements in the central and southern Philippines. (Source:

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Figure 7. Earthquake Map of Mindanao. (Source: MRDP-CMBC 2003 Baseline

southern Mindanao compares with those in other parts of the country,

12 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Seagrasses, Mangroves, and Corals

Table 1. Seagrass species identified in southern Philippines. *Excluding Malalag

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Table 2. Mangrove species identified in southern Mindanao. *Excluding

14 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

In the country in general, areas with good seagrass meadows

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

16 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

commonly distributed at water depths not exceeding 50 m. Essentially,

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

with 15 species, and caesionids, lutjanids, mullids, and siganids with

18 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Figure 9. Fish species richness in southern Mindanao. Figure in parenthesis

Figure 10. Southern Mindanao Mean Fish Density compared to Density in

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Figure 12. Southern Mindanao mean macro-invertebrate species richness. Figure

20 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Diversity of Fishery Species

22 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Figure 16. Movement of Skipjack

24 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Figure 17. Movement of Yellow-fin

Figure 18. Movement of Big-eye

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Conservation Strategies. Some tuna fishers recommend the

26 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Billfishes (Family Istiophoridae)

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Two species of billfishes have been identified by an undated

28 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Table 3. Cetacean species list.

Stenella longirostris, sp. (with short beak)

10. Globicephala macrorhynchus

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Assessment Report 2005). These individuals apparently must have fed on

30 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Sea Turtle Migrations in the Sulawesi Sea. Since no tagging of

Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

Sea Turtle Movements from and within the Philippines. The

32 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

Whale Sharks (Rhincodon typus)