KINGS COLLEGE OF MARBEL, INC.

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO
MRS.ALCALA E. TILLANO
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE COURSE
ENGLISH 10
ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION

BY
ALICIA FAE A. SORETA

BRGY. MORALES, CITY OF KORONADAL

29 FEBRUARY 2016

STARS
THESIS: Stars are giant, luminous spheres of plasma; are cosmic
energy that produce heat, light, ultraviolet rays, x-rays, and
other forms of radiation; a superheated state of matters composed
of subatomic particles.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

Definition or description of stars.

Composition of stars.
Formation of star.
Life cycle or the stellar evolution.
Stars energy source.
Types of stars.
Classification of stars according to its
characteristics.
a. Color of stars.
b. Temperature of stars.
c. Size or mass of stars.
d. Brightness of stars.
e. Luminosity of stars.
VIII.The nearest star on earth-the sun.
IX. The formed group of stars-the constellation.

STARS
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:
This research paper entitled Stars has aimed to give
comprehensive information about stars. Specifically, it had
sought to answer the following questions that follow:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

What are stars?

What composes the stars?
How are stars formed?
How do stars evolve?
What are the different types of stars?
Where do stars get their energy?
What are the different types of star?
How are stars classified? Is it by their physical
characteristics?
9. What are the colors of stars?
10. What are the temperature of stars?
11.How big are stars?
12.How bright are stars?
13.How luminous are stars?
14.What is all about the sun?
15.What is a constellation and what are its examples?

ii

Dedication
I would like to dedicate this research paper to our Almighty
God, who gives me inspiration to know and document His
unphatomable creation. To my parents, to show that their
sacrifices and sufferings for me, just to be at school, will not
forfeit its purpose. I would like to dedicate this study for
those whose heart are captured by these small in our eyes, yet
huge in real, the stars. And to that person who uses the stars
to symbolize that persons presence.
Acknowledgement
I am very thankful and I would like to acknowledge my
Father, for proving my needs. For giving me strength, knowledge,
for guiding me on what to do using my friends and family. I am
also thankful for my parents and guardians for helping me. And to
those whom I havent mentioned, yet helped me, thank you very
much.

iii

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF STUDY:
The importance of the study is to give information about
stars. Specifically what it is, how are stars formed, what
matters compose the stars, how are they born and how do they
evolve, what are their sources of energy, how are they
classified, what are its characteristics, its color, size,
temperature, its brightness and luminosity, and to give examples
of group of stars that are formed-the constellation.

2
SCOPE AND DELIMINATION OF THE PROBLEM:
The description, composition, formation, characteristics,
life cycle, constellation, brightness and luminosity, size,
speed, source of energy, and the nearest star on earth- the sun,
thus all of these compose the subject of the study
Research Method:
The description method, specifically general description has
been used in this research paper. A comprehensive description of
stars has been presented using facts that have been copied from
different library resources. Parenthetically citations and the
work cited have been provided to prove the veracity of the
sources of the facts.

4
Definition of terms:
Subatomic particles
Subatomic particles are particle smaller than an atom (e.g.,
a neutron) or a cluster of such particles (e.g., an alpha
particle).1)
Plasma
A plasma is an ionized gas consisting of positive ions and
free electrons in proportions resulting in more or less no
overall electric charge, typically at low pressures (as in the
upper atmosphere and in fluorescent lamps) or at very high
temperatures (as in stars and nuclear fusion reactors).(2)
H II region
An H II region is a region of interstellar hydrogen that is
ionized. (3)
Molecular cloud
A molecular cloud is a type of interstellar cloud, the
density and size of which permit the formation of molecules, most
commonly molecular hydrogen (H2).(4)
Nebula
A nebula (Latin for "cloud"; pl. nebulae, nebul, or
nebulas) is an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and
other ionized gases. (5)
Main sequence star
A main sequence star is any star that is fusing hydrogen in
its core and has a stable balance of outward pressure from core
nuclear fusion and gravitational forces pushing inward.(6)

5
Definition of terms:
Red giants star
Red giant star is a very large star of high luminosity and
low surface temperature. (7)
Red dwarf star
A red dwarf is a small and relatively cool star on the main
sequence. (8)
White dwarf
A white dwarf, also called a degenerate dwarf, is a stellar
remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. (9)
Supernova
Supernova is the explosion of a star, possibly caused by
gravitational collapse, during which the star's luminosity
increases by as much as 20 magnitudes and most of the star's mass
is blown away at very high velocity, sometimes leaving behind an
extremely dense core. (10)
Neutron
A neutron star is a celestial object of very small radius
(typically 18 miles/30 km) and very high density, composed
predominantly of closely packed neutrons. (11)
Black hole
Black hole is a region of space having a gravitational field
so intense that no matter or radiation can escape. (12)

6
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
Proto star
A proto star is a contracting mass of gas that represents an
early stage in the formation of a star, before nucleosynthesis
has begun. (13)
Planetary nebulae
A planetary nebulae is a ring-shaped nebula formed by an
expanding shell of gas around an aging star. (14)
Stellar remnant
Stellarremnantsare the endpoints of stellar evolution. (15)
Stellar evolution
Stellar evolution is the process by which a star changes
during its lifetime. Depending on the mass of the star, this
lifetime ranges from a few million years for the most massive to
trillions of years for the least massive, which is considerably
longer than the age of the universe. (16)
Spectrograph
Spectrograph is an apparatus for photographing or otherwise
recording spectra. (17)
Kelvin
Kelvin is a scale of temperature with absolute zero as zero,
and the triple point of water as exactly 273.16 degrees. (18)
T Tauri stars
T Tauri stars are the youngest visible F, G, K, M spectral
type stars (<2 M). (19)

7
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
Red dwarf stars
A red dwarf star is a small, old, relatively cool star. (20)
Light year
Light year is a unit of astronomical distance equivalent to
the distance that light travels in one year, which is 9.4607
1012 km (nearly 6 trillion miles).(21)

CHAPTER TWO

DISCUSSION
Stars are cosmic energy engines that produce heat, light,
ultra-violet rays, and other forms of radiation. They are
composed largely of gas and plasma, a superheated state of matter
composed subatomic particles.
Since gasses composed the sun, largely, the present gasses
in a star are hydrogen about 71 percent and helium 27 percent.
Thus, when a region consist mostly hydrogen, about 23-28
percent helium, with a few percent of elements, and with the
gravitational instability within the cloud, star starts to form.
This region is called molecular clouds. A molecular clouds are
caused by higher density of regions, which is often triggered by
compression of clouds by the massive stars radiation, expanding
of bubbles in the interstellar medium, the collision of another
different molecular clouds, or when the galaxies collide. A lot
of stars form in a group of dozens up to hundreds of thousands.
What prevents further star formation and disruption of
clouds, is the feedback effect coming from the massive stars in
the group, illuminating powerfully in the clouds, ionizing the
hydrogen and creating HII regions.
Stars started as a nebula, main sequence star, red giant,
red dwarf, white dwarf, supernova, neutron stars, and black
holes.
They are formed in clouds of gas and dust known as the
nebulae. Nebula (the Latin word for cloud) it is an interstellar
cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized gasses. Often
called as stellar nurseries, it is because it is where the stars
are born. When the region of the condensing matter in the nebulae
will start to heat up and glow, thus, it forms a protostar-the
earlier stage of star, it is the hot core at the center of the
collapsing cloud. Protostars are formed when the cloud
8

collapses, not all of the materials end up as a part of a star,

for a dense hot core forms and begins to gather dust and gas.
Other remaining dust become planets, comets, or asteroids and
other may remain as dust.
When the central temperature of a proto star reaches 15
million degrees centigrade, that means the protostar contains
enough matter, then at that temperature, nuclear reaction can
start. The hydrogen fuses to form helium. The star release
energy, they stop to contract and causes it to shine. The proto
star now becomes a main sequence star.
Star lives out most of its life in this stage, they stay as
main sequence star depends on their mass. They could stay up to
20 million years. And most of the stars in the universe about 90
percent are still main sequence stars. A star remains as main
sequence star until all of its hydrogen has fused to form helium,
for about 10 billions of years. When a star is in a main sequence
stage, it is in the state of hydrostatic equilibrium. The gravity
pulls the star inward and the light pressure resulting from all
the fusion reactions in a star, pushes outward. And because of
the balance of inward and outward forces the star remains in
spherical shape. The gravity that pulls the star inward will
define the mass of a main sequence star.
When it has fused to form helium, the helium core starts to
contract even more and reactions begin to occur in a shell around
the core. The helium fuses to form carbon, when the core is hot
enough. Then the outer layers begin to expand, cool and shine
less brightly. From protostar to main sequence, it has now become
red giant star.
Red giant star is bigger because it has consumed its supply
of hydrogen in its core, the fusion stops and it no longer
counteract the inward pressure pulling it together, for it has
stop generating an outward pressure. Yet the shell of hydrogen
surrounding the core ignites, continuing the life of a star. Its
size could be up to 100 times larger than it was.

10

When the helium core runs out, the gaseous

the outer layers, drift off away from the core.
is the name of the gas that surrounds the core.
its final stage. The remaining core which is 80
original star becomes white dwarf.

shell formed by
Planetary nebulae
Now it reaches
percent of the

The once giant becomes a dwarf because a new helium shell

reaches the core. White dwarf is either low or medium mass star.
The star expands out into space, thus, the outer shell merges or
combine with interstellar space and the remnant of the stars
core left. The remnant of stars core is a smoldering ball of
carbon and other different element that shines as it cools.
Technically, a dwarf star doesnt undergo nuclear fusion,
therefor, white dwarf is no longer considered or called as star,
and it is just a stellar remnant.
When a star stops shinning, the dwarf star becomes black
dwarf- a dead star. Just like a white dwarf, black dwarf is a
stellar remnant. This is the last stage of the stellar evolution.
Black dwarf no longer emit heat or light for all of its hydrogen
and helium fuel has been burned, but its mass would still remain,
and it can still be discovered.
That was the
mass star. As for
masses, the cycle
changes after the

explanation
the massive
is just the
star became

of star evolution for low or medium

star which is about 10 solar
same in the beginning, but it
a main sequence star.

Massive star remains a main sequence star for about million

years, then becomes a red supergiant, the helium core surrounded
by a shell of cooling, expanding gas. In the proceeding million
years, after elements in shells around the iron core occur due to
series of chemical reaction. After that, the core collapses in a
second, making an explosion which a shock blows off the outer
layers of the star, the explosion is called Supernova. A
supernova is not a big nova, in which only thesurface explodes,
but it is an explosion in which the core collapse and explodes.
What cause this explosion is the complex series ofnuclear
reaction that produces iron in the core, because of the present
iron in the core, the star has squeezed or compressed al the

11

energy it can out of the nuclear fusion, the form elements which
are heavier than iron, consumes energy instead of producing. The
star can no longer support its mass that is why the core
collapses. The outer layers slowly begin to collapse with the
core but rebound with a great release of energy which are thrown
outward, violently.
On its last stage, if the core survive between 1.5-3 solar
masses, it contract to become a neutron star. It continues to
collapse until electrons and protons combine to form neutron.
Neutron star are dense because of so much mass contained in a
small volume, the gravitation at the surface of the neutron star
is huge. Neutron contains powerful magnetic fields that can
accelerate atomic particles around its magnetic poles creating
powerful beams of radiation.
For the core of the star that is bigger than three solar
masses, it collapse totally, forming a black hole. A black hole
is an infinitely dense object, its gravity is too strong that
nothing can escape from its immediate proximity, even light.
Black holes are detected indirectly, the matters that spiral into
it forms a disk that it heated to great temperature releasing
copious quantities of X- rays and Gamma-rays, that indicates it
presence
A new star arise, when the surrounding interstellar gas and
dust blend with the dust and debris left by the explosions both
novae and supernovae.
There are different types of stars. Protostars, T Tauri
stars, Main Sequence stars, Red giant stars, White dwarf stars,
Red dwarf stars, Supergiant stars, Neutron stars, Brown dwarf
stars, and the Hypergiant stars. Some of it was mentioned above,
but what are unfamiliar, are the T tauri, red dwarf, supergiant,
brown dwarf, and the hypergiants.
T tauri star is a star about to be evolved or become a main
sequence star. This phase occurs when the gravitational pressure
holding the star together is its source of energy-the protostar
phase. These stars dont generate nuclear fusion for they dont
have enough pressure and temperature at their cores. They are

12

like main sequence star, they are same in temperature but t tauri
stars are brighter because of their larger size. These stars have
large areas of sunspot coverage, have super powerful stellar wind
and have intense X-rays flares. T tauri stars remain in this
phase for about a hundred millions of years.
Unlike a t tauri star, which is about to be a main sequence
star, red dwarf stars are main sequence stars. They are low in
mass and much cooler than its kind. Red dwarf stars can conserve
their fuelmuch longer compared to other stars, for they are able
to keep the hydrogen fuel mixing in their core. Estimated, red
dwarf star can burn up to 10 trillion of years.
If red dwarf star are low in mass, supergiant stars are
enormous. Because of its enormous size. Supergiant consumes its
hydrogen fuel at an enormous rate and within a few million years,
all of its fuel in its core will be consumed. Making them live
fast and die earlier.
Stars are classified by astronomers according to its
characteristics. Its color, temperature, size, and brightness.
One of the basis of star classification is its light
spectral characteristic. The light we see is the mixture of
colors. If in a sunlight, we used prism to break the light into
colors of a rainbow, in a star, a device or instrument called
Spectrograph is used. The rainbow which we see commonly is a
spectrum of Sun and it differs from the spectrum of a single
star, for its color depends on its temperature. There will be
more red in a spectrum of a star it its a cooler star, while a
lot of blue will be seen if it is a hot star.
Using series of letters, the astronomers classified the star
by color: O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. O star is the hottest which
has a lot of blue in its spectrum, and M stars as the coolest
which has a lot of red in it. O stars are the blue stars, A stars
are the white stars, G stars are the yellow stars and M stars are
the red stars. For a detailed identification according to its
color, astronomers put a number after the letter. Each number is
a furthered 10 percent towards the next spectral letter.

13

Second basis of a star classification is their temperature.

To get an approximate temperature of a star, it is observed
through filters. A filter allow a narrow range of colors through.
By sampling the stars spectrum in two different bands, its
approximate temperature can be identified. Another method of
identifying its temperature is through its color. Using the
spectral letter: o star has a surface temperature of 30,00060,000 Kelvin; B star has 10,000-30,000 Kelvin; A has 7,50010,000 Kelvin; F star has 6,000-7,500 Kelvin; G star has 5,0006,000; K star has 3,500-5,000 Kelvin; and M star has less than
3,500 Kelvin. Kelvin is the used temperature scale. It has an
absolute zero of temperature (which do not exist).
If a color of a star depends on its temperature. Its
temperature is defined by the mass.
Astronomers use the term stellar mass in describing the mass
of a star. The mass is identified in terms of Suns mass. The
less massive stars are the red dwarf stars, about less than a
half of Suns mass. While the most massive stars or the enormous
stars are the blue giants, supergiant and the hypergiants.
The brightness of a staris define in terms of apparent
magnitude and absolute magnitude.
In apparent magnitude, the brightness is measured by using our
naked eye in observing the appearance of star from earth. Since
the human eyes are not very accurate in discerning, cameras or
the charged-coupled devices (CDDs) inside digital cameras are
usedto measure the amount of light from the stars and can give
more precise definition of brightness. In apparent magnitude the
brightness of the star varies on the location of the observer and
it fails to give the true differences in brightness of stars
thats why astronomers come up in a solution of implementing an
absolute magnitude scale. Astronomers calculate the brightness of
stars as they would appear it were 32.6 light years or 10 parsecs
from earth.
The luminosity of a star or the power of a star is the
amount of energy or light it emits from its surface. It is
measured in terms of the luminosity of the sun and is expressed
in watts. Luminosity of a star is figured out from apparent
14

magnitude and is calculated. In an instance- a star with an

absolute magnitude of one is hundred times a luminous as a star
with an absolute of six. In figure 1is the list of first 26
brightest stars as seen from earth. Given the stars common name,
the constellation where it belong, the apparent magnitude, the
absolute magnitude and the distance from the earth.
To have a better look and detailed look in the
characteristic of a star. See figure 2. It shows the
characteristics of a star according to its mass. (22)
The sun or sol is the nearest star not just on our solar
system but nearest star on earth. It is yellow in color (G2V),
and considered as main sequence star. It is middle-aged star, 4.5
billion years old.
It serves as one of the main source of energy of all the
living things on earth.it is responsible for our weather and
climate.
Constellations are the pattern formed by stars. They are
located in two hemispheres: the northern and the southern. In
figure n0. 3 is the list of constellations.

15

Figure no.1
common name

constellatio
n

Apparent
magnitude
-26.72

Absolute
magnitude
4.2

Sirius

Canis Major

-1.46

1.4

Canopus
Rigel
Kentaurus
Arcturus
Vega
Capella
Rigel
Procyron
Achernar
Betelgeuse
Hadar
Acrux
Altair
Aldebaran
Antares
Spica
Pollux
Fomalhaut

Carina
Centaurus

-0.72
-0.27

-2.4
4.4

Distance
from earth
90 million
miles
8.6 light
years
74 ly
4.3

Bootes
Lyra
Auriga
Orion
Canis Minor
Eridanus
Orion
Centaurus
Crux
Aquila
Taurus
Scorpio
Virgo
Gemini
Pisces
Austrinis
Cygnus
Crux
Leo
Canis major
Gemini
Crux
Scorpio

-0.04
0.03
0.08
0.12
0.38
0.46
0.50
0.61
0.76
0.77
0.85
0.96
0.98
1.14
1.16

0.2
0.6
0.4
-8.1
2.6
-1.3
-7.2
-4.4
-4.6
2.3
-0.3
-5.2
-3.2
0.7
2

34
25
41
1,400
11.4
69
1400
320
510
16
60
520
220
40
22

1.25
1.25
1.35
1.50
1.57
1.63
1.63

-4.7
-7.2
-0.3
-4.8
0.5
-1.2
-1.2

460
1,500
69
570
49
120
330

Sun

Becrux
Deneb
Regulus
Adhara
Castor
Gacrux
Shaula

16

Figure no.2

17

Figure no.3

18

CHAPTER THREE
SUMARY, CONCLUSSION AND RECOMENDATION
Stars are heavenly bodies that are gaseous spheres. They
produce light, heat and radiations. Formed from clouds of dust
containing different matter. Stars are classified according to
their physical characteristics, it color, size, temperature
brightness and luminosity. They come in different types,
according to as what stage they are in, in their life cycle or
evolution.
The nearest star on earth is the sun, and that is why most
of the stars measurements are proportion to the suns, because
it has been observed.

FOOTNOTES
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19
FOOTNOTES

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20
FOOTNOTES
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inition&gs_l=serp.1.0.0i7i30l4j0i67j0i7i30l5.20881.25721.1.27552.
7.7.0.0.0.0.1022.2410.2-4j1j71.6.0....0...1c.1.64.serp..1.6.2394.Xm7T3boKdOE
20.https://www.google.com.ph/search?sclient=psyab&biw=1093&bih=534&noj=1&q=t+tauri+star+definition&oq=t+tau+defi
nition&gs_l=serp.1.0.0i7i30l4.17433.20848.1.22900.5.5.0.0.0.0.302
.1350.2-4j1.5.0....0...1c.1.64.serp..0.5.1342.NR2FxQzsVuA
21.https://www.google.com.ph/search?sclient=psyab&biw=1093&bih=534&noj=1&q=light+year+definition&oq=light+yaedef
inition&gs_l=serp.1.0.0i13l5j0i13i30l2j0i13i5i30l3.26772.30191.1.
32874.9.9.0.0.0.0.326.1380.24j1.5.0....0...1c.1.64.serp..4.5.1372.yxtsO9qH9d4
22.http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/startype.html

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WORKS CITED

Are stars brightness and luminous the same thing?

http://earthsky.org/space/stellar-luminosity-the-true-brightnessof-stars
Black dwarf stars: The (Theorical) End of Stellar Evolution
http://www.space.com/23799-black-dwarfs.html
Brightest Stars: Luminosity and Magnitude
http://www.space.com/21640-star-luminosity-and-magnitude.html
Classification of stars
http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/startype.html
Classification of stars
http://www.slideshare.net/PatriciaMcCarthy/classification-ofstars
Color and temperature
http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s5.htm
Kelvin temperature scale
http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/kelvintemperature-scale.html
Main Sequence stars: Definition and Life Cycle
http://www.space.com/22437-main-sequence-stars.html
Mass of stars
http://www.universetoday.com/25328/mass-of-stars/
Star classification http://www.universetoday.com/24633/starclassification/
Stellar mass https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_mass
Sun facts http://space-facts.com/the-sun/
Temperature of stars
http://www.universetoday.com/24780/temperature-of-stars/
22
WORKS CITED

Types of stars http://www.universetoday.com/24299/types-of-stars/

What are the Different Types of Stars
http://space.about.com/od/stars/tp/What-Are-The-Different-TypesOf-Stars.htm

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