The Impact of Digital Technologies On Human Wellbeing

The impact of digital
technologies on
human wellbeing
EVIDENCE FROM THE SCIENCES
OF MIND AND BRAIN
A STATE OF THE ART REVIEW written for Nominet Trust by Dr Paul Howard-Jones
www.nominettrust.org.uk
This document is designed to be read with Adobe Acrobat
The impact of digital technologies

on human well-being
Foreword
Foreword
Exploring what it means to use the internet safely is more than understanding online
privacy and personal security. It is important to understand the implications of our online
life for our offline well-being - that is, to explore the implications of using interactive
technologies on the ways in which we behave, on our values and on our mental and
physical health. At Nominet Trust, we are committed to supporting initiatives and
organisations that work towards a safer, more accessible internet, used for social good.
In doing so, we need to be aware of safe internet use in its broadest sense.
This publication aims to highlight what the field of neuroscience can tell us about the
implications of using interactive technologies on young peoples brains, behaviours and
attitudes. It brings together the latest research from this emerging area, not only to
understand its implications, but to recognize the limitations of the existing evidence.
By doing so, we hope to highlight what is known about safe uses of interactive
technologies, but also what is not known, i.e. what cannot be claimed or needs to be
researched in more detail. If we are to develop effective and safe practices that use
digital technologies, we need to be clear about the evidence that we build upon and
ask more nuanced questions to determine where future research should be focused.
Dan Sutch
Head of Development Research
Nominet Trust - July 2011
> www.nominettrust.org.uk

on human well-being
About the series
About the series

Nominet Trust State of the Art Reviews are undertaken by leading academics to collate
and analyse the latest research at the intersection of the internet and society. Drawing on
national and international work, these reviews aim to share the latest research to inform
the work of the Trust, those applying to the Trust for support and our wider partner
organisations.
We value your comments and suggestions for how to act on the recommendations in
these Reviews, and how we can build the series, so that it is more useful to us all as we
work towards a safer, more accessible internet, used for social good.
We look forward to your comments and suggestions at:
DevelopmentResearch@nominettrust.org.uk

on human well-being
Contents
Contents
Written by Paul Howard-Jones
for Nominet Trust
Introduction
Executive summary
Technology and the sciences

of the mind and brain
Designed by Ben Carruthers

Illustrated by Sam Bevington
Final comments
63
Recommendations
67
References
70
About the brain
86
Glossary
94
About Nominet Trust
96

on human well-being
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Executive summary
Technology and the sciences of mind and brain
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Our lives have become increasingly immersed in technology. Much of our communication
is now online, much of our leisure and entertainment is provided by the internet and
video games, and many of us find our mobile phones have become an essential part of
our connectivity and everyday organisation. With these changes in lifestyle, questions are
arising about what technology may be doing to us.
Some of these questions revolve around potential detrimental effects, which have been
the frequent focus of alarming press articles. Some commentators have suggested that
we are facing an unprecedented crisis in which the human brain ... is under threat from
the modern worldA , that our love of the latest technology could be turning into a 21stcentury addictionB, that Facebook is infantilizing usC and Google is degrading our
intelligence D.
The vanguard of our advance into this new world is our children, and especially our
teenagers. We know that the developing brain of a child is more plastic, and responds
more malleably to experience than an adults brain. This provides some justification for
the especially strong concerns around the emerging 24/7 technology lifestyle of our
children, and we are wise to ask what this will mean for their development and
education. Therefore, although this review includes research on adults, there is a
particular emphasis on research with children and adolescents. Additionally, amongst
the types of technology considered, video games will enjoy greater attention. This reflects
their accumulating status in the research literature as a special case of environmental
influence on the mind and brain.
Some commentators have

suggested that we are facing
an unprecedented crisis in which
the human brain ... is under threat
from the modern world, that our
love of the latest technology could
be turning into a 21st-century
addiction
A
Greenfield, S. in Daily Mail
B
Roberts, D. in The Telegraph
C
Wintour, P. in Guardian
(2009).
(2010).
(London, 2009).
D
Carr, N. in The Atlantic Vol. July/August (2008).

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Introduction
The burgeoning literature in this area makes it impossible to reference in full all the
research that might be considered relevant. Instead, the understanding that is emerging
on individual topics is illustrated by considering those studies that appear most relevant
and valid. The recency of the research has also been a factor in weighting its
significance, since the technology itself, and the manner and extent to which it
is used, are rapidly changing year by year.
Paul Howard-Jones
July 2011

on human well-being
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Rather than label any type of technology as being good or bad for our brain, it is
how specific applications are created and used (by who, when and what for) that
determine their impact.
Existing forms of online communication for supporting existing friendships are

generally beneficial for their users, with little basis for considering that social network
sites and online communication, in themselves, are a source of special risk to children.
Internet-related abuse (eg inappropriate sexual solicitation, cyberbullying) appears
related to issues beyond the use of the internet.
Internet use (including online gaming) is problematic when it regularly interferes with
normal daily living and is difficult to control, although internet/gaming addictions have
not been established as psychiatric disorders. No particular threshold has been
identified that can be defined as excessive use, but research supports a guideline of
maximum two hours total screen-based entertainment per day for children.
Problematic internet usage is associated with a range of psychosocial difficulties, but
the internet can also support mental health through online therapeutic treatment for a
range of mental health disorders.
The internet is a valuable learning resource and all learning involves changes in the
brain. Some technology-based types of training can improve working memory, and
others can provide mental stimulation that helps slow cognitive decline.
Some types of gaming (whether on-line or off line) can improve visual processing and
motor response skills, prompting suggestions that games may represent a particularly
effective way to enhance brain plasticity across the lifespan. The mechanisms involved
are still not understood, but may help explain the effectiveness of such games to also
influence affective response. Playing violent and prosocial video games generally
shifts behavioural tendencies towards aggressiveness and empathy respectively.
Gaming can strongly engage the brains reward system, and this may also help
explain their attractiveness.

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Executive Summary
Although technology can helpfully support learning, some applications can be a

distraction, suggesting parental monitoring of younger students use of technology
may benefit learning outcomes. For example, adult students who make substantial
use of instant messaging consider they are distracted by it, and such heavy
multitasking does not appear to improve the ability to switch attention between
applications.
Evidence linking technology-based activity to a reduction in physical exercise is mixed,

but how and when technology is used does appear to influence sleep. In particular,
late night technology use is linked to reduction in sleep and sleep quality, and
teenagers who use their mobile phones after lights out are considerably more likely
to suffer daytime sleepiness. Again, games may be different from most other types of
technology in their influence on neurobiological processes, with some evidence that
they can disrupt childrens sleep and learning even when played early in the evening.
Parents and their children would benefit from clearer independent information about
where a significant body of research indicates potential risks from a particular
technology application. They would also benefit from support in assessing and acting
upon these risks. Academic achievement and student wellbeing would benefit from
schools having access to curriculum and teaching resources aimed at delivering skills
to students that enable their hygienic use of internet and digital technology. These
resources would help schools equip students with the knowledge and understanding
required to guide their own use of technology.
More research is needed in a number of areas, to help evaluate the risks and
potential benefits for healthy development presented by the new technologies and
their applications. Some types of games have been identified as having a particularly
strong influence upon brain function, suggesting the need for further research aimed
at understanding more about the processes involved, and the issues and
opportunities that such games may provide.

on human well-being

Introduction
Executive summary
Introduction to
this section
10
Social networking
13
Excessive
internet use
18
Information
gathering
22
Multitasking
26
Brain training
29
The attraction of
video games
32
Visuomotor skill
learning
37
Attention
problems
49
Displacement
of exercise and
homework
53
Sleep
57

Introduction to this section
Social networking
Excessive internet use
Information gathering
Multitasking
Brain training
The attraction of video games
Visuomotor skill learning
Learning about affective response
Attention problems
Displacement of exercise and homework
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Learning about
45
affective response

on human well-being
Introduction to technology and the

sciences of mind and brain
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
What can, and cant, evidence from neuroscience tell us?

What do I need to know about neuroscience to read this
report?
10

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Neuroscience is now providing a new source of insight into understanding human

behaviour, with its novel methods of generating images of how our brains are
functioning. These methods and images are invaluable tools with which to understand
ourselves, including how we interact with technology, but they can also be a source of
popular misunderstanding. For example, headlines that the internet is rewiring our
brains might appear alarming1 as if the internet is changing the connectivity of our
otherwise hard-wired brains. From neuroscience, however, we know even the adult
brain retains a level of plasticity such that a vast array of everyday experiences can
change its connectivity, function and even structure2,3. Any experience that leaves a
memory, since that memory must have a biological substrate, must have modified our
brain. Observable changes at the level of the brain, therefore, do not imply irreversible
outcomes. Instead, they provide a source of evidence that should be considered
alongside psychological and behavioural data to address specific questions. When
all these sources of evidence match up, we can be more sure about the findings and
recommendations that they individually and collectively help generate.
To help constrain interpretation of the existing evidence, each section of this review will
be summarised in terms of what we know and what we do not know. Unless
otherwise stated, what we know will be restricted to findings supported by converging
studies published in high-quality peer-reviewed journals. When it comes to concluding
that technology has been the cause of a particular outcome, we need to be particularly
careful. There is very rarely a single cause of anything in human behaviour and
development4. We can, however, be most sure we have determined that technology is
a significant contributory factor when research of three different types points in the same
direction5. These three types are a) well-designed experimental research (eg testing for
a difference in the behaviour after a short period of technology use compared with
another activity) b) correlational research (testing for an association between a use of
technology and the extent of the behaviour) and c) longitudinal studies (testing whether
the amount of technology use between two or more times can be used to predict
changes in the behaviour).
11
When it comes to concluding that

technology has been the cause of
a particular outcome, we need to
be particularly careful... We can,
however, be most sure we have
determined that technology is
a significant contributory factor
when research of three different
types points in the same direction

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
12
A further difficulty in considering the evidence is the specialist language and terms that
are sometimes used to express it. No expert knowledge of neuroscience or psychology
is required to understand the findings of this review, but some basic facts about
neuroanatomy might be helpful for two reasons:
they will help you visualize some of the brain regions you may encounter in the text
later, and help you understand and remember the principles discussed
they are a good first defence against neuromyth in this and other areas.
Therefore, some readers might like to read the brief notes in the About the brain section
(page 86) and the related Glossary (page 94).
About the brain section

on human well-being
Social networking
Social networking
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Are social network sites helping or hindering our childrens

social skills? What are the risks?
13

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Social networking
Teenagers are by far the most avid users of the new social media. In the UK, just over
one fifth (22%) of adult internet users aged 16+ and almost half (49%) of children aged
8-17 who use the internet have profiled themselves on a social networking site6. This
may be due to the opportunities offered by online communication for selectively
presenting and revealing oneself to others (self-presentation and self-disclosure)7.
However, the very features of online communication that make it controllable and
attractive to teenagers can also expose them to risks. For example, its potential
accessibility and anonymity can expose them to cyberbullying or sexual solicitation,
or simply deter the development of offline friendships and face-to-face social skills.
Valkenburg and Peter identified three key aspects of psycho-social development that
online communication can influence: identity, intimacy and sexuality7. Following
Valkenburg and Peter, the potential positive and negative effects of social communication
across the internet in terms of each of these aspects will be briefly considered here.
With respect to identity, recent research suggests a beneficial effect of online
communication on self-esteem, associated with positive responses to profiles and a
sense of mastery and control over blogs and homepages8,9. However, there is also clear
and well-documented evidence of problematic over-use of the internet, which impacts
negatively on wellbeing (see section on Excessive internet use).
With respect to developing intimacy and friendships, the second half of the 1990s
generated several studies that showed greater internet use amongst teenagers was
associated with reduced social connectedness and wellbeing10-12 . However, at this stage
in the adoption of the internet, less teenagers had internet access, making it more
difficult to maintain existing social networks online. Additionally, more recent technologies
(Facebook, instant messaging, etc) have since been developed to encourage
communication with existing friends. Over the last decade, the effects reported in the
research literature have been positive rather than negative13, with most recent studies
showing that online communication stimulates teenagers social connectedness and
wellbeing14,15. An important caveat, however, is that these results only hold for using the
internet to maintain existing relationships. Using the internet to make new friends has
been linked to lower levels of wellbeing16. Furthermore, cyberbullying remains an under-
14
Over the last decade, the effects

reported in the research literature
have been positive rather than
negative, with most recent studies
showing that online communication
stimulates teenagers social
connectedness and wellbeing

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
15
Social networking
researched and apparently prevalent problem17, with most surveys reporting that 1035%18 of children have received a cyberbullying experience. In a recent study in Belgium,
it was noted that children whose parents are less involved with their internet use have a
higher chance of becoming perpetrators, and children who take more online risks are
more likely to become victims19. However, the research also found that both the victims
and perpetrators of cyberbullying tend to experience these roles offline as well, with
another study also suggesting victims may be experiencing broader problems than
simply internet naivety20. The authors of the latter study conclude that interventions, which
have often lacked effectiveness18, may benefit from broadening their focus beyond how
the internet is used.
With respect to sexual development, teenagers frequently turn to the internet for
information and discussion about emotional, moral and social issues regarding sex.
In particular, many gay and lesbian adolescents find online communication a safer way
(in terms of maintaining privacy) to discuss problems surrounding their sexual orientation
and its public acknowledgement. On the downside, unwanted sexual solicitation
continues to be a risk. Given the paucity of UK statistics in this area, data from the US will
be used to provide some perspective on the potential size and nature of the problem21.
This shows the numbers of young internet users reporting such experiences had
dropped between 2000 (19%) and 2005 (13%), and, compared to other sex crimes,
internet-related sex crimes against children are rare. For example, in the US in 2006,
about 2% of sex crimes against teenagers were internet-related and a recent survey of
US law enforcement agencies concluded that young people are not at particular risk
when interacting on social network sites22 . Furthermore, perpetrators of those sex crimes
involving the internet do not fit the popular notion of predators who use trickery and
violence to engage in forcible sexual assault or paedophilic child molesting. Instead,
crimes involving adults and juveniles more often fit a model of statutory rape, ie adult
offenders who meet, develop relationships with, and openly seduce underage
teenagers. This has brought calls for younger adolescents to be armed with greater
awareness and avoidance skills, rather than targeting the social network sites
themselves22 . Posting personal profiles has been indicated as a potential risk of social
networking sites23, but a study of bloggers (aged 10-17) revealed no increased risk for
The victims and perpetrators of

cyberbullying tend to experience
these roles offline as well, with
another study also suggesting
victims may be experiencing
broader problems than simply
internet naivety

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Social networking
youths who set up personal profiles24. Those youths who do receive unwanted sexual
solicitations do so more via instant messages or in chatrooms than through social
networking sites25, supporting the idea that young people need to be supported in
developing general skills of awareness and avoidance, rather than kept away from social
network sites. A history of offline sexual or physical abuse appears to be a strong risk
factor for receiving online aggressive sexual solicitations20, and so it may be particularly
important for these young people to receive guidance in developing such skills21.
16

on human well-being
17
Social networking
Social networking
Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
online communication that supports existing

friendships can benefit self-esteem and social
connectedness
how the design and use of social network sites and

other forms of online communication may develop
in the future.
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
there is little basis for considering that existing

forms of popular social network sites and online
communication, in themselves, are a source of
special risk to children
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
children with histories of offline victimisation are

more vulnerable to risks from cyberbullying and
sexual solicitation.

on human well-being

Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Is it possible to use the internet too much? What types of

activity are usually involved with excessive internet?
18

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
While moderate use of online communication can benefit wellbeing, concerns have been
raised about internet addiction. Rather than exceeding some daily threshold, internet
access is considered as problematic when it becomes compulsive, interferes with the
normal activities of daily living, and when the person can no longer control it26. This type
of problem is often accompanied by withdrawal (including feelings of anger, tension,
and/or depression when access is unavailable), tolerance to excess usage (including
seeking better equipment and more hours usage) and adverse consequences
(arguments, poor achievement, isolation and fatigue)27. Spending more than three hours
a day on the internet has also been linked to poor vision in children28.
Surveys in the US and Europe indicate around 1.5%-8.2% prevalence of excessive internet
use in the general population27. Many discussions of internet addiction, however, fail to
discriminate between what the internet is being used for, despite over-use of the internet
being associated with one or more specific types of problematic behaviour. In a study of
mental health practitioners, adults seeking help for excessive use of the internet focused
on excessive access of pornography or online communication related to infidelity, while
issues of excessive use by young people focused chiefly on gaming29. Online
communication has been suggested as a significant variant of this putative disorder30,
but even heavy usage of the internet for communicating with family and friends appears
to have little impact on the likelihood of internet usage becoming problematic15,26.
Instead, the significant predictors of problematic usage appear to be low self-esteem,
anxiety and the use of the internet for sensation-seeking activities that the user considers
to be important26,31.
It is worth noting, however, that some researchers maintain that internet addiction is not
a true addiction, but may be the product of other existing disorders such as depression,
or a phase of life problem32 . Also, some of the chief hazards of internet addiction
(marital, academic and professional problems, together with sleep deprivation) might be
the cause rather than the effect of excessive internet use. The issue of problematic video
gaming, which appears most prevalent amongst the young, is dealt with in more detail
in the About the brain section (page 86).
19
Rather than exceeding some daily

threshold, internet access is
considered as problematic when
it becomes compulsive, interferes
with the normal activities of daily
living, and when the person can
no longer control it

on human well-being
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Executive summary
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Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
While excessive use of the internet can become associated with depression and anxiety,
the internet is also being developed as an effective tool to treat such mental health
issues. For example, a recent review of 22 studies of computerized Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy (CBT) aimed at ameliorating anxiety and depressive disorders concluded that
this approach, especially via the internet, can provide effective, acceptable and practical
health care for those who might otherwise remain untreated33. Similarly, a review of nine
randomly controlled trials of internet-based therapy for the treatment of addictions
concluded that, although more research was required to understand relative differences
in their outcomes, such an approach was effective in achieving positive behavioural
changes34. Although it remains debatable whether such approaches are likely to replace
face-to-face treatment with a professional, the internet clearly provides a durable,
workable environment for services to remote or disabled populations, as well as to
people who prefer not to be visible and exposed35.
20
While excessive use of the internet

can become associated with
depression and anxiety, the internet
is also being developed as an
effective tool to treat such mental
health issues

on human well-being
21

Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
internet use can be considered problematic when it

regularly interferes with normal daily living and is
difficult to control
a particular threshold exists (in terms of hours spent

accessing the internet) that can be defined as
problematic
online communication with family and existing

friends is not likely to lead to problematic usage
excessive use of the internet is a psychiatric

disorder.
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
risk factors for problematic internet usage include

low self-esteem, anxiety and the use of the internet
for sensation-seeking activities that the user
considers to be important
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
the internet can also support mental health, by

providing online therapeutic treatment for a range
of mental health disorders including depression,
anxiety and addiction.

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
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Final comments
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References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Is the internet rewiring our brains and should

we be concerned?
22

on human well-being
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Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
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About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Gary Small and colleagues carried out a novel study of how the brains of middle-aged
and older participants respond when using an internet search engine36. Compared with
reading text, they found that internet searching increased activation in several regions of
the brain, but only amongst those participants with internet experience (see Fig 1). Based
on the regions involved, the researchers suggested that internet searching alters the
brains responsiveness in neural circuits controlling decision making and complex
reasoning (in frontal regions, anterior cingulate and hippocampus). However, because an
uncontrolled task was used, it is difficult to know what cognitive processes the
participants were carrying out. This is a problem when attempting to draw conclusions
about neural differences. It is possible that, even when they were supposed to be
searching, less experienced users were spending more time reading text while their
savvy users who had learnt how to use search engines were using sophisticated search
strategies. After five days of training for an hour a day, the internet-nave participants
were producing similar activations as their more experienced counterparts. In a later
book37, Small and Vorgan use this result to raise a concern that if the nave subjects had
already rewired their brains after just five hours on the internet, what might happen to
the more malleable brains of children, when they spend their average eight hours daily
with their high-tech toys? It can be hypothesised that children would also show
changes in neural activity associated with learning to use a search engine, although the
basis for anticipating changes beyond this is not made clear. Changes in neural
activation in different regions can be expected when learning any task for the first time.
For example, after adults learned to carry out complex multiplication38, the brain activity
produced by carrying out this task shifted from frontal to posterior regions (suggesting
less working memory load and more automatic processing see Fig 2).
23
Fig 1
Regions of brain that were activated more by internet
searching than reading for individuals a) without prior
internet experience and b) with prior internet
experience (with additional activity in regions
associated with decision making and complex
reasoning). These individuals may have learnt to use
the internet, and so were more involved with mental
processes involving, for example, search strategies.
These images are from research by Small et al.36.

on human well-being
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Executive summary
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Multitasking
Brain training
24
All learning brings about changes in the brain, and the internet allows access to an
effectively infinite educational resource. One outstanding characteristic of this resource
is that its multimodality exceeds that of books (ie, it provides information in many forms:
auditory, images, video, textual, etc). Such multimodality is regarded of considerable
educational benefit since, for example, adding pictures to text can enhance memory for
the text39. This enhancement of memory may be linked to the additional brain activity
produced by multimodal stimulus over and above that produced by each mode
separately40. However, multimodality alone does not, of course, guarantee improvement
in long-term memory or even the ability of the resource to engage those wishing to learn
from it. Internet-based learning resources require judicious design, with multimodality
enhancing learning when it encourages in-depth processing that relates
to the learning41.

Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Fig 2
It is not just learning how to use the internet that can
rewire our brains. Gaining mastery of any task can
result in a shift in the brain activity generated when
we carry it out. These images are from a study that
required adults to practise complex multiplication: a)
hotspots show regions of the brain where activity
decreased; b) regions of the brain where activity
increased after training (Delazer et al.38).

on human well-being
25
Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
the internet is a valuable learning resource and all

learning involves changes in the brain.
search engines are more effective at rewiring our

brains than other environmental influences.
Executive summary
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Attention problems
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Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust

on human well-being
Multitasking
Multitasking
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Do online multitaskers develop special skills?
26

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
Multitasking
The phrase multitasking refers to attending to two or more parallel tasks (as might be
envisaged when browsing products online and discussing them with friend(s) via instant
messaging). Despite popular perceptions, high frequencies of this type of behaviour
appear restricted to a minority of users, even amongst the net generation42 . In the
strictest sense, engagement with two tasks simultaneously is extremely difficult, and so it
can be assumed that online multitasking is chiefly about switching between two or more
activities. When dealing with competing tasks (eg alternating our focus between different
windows on a screen), higher order (or top-down) processes are important in orienting
and switching our attention efficiently. Andrews and Murphy43 investigated the taskswitching abilities of video gamers by presenting them with stimuli consisting of a
number and letter, with a cue that sometimes asked them to make consonant/vowel
judgements and sometimes odd/even judgements. They found video-gamers were
better at task-switching, a finding also reached in a more recent study44. This
performance may be aided by gamers enhanced ability to suppress distracting visual
information45,46 while having sufficient attentional resources left over to allocate these
beyond the current target.
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These results contrast with a report that extensive media multitaskers are more
susceptible to interference from irrelevant environmental stimuli and irrelevant
memories47. However, there is a clear difference between playing an action game in
which rewards are provided for efficient attention switching, and the practice of willingly
increasing the number of distracting influences. Those who choose to simultaneously
view multiple windows and browsers, chat and enjoy portable media all at once may be
seeking distraction rather than rehearsing their attentional skills. Alternatively, it has been
proposed48 that heavy media multitaskers may benefit from their practice by partially
attending to more than one stream of information simultaneously, rather than rehearsing
the ability assessed by Ophir et al., ie switching between streams while ignoring the
others49. This might provide an argument for media multitaskers to continue their practice
in the face of the study by Ophir et al., but the suggestion remains that media
multitasking does not develop the same set of attentional skills as playing video games.
27
However, there is a clear difference

between playing an action game
in which rewards are provided for
efficient attention switching, and the
practice of willingly increasing the
number of distracting influences
(such as choosing) to
simultaneously view multiple
windows and browsers, chat and
enjoy portable media all at once

on human well-being
28
Multitasking
Multitasking
Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
video gamers develop executive attentional skills

that may support them in allocating their visual
attention (ie in task switching and suppressing
distracting information)
if enhancement of executive attentional skills from

video gaming translate into benefits for everyday
online multitasking
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extensive media multitaskers do not appear more

skilful in these respects.
the cognitive advantages, disadvantages or the

processes that characterise typical media
multitasking.

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What types of brain training appear to work?
29

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There have been some commercial attempts focused on developing cognitive function,
including online training programmes that can be pursued over the internet.
Disappointingly, there is a dearth of convincing evidence for the effectiveness of these
commercial products. Indeed, computer-based cognitive training (or so called brain
training) has chiefly been found to improve performance on the training itself, rather than
transferring to everyday application50. One important exception, however, is the training
of working memory. Working memory describes our ability to hold information in our
attention, and it is a major constraint on our ability to learn new concepts. When young
adults undertook a 19-day computer-based training program that focused on developing
working memory for 30 minutes a day, it was found that not only their working memory,
but also their fluid intelligence improved (ie their ability to solve problems in new
situations)51. A convincing range of such results have led scientists to conclude that
working memory can be trained52, with such training shown to increase activations in
frontal and parietal cortices associated with working memory53 (see Fig 3). This bodes
well for those wishing to develop more effective brain training games but so far the
commercial response to these exciting developments has been slow.
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Although other types of training, beyond working memory, have been disappointing in
their ability to enhance cognitive function, we know that cognitive stimulation (eg reading
and socialising) is healthy and can help protect our mental faculties54. This can include
computer-based training, which has been shown as effective in slowing the rates of
cognitive decline in adults55, including sufferers of Alzheimers56.
30
Fig 3
Computer-based brain-training can improve working
memory function. The image shows the location of
increased prefrontal and parietal brain activity related
to such improvements (Olesen et al.53)

on human well-being
31
Brain training
Brain training
Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
working memory can be trained
existing commercial brain-training games can

provide transferable benefits in terms of developing
cognitive function amongst healthy adults.
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mental stimulation helps slow rates of cognitive

decline, and this can include computer-based
activity.

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Can you become addicted to video games and whats a safe

limit? Why are video games so attractive and how may they
affect the brain?
32

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Video games can be played on- or offline, but internet games are one of the most
popular pastimes for young internet users57,58. A simple observation about video games
is their capacity to engage their players. However, the attraction of video games can
become problematic for some children and this appears, at least, to be a very real and
prevalent phenomenon. Playing internet video games has been implicated as a popular
pastime of problematic internet users59. Video game addiction has been rejected from
inclusion in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) but, when its
criteria for pathological gambling were applied to adolescent UK gamers, researchers
found one in five teenagers met the criteria for pathological addiction60. Similar results
have been obtained in a study in Norway, with 3% of children aged 12-18 having a
pathology, and 10% at risk61. In Germany, 10% of children aged 11-14 were found to be
indulging in excessive computer and game use 62 and, in the US, 8.5% of youths aged
8-18. In Singapore, between 7.6% and 9.9% of a sample of more than 3,000 8-14 yearolds would be classified as pathological gamers63. All these studies report that such
behaviour is more prevalent amongst boys.
Obsessive game players are generally distinguished by a set of personal traits and
behaviours. Some of these might also be a cause (rather than an effect) of intense
gaming, and these include loneliness, low self-esteem and lower satisfaction with daily
life64,65. The profile of potential pathological gamers is not all negative, however. One
study of 127 children and adults who were self-reported gaming addicts were
characterised as generally highly intelligent, motivated and achievement orientated
(though often misunderstood), and a follow up study five years later showed the younger
group had performed well in higher education and worked in high ranking jobs66.
However, the bulk of the evidence suggests intense game playing can create further
social anxiety, poorer social relationships67 and increased levels of depression68.
The fact that it is so prevalent during adolescence is concerning, since poor psychosocial
wellbeing at this stage can lead to further psychiatric conditions later in life69. The
intensity of play may provide an early warning. In a two-year longitudinal study led by
Douglas Gentile, researchers were able to show that youths who became pathological
gamers began with an average of 31 hours per week, whereas those who never
become pathological players began with an average of 19 hours per week (ie an
33
Video game addiction has been

rejected from inclusion in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM) but, when
its criteria for pathological gambling
were applied to adolescent UK
gamers, researchers found one in
five teenagers met the criteria for
pathological addiction

on human well-being
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34
average of two to three hours per day)63. Those who continued to be pathological
gamers displayed increased levels of depression, anxiety and social phobia, while those
able to give up pathological gaming displayed less of these behaviours. This study also
linked pathological gaming to increased aggression, likelihood of being a victim of
aggression, and poorer academic grades. This evidence, together with the data on
attentional problems discussed above, tends to support current guidelines from the
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) for a maximum of two hours total screen time per
day for children70,71.
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Neuroscience research provides some insight into why games are so engaging and why
this can become a problem. Along with many other rewarding pleasures such as food,
drugs, gambling and music, studies have suggested midbrain dopamine is released
when we play video games72 (but see constraints on interpretation published
elsewhere73). Efforts to understand how persistent drug use influences the brain have
focused on mechanisms underlying long-term associative memories in the frontal lobes
and striatum which receive input from dopamine neurons in the midbrain74. Video
gaming provides many instances of reward per unit of time relative to most real world
experiences, and a recent study suggests it can release amounts of dopamine
comparable to the effects of psycho-stimulant drugs on the brain68. Further studies have
sought to compare the neural responses to video games and drugs likely to induce
dependency. For example, when regular video game players encounter images from
their game, the response of their brain resembles that observed when drug addicts
encounter cues reminding them of their drug75,76 (see Fig 4) and changes in the brain
over a six-week period of playing video games is comparable to those observed in the
early stages of drug addiction73.
Fig 4
In a transverse (horizontal) slice of the brain, the
image shows where brain activity was greater for
excessive video game players (compared with non
game players) when they viewed images from a
video game(Ko et al.76). The brain regions activated
(including nucleus accumbens, anterior cingulate and
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) are also activated when
substance abusers experience craving.

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However, there is presently no consensus about the diagnostic criteria that should be
used for pathological gaming and, more broadly, addiction to using the internet. It should
be borne in mind that there are many other types of excessive behaviour (such as eating
too much chocolate, shopping and working too hard) that can have very unhealthy
consequences, but are not considered psychiatric disorders in themselves. There is,
therefore, cause to question whether difficulty in controlling use of video games and/or
the internet should be considered as true addictions78. The time course of such putative
pathologies might help indicate their seriousness, but here there is also a lack of
consensus. The Gentile study63 suggested pathological gaming usually continues for
more than two years and so cannot be considered just a phase, while other work
showed half of those diagnosed using similar criteria were no longer addicted a year
later79.
35

on human well-being
36

Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
excessive use of video games is common and can

be unhealthy. (Research supports a guideline of
maximum two hours total screen-based
entertainment per day for children.)
video gaming should be considered as an

addiction alongside drug dependency, although
studies of drugs and drug addiction may help shed
light on the attractiveness of gaming.
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on human well-being

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Can video games have beneficial effects on their players?
37

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38
Problematic gaming may be a serious downside of the ability of video games to capture
their players attention, but there can be significant benefits as well. The ability of such
technology to strongly stimulate their players reward system may also contribute to their
potential as teachers. Increases in midbrain dopamine are also associated with
improved ability to store and to explicitly recall information (declarative memory), possibly
due to the enhanced plasticity that dopamine can provide80-82 . When models are used
to estimate changes in midbrain dopamine during an educational game, these can
predict when, during the game, a player can recall newly-learnt educational content83.
A study of working memory training has also shown individual improvements in working
memory are correlated with changes in cortical dopamine receptor density (see Fig 5),
supporting the notion that working memory training may help dopamine-based
transmission of information in the brain84. These join another set of findings about the
potential benefits of computer games regarding the ability of video games to teach a
range of visuomotor skills, and these will now be reviewed.
Although often characterised in the popular press as mindless activities, it seems that
video games can influence the development of abilities that psychologists call skills.
These skills include very basic visual perceptual and motor (movement) response abilities
rather than higher-order reasoning skills or the thinking skills taught in schools. They can,
however, contribute to the efficiency with which many everyday tasks are carried out
including, as we shall see, tasks that are critical to some professions and fields of
learning.
In 2003, Green and Bavelier85 studied visual processing skills of gamers compared with
non-gamers (18-23 years-old) and found that playing video games was associated with
enhanced visual attention capacity, superior allocation of spatial attention over the visual
field and improved temporal processing of visual information (ie gamers were less likely
to suffer bottlenecks of attention when many events occurred in quick succession).
Murphy and Spencer86 failed to replicate these findings with a larger sample, although
this may have been due to the types of video game experienced by their participants.
Green and Bavelier considered participants who only played action video games,
whereas Spencer and Murphys participants either only played action video games or
Fig 5
Hotspots show availability of cortical dopamine
receptors in the brain. Improvements in working
memory that arise from computer-based training are
correlated with changes in the density of these
receptors, suggesting dopamine is involved in the
underlying processes (McNab et al.84).

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a combination of action and strategy video games. The importance of video game type
has been noted in other studies (see page 41 for research on contrast sensitivity).
Dye and colleagues87 studied visual attention in gamers and non-gamers in four
different age groups (aged 7-10,11-13,14-17,18-22 years old). Their results suggested that
action video game players of all ages had enhanced attentional skills which allowed
them to make accurate responses more rapidly, with additional attentional resources to
help process distractions. This approach was extended to assess visual attention with
three types of task88. Researchers tested child and adult participants in a simple visual
search task (locating a simple target shape amongst a field of distracters), and a multiple
object tracking task (requiring multiple moving objects to be tracked simultaneously).
They also tested their participants ability to reallocate attentional resources once they
had been allocated, using an attentional blink task. In this task, the participant must
report a particular aspect of a visual stimulus (eg whether it points up or down)
appearing unexpectedly in a stream of distracters. They concluded that young action
game players perform faster in these tasks than non-gamers, achieving scores that
non-gamers may achieve only as adults, if ever. Castel and colleagues89 studied visual
attention in a group of gamers aged 18-34 who had, on average, played for 12.9 hours
per week over the previous six months. Again, gamers produced faster response times
relative to non-gamers.
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The rapid response of gamers in these tasks should not, however, be confused for
trigger-happy behaviour, since the accuracy of the response was not diminished90.
However, the tasks to which video game effects are shown to transfer are usually
computer-based. Indeed, a study led by Richardson91 found that video game experience
predicted navigation performance in a virtual environment, but did not appear related to
navigation ability in real environments. This suggests video games may not offer a
general enhancement of spatial abilities, but may improve tasks combining rapid motor
responses and visual processing (visuomotor skills) in small scale environments.
Other studies have also found differences between those who play video games and
those who do not. For example, Green and Bavelier investigated the ability of video
game players to track independently moving objects92 . Participants were young adults
39
This suggests video games may

not offer a general enhancement of
spatial abilities, but may improve
tasks combining rapid motor
responses and visual
processing(visuomotor skills) in
small scale environments

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who had played an action video game at least three to four days a week in the previous
six months. These gamers kept track of objects moving randomly about a screen more
accurately than non-gamers . Other researchers93 have reported similar correlations
amongst children and young adults of video game experience with improved ability
to track multiple objects.
However, such effects might not be caused by the game itself. For example, it is possible
that those with good tracking abilities are better at video action games, and so are
more likely to spend their time playing them. Such self-selection may even have some
biological basis since recent research94 shows the rate at which individuals improve on
a video game can be predicted by the pre-existing size of their dorsal striatum, a region
associated with cognitive flexibility, as measured by task-switching and the ability to
transfer learning to new tasks. To address issues of self-selection, experimental studies
can be devised in which the effects of playing games on non-gamers are examined.
Green and Bavelier95 divided their non-playing participants into two groups, one of which
experienced 30 hours on action video games and the other (their control group) did not.
Performance on their multiple object tracking task was then reassessed. The training
improved their performance, whereas the control group of non-players who received no
training did not show any improvement. Rather than simply finding enhancements
amongst established game players, this type of training study provides more convincing
evidence that the game is producing the skill, rather than those with skills choosing to
game. In their earlier research, Green and Bavelier85 also asked non-players to engage
with an action video game for one hour per day for ten consecutive days. After actiongame training, scores were significantly improved on all three measures of visual
processing tested: enumeration (reporting how many squares are presented in a briefly
flashed display), a useful field-of-view task (measuring participants ability to locate a
target amongst distractors) and an attentional-blink task (measuring temporal
processing).
Studies involving controlled programmes of training have now been carried out by other
researchers. In a study of adults, it was found ten hours of training on an action video
game improved spatial attention and mental rotation, with women benefiting more than
40
However, such effects might not be

caused by the game itself. For
example, it is possible that those
with good tracking abilities are
better at video action games, and
so are more likely to spend their
time playing them

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men implying that playing action video games can help close gender difference in
spatial cognition100. The effects of action game training have also been studied in
respect to contrast sensitivity, which is the primary limiting factor in how well one is able
to see97. It is defined as the ability to detect small increments in shades of gray on a
uniform background. As well as finding improved sensitivity amongst regular video game
players, these researchers trained non-game players for 50 hours over nine weeks using
action games, and a control condition of playing a non-action game for the same
duration. A large percentage improvement in contrast sensitivity was found for actiongame training, and this effect was extremely robust across the sample of participants,
raising hopes for complementary clinical procedures aimed at improving eyesight98.
41
In a study of adults, it was found

ten hours of training on an action
video game improved spatial
attention and mental rotation, with
women benefiting more than men
implying that playing action video
games can help close gender
difference in spatial cognition
There is, however, evidence of training with video games failing to demonstrate effects.
A team led by Boot99 found 23.5 hours of video game training over four to five weeks did
not improve performance on a battery of cognitive tests that included those used by
Green and Bavelier89, with the exception of some improvement in mental rotation skills.
Rather than challenge the notion that video game training can improve skills, Boots team
concluded there may be boundary conditions on the effectiveness of video games to
enhance skills in a transferable manner. They point to small differences in their
assessment tasks but raise the issue that, if such small procedural differences did have
an effect on outcomes, then possibly video game training may not always transfer to
complex tasks outside the laboratory. The content of the video game should be
considered an important factor in predicting outcomes, and it is video gaming based
around action that is most consistently linked to improvements in visuomotor skills.
Although the identification of mediating factors deserves further research, the evidence
appears strongly supportive of video games enhancing skills. It is not, of course, unusual
to find that training can improve performance. For example, practise at luggage
screening can improve detection rates100, but these effects are limited to the task itself.
However, the training effects of video games appear to transfer beyond video games.
The significance of this finding is emphasised by the many failed efforts to develop
training programmesE that can achieve transferable cognitive enhancement50,101,102 .
It should also be noted that the training periods used by experimenters with video
E
The exception to this general failure appears to be in
the area of training working memory discussed
above, see Klingberg, T. (2010). Training and plasticity
of working memory, Trends in Cognitive Sciences,
14(7), 317-324

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games are relatively modest compared with the several thousands of hours per year
spent gaming by many regular players.
This makes video games a special case of scientific interest and there are now serious
efforts underway to understand why they have such influence on our cognitive abilities.
In a recent study103, non-game players were trained with either 50 hours of action video
game or the same amount of a non-action video game as a control. Participants were
then asked to carry out a test of visual motion direction and a test of auditory tone
location, indicating left and right in both tests by pressing a button. By fitting models to
the data derived from these tests, researchers were able to rule out the possibility that
decreased response times in the group trained with action video games was due to
improved motor response. Instead, they were able to implicate improved probabilistic
inference as the causal mechanism. That is, action video games appear to train
participants in making better decisions about the likelihood of outcomes based on
previous history. This is not, of course, an improvement in the ability to consciously weigh
up and reflect upon evidence, but an improved ability to automatically assess a sensory
environment. Action video games rarely repeat exactly the same situation so, as pointed
out by the team undertaking this study, learning in this context encourages an
improvement in rapidly and accurately learning the statistics on the fly and how to
accumulate this evidence more efficiently. They speculate three possible candidate
explanations for why this learning can transfer to other tasks: it may be linked to
development of neural regions that are shared across modalities; and/or the
development of the fronto-parietal circuits that control these regions; and/or the global
release of neuromodulators such as noradrenalin that can improve such probabilistic
inference across a wide range of circuits.
Evidence for the transfer of skills is further bolstered by some convincing examples of
where action-game training has contributed to real-world expertise. An early study by
Gopher104 showed ten hours of video game experience using Space Fortress (designed
specifically to study cognitive training105) improved the subsequent flight performance of
cadets. Following this work, video game training was incorporated into the regular
training programme of the Israeli Air Force. An echo of this finding can be found in recent
42
Action video games appear to train

participants in making better
decisions about the likelihood of
outcomes based on previous
history. This is not, of course, an
improvement in the ability to
consciously weigh up and reflect
upon evidence, but an improved
ability to automatically assess a
sensory environment

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informal reports that gamers make better drone pilots106. In a study of laporoscopic
surgery, Rosser et al.105 found that, compared with non-players, surgeons who had
played video games in the past and were playing video games currently made 37% and
32% less errors (respectively) during examination of their surgical skills. These results join
other studies showing individuals with previous regular engagement with video games
have better videoendoscopic surgical skills108,109. Recent developments in video game
technology may strengthen this relationship. For example, skill on a Nintendo Wii, with its
motion sensing interface, has been shown to be a good predictor of laporoscopic skill110.
Such findings are encouraging some scientists to suggest that video game technology
may prove a promising method to take the brakes off adult plasticity111.
43

on human well-being
44

Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
playing action video games can improve some

visual processing and motor response skills.
why video games appear so effective in achieving

this
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all the factors that are likely to mediate these

effects, although the content of the game
appears critical

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the extent to which these enhancements might

benefit our everyday lives. For example, in terms of
the demands faced by most of us in our daily
working life, it is difficult to estimate the benefit of
these improvements in terms of our professional
performance. However, improvements in some
areas of screen-based professional work have been
demonstrated.

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Do violent video games encourage aggressiveness?

Do prosocial games encourage more positive behaviour?
45

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46
The ability of video games to teach can also result in unwanted outcomes. Self-reported
guilt suggests that virtual violence is not a morally insignificant type of act112 . There have
been very many studies investigating a possible link between playing violent video
games and the learning of aggressive behaviour, with some suggesting publication bias
may have generated unwarranted concern115. However, a recent meta-analysis of 136
studies (involving over 130,000 participants) concluded that the scientific literature has
effectively and clearly shown video game play is a causal risk factor for aggressive
behaviour118. Debates amongst researchers continue to linger, including around how
to interpret the size of this effect115,116, but even a small effect (in scientific terms) might
translate into high costs for society and the individuals concerned121.
Evidence for violent video games promoting aggressive behaviour has also arisen from
objective measures of event-related brain potential (ERP) in the electrical field generated
by brain activity118. This study was able to reveal desensitization linked to repeated
exposure to violent games. In this study, scenes of real violence elicited reduced signals
among those who played violent, as compared to non-violent, video games (see Fig 6).
Another study used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to generate images
of brain activity when carrying out a GO/NO-GO task119. This task required participants to
press a button in response to a target stimulus and withhold their response to a nontarget stimulus. The researchers found participants demonstrated reduced activation in
the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in the response inhibition task after 30 minutes
of playing a violent video game, compared with playing a non-violent video game.
Although no changes in accuracy or timing were observed in this study, the changes in
brain activity suggest reduced control over response. In a very simple but convincing
experiment, Carnagey and colleagues assigned participants to play either a violent or
non-violent video game for 20 minutes and then watch a ten minute videotape
containing scenes of real-life violence, while heart rates and galvanic skin responses
were monitored. Participants who had previously played a violent video game showed
reduced physiological responses while viewing filmed real violence, strongly suggesting
a physiological desensitization to violence120.
Fig 6
Changes in the electrical field generated by the brain
in response to viewing neutral and violent pictures
(Bartholew et al.122). This response is shown for
young adults who regularly played nonviolent games
(nonviolent game players) and for those who regularly
played violent games (violent game players).
Compared to players of nonviolent games, violent
game players showed a reduced response when
confronted with scenes of real violence. This effect
held even after the researchers controlled for
aggressiveness in the personality of the players.

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If video games can teach their players to display aggressive affective responses, then it
should be possible to observe the reverse effect in response to games that encourage
empathy and sensitivity. After playing a prosocial (compared to a neutral) video game for
ten minutes, researchers have noted increased empathic concern towards the suffering
of others and decreased pleasure at anothers misfortune immediately following the
game121. As with the effects of violent video games, researchers must seek to establish
causality through well-designed experimental (testing for a different behaviour after
playing one type of game for a short period compared with another), correlational (testing
for an association between playing the amount of video games played and the extent of
the behaviour), and longitudinal studies (testing whether the amount of video game play
between two or more times can be used to predict changes in the behaviour). In studies
of Singaporean and Japanese players, researchers have been able to report a link
between playing prosocial video games and prosocial behaviour in all three respects122 .
In reality, although perpetrators of well-reported atrocities may have a history of playing
violent video games (eg the Columbine massacre29), the complexity of human behaviour
and the contexts in which real violence occurs make it very difficult to prove or disprove
such games are key causal factors. It appears clearly established that the content of a
video game can influence subsequent emotional response, but this is not conclusive
evidence that a violent video game causes an individual to behave more violently. It is,
however, reasonable to hypothesise that regular exposure to violent video games
increases the likelihood of such behaviour.
47
If video games can teach their

players to display aggressive
affective responses, then it should
be possible to observe the reverse
effect in response to games that
encourage empathy and sensitivity.
After playing a prosocial video
game for ten minutes, researchers
have noted increased empathic
concern towards the suffering of
others and decreased pleasure at
anothers misfortune immediately
following the game

on human well-being
48

Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
the emotional content of video games can influence

affective response, that is, playing violent and
prosocial video games generally shifts behavioural
tendency towards aggressiveness and empathy
respectively.
playing a violent video game causes an individual

to carry out a violent act.
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About the brain

Glossary
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on human well-being
Attention problems
Attention problems
Introduction
Executive summary
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Attention problems
Sleep
Final comments
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About the brain

Glossary
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Does technology cause ADHD? Is there any evidence of digital

technology causing problems with attention?
49

on human well-being
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50
Attention problems
Modern media may be improving childrens abilities in a range of tasks involving basic
visual attention and motor skills, but what about their attention in class? This can involve
a different set of abilities (eg mindfulness and consideration of social boundaries and
contexts) and different types of motivation (eg longer-term rewards requiring the deferral
of more immediate gratification). It has been suggested that television and computer
games may interfere with the development of such attentional capacities, since they
displace opportunities to practice paying attention to less exciting tasks that do not
involve rapid changes in focus123,124. Some commentators have even suggested a link
between the rise in diagnosis of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the
boom in computer games F.
Concerns about digital technologies causing ADHD to some extent mimic the
controversies around television and ADHD. Studies of childrens television viewing habits
have generally suggested an association with subsequent attentional problems across
childhood development124-132 . However, children with attentional problems may be
actively encouraged to watch television by parents in need of relief from the higher levels
of care required, children with ADHD may watch more TV because it is popular amongst
their peers, and hereditary and neurobiological factors may also play a role in mediating
the relationship between TV viewing and ADHD. Taking these factors into account, the
existing evidence does not justify making the statement that watching television causes
ADHD133 but suggests excessive viewing (seven or more hours per day) can give rise to
negative outcomes134. Also, as will be emphasised many times in this review, how the
technology is being used is usually a strong but under-examined contributor, with some
educational television revealing positive effects on preschoolers readiness135 while
viewing of inappropriate material can be linked preschoolers hyperactivity136.
In terms of content, however, it seems the internet leisure activities popular with children
(eg games) might not teach the types of attentional capacities required for paying
attention in the classroom and other contexts. Given the additional interactivity and the
levels of physiological and cognitive engagement they can provide, a case can be made
that some internet activities (such as games) might pose a greater threat to some
attentional abilities than television. A study looking at the prevalence of attentional
Concerns about digital technologies

causing ADHD to some extent
mimic the controversies around
television and ADHD. Studies of
childrens television viewing habits
have generally suggested an
association with subsequent
attentional problems across
childhood development
However, children with attentional

problems may be actively
encouraged to watch television by
parents in need of relief from the
higher levels of care required,
children with ADHD may watch
more TV because it is popular
amongst their peers, and hereditary
and neurobiological factors may
also play a role in mediating the
relationship between TV viewing
and ADHD
F
Greenfield, S. in Daily Mail
(2009).

on human well-being
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Attention problems
problems at a single point in time has found correlations with high levels of video game
use137. However, the same limitations on interpreting such evidence apply here as they
do with television. Also, there are neurological grounds for predicting that children with
ADHD would be more vulnerable to becoming addicted to gaming138 and the
impulsivity observed in ADHD has been identified as a risk factor for this addictive
behaviour63. The most convincing evidence for a cause-effect relationship between
gaming and classroom attention arises from research involving a US longtitudinal study
of 6-12 year-olds at four time points over a 13-month period, which recorded parent- and
child-reported television and game exposure139. To measure attentional problems,
teachers were asked to report difficulties staying on task, paying attention or whether a
child often interrupted other childrens work. It should be noted that such reports reflect
important issues for academic success but do not imply development of ADHD. This
study was able to control for existing attentional problems and gender, and showed that
playing games was associated with a greater risk of developing attentional problems,
and was a more robust predictor than television viewing. It was noted that those who
exceeded the two hour (AAP-recommended) amount of daily screen time (television and
computer game play combined) were more likely to be above average in attention
problems. Based on the results of this study, it would seem that prolonged playing of
computer games can have a detrimental effect on attentiveness in class. As with the
reports of positive effects reviewed earlier, the durations of exposure involved suggest
computer games are an especially effective environmental influence upon behaviour.
The importance of judging the impact of technology by how it is being used may explain
a recent report that young childrens daily computer use is associated with fewer
attentional problems140.
51
This study was able to control for

existing attentional problems and
gender, and showed that playing
games was associated with a
greater risk of developing
attentional problems, and was a
more robust predictor than
television viewing
As with the reports of positive

effects reviewed earlier, the
durations of exposure involved
suggest computer games are an
especially effective environmental
influence upon behaviour

on human well-being
52
Attention problems
Attention problems
Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
Restricting childrens exposure to TV and video

games to 2 hours (combined) reduces the likelihood
of attentional problems in class (but this conclusion
is derived chiefly from only one study, so more
research is needed to confirm this).
the use of digital technology by young children is a

causal factor in developing ADHD.
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About the brain

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on human well-being

Introduction
Executive summary
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Sleep
Final comments
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About the brain

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Do we know more technology means less exercise?

How can technology disrupt homework?
53

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Apart from their direct effects, the exciting range of online entertainment opportunities
may have the potential to displace other, more beneficial, pursuits. Given the concerns
around obesity, including amongst children, concerns have been raised about whether
the use of computers diminishes activities involving exercise. Evidence in this area,
however, is mixed. Researchers have reported negative relationships141,142, no
relationship143 and even a positive relationship144 between computer use and exercise
amongst children. Another study145 with young children suggests negative associations
with exercise only when the usage becomes excessive G. The same study found that
computer usage was modestly associated with better academic performance and time
spent reading, supporting the notion that home technology can be a useful educational
resource. As well as displacing homework, of course, on- and offline computer activity is
frequently a part of todays homework, so future research of this type may need to pay
closer attention to what the computer is being used for.
Gaming is rarely a part of homework but, contrary to public perceptions, teenagers may
not play video games on most days. In the US, Cummings & Vandewater146 carried out
a study of 1,491 children aged 10-19 years-old and asked them to log their gaming
habits over a period consisting of one randomly chosen weekday and one weekend day.
They found only 36% of their participants played video games during this period, playing
from about 60-90 minutes on average. This is about a third of the time that adolescents
spend watching TV147. Compared with non-gamers, adolescent gamers did not spend
less time in social interaction with friends and parents, but spent 30% less time reading
and 34% less time doing homework. However, one needs to be cautious in concluding
that these individuals would, were it not for video games, be expending more effort on
their studies and be achieving higher grades. Although several studies suggest video
game play is negatively related to academic achievement at school and college148-151,
one study suggests academic achievement can be positively related to game play152 .
Gamers may, of course, simply be working more efficiently than non-gamers, with some
evidence that high achievers spend less time on homework153. Also, it may depend on
when the games are being played, with the hours spent on playing video games during
the week having notably greater association with poorer school performance than time
spent gaming at the weekend154. Moving beyond time allocation at a single instance in
54
Compared with non-gamers,

adolescent gamers did not spend
less time in social interaction with
friends and parents, but spent 30%
less time reading and 34% less
time doing homework
G
In this study, excessive was defined as greater than
eight hours per week. Note, when comparing this to
AAP guidelines of two hours per day, the latter
includes all screen time.

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time, Weis and Cerankosky measured changes in the academic performance of nongamers (boys aged 6-9 years-old) four months after receiving their first video game
system. Compared with a control group (who received their video system at the end of
the four months), those boys who had possessed a video game for the four months
showed less involvement in after-school activities, lower reading and writing scores and
greater teacher-reported academic problems155. The changes in their academic
performance were mediated by the amount of gaming they had been indulging in. Of
course, this effect might not be unique to video games but might feasibly be produced
by other types of distraction (eg a new bicycle). However, the study does provide clear
evidence that playing video games can negatively influence school work and
achievement.
Many students also engage in instant messaging during periods set aside for
homework. It is not likely that both these activities can be carried out simultaneously,
or even that this type of media multitasking develops special skills in switching attention
(see multi-tasking above). In a large sample of college students, almost all reported
using instant messaging while working and most (57%) considered this practice was
detrimental to their studies.
55
The changes in their academic

performance were mediated by the
amount of gaming they had been
indulging in. Of course, this effect
might not be unique to video
games but might feasibly be
produced by other types of
distraction (eg a new bicycle)

on human well-being

Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
although technology can helpfully support learning,

some applications (eg gaming and instant
messaging for social purposes) can be a distraction,
suggesting parental monitoring of younger students
use of technology may benefit learning outcomes.
use of technology-based activity discourages

physical exercise.
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56

on human well-being
Sleep
Sleep
Introduction
Executive summary
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Sleep
Final comments
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About the brain

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How can using technology influence sleep?

What effect can this have on learning?
57

on human well-being
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Sleep
Late night use of electronic media is commonly perceived as a cause of poor sleep156,157,
with the presence of a television or computer in the bedroom linked to later bedtimes158.
It appears self-evident that internet use and the playing of computer games can interfere
with sleep, if these activities displace bed-times and lead to shorter periods in bed.
A recent study in the US of teenagers technology use after 9 pm indicated an average
dose of 55 minutes online computer use plus 24 minutes of video games159.
However, there are reasons to suspect that digital technologies can have a more direct
effect on sleep beyond postponing bed-time, since it often involves staring at an artificial
source of light. Exposure to relatively low intensity light can affect human circadian
rhythms, interfering with the processes by which our bodies know when its
bedtime141,160. Higuchi and colleagues have shown that using a bright display terminal
can suppress nocturnal melatonin secretion as measured in the saliva, suggesting these
displays have the potential to disrupt sleep161. Apart from the brightness of the display,
however, the task undertaken on the screen may be a stronger factor in determining
subsequent sleep quality. In a second study, Higuchis lab varied both the brightness of
the screen and the task that adult participants undertook on the computer late at night,
comparing a set of simple tasks with a low mental load with playing a computer
game162 . Objective measures of sleep quality, such as the time taken for participants to
get to sleep, showed the computer game had a significantly greater disruptive effect on
sleep. The brightness of the display did not appear to influence these measures, but a
combination of playing the computer game and a bright screen did reduce self-reported
sleep quality.
Good sleep is important for health and development. If computer games contribute to
poor sleep, we can also assume that this leads to day-time sleepiness, which is known
to influence academic achievement. Sleep also contributes to learning by consolidating
the memory of our waking experience. When we sleep, events in the hippocampus help
co-ordinate the reactivation of memory traces left over from the day. This helps to
reproduce activities in the cortex that characterised these experiences, and brain activity
that was observable in our preceding hours of wakefulness is reproduced when we fall
asleep163 (see Fig 7). Although much remains to be understood, these processes appear
58
Good sleep is important for health

and development. If computer
games contribute to poor sleep, we
can also assume that this leads to
day-time sleepiness, which is
known to influence academic
achievement
Fig 7
When we sleep, we consolidate the memories of
what we have learnt during the day. In these images
the sleeping brain (3 bottom images) appears to
reproduce the neural activities of those recorded
during preceding hours of wakefulness (3 top images,
from Maquet et al.167).

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Sleep
to consolidate or fix our memories and improve our ability to recall what we have learnt.
As well as helping us remember, sleep also prepares us to learn more and to use our
knowledge to generate insights164. Regular and sufficient sleep is thus essential for the
brain to learn efficiently.

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In an experimental study by Dworak and colleagues165, ten school children (average

age 13.5 years-old) played a computer game for 60 minutes on one night of the week,
watched television for the same time on another evening, and also experience one
evening with no technology (as a control). The technology exposure occurred at 6pm,
around two to three hours before bedtime, but after a homework session. The memory
for information presented in this session was tested immediately at the end of the
homework session, and again 24 hours later. This memory testing allowed the
researchers to determine how well, after their technology exposure and the nights sleep
that followed, they had managed to consolidate their learning in their memory. This study
is notable in terms of considering singular exposure to media (which is a modest dose
considering that many children might be experiencing accumulative effects over many
evenings), in terms of the conservative amounts of gameplay (one hour is close to typical)
and the scheduling of the play after homework and well before bedtime (so representing
what many parents would consider a well-managed evening). The computer game
playing resulted in significantly disrupted sleep patterns (including an approximately 20
minute further delay in sleep onset) and reduced verbal memory performance. Such
effects were not seen for television viewing, which may highlight its passive nature. While
television viewing expends the same energy as sitting quietly, playing video games
results in a higher arousal state of the central nervous system166. As suggested by the
researchers, since newly acquired knowledge is particularly sensitive to the subsequent
consolidation period, the reduction in verbal memory performance observed in this study
may be occurring during the video game play and/or as a result of the disturbed sleep,
since sleep also helps consolidate memory.
Although existing studies provide converging evidence that playing video games
influences sleep, this is another area where more research is badly needed. For example,
consensus has not been reached about how sleep patterns are affected, with
59
The computer game playing

resulted in significantly disrupted
sleep patterns (including an
approximately 20 minute further
delay in sleep onset) and reduced
verbal memory performance. Such
effects were not seen for television
viewing, which may highlight its
passive nature

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Sleep
disagreement over whether SWS sleep, RME sleep or any particular stage of sleep can be
implicated, or whether it is physiological arousal or cognitive arousal that is causal162,167.
In some cases, methodological differences may explain different findings. For example,
one study of childrens evening technology use in China found no effect on day-time
sleepiness168, in contrast to other researchers in Belgium169,170. However, the use of
parent-reporting in the former Chinese study may be less sensitive than the self-reporting
used by the Belgian researchers. There may also be factors mediating the effect of
technology on sleep, such as age. For example, less sleep impairment was noted in
studies with older adolescents and adults after playing computer games162,167 than in
the Dworak169 study with young adolescents.
In adolescence, the need to maintain peer relationships becomes stronger and this can
also lead to other types of technology influencing sleep patterns. In a study of 13-16
year-olds, the Belgian team led by Van den Bulck171 found that mobile phone use after
lights out was very prevalent (most participants using their phones several times a
month in this way), and significantly related to increased tiredness both concurrently and
a year later. They report that teenagers who used their phone between midnight and
3am were almost four times more likely to be very tired. As pointed out by the authors,
since these activities are two-way, it is difficult to suggest this correlation might arise from
using phones to occupy sleepless hours. For one party at least, reduced sleep is likely to
be the result, rather than just a cause, of using a phone. A large Finnish study of
participants aged 12-18 showed clear gender differences in how technology may impact
on sleep and health172 . Digital games and the internet were used more often by boys
than girls, and it was these activities that were linked to boys sleep disruption. Mobile
phone usage was more intensive for girls than boys, and female sleep impairment was
linked to this activity. In this study, it was demonstrated that poor perceived health was
most strongly associated with intensive ICT-usage when it affected sleeping habits.
Common sense suggests that how and when a phone is being used will influence
whether it affects sleep, and this may explain why evidence exists for173 and against174
the notion that regular mobile phone users lack sleep.
60
A large Finnish study of participants

aged 12-18 showed clear gender
differences in how technology may
impact on sleep and health. Digital
games and the internet were used
more often by boys than girls, and it
was these activities that were
linked to boys sleep disruption.
Mobile phone usage was more
intensive for girls than boys, and
female sleep impairment was
linked to this activity

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Sleep
The need to focus on the use of technology, rather than the technology itself, is also
suggested by the rare studies of using music technology. Of the two existing studies,
one suggests that the general use of music as a sleep aid by school-aged children and
adolescents interfered with sleep during weekdays (but not at weekends)169. The other
study (which restricted the music to a sedative classical variety combined with relaxation
training) found an improvement amongst those who slept poorly in a sample of young
children175.
61

on human well-being
62
Sleep
Sleep
Introduction
We know that...
We do not know...
how and when technology is used is an important

factor mediating its effect on sleep
The extent to which changes in sleep patterns

during adolescence should be attributed to
changes in circadian rhythms, or to other factors that
include the use of technology.
Executive summary
Social networking
Multitasking
Brain training
late night technology use is linked to reduction in

sleep and sleep quality

Attention problems
Sleep
computer games may have the potential to disrupt

childrens sleep and learning even when played
earlier in the evening (but this conclusion is derived
from only one study, so more research is needed to
confirm this).
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain

Glossary
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teenagers who use their mobile phones after lights

out are considerably more likely to suffer daytime
sleepiness.

on human well-being
Final comments
Final comments
Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
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What are the most significant risks to well-being from using

digital technology? How can these risks be reduced?
63

on human well-being
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Final comments
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About the brain
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Final comments
As adults, we must make our own decisions about how we choose to use technology,
although the research reported here can help inform these decisions. However, the
developing brain is more susceptible to environmental influence than an adults, and
children are at the forefront of the technology revolution. This makes it appropriate that
the discussion of negative effects of technology should focus on risks to the development
of children that can be judged as most significant. This judgement of significance needs
to take into account both the likelihood and consequence of the hazard. Based on the
literature reviewed, the most significant risks include:
an increase in aggressive response from playing violent video games
64
This makes it appropriate that the

discussion of negative effects of
technology should focus on risks
to the development of children that
can be judged as most significant.
This judgement of significance
needs to take into account both
the likelihood and consequence
of the hazard
excessive use of computers/internet access/gaming that interferes with psychosocial

wellbeing, attentional and vision problems
evening use of technology that leads to disrupted sleep (and related consequences).
These risks can be greatly reduced by monitoring the quantity and content of childrens
use of technologies. Although the guideline provided by the AAP of two hours maximum
time for screen-based entertainment (all media, including TV, combined) is a useful rule
of thumb, the scheduling of this usage is also an issue. A sensible curfew on technology
use is advisable, that takes into account a childs age and the need for a pre-bedtime
period free of the more disruptive types of technology such as gaming.
When making decisions about how children are able to access the internet at home (eg
whether to allow access from a childs bedroom), parents should be mindful that some
monitoring of how the internet is being used can be beneficial for their child. Even when
parents have a fair idea of how a child is apportioning their time on the internet and the
different activities they are pursuing, there remains the issue of judging whether this is
appropriate. This judgement may not have been helped by a media focus on unusual
but sensational risks (such as internet-related sexual abuse) rather than the more
mundane but prevalent problems such as sleep disruption.
Although the guideline provided by

the AAP of two hours maximum
time for screen-based
entertainment (all media, including
TV, combined) is a useful rule of
thumb, the scheduling of this usage
is also an issue

on human well-being
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Final comments
Recommendations
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About the brain
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Final comments
Since many of todays parents did not grow up in a world that was as technologically rich
as their children, they may not feel adequately prepared to provide the guidance that
their children need. It may fall to another party such as schools, therefore, to provide the
information required for parents and children. Indeed, pupils would benefit from schools
delivering skills that support the hygienic use of internet and digital technology (ie use
that contributes to wellbeing, healthy development and effective learning).
There is already sufficient research

for helpful evidence-based
guidance to be developed.
However, there is also a range of
areas where research has barely
begun
There is already sufficient research for helpful evidence-based guidance to be

developed. However, there is also a range of areas where research has barely begun.
We know surprisingly little about how children currently use the internet to support their
learning informally in the home environment. For example, how is a childs use of instant
messaging while carrying out homework likely to influence the quality of learning? Is this
application generally used to gossip or to discuss the homework, and does it help
engage children with their homework or distract them from it? This type of information,
once available, could help further inform advice provided to schools and students, as
well as to parents. Also, many of those findings already in existence deserve further
replication and scrutiny, since all research in this area can become quickly outdated as
applications rapidly change and develop. (An example of this was reviewed above: over
a decade or so, an early negative association between adolescent social connectedness
and online communication transformed itself into a positive relationship.)
It is unwise to judge any type of

technology as inherently good or
bad. Rather, its value depends
upon how it is used (by who, when
and what for)
It is unwise to judge any type of technology as inherently good or bad176. Rather, its
value depends upon how it is used (by who, when and what for). The internet presents
enormous opportunities for positive benefit, through improving our ability to communicate
and to access information in many different forms. What is communicated and what
information is accessed are not determined by the internet itself but by its users.
Discussing the general benefit, or otherwise, of different types of application (social
network sites, games, chat rooms etc) can be unhelpful, since it is how these specific
applications are created and used that determines their impact on an individual. So we
cannot say social network sites are good or online games are bad.
65

on human well-being
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Executive summary
Final comments
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About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Final comments
Gaming, whether on- or offline, perhaps provides the clearest example of the dual
nature of technologys power to change us, with the same neural mechanisms
implicated in its ability to develop the brain in both constructive and destructive ways.
Little wonder then, that authors of popular science have been able to use the same
evidence base to reach both positive177 and negative178 conclusions about what
technology is doing to our brains. The unexpected effects of gaming have only recently
come to the attention of neuroscience, and little is yet known about the processes
involved. These effects do, however, suggest games are a special case of environmental
influence that is potentially more powerful than most other types of daily activity. If the
content of the game is inappropriate, or if used to excess, the influence can be negative.
On the other hand, scientists are becoming excited by the potential of gaming as a tool
for positive influence, with possible applications in education, and for the enhancement
and protection of cognitive function. Considerable further research will be required to
explore the underlying principles involved, and to develop and properly evaluate such
applications.
66
These effects do, however, suggest

games are a special case of
environmental influence that is
potentially more powerful than
most other types of daily activity.
If the content of the game is
inappropriate, or if used to excess,
the influence can be negative.
On the other hand, scientists are
becoming excited by the potential
of gaming as a tool for positive
influence, with possible
applications in education, and for
the enhancement and protection
of cognitive function

on human well-being
Recommendations
Recommendations
Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
What needs to happen next? How can we help users,

including children and parents, make decisions about
technology that support health, learning and development?
Where is research most urgently needed?
67

on human well-being
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Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Recommendations
Parents and their children would benefit from clearer independent information about
where a significant body of research indicates the potential risk of a particular type of
technology application. In order to allay fears and diminish distraction from the more
significant risks, parents would also benefit from knowing where evidence does not exist
to support concerns headlined in the popular press.
Academic achievement and student wellbeing would also benefit from schools having
access to a brief curriculum and teaching material aimed at delivering skills for the
hygienic use of internet and digital technology. These resources would help schools
equip their students with the knowledge and understanding required to guide their own
use of technology.
68
Parents and their children would

benefit from clearer independent
information about where a
significant body of research
indicates the potential risk of a
particular type of technology
application
The ability to understand risk: that is, an appreciation of the likelihood and consequence
of a possible outcome, is also something that requires further consideration. This review
highlights levels of risk associated with the use of digital technology that are different to
those portrayed in the popular press. Therefore, a further recommendation is to support
parents, in particular, in their attempts to assess and act upon such risks. This requires
support from the wider research community as well as the development of resources that
present current research data in an accessible way.
Academic achievement and

student wellbeing would also
benefit from schools having access
to a brief curriculum and teaching
material aimed at delivering skills
for the hygienic use of internet and
digital technology

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Recommendations
In terms of the relationship between digital technology and the brain, more research is
needed:
to further understand how the internet is currently used for informal and formal
learning by all age groups, and it how might best be used in the future
to develop and evaluate approaches to technology-related abuse whose focus

extends beyond the technology itself
to understand more about how using technology can influence sleep

to determine the longer-term effects of excessive use of computers/internet access/
gaming
to further develop effective online therapeutic and health applications

to determine the processes by which gaming influences cognitive function and
synaptic plasticity in the brain, and how this knowledge can be applied for
educational and health benefits
to continue to monitor and further evaluate the risks and opportunities for healthy
development presented by new technologies and applications as they become
available.
69

on human well-being
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Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
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Glossary
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Introduction
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169
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The use of popular media as a sleep aid in secondary-school
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About the brain
86
Neurons
About the brain

Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Neurons
The adult brain contains about 100 billion brain cells or neurons. Each neuron, such
as shown in Figure 1.1, consists of a cell body, from which are connected dendrites
and an axon.
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Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Myelin
Presynaptic
terminals
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Fig 1.1 Each neuron in the brain consists of cell body, from which are connected dendrites and an axon.
The axon ends in presynaptic terminals that form connections (synapses) with the dendrites of other
neurons (see Figure 1.2).
The presynaptic terminals at the end of the axon make contact with the dendrites
of other neurons and allow connections, or synapses, to form between neurons. In
this way, complex neural networks can be created. A simple network is shown in
Figure 1.2.

on human well-being
About the brain
Introduction
Neurons
Neurons
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About the brain
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Fig 1.2 Neurons connect together to form networks.
Within such networks, signals can flow down the axons of one neuron and cross the
synapse to other neurons, allowing neurons to communicate with each other. The
signal passing down the axon is electric, and its progress is hastened by insulation
around the axon known as myelin. However, the process that allows the signal to
pass through from the synaptic terminals to the dendrites of the next neuron is
chemical. This process involves transmission across the synaptic gap of special
substances known as neurotransmitters (eg dopamine).
87

on human well-being
About the brain
Introduction
Forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
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88
Forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
Our brains, like those of other vertebrates, consist of the three main parts (forebrain,
midbrain and hindbrain) shown in Figure 1.3. The hindbrain includes structures
regulating bodily functions such as sleep and blood flow. It also contains a
cauliflower-like structure at the back of the brain called the cerebellum, and this is
involved in many cognitive processes that require careful timing such as language,
music and movement. The midbrain includes structures that relay sensory and
movement information. There are also important structures in the midbrain that help
us respond to reward. In humans, the forebrain has evolved to be largest part of the
human brain and this includes the cortex. The regions most associated with higherlevel thought processes exist close to the wrinkly surface of the cortex. This part of
the brain is often described in terms of two (so-called cortical) hemispheres, left and
right, joined together by a mass of fibres known as the corpus callosum.
Forebrain
Cingulate cortex
Midbrain
Corpus callosum
Hindbrain
Fig 1.3 Section through the brain showing division into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain regions.
This diagram also shows the position of the corpus callosum which connects hemispheres, and the
cingulate cortex.
Our brains, like those of other

vertebrates, consist of the three
main parts - forebrain, midbrain
and hindbrain

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The lobes of the brain
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89
The cortex can be further divided into four lobes: the frontal, parietal, occipital and
temporal shown in Figure 1.4. The cortical surface (sometimes referred to as the
neocortex) is more wrinkled in humans than any other species, a characteristic
thought to reflect our greater reliance upon complex social behaviour. Each type of
lobe has been associated with a different set of cognitive functions. The frontal lobes
(left and right) may, perhaps, be of particular interest to teachers because, as well as
movement, they support many different aspects of reasoning. This is also the home
of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), which is an important region for working
memory our ability to hold several pieces of information in our attention in the
same instant. The temporal lobe has much to do with memory, as well as auditory
skills. The parietal lobes are heavily involved in integrating information from different
sources, and they include regions linked to some types of mathematical skill. The
occipital lobes are critical regions for visual processing. However, no one part of the
brain (or hemisphere) is dedicated to, or solely responsible for, any one type of
thinking process. The fact that some types of cognitive function, more than others,
can be associated with particular regions in the brain is sometimes misinterpreted
as implying that the different things we do in a day can be neatly mapped onto
different parts of the brain with a bit for creativity, maths, music etc. Any everyday
task recruits a large and broadly distributed set of neural networks that communicate
with each other in a complex fashion. So, different brain regions do support different
cognitive functions, but real world thinking and actions recruit processes distributed
across the brain.
The temporal lobe has much

to do with memory, as well as
auditory skills

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About the brain
Introduction
90
Executive summary
Final comments
Dorsolateral
Prefrontal Cortex
(DLPFC)
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
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Occipital lobe
About the brain

Glossary
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Temporal lobe
Fig 1.4 Each cortical hemisphere is divided into four lobes. Also indicated is the region referred to as the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC).
The evolutionary pressure to maximise cortical area has resulted in some of our
cortex existing well below the outer surface. One notable example of this is the
cingulate cortex (see Figure 1.3). The anterior (or forward) part of the cingulate cortex
becomes active when we engage with a wide variety of tasks, and appears to have
a significant role in how and where we allocate our attention.

on human well-being
About the brain
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Subcortical structures
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About the brain
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Journeying deeper inside each of the temporal lobes, we encounter the

hippocampus a part of the brain critical to consolidating new memories, and the
amygdala which plays an important role in our emotional responses. The closeness
of these two structures (each represented twice, ie in both left and right hemispheres)
is no coincidence, with the connectivity between them supporting the formation of
emotional memories. These also belong to a set of structures collectively called the
mesolimbic pathway, which is of particular interest in understanding our response
to reward, and that can influence our attention and learning. This is one of the
dopaminergic pathways in the brain, involving movement of the neurotransmitter
dopamine from one region to another. In the mesolimbic system, dopamine flows
from the midbrain region to parts of the frontal cortex, the hippocampus, amygdala
and also into a region called the ventral striatum (ventral meaning lower) to a small
pea-sized dense collection of neurons called the nucleus accumbens (again, one
in the left and one in the right hemisphere). Dopamine activity in the nucleus
accumbens appears central to our motivation to approach many different types
of reward.
91

on human well-being
About the brain
Introduction
A particular memory is distributed

throughout the brain and does not
reside in any one place
Executive summary
Thalamus
Final comments
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About the brain
Striatum
Glossary
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NAcc
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Fig 1.5 Some important sub-cortical (below the cortex) structures include the thalamus, and also showing
the left hemisphere structures of the hippocampus, amygdala and nucleus accumbens (or NAcc, in the
ventral striatum).
92

on human well-being
About the brain
Introduction
Learning in the brain
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About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Learning in the brain
Whether we need to learn a simple fact or gain a deep understanding, memory is

important for learning. A particular memory is distributed throughout the brain and
does not reside in any one place, although there are some regions linked to
particular aspects of memory (such as spatial memory, which depends more on the
right hemisphere than left hemisphere). But the fact that memory has to be coded in
the brain somewhere appears indisputable. So how does the brain change in order
to represent a new memory? Neuroscientists generally believe that human learning,
as in the formation of memory, occurs by changes in the patterns of connectivity
between neurons or synaptic plasticity.
93

on human well-being
Glossary
Glossary
Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) a developmental disorder involving

inappropriate impulsivity, difficulties in maintaining attention, and sometimes
hyperactivity.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) a therapy based on talking with individual
sufferers of psychological disorders or in group sessions. It aims to change how the
patient thinks (Cognitive) and what they do (Behaviour). Instead of focusing on the
causes of your distress or symptoms in the past, it focuses on the here and now.
About the brain

Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Declarative memory our capacity to recall memories that can discussed, including
facts from textbooks and episodic memories of what we have experienced. It does not
include procedural memories such as how to ride a bicycle.
Dopamine a neurotransmitter with different functions in different regions of the brain.
In the mesolimbic pathway (an important part of the reward system in the brain see
Appendix 1), it is associated with anticipatory desire (or wanting).
Electroencephalography (EEG) a brain-imaging technique that uses a net of electrodes
placed on the scalp to measure minute changes in the electrical field due to neural
activity.
Event-Related Potential (ERP) a stereotyped EEG response that is known to occur in
relation to a particular type of event.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) a brain-imaging technique that
measures changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain.
GO/NO-GO task a task requiring participants to press a button in response to a target
stimulus and withhold their response to a non-target stimulus.
Neurotransmitter a chemical that crosses the synapse (connection) between neurons

enabling the transfer of information across it.
94

on human well-being
Introduction
Executive summary
Glossary
Plasticity the brains ability to continuously change in response to environmental

stimulus.
Synaptogenesis formation of new synapses (or connections) between neurons.
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About the brain
Glossary
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Synaptic plasticity the ability of synapses to modify the efficiency by which they
communicate information.
Synapse a connection, or specialised junction, between neurons usually consisting
of a small gap across which information is passed by chemical processes.
Working memory the ability to recall and temporarily maintain information
in consciousness.
95

on human well-being
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About Nominet Trust
About Nominet Trust

Introduction
Executive summary
Final comments
Recommendations
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
The Internet offers a phenomenal opportunity to stimulate new forms of collaboration,

to mobilise new communities of interest, and to unleash the imagination of millions of
users in addressing specific local and global challenges.
At Nominet Trust we are committed to making these opportunities a reality - for as
many people as possible.
Nominet Trust is a UK-based social investor that supports Internet-based initiatives that
contribute to a trusted, accessible Internet used to improve lives and communities.
Through our on-going research programme we identify specific areas of need and
channel funding towards initiatives designed to make a significant difference to
peoples lives.
Founded in 2008, we have already supported hundreds of pioneering initiatives
including; the first online clinical research trial, new approaches to intergenerational
learning and online peer mentoring to support those experiencing bullying.
To find out more about our work or how you can apply for funding, please visit:
Visit Nominet
Trusts website

on human well-being
About our work
About our work

Introduction
Executive summary
The Nominet Trust is passionate about the power of the internet to improve lives
and communities. As such, we support organisations and projects working to:

Final comments
Recommendations
Increase access to the Internet; providing people with the motivation,

skills and tools to get online in a meaningful and sustained way.
References
About the brain
Glossary
About Nominet Trust
Improve online safety; educating people about the potential risks

faced from being online and demonstrating how they can avoid coming
to any harm.
Use the web for social good; imaginative applications of the Internet
to address specific social problems
If you have a compelling idea for a new initiative that contributes to a safe, accessible
internet used to improve lives and communities, then we want to hear from you.
Equally, if you would like support for an existing Internet project, then please get
in touch.
We are particularly interested in initiatives that develop tools or models that can be
replicated or scaled-up to benefit others.
To find out more about how you can apply for funding, visit us at:
97
Nominet Trust
Minerva House
Edmund Halley Road
Oxford Science Park
Oxford OX4 4DQ
t +44 (0)1865 334 000
f +44 (0)1865 332 314
enquiries@nominettrust.org.uk
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The Impact of Digital Technologies On Human Wellbeing

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The impact of digital technologies

The impact of digital technologies

About the series

About the series

The impact of digital technologies

Technology and the sciences

Designed by Ben Carruthers

About the brain

About Nominet Trust

The impact of digital technologies

Some commentators have

The impact of digital technologies

The impact of digital technologies

Existing forms of online communication for supporting existing friendships are

The impact of digital technologies

Although technology can helpfully support learning, some applications can be a

Evidence linking technology-based activity to a reduction in physical exercise is mixed,

The impact of digital technologies

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

About the brain

About Nominet Trust

The impact of digital technologies

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

Introduction to this section

Introduction to technology and the

About the brain

About Nominet Trust

What can, and cant, evidence from neuroscience tell us?

The impact of digital technologies

About the brain

About Nominet Trust

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

Introduction to this section

Neuroscience is now providing a new source of insight into understanding human

When it comes to concluding that

The impact of digital technologies

About the brain

About Nominet Trust

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

Introduction to this section

About the brain section

The impact of digital technologies

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

About the brain

About Nominet Trust

Are social network sites helping or hindering our childrens

The impact of digital technologies

About the brain

About Nominet Trust

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

Over the last decade, the effects

The impact of digital technologies

About the brain

About Nominet Trust

Technology and the sciences of mind and brain

The victims and perpetrators of

The impact of digital technologies

About the brain

About Nominet Trust