CHAPTER-1

Introduction
1.1 The need for Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is the energy that comes from natural resources such as
sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat. These resources are renewable and can be
naturally replenished. Therefore, for all practical purposes, these resources can be
considered to be inexhaustible unlike dwindling conventional fossil fuels. The global
energy crunch has provided a renewed impetus to the growth and development of Clean
and Renewable Energy sources. Clean Development Mechanisms (CDMs) are being
adopted by organizations all across the globe.
Apart from the rapidly decreasing reserves of fossil fuels in the world, another
major factor working against fossil fuels is the pollution associated with their
combustion. Contrastingly, renewable energy sources are known to be much cleaner and
produce energy without the harmful effects of pollution unlike their conventional
counterparts.

1.2 Different sources of Renewable Energy

1.2.1

Wind power

Wind turbines can be used to harness the energy available in airflows. Current day
turbines range from around 600 kW to 5 MW of rated power. Since the power output is a
function of the cube of the wind speed, it increases rapidly with an increase in available
wind velocity. Recent advancements have led to aerofoil wind turbines, which are more
efficient due to a better aerodynamic structure

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1.2.2 Photovoltaic
Solar energy can be used in number of ways. For electricity generation the most
common process is through solar photovoltaic where PV panels convert sunlight directly
into D.C electricity. PV panels, have no moving parts, require little maintenance, and
highly reliable, long lived where the semiconductor materials are encapsulated and sealed
hermetically making it lasts for a longer period of more than 25 years. In addition, PV
panels are highly modular. Also it is easy to assemble PV panels into an array that can
meet any given sized load. With suitable electronics, PV systems can be grid-connected
or stand-alone, where they can also be used for water pumping or other mechanical work.
PV arrays do not emit vibrations, noises and pollutants during their operation.
This means they can be integrated into new and existing buildings, which then become
energy exporters instead of consumers. All above advantages make this modern
technology increasingly attractive. Despite this, the main disadvantage of PV is its high
capital cost.

1.2.3

Small hydropower

Hydropower installations up to 10MW are considered as small hydropower and

counted as renewable energy sources. These involve converting the potential energy of
water stored in dams into usable electrical energy through the use of water turbines. Runof-the-river hydroelectricity aims to utilize the kinetic energy of water without the need
of building reservoirs or dams.

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1.2.4 Biomass
Plants capture the energy of the sun through the process of photosynthesis. On
combustion, these plants release the trapped energy. This way, biomass works as a natural
battery to store the suns energy and yield it on requirement.

1.2.5 Geothermal
Geothermal energy is the thermal energy which is generated and stored within the
layers of the Earth. The gradient thus developed gives rise to a continuous conduction of
heat from the core to the surface of the earth. This gradient can be utilized to heat water
to produce superheated steam and use it to run steam turbines to generate electricity.

1.3 History of Solar Energy

Humans were keen to exploit the natural resources which God harness for them.
Sun is one of the most important resources which have been exploited. Back to the fifth
century BC, Greeks exploited the sun for heating purposes. The effect of photovoltaic
cells discovered by Becquerel in 1839 while experimenting with an electrolytic cell but
not developed as a power source until 1954 by Chapin et al. Bell Laboratories invented
the first PV cell which is capable of converting enough of the suns energy into power to
run every day electrical equipment. The practical applications of PV started in 1973 when
the company established its manufacture terrestrial.
However, the boom in the field of solar energy observed significantly in recent
years, especially after 2000. There are rules to promote challenges facing solar energy
such as a Renewable Energy Law in 2005 which designed to promote the development
and utilization of renewable energy, and safeguard energy security which amended in
2009 to require electricity grid companies to buy all the electricity produced by
renewable energy generators.

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The annual production of cells grew tenfold from about 50MW in 1990 to more
than 500MW by 2003. This growth continues due to the advantages of solar energy as
standalone and grid-linked opportunities, reliability, ease of use, lack of noise and
emissions, and reducing cost per unit energy produced.

1.4 Multiple Benefits of Clean Energy Initiatives

There are many advantages resulting from the use of clean energy distributed on
fields of environmental, economic and health. The clean energy has benefits include
diversity, security, improved quality of life, environment and human health. It also
improves economic gains through avoiding medical costs, higher disposable incomes,
and more jobs.

1.4.1 Economic Impacts

Technological advance in the field of renewable energy has become clear in
recent years. We note that while the prices of traditional energy sources constantly rise,
the costs of Renewable energy decline steadily so the advantages of investment in
renewable energy has become increasingly clear, even in areas that traditionally supports
fossil fuels. The main reasons that make renewable energy technologies offer an
economic advantage are labor intensive, so they generally create more jobs invested than
conventional electricity generation technologies, from high-tech manufacturing of
photovoltaic components to maintenance jobs at wind power.

1.4.2 Health and Environment Impacts

All energy sources have some impact on our environment and health which varies
between long-term and short-term effects. Fossil fuels are more harmful than renewable
energy sources. Thus, we need to improve access to low-emission, renewable, and
modern energy technologies both at home and at community. They can benefit from long
term sustainability. Notably, the inefficient combustion of fossil fuels and biomass for

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energy purposes is the major cause of climate change. Air pollution, often due to
inefficient modes of energy production, distribution, and consumption, is a large and
growing cause of environmental health risks, so it is advisable to increase reliance on
renewable energy sources, and support clean energy initiatives.
This appears through better air quality which enhances local quality of life.
Healthier people reduces strain on the health system, using fewer sick days also lower
carbon dioxide emissions in the near term may have a large impact on our ability to meet
long term climate goals since greenhouse gas

accumulate and can remain in the

atmosphere for decades, affecting our global climate system and human health for the
long term.

1.4.3 Renewable Energy in the Future

In the ongoing efforts of the countries of the world, many countries have
developed future policies to take advantage of alternative energy and participation in the
treatment of the implications of conventional energy. Many countries set a timetable and
specific proportions for 2020. For example, European Union countries committed to
increase its reliance on renewable energy to reach 20% of the total energy consumption.
Ambition does not stop at that but it extends to the 2030 year to ensure that the EU is on
track to meet longer term climate objectives.
In addition to that, energy Roadmap has developed for 2050. Roadmaps
suggested findings, by 2030 GHG emissions would need to be reduced by 40% in the
EU to be on track to reach a GHG reduction between 80-95% by 2050, consistent with
the internationally agreed target to limit atmospheric warming to below 2C. An
overview of the estimates scenarios of the expected increase in the world's dependence
on alternative energy and its impact on reduced emissions is shown in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1: a) Global primary energy demand,1990,2007,and three scenarios for 2030

b) Global energy- related demand CO2 emission ,1990,2007,and three
scenarios for 2030
1.5 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM:
Various solar photo voltaic systems have been developed and installed at different
sites for demonstration and field trial purposes. The terrestrial applications of these
provisions of power supply to:

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Water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water supply

Radio beacons for ship navigation at ports

Community radio and television sets

Cathodes protection of oil pipe lines

Whether monitoring

Railway signaling equipment

Battery charging

Street lighting

1.6 ADVANTAGES:

Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity

through a simple solid state device

Absence of moving parts

Ability to function unattended for long periods as evidence in

space program

Modular nature in which desired currents, voltages and power

levels can be achieved by mere integration

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Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate

They dont create pollution

They have a long effective life

They are highly reliable

They consume low fuel to operate as suns energy is free

They have rapid response in output to input radiation changes; no

long time constant is involved, as on thermal systems, before steady state is

reached

They have wide power handling capabilities from micro watts to

kilo watts or even mega watts when modules are combined into large area arrays.
Solar cells can be used in combination with power conditioning circuitry to feed
power into utility grid

They are easy to fabricate, being one of the simplest of semi

conductor devices

They have high power to weight ratio, these characteristics is

more important for space applications than terrestrial, may be favorable for some
terrestrial applications. The roof loading on a house top covered with solar cells,
for example, would be significantly lower than the comparable loading for a
conventional liquid solar water heaters

Amenable to onsite installation i.e., decentralized or dispersed

power; thus the problem of power distribution by wires could be eliminated by the
use of solar cells at the site where the power is required

They can be used with or without sun tracking, making possible a wide range of
application possibilities.

1.7 DISADVANTAGES:

The disadvantages are high cost, and the fact that in many applications,
energy storage is required because of no irradiation at night. Efforts are being
made worldwide to reduce costs through various technological innovations.

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1.8 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY:

Although there are many types of alternative/renewable resources, the alternative
source in this thesis is confined to solar energy. The main focus in this work is given to
mathematical modeling of PV cell, development of MPPT Techniques and compares the
performance of PV system with different MPPT Techniques.
1.8.1 Objectives:

To develop a mathematical model of photovoltaic (PV) array using MATLAB.

To develop the Simulink model of P&O & Genetic Algorithm based MPPT
Techniques in M-file.

Compare the PV system performance by connecting Genetic Algorithm and P&O

MPPT algorithms under partially shaded conditions.

1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS:

Chapter 2 will focus on development of photovoltaic cells and their mathematical
equivalent models.

Chapter 3 will focus on various Maximum Power Point techniques and their
implementation.

Chapter 4 will focus on MATLAB/SIMULINK modeling of standalone PV system

with P&O MPPT algorithm.
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Chapter 5 will focus on Genetic Algorithm based Maximum Power Point technique
for standalone PV system.
Chapter 6 will focus on results, analysis conclusion and future scope of work.

CHAPTER 2
2. PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
2.1 Operating Principle
Photovoltaic cells are the basic components of larger solar arrays.
Ninety-nine percent of today's solar cells are made of silicon, the second most abundant
material on earth. However, scarce indium and tellurium are used in some cells. Energy is
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created when photons of light from the sun strike a solar cell and are absorbed within the
semiconductor material. This excites the semiconductors electrons, causing the electrons
to flow, and creating a usable electric current. The current flows in one direction and thus
the electricity generated is termed direct current (DC) as will be explained in brief below.
PN junction (diode) is a boundary between two differently doped semiconductor layers.
One is a Ptype layer (excess holes), and the second one is an Ntype (excess electrons).
At the boundary between the P and the N area, there is a spontaneous electric field, which
affects the generated electrons and holes and determines the direction of the current. A
diagram of the PN junction showing the effect of the mentioned electric field is
illustrated in Fig. 2.1. To obtain the energy by the photoelectric effect, there shall be a
directed motion of photoelectrons, i.e. electricity. All charged particles, photoelectrons
also, move in a directed motion under the influence of electric field. The electric field in
the material itself is located in semiconductors, precisely in the impoverished area of PN
junction (diode). It was pointed out for the semiconductors that, along with the free
electrons in them, there are cavities as charge carriers, which are a sort of a byproduct in
the emergence of free electrons. Cavities (holes) occurs whenever the valence electron
turns into a free electron, and this process is called the generation, while the reverse
process, when the free electron fills the holes, is called recombination. If the electron
hole pairs occur away from the impoverished areas it is possible to recombine before they
are separated by the electric field. Photoelectrons and holes in semiconductors are
accumulated at opposite ends, thereby creating an electromotive force. If a consuming
device is connected to such a system, the current will flow and we will get electricity.

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Fig. 2.1: P-N junction

2.2 Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

The model of solar cell is shown in Fig 2.2.The corresponding voltage
vs. current (V-I) equation is:
Voltage output of a PV cell:
V pv =

I phI pv I
ATK
ln
I pv Rs
q
I0
0

(2.1)

Current output of a PV cell:

I pv =N pI phN pI 0 [ exp

I ph

q( V pv + I pv R s )
1]
N s AKT

sc
+
K
(T
298) ]
[
i
=
1000

qE go 1 1

AK T r T

(2.2)

I 0 =I [

T
] exp
Tr

PV array power can be calculated the following equation:

P pv =I pvV pv

(2.3)

q( V pv + I pv Rs )
1
N s AKT
P pv =V pvN pI phV pvN pI 0
exp

V pv = output voltage of a PV cell(V)

I pv = output current of a PV cell(A)
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(2.4)

Ns = number of modules connected in series

N p = number of modules connected in parallel
I p h = light generated current in a PV cell (A)
Io = PV cell saturation current (A)
Rs=the series resistance of a PV cell
A = B is an ideality factor=1.6
K = Boltzmann constant=1.3805e-23Nm/K
T is the cell temperature in Kelvin =298K
Q is electron charge=1.6e-19Coulombs

Fig. 2.2: Equivalent circuit model of PV cell.

2.3 Basic Concepts of Solar PV Cell

Parameters such as the open-circuit voltage VOC, short circuit current ISC , fill
factor FF, efficiency , and the cell voltage, current and power at the maximum power
point,VMPP, IMPP, and PMPP, respectively. These parameters describe the operation of the
PV cell. Working of a pv cell can be clearly explained by I-V, P-V curve displayed in Fig.
2.3. The figure displays the power delivered by the module which is equal to the product
of voltage and current.

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Fig.2.3: I-V curve and power output for a PV module

2.4 EFFECT OF IRRADIANCE:

Irradiance is a measure of power density of sun light. so, when sunlight falls on
the junction, the electron hole pair will be created. The electrons is attracted towards the
n-type semi conductor and holes attracted towards the p-type semi conductor. when the
load is connected between the both layers, the current is flowing from p-type to n-type
semi conductor. Whenever the irradiance is increases, the electron hole pair generated
will be increases. So, the short circuit current is increases proportionally to the irradiance,
why because short circuit current is directly proportional to the irradiance. The open
circuit voltage of a PV array is slightly increases with the irradiance; due to open circuit
voltage is logarthamically proportional to the irradiance. The fig2.4 below represents the
variations of short circuit current and open circuit voltage with changes in irradiance.

Fig 2.4: V-I Characteristics with irradiance variations.

2.5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE:

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Solar panels work best in certain weather conditions, but since the weather is
always changing and as engineers are installing solar panels all over the world in
different climate regions, most panels do not operating under ideal conditions. That is
why it is important for engineers to understand how panels react to different weather
conditions. With this knowledge, they can design ways to improve the efficiency of solar
panels that operate in non-optimal conditions.
When the temperature of the PV array increases, the width of the depletion layer
decreases and the electrons and holes will have the capability to cross the junction is
going to be increases, so the short circuit current is slightly increases. when temperature
is increases, the intrinsic carrier concretion is increases and reverse saturation current is
proportional to the intrinsic carrier concretion. so, the open circuit voltage is significantly
decreases with the increase in reverse saturation current. The fig 2.5 below represents the
variations of short circuit current and open circuit voltage with changes in temperatures.

Fig 2.5: V-I Characteristics with temperature variations.

2.6 Solar PV Technology

There are two broad categories of technology used for PV cells, namely,
crystalline silicon, and thin film, which is newer and growing in popularity. The
crystalline silicon solar cell was the first practical solar cell invented in 1954. The
efficiency of such solar cells as mass produced is 1420%, which is still the highest in
single-junction solar cells. It also has a long life and a readiness for mass production. To
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date, it still accounts for more than 80% of the solar cell market. There are two versions
of the crystalline silicon solar cell: mono crystalline and polycrystalline. Amorphous
silicon thin-film silicon solar cells are much less expensive than the crystalline ones. But
the efficiency is only 610%. In between are CIGS (copper indium gallium selunide) and
CdTe CdS thin film solar cells, with a typical efficiency of around 10% and account for
about 15% of the market. Because of the very high absorption coefficient, the amount of
materials required is small, and the production process is simpler; thus the unit price per
peak watt is lower than crystalline silicon solar cells. To date, organic solar cells still
have low efficiency and a short lifetime, and the market share is insignificant.

2.7 Series Connection:

Fig 2.6 shows the series connection of three individual cells as an example and
the resultant group of connected cells is commonly referred to as a series string. The
current output of the string is equivalent to the current of a single cell, but the voltage
output is increased, being an addition of the voltages from all the cells in the string (i.e. in
this case, the voltage output is equal to 3Vcell).

Fig 2.6: Series connection of cells, with resulting voltage-current characteristics

It is important to have well matched cells in the series string, particularly with
respect to current, if one cell produces a significantly lower current than the other

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cells(under the same illumination conditions), then the string will operate at that lower
current level and the remaining cells will not be operating at their maximum power
points. This could also happen in the case of partial shading of a string.

2.8. Parallel Connection:

Fig 2.7 shows the parallel connection of three individual cells as an example. In
this case, the current from the cell group is equivalent to the addition of the current from
each cell (in this case, 3 Icell), but the voltage remains equivalent to that of a single cell.
As before, it is important to have the cells well matched in order to gain maximum
output, but this time the voltage is the important parameter since all cells must be at the
same operating voltage. If the voltage at the maximum power point is substantially
different for one of the cells, then this will force all the cells to operate off their
maximum power point, with the poorer cell being pushed towards its open-circuit voltage
value and the better cells to voltages below the optimum.

Fig 2.7: parallel connection of cells, with resulting voltage-current characteristics

The electrical connections within a module can be arranged in any desired

combination of series and parallel connections, remembering the importance of the
matching of the units in any series or parallel string. This means, for example, that
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parallel connection of series strings should be made using similar strings with the same
number and type of cells. The series/parallel configurations will determine the current
and voltage values obtained from the module under given illumination and load
conditions.
The majority of modules produced in the early 1980s, when the development of
module fabrication techniques for crystalline silicon cells reached maturity, were for use
in stand-alone applications for the charging of batteries. Thus, the electrical output was
required to be appropriate for battery charging under a range of sunlight conditions and
this was found to be most readily achieved by the series connection of 34-36 crystalline
silicon cells. The series connection of these cells produces an open-circuit voltage of
around 22V (depending on the detail of the cell design) and a maximum power point
voltage of around 17-18 V. this provides a voltage above the 12V required for battery
over a wide range of sunlight conditions.
When arranged in three or four rows and with the minimum spacing between
cells, the module area is around 0.3 m2 and the module is also suitable for transportation
and light enough to be lifted by one or two people for ease of installation. Thus, this
design was adopted for most modules of 10W or above.
In the case of the thin film module, the same design principle was adopted when
battery charging was required. This was accomplished by the series connection of the
cells during fabrication. Since the voltage from the amorphous silicon cell is higher than
that from a crystalline silicon device, fewer series-connected cells are required to
maintain sufficient voltage to charge the battery. However, the cells must be of larger area
in order to reach similar current levels.
More recently, larger modules have begun to be produced for building integrated
systems and many more cells are incorporated in each module. In these cases, it is
possible to have a number of series and parallel connected circuits in the same module. In
some designs, there can even be more than two terminals with the electrical output from
different areas of the module being extracted via different circuits.

2.9 SOLAR RADIATION:

2.9.1 Solar Radiation Source:

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The sun is a large sphere of intensely hot gases consisting, by pass, about
75% of hydrogen, 23% of helium and others 2%. Its mass and radius are respectively,
1.99*10^30KG and 69,6000Km. Hydrogen atoms fuse there to form helium and this
energy is then delivered as radiation (light and heat) into space. The suns outer surface,
namely photosphere, has an effective black body temperature of approximately
6000k.this mean, as view from the earth, the irradiation emitted from the sun appears to
be essentially equivalent to that emitted from a black body at 6000k. To understand the
behavior of the radiation from the sun the characteristics of the black body should be
discussed. The black body is an absorber and emitter of electromagnetic radiation with
100% efficiency at all wavelengths. When the temperature is known, the radiation
intensity of a black body can be calculated using the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
The solar irradiation intensity is measured in watts or kilowatts per square
meter [w/m2, kw/m2], but the radiation energy, the power integrated over a certain period
of time, is given in watt-hours (also kilowatt-hours, joules) per square meter.

2.9.2 Terminology:
2.9.2.1 Solar Radiation:
It is also called isolation; consist of the radiation that comes directly from
the sun (beam radiation) as well as radiation that comes indirectly (diffusion and albedo
radiation).

2.9.2.2 Solar Constant:

The solar radiation that falls on a unit area above the atmosphere at a
vertical angle is called solar constant. It has a value of 1367w/m2.

2.9.2.3 Air Mass:

The amount of beam solar radiation absorbed in the atmosphere in a
direct vertical path to sea level is designated as one air mass (AMI), in general, air mass
is proportional to the secant of the zenith angle.

2.10 CONCLUSION:
This chapter gives the explanation about the mathematical model of PV
cell. It gives the operation of the PV cell. The PV cell output voltage varies with
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atmospheric parameters such as temperature and irradiation, The PV Array output voltage
gradually decrease due to the decrease in irradiation than steady state conditions. PV
array Cascaded with Boost converter is used to step up output voltage. The performance
efficiency of PV arrays along with their ability to provide eco-friendly power and almost
nil fuel cost definitely makes them a preferable source for alternative power in the field
of generation.

CHAPTER 3
MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ALGORITHIMS
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Obtaining the maximum power automatically from a solar modules or in other

words making the system operates at maximum efficiency, depends on the used algorithm
of MPPT. These algorithms take into account the varying of irradiation and temperature
over time and also the load impedance. These factors affects MPP thus reflected in the
amount of electricity generated. The MPPT method vary in many aspects including
complexity, cost, sensor dependence, convergence speed, implementation hardware,
compensation for capacitance, range of effectiveness, capability of escaping from local
optima and their applications. A complete review and comparison of MPPT methods for
PV system can be found below.
There are different type of MPPT algorithm that used for the purpose of
improving the efficiency of solar panel but the most commonly known are perturb and
observe (P&O), incremental conductance (IC), open-circuit voltage ( V OC )control, neural
network, fuzzy logic control and several other MPPT methods. In the next section some
of the most popular MPPT techniques are discussed. Characteristics of various MPPT
algorithms are explained.

3.1 MODEL OF PERTURB AND OBSERVE MPPT TECHNIQUE:

The block diagram of perturb and observe maximum power point tracking
technique is shown in fig 3.1. Here PV array converts solar irradiation in to electrical
energy. The output power of PV array depends upon the solar irradiance and temperature.
The output power of PV array is given to the load through the dc-dc boost converter. The
output voltage and current are given to perturb and observe MPPT controller. The Perturb
and observe MPPT controller is generates duty ratio based on the fixed perturb. So, by
changing duty ratio we can match the characteristic impedance of the PV array to the load
impedance. So we can transfer the maximum power to the load.

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Fig.3.1 Block diagram of P&O MPPT method

Fig.3.2 Slope of PV array power curve

3.1.1 Incremental Conductance Algorithm

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The incremental conductance method is based on the fact that the sum of the
instantaneous conductance (I/V) is zero at MPP. Because it is negative on the right side of
MPP and positive on the left side of the MPP. This relationship is derived from the fact
that the slope of the PV array power curve is zero at the MPP, positive on the left of the
MPP, and negative on the right. Fig.3.2 shows the slope of the P-V array power curve.
Thus, incremental conductance can determine that the MPPT has reached the MPP and
stop perturbing the operating point of the PV array. If this condition is not met, the
direction in which the MPPT operating point must be perturbed can be calculated using
the above relationship.
Although incremental conductance is an improved version of P&O, it can track
rapidly increasing and decreasing irradiance conditions with higher accuracy than P&O.
However, this algorithm is increased complexity when compared to perturb and observe.
This increases computational time, slows down the sampling frequency of the array
voltage and current

3.2 Short Circuit Current Method

This technique is also known as constant current method. The principle of the
constant electric current method is that the operating current of the solar cell has the
approximate proportional relationship with the short circuit current at the MPP. This scale
factor is invariant nearly when the sunshine and temperature outside changes. The
operating current can be adjusted through the measure of the short circuit current of the
battery board. Thus the maximum power point could be found from
Imax=M* ISC (3.1)
Where I Maxis the MPP current, I SC is the short circuit current of the PV array and

is

the current factor which approximately equals 90% of the short circuit current. The
tracking accuracy is low because it needs to let the solar cell board short circuit for
measuring the short circuit current. This has great effect on the life of the cell board. It
holds the inferiority compared with the constant voltage method.

3.3 Open Circuit Voltage Method

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This technique is also known as constant voltage method. Constant voltage

method is based on the fact that the voltage of the solar cell has the approximate
proportional relationship with the open circuit voltage. Open circuit voltage is a reference
voltage at the MPP for different irradiation and temperature levels. Moreover, this scale
factor is invariant nearly when the sunshine and temperature outside changes. The
working voltage can be adjusted through the measure of the open circuit voltage of the
battery board. Thus the MPP could be found from
Vmax=Mv*Voc (3.2)

Where V Max is the MPP voltage, V oc is the open circuit voltage of the PV array
and M

is the voltage factor which is always less than unity. Although this method is

simple, it is difficult to determine the optimal value of constant Mv . In literature M

varies from 0.71 to 0.8 depending upon the PV array characteristics. The common value
used is 0.76; hence this algorithm is also called as 76% algorithm.

3.4 NeuralNetwork
Another technique of implementing MPPT which are also well adapted for
microcontrollersisneuralnetworks.Neuralnetworkscommonlyhavethreelayers:input,
hidden, and output layers. The number of nodes in each layer vary and are user
dependent. The input variables can be PV array parameters like VOC and ISC,
atmospheric data like irradiance and temperature, or any combination of these. The
outputisusuallyoneorseveralreferencesignalslikeadutycyclesignalusedtodrivethe
powerconvertertooperateatorclosetotheMPP.

3.5 Ant Colony Algorithm

It is a kind of parallel positive feedback emulation algorithm with strong
robustness, with certain advantage in aspect of optimal problem of complex solution
combination. The ant colony algorithm based on different starting points randomly
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caused by each ant, searches path information by use of pheromone density and formula
constituted by idea function, renews pheromone continuously, and figures out the optimal
answer according to the pheromone density. Because basic ant colony algorithm is built
in disperse field, while output curve of photovoltaic model is a successive curve in
practice, the ant colony algorithm is brought in continuous field, and introduce Gaussian
Mutation to optimize its algorithm so as to realize tracking the maximum power point
combined with practical situation of photovoltaic electricity generation.

3.6 Effects of Partial Shading on PV

Partial shading of PV modules is the most commonly encountered mismatch
phenomena in a PV power system. PV power system is affected by temperature, solar
irradiation, shading, and array configuration. We have already discussed the effect of
temperature and solar irradiation. Here, we will discuss the effect of shading. PV system
might be shaded fully or partially by trees, passing clouds, high building, etc. which
result in non-uniform irradiation conditions. Although PV arrays under uniform
illumination conditions has nonlinear characteristic with the occurrence of one MPP in
the P-V curve, when the PV array is under partially shading conditions, the P-V
characteristic becomes more complex.
During partial shading, part of the PV cells which receive uniform irradiance still
operates at the optimum efficiency. Since current flow through every cell in a series
configuration is naturally constant, the shaded cells need to operate with a reverse bias
voltage to provide the same current. However; the resulting reverse power polarity leads
to power consumption and a reduction in the maximum output power of the partiallyshaded PV module. This problem solved by adding a bypass diode to a specific number
of cells in the series circuit. Here a MATLAB based modeling for studying the IV and
PV characteristics of a PV array under partial shading is presented. It can also be used
for developing and evaluating maximum power point tracking techniques. It can also be
used as a tool to study the effects of shading patterns on PV panels having different
configurations. It is observed that, for a given number of PV modules, the array

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configuration (depend on the number of series and parallel connections) significantly

affects the maximum available power under partially shaded conditions.
3.7 Effect of Bypass and Blocking Diodes
It is important to note that the characteristics of an array with bypass diodes and
blocking diodes differ from the one without these diodes. When the solar irradiance on
PV array is in good order, only one MPP is founded on the P-V characteristic curve. Like
wise, because of the bypass diodes and the blocking diodes, many local maximum power
points (multiple local maxima) can be existed under partially shaded condition. The
presence of multiple peaks reduces the effectiveness of the existing MPPT schemes. The
purpose of bypass diodes is to provide a low-resistance current path around the shaded
cells, thereby minimizing module heating and array current losses, when cell expose to
shade, the current of the un shaded cells have a path through bypass diode and all the
cells of the module become forward-biased. In systems utilizing a battery, the blocking
diodes connected in series with the string of series connected PV modules to avoid
current imbalance caused by shading. Blocking diodes are typically placed between the
battery and the solar module output to prevent battery discharge at night. It will prevent
the reverse current through the series composition, which generate lower output voltage
as compared to the others connected in parallel. This reverse current may cause excessive
heat generation and thermal breakdown of PV modules. It is important to know that the
bypass diodes are connected in parallel with each PV module. And the blocking diode is
connected in series with each string, which is a group of series connected PV module to
protect the modules from the effect of potential difference between series connected
strings.

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Fig: 3.3 Nonlinearities of solar pv array characteristics under partially shaded

conditions

Fig: 3.4 P-V &I-V characteristics under partially shaded conditions

Conventional MPPT methods fails to track the maximum power point during partially
shaded conditions because of number of local points on the curve. So we are going for
MPPT methods based on soft computing techniques.
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3.8 CONCLUSION:
This chapter has discussed about the MPP tracking, and design of the Perturb
and Observe MPPT Technique. This chapter has also addressed the issue of partial
shading in Photovoltaic arrays P&O MPPT Technique is the most simple, which moves
the operating point towards the maximum power point. P&O MPPT Technique
sometimes deviates from the maximum operating point. The P&O MPPT Technique will
oscillate around it in case of constant or slowly varying atmospheric conditions and in
partially shaded conditions.

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CHAPTER 4
MATLAB/SIMULINK MODELLING OF A PV SYSTEM
In this chapter, a detailed mathematical method of modeling photovoltaic arrays,
based on information from the datasheet discussed. The model is used as a source for the
maximum power point tracker system. It is described through an equivalent circuit
include a photocurrent source, a diode, a series resistor and a shunt resistor. Also, the
analysis of a photovoltaic array characteristics taking into consideration the effect of
partial shading is described in details. Section 4.1 summarizes photovoltaic Models.
Simulation Methods are explained in section 4.2. While section 4.3 present the
simulation models of entire stand alone photovoltaic system including PV array (5 panels
connected in series) , boost converter and a MPPT controller which was taken in to
consideration.

4.1 Photovoltaic Models

There are five models representing PV cell. First model is a general model with
equivalent circuit composed of photo current source, diode, parallel resistor expressing
the leakage current, and series resistor describing the internal resistance to the current
flow. The second model is double exponential model (extra diode). It is more accurate
model that describes the PV cell to represent the effect of the recombination of carriers.
This model consists of a light generated current source, two diodes, a series resistance
and a parallel resistance. However, because implicit and nonlinear nature of the model, it
is difficult to develop expressions for the I-V curve parameters. Therefore, this model is
not widely used in literature and is not taken into consideration for the generalized PV
model. While the third model neglects the effect of the shunt resistance. This model is
called approximated model. The forth model is simplified model (ideal cell). It doesn't
include series loss and no leakage to ground, i.e., RS =0 and R SH , respectively. The fifth
model is a three-diode model which proposed to include the influence of effects which
are not considered by the double exponential model and other models.
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4.1.1 PV Module and Array Model

PV cell is a basic unit of PV system, but the power produced by a single PV cell
is very low and not enough for general use. Therefore, the cells should be arranged in
series-parallel configuration. Combination of PV cells is known as a module. The
efficiency of a PV module is less than a PV cell due to some solar irradiation is reflected
by the glass cover and frame shadowing. The power produced by a single module is
rarely enough for commercial use, so modules are connected to form an array to supply
the load. The connection of modules in an array is the same as that of cells in a module.
Modules can also be connected in series to get an increased voltage or in parallel to get
an increased current.

4.2 Simulation Methods

PV module model is simulated using two methods: The mathematical modeling
using math function block and the physical modeling using Simulink Sim Power
Systems toolbox. The mathematical model has more advantages than the physical
model, because parallel and series PV cells combinations can be formed without the
need for repeating the block diagrams. However, to make a parallel combination in the
physical model, the block of the PV cell has to be duplicated, which add more
complexity to the model.

4.3 Simulation and Results

4.3. Simulation
The general PV module is used to represent the PV modeling using Matlab /Simulink
depending on equation (2.2) which represents the I-V characteristic of PV system. The
main reason for choosing this model refers to the fact that it is more practical. An
equivalent circuit model based on the PV model is given in Fig. 4.1.

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Fig. 4.1: PV system model circuit with a controlled current source, equivalent
resistors, and the equation of the model current ( I m ).

4.3.2 Parameters of PV Array

Typical peak power (pp)
Voltage @ peak power (vpp)
Current @ peak power (Ipp)
Guaranteed minimum peak power (Ipp)
Short-circuit current (Isc)
Open- circuit voltage (Voc)

Temperature co efficient of open- circuit

60W
17.1 V
3.5 A
57W
3.8A
21.1V
-(80+10)mv/c

Table 4.1: PARAMETERS of MSX 60W MODULE

4.3.3 Simulink Model of the Solar PV Module

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Fig. 4.2: Simulink model of the solar PV module

Fig.4.3: Sub system for simulink model of the solar PV module

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4.4 Modeling of PV array in Matlab

Fig. 4.4: Simulink model of the solar PV array.

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4.5 Modeling of partial shading phenomena in PV system

We can code or give a modeling approach to check partial shading effect in P-V
and I-V curves, modeling is little bit easy. Modeling approach of PV system having
following advantages
1) Helps researchers to predict the effect of irradiation and temperature change in
P-V and I-V curves.
2) Different configuration can be check with its efficiency of PV system
3) Different configuration can be check with different MPPT approach.
Two modules are simulated in shading condition one is getting 1000 W/m2 and other one
is getting 100 W/m2.Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6 clearly shows how the I-V curve and P-V
curve change respectively in partial shading condition.

Fig. 4.5: I-V curves for two modules with different irradiation.

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Fig. 4.5.1: P-V curves for two modules with different irradiation

4.6 Modeling of Boost converter

Boost converter is nothing but a DC/DC converter which has boosting the voltage
to maintain the maximum output power constant for all the conditions of temperature and
solar irradiance variations. Shown in figures 4.6 when the switch S is on, the current
builds up in the inductor L due to the positive inductor voltage is equal to the input
voltage. The switch is then opened after some small period of time. When S is off, the
voltage across L reverses and adds to the input voltage, thus makes the output voltage
greater than the input voltage. For steady state operation, the average voltage across the
inductor over a full period is zero. The maximum power point tracker uses the DC/DC
converter to adjust the PV voltage at the maximum power point. A boost converter is
selected to implement MPPT because of their simplicity and its common use in practical
applications.

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Fig. 4.6: Boost converter

For steady state operation, the average voltage across the inductor over a full period is
zero as given in equation (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3).
VinTon( VoVin ) Toff =0

(4.1)

VinDT =( VoVin )( 1D ) T

(4.2)

Vo/Vin=1 /(1D)

The expressions for the inductor and capacitor is,

L=

D ( 1D ) R
2f

C=

k
2 fR

Where R is load resistance.

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(4.3)

Assuming loss less circuit,

V I =V o I o=

V Io
(1D)
I=

Io
(1D)

(4.4)
So, the input resistance of the boost converter is,

R =

R =

V
I

V o (1D)
Io
(1D)

R =Ro (1 D)2

(4.5)

By observing the above equation, by changing duty ratio between 0 to 1, the

input resistance is varies from R0 to 0. At one instant the input resistance is equal to the
output resistance, so according to maximum power transfer theorem when source
resistance is equal to the load resistance maximum power transfer to the load.
So, in real life situations we require a system that automatically changes D value to D max
such that maximum power can be transferred to the load. This is called maximum power
point tracking. There are number of methods are available to track the maximum power
point.

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By designing this circuit we can also investigate performance of converters

which have input from solar energy. A boost regulator can step up the voltage without a
transformer. Due to a single switch, it has a high efficiency.

4.7 Pulse Width Modulation Generation (PWM)

The percentage of time the switch is on for a set switching speed is duty cycle
(D). Fig4.7 illustrate the comparison of D (modulating signal) with a triangle wave (carrier
signal) that ranges from zero to one. When the value of the triangle waveform is higher than
D, the MOSFET (switch) is off. Similarly, when the value of the triangle waveform is lower
than D, the MOSFET (switch) is on.
This means output stays high as long as the modulating signal is greater than the
carrier as shown in Fig. 31, the MPPT adjusts the pulse width of the DC/DC converter to

obtain the MPP for the PV system.

Fig. 4.7 : PWM signal generation block

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Fig. 4.7.1: Operation PWM signal

4.8

MPPT Controller
From the P-V characteristics of solar array the power increases with voltage upto

MPP and then power decreases as voltage increases further. Hence, Increasing the voltage
increases the power when operating point is on the left of MPP and decreases the power
when operating point is on the right of MPP. The controller adjusts the voltage by a small
amount from the array and measures power; if the power increases, then further
adjustments in that direction are tried until power no longer increases. Hill climbing
method involve a perturbation in duty cycle .
While P&O method involve the perturbation in operating voltage of PV array. Perturb
and Observe introduces an initial perturbation to the voltage by changing duty cycle of
converter and then observations are made using sensing circuitry. P&O algorithm uses
voltage and current measurements to calculate change in power over a change in time and
change in the duty cycle D of the signal sent to the gate of the switch in the boost
converter. Given that P and D can be each either positive or negative, so there are four
cases. To determine whether the duty cycle of the gate signal should be increased or
decreased. The four cases are shown in the Table below.

Perturbation
positive
positive
negative
negative

Change in power
positive
negative
positive
negative

Next perturbation
positive
negative
negative
positive

1. The first case, when both power and the duty cycle has increased, the duty
cycle should continue to increase toward the MPP. Second Case is similar except the
dutycycle should continue to decrease toward the MPP.
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Cases three and four occur when the power has decreased, so the duty cycle has
moved the PV voltage away from the MPP. The duty cycle is reversed. It is decreased in
case three and increased in case four.

Fig. 4.8.1: Flowchart of algorithm

4.9 SIMULINK MODEL OF P&O METHOD

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Fig. 4.9.1: Simulink model of P&O method

4.9.1 Stand alone PV system with MPPT connected to resistive load.

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Fig.4.9.2: Simulink model of PV system with P&O MPPT

4.9.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PERTURB AND OBSERVE
MPPT TECHNIQUE:
P&O MPPT Techniques are easily implemented by digital circuits. We know that
only terminal voltage and current of PV panels are sampled to compute the output power
of PV panels and the result is compared with the previous one to determine the direction
of the next perturbation depending on the comparison results, which can be easily done
with digital circuits. The P&O MPPT Technique have desirable adaptability to slowly
fluctuating solar irradiation, temperature and even variation of the PV panels own
characteristics, but have a drawback in terms of the response speed to seek the optimum
operating point where the maximum output power can be obtained. In general, the P&O
MPPT Technique are slow since system make a clocked perturbation of the electrical
characteristics and have to wait the effect of the perturbation, Especially in most
implementations, the perturbation method use average voltage, power or current to
provide information about the derivations, which also make the process relatively slow.
The common P&O MPPT systems follow the MPP at time scales of a few terms of
milliseconds or even longer.
The continuous use of perturbation to seek the MPP means that the operating
point of the PV panels will be perturbed even after the MPP is reached. Therefore, the
P&O system oscillate around the MPP resulting in a loss of PV power in the steady state
conditions. In case of rapidly changing atmospheric conditions, the P&O MPPT
Technique may actually deviate the operating point from the MPP momentarily. This can
be explained by considering the change in solar irradiation level. Assume that initially the
panels operating voltage, coincides with the MPP. Now, an increase in the PV power will
be measured because the solar irradiation has increased.
P&O MPPT Technique assume that variations in the output power are essentially
a result of perturbation. They cannot identify sudden variation in the atmospheric
conditions from the measured values and that keeping the direction of the perturbation,
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that increased the output power, can result in moving away from the MPP. Therefore, the
tracking in the wrong direction cannot be prevented. However its duration and loss of
power can be reduced with faster tracking cycles. P&O method fails to track the MPP
under partially shaded conditions. This method stops at the first local maximum in the
P-V curve of the array.

4.10 CONCLUSION:
This chapter has discussed about the Mat lab/ simulink model of PV
stand alone PV system along with boost converter connected to load and Perturb and
Observe MPPT Technique. P&O MPPT Technique is the most simple, which moves the
operating point towards the maximum power point. P&O MPPT Technique sometimes
deviates from the maximum operating point. The P&O MPPT Technique will oscillate
around it in case of constant or slowly varying atmospheric conditions and it also fails to
track the MPP under partially shaded conditions. For the above mentioned reasons we are
going for soft computing based Genetic algorithm for MPP tracking of a PV array.

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CHAPTER-5
GENETIC ALGORITHM BASED MPPT OF A PV SYSTEM
God is the creator of the whole universe. Ever since its creation evolution has
been a part and parcel of its functioning. New organisms have evolved from their
ancestors; and this evolution is governed by a simple law which Charles Darwin named
as Survival of the Fittest.
Genetic Algorithms are search algorithms based on natural selection and natural
genetics. They combine survival of fittest among structures with structured yet
randomized information exchange to form a search algorithm. Genetic Algorithm has
been developed by John Holland and his co-workers in the University of Michigan in the
early 60s. Genetic algorithms are theoretically and empirically proved to provide robust
search in complex spaces. Its validity in Function Optimization and Control Applications
is well established.
Genetic Algorithms (GA) provide a general approach for searching for global
minima or maxima within a bounded, quantized search space. Since GA only requires a
way to evaluate the performance of its solution guesses without any priori information,
they can be applied generally to nearly any optimization problem. GA does not guarantee
convergence nor that the optimal solution will be found, but do provide, on average, a
good solution. GA is usually extensively modified to suit a particular application. As a
result, it is hard to classify a generic or traditional GA, since there are so many
variants. However, by studying the original ideas involved with the early GA and
studying other variants, one can isolate the main operations and compose a traditional
GA.
The traditional GA is composed of a fitness function, a selection technique, and
crossover and mutation operators which are governed by fixed probabilities. These
operations form a genetic loop. Since the probabilities are constant, the average number
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of local and global searches in each generation is fixed. In this sense, the GA exhibits a
fixed convergence rate and therefore will be referred to as the fixed-rate GA.

5.1 THE FIXED RATE GENETIC ALGORITHM:

The population is defined to be the collection of all the chromosomes. A
generation is the population after a specific number of iterations of the genetic loop. A
chromosome is composed of genes, each of which reflects a parameter to be optimized.
Therefore, each individual chromosome represents a possible solution to the
optimization problem. The dimension of the GA refers to the dimension of the search
space which equals the number of genes in each chromosome.
a) FITNESS:
The fitness function provides a way for the GA to analyze the performance of
each chromosome in the population. Since the fitness function is the only relation
between the GA and the application itself, the function must be chosen with care. The
fitness function must reflect the application appropriately with respect to the way the
parameters are to be minimized or maximized.

b) SELECTION:
The selection operator selects chromosomes from the current generation to be
parents for the next generation. The probability of each chromosomes selection is given
by:

Ps(i)=f(i)/
Were ps ( i ) and f ( i ) are the probability of selection and fitness value for the ith
chromosome respectively. Parents are selected in pairs. Once one chromosome is
selected, the probabilities are renormalized without the selected chromosome, so that the
45 | P a g e

parent is selected from the remaining chromosomes. Thus each pair is composed of two
different chromosomes. It is possible for a chromosome to be in more than one pair.
c) CROSSOVER:
Crossover is the GA's primary local search routine. The crossover/reproduction
operator computes two offspring for each parent pair given from the selection operator.
These offspring, after mutation, make up the new generation.
A probability of crossover is predetermined before the algorithm is started which
governs whether each parent pair is crossed-over or reproduced. Reproduction results in
the offspring pair being exactly equal to the parent pair. The crossover operation converts
the parent pair to binary notation and swaps bits after a randomly selected crossover point
to form the offspring pair.

Fig.5.1. CROSS OVER OF TWO STRANDS OF CHROMOSOME

d) MUTATION:
Mutations are global searches. A probability of mutation is again predetermined
before the algorithm is started which is applied to each individual bit of each
offspring chromosome to determine if it is to be inverted.
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Fig5.2. Mutation of the chromosome

e) ELITISM:
The elitist operator insures the GA will not get worse as it progresses. The elitist
operator copies the best chromosome to the next generation bypassing the crossover and
mutation operators. This guarantees the best chromosome will never decrease in fitness.

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5.1.1 FLOW CHART OF GENETIC ALGORITHM

Fig5.3. Flowchart for genetic algorithm.

Computing the probabilities of crossover and mutation as a function of fitness
allow the probabilities to reflect the current state of the GA. Different probabilities of
crossover are used for different parent pairs, while different mutation probabilities are
used for each individual chromosome within the same generation. One can then isolate
poor performing chromosomes with low relative fitness to be treated more as global
searches by using a high probability of mutation. This allows the GA to concentrate on
48 | P a g e

better performing chromosomes while using the other to search for new minima or
maxima.
Genetic Algorithm overrides the already existing traditional methods like
derivative method, enumerative method in the following ways:(1) It is not restricted to any local neighborhood and tends to achieve the global maxima.
(2) It is fundamentally not restricted by assumptions of search space like existence of
derivatives, unimodality etc.

5.2 ENCODING SCHEMES

Originally, the chromosomes (or individuals) in the population were represented
as strings of binary digits. However, bit string representations are still the most
commonly used encoding techniques and have been used in many real-world applications
of genetic algorithms. Such representations have several advantages: 1 .They are simple to create and manipulate,
2. Many types of information can be easily encoded,
3. The genetic operators are easy to apply

5.2.1 REPRESENTATION OF CHROMOSOME:

Each chromosome represents a solution, often using strings of 0s and 1s.Each

bit typically corresponds to a gene. This is Binary Encoding. The value for a given gene
is called Alleles.

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5.2.2 EVALUATION:
The evaluation of a chromosome is done to test its fitness as a solution and is
achieved by making use of a mathematical formula known as an objective function. The
objective function plays the role of the environment in natural evolution by rating
individuals in terms of their fitness. Choosing and formulating an appropriate objective
function is crucial to the efficient solution of any given genetic algorithm problem.

5.3 GENETIC OPERATORS:

Genetic operators are used to alter the composition of chromosomes. The
fundamental genetic operators such as selection, crossover, and mutation are used to
create children (or individuals in the next generation) that differ from their parents (or
individuals in the previous generation).

a) Selection Operator:
Individual chromosomes are selected according to their fitness, which is
evaluated using an objective function. This means that a chromosome with a higher
fitness value will have a higher probability of contributing one or more chromosomes
in the next generation.
There are many ways this operator can be implemented. A basic method calls
for using a weighted roulette wheel with slots sized according to fitness .
Thus, on the roulette wheel the individual with the highest fitness will have a
larger slot than the other individuals in the population. Consequently, when the wheel is
spun, the best individual will have a higher chance of being selected to contribute to the
next generation. Individuals thus selected are further operated on with other genetic
operators such as crossover and mutation.

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b) Crossover Operator:
The purpose of the crossover operator is to produce new chromosomes that are
distinctly different from their parents, yet retain some of their parent characteristics.
There are two important crossover techniques called one-point crossover and two-point
crossover.
In one-point crossover, two parent chromosomes are
interchanged at randomly selected point thus creating two children.

BEFORE CROSSOVER:

P1

P2

Point of crossover

AFTER CROSSOVER:

C1

C2

In two point crossover, two crossover points are selected instead of just one
crossover point. The part of the chromosome string between these two points is then
swapped to generate two children. Empirical studies have shown that two point crossover
usually provides better randomization than one-point crossover.

BEFORE CROSSOVER:
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P1

P2

2 Points of crossover
AFTER CROSSOVER:

C1

C2

c) Mutation Operator:
Some of the individuals in the new generation produced by selection and
crossover are mutated using the mutation operator.
The most common form of mutation is to take a bit from a chromosome and alter
(i.e., flip) it with some predetermined probability.

BEFORE MUTATION:

Point of mutation
AFTER MUTATION:

An elitist policy, the fittest individual in the previous generation conditionally

replaces the weakest individual in the current generation is used. It forces binary GA to
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retain some number of the best individuals at each generation. It has been found that
elitism significantly improves performance. starting with an initial population and the
corresponding fitness values the algorithm iterates through several generations and finally
converges to optimal solution.

5.4 OBJECTIVE FUNCTION FOR MPPT USING GENETIC

ALGORITHM
The goal is to solve some optimization problems where we search for an optimal
solution in terms of the variables of the problem (current and voltage) by imposing the
constraints on the current and the voltage which should be both bigger than zero.
To minimize F is equivalent to getting a maximum fitness value in the searching
process. The objective of GA has to be changed to the maximization of fitness to be used
as follows:

The power equation shown above is a non-linear function of current and voltages
which are a function of control variables. The maximization problem is subjected to the
following equality and inequality constraints:
V < Vmax and P < Pmax
It should be noted that all the parameters involved in the genetic algorithm can be
pre-defined subject to the nature of the problem being solved, which is the controlled
equipment, is encoded to binary digits, and then they are located on a string. The number
of string length will be chosen.
Our objective is to maximize the output power of the PV array. This can be
achieved by generating the population for two variables one parameter as input
independent and other as the dependent parameter.
P=V*I

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out of these V and I are the variable parameters and these values of the variable
must always lie within the permissible limits. So MPPT problem can be treated as a single
objective variable problem and can be defined as shown below.
F(X) = V(x)* I (X)

5.5 ADVANTAGES:
1. GA always gives an answer and answer get better with time.
2. GA is a good algorithm for noisy environment.
3. GA is inherently parallel and is easily distributed.

5.6 CONCLUSION:
In order to accurately track the maximum power point of PV system an
efficient MPPT technique require. A genetic algorithm based maximum power point
tracking technique was proposed in this work. Basic theory of genetic algorithm and its
process flow along with objective function for Maximum Power Point problem is
defined. After observing the results we can concluded that, a Genetic algorithm based
maximum power point tracking technique has high tracking accuracy compared to P&O
MPPT technique. This method can detect the global maximum points under partially
shaded conditions.

CHAPTER-6

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SYSTEM SIMULATION AND RESULTS

6.1 COMPLETE PV SYSTEM SIMULATION
A PV solar panel, an MPPT algorithm, and a DC-DC boost converter have been
modeled and simulated separately in the previous chapters. They constitute the physical
subsystems built for the current PV power system. After being verified individually, they
are connected together and combined with the resistive load in order to assess the overall
PV system performance under changing weather conditions. In chapter three dealing with
the MPPT algorithm models, basic perturb and observe method was selected and
simulated because it is simple and requires only voltage and current values from the panel
and it yields the highest tracking efficiencies under sunny and normal weather conditions.
Moreover, it provides the possibility of setting the perturbation step size very small to
improve accuracy without comprising dynamic performance. It can now be implemented
in the Simulink model of the complete PV system. Its performances need to be
investigated under normal and partial shaded conditions to further demonstrate its
effectiveness.
The solar panel and boost converter Simulink models have been set out in
chapters four. The MPPT algorithm models were calculated via Mat lab/Simulink model
in chapter four. These models are simulated in conjunction with PV array and boost
converter for P&O and GA based MPPT and the results are shown in this chapter.
The following Figure 6.1a, 6.1.b displays the I-V & P-V curve for single PV
module under uniform irradiation condition which has only one peak point at which
maximum power occurs.

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Fig 6.1 a) P-V curve of a single PV module under uniform irradiation

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57 | P a g e

Fig 6.2 a) I-V curve of a single PV module under uniform irradiation

Fig 6.3 P-V curve of a 5 PV modules connected in series under uniform irradiation

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Fig 6.4 I-V curve of a 5 PV modules connected in series under uniform irradiation

Fig 6.5 P-V curve of a 5 PV modules connected in series under partially shaded
conditions

Fig 6.6 P-V curve of a 5 PV modules connected in series under partially shaded
conditions

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The following Figure 6.7 displays the boost converter with the pulse width
modulation PWM signal block.

Fig. 6.7 Simulink model of boost converter.

Fig. 6.8 Simulink model of complete PV system with MPPT connected to resistive load.

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83

82

81

80

79

78

77

76

75

74
39.75

39.8

39.85

Time

39.9

39.95

40

Fig. 6.9 Unregulated D.C voltage

350

300

250

voltage

200

150

100

50

10

15

20
Time

Fig 6.9.1 V out of boost converter without MPPT.

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25

30

35

40

250

200

power

150

100

50

10

15

20
time

25

30

35

40

30

35

40

Fig 6.9.2 P out without MPPT.

400

350

300

voltage

250

200

150

100

50

10

15

20
Time

25

Fig 6.9.3 V out with P&O MPPT

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300

250

power

200

150

100

50

10

15

20
Time

25

30

35

40

30

35

40

Fig 6.9.4 P out with P&O MPPT

45
40
35

power

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

10

15

20
Time

25

Fig 6.9.5 out power of boost converter under partially shaded conditions with P&O
MPPT.
80
70
60

voltage

50
40
30
20
10
0

10

15

20
Time

25

30

35

40

Fig 6.9.6 output voltage of boost converter under partially shaded conditions with
P&O MPPT.

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104.5

Function Value

104
103.5
103
102.5
102

10

20

30

40

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

50

60

70

80

90

100

Iterations

104.5

Fitness

104
103.5
103
102.5
102

Iterations

Fig 6.9.7.Function value VS number of iterations using genetic algorithm for 100
iterations.

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6.2 COMPARISION OF MPPT USING P&O AND GENETIC

ALGORITHM METHOD.
S.NO

MPPT

VDC

VMPP

METHOD
With fixed

84v

300v

duty ratio
P&O Under

84v

350v

IMPP

DMPP

PMPP

0.766

0.72

230W

amp
0.714 amp

0.76

250W

uniform

irradiation
P&O under

38

shaded
4

conditions
Genetic
algorithm
under
partially
shaded
conditions

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48.71 V

2.1 amp

104.3W

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
7.1 CONCLUSION:
The aim of this thesis was to develop a method to optimize the energy extraction
in a photovoltaic power system. The concept of PV module maximum power point
tracking has been presented and various methods of addressing existing challenges are
explored. Soft computing based maximum power point tracking technique is proposed in
this work. In order to formulate and implement this technique, a system model is needed.
The various components and subsystems are analyzed, modeled, validated, and combined
together to produce a complete maximum power point tracker model.
The Maximum Power Point of PV system is identified by using genetic
algorithm, it will be given to the control algorithm. It will compare the identified power
with actual power of the PV system. The control algorithm generates duty ratio, this duty
ratio can be used to match impedance ratio. So, the maximum power can be transferred to
the load. The PV module model was found to be sufficiently accurate and can model any
solar panel using information supplied in manufacturer data sheets. Simulation results
show that the proposed Genetic algorithm based MPPT technique can track the global
maximum point under partially shaded conditions. The results show that compared to
other MPPT techniques, such as P&O and Incremental conductance algorithms it
provides improved performance in terms of maximum power point tracking.

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