THE BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK SECOND EDITION Premier12 re. NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL FUEL EFFICIENCY SERVICE LTD Graham & TrotmanGraham & Trotman Limited Kiuwer Academic Publishers Group Sterling House 101 Philip Drive 66 Wilton Road Assinippi Park London SW1V 1DE Norwell, MA 02061 UK USA ISBN 1 85333 285 2 © National Industrial Fuel Efficiency Service Ltd, 1959, 1969, 1981, 1989 First published in 1959 as the New Stoker's Manual and in 1969 as The Boiler Operators Handbook Revised first edition published in 1981 by Graham & Trotman Limited Reprinted 1985 Second edition 1989 Reprinted 1991 British Library and Library of Congress CIP data Is available from the publisher. This publication is protected by international copyright law. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Computer typeset in Times 2 New Roman by Microgen (UK) Ltd, Welwyn Garden City, Herts. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bell & Bain Ltd, GlasgowChapter | CONTENTS List_of Figures viii Listof Tables 4.||.|1—1 CK Foreword Acknowledgements xi xii Fuels in Common Use Chapter 2 Liquid Fuels. Gaseous Fuels. Coal. Calorific Value. Si h. Moi Talk Combustion ll Chapter 3 Combustion in practice. Burning oil. Gas burning. Combustion of coal on a grate. Flames. Flame type. Sulphur corrosion. Water and Steam 23 Chapter 4 Steam raising. Definition of terms. Water. Priming. Bumping. Foaming. Carry-over. Effects of scale. Corrosion. Water treatment systems. Blowd Ht boilers. P ear Feed water and treatment. Boiler Efficiency and Heat Transfer 37 Boiler thermal efficiency. Gross or higher calorific value, Heat losses. Heat loss in flue gases. Air supply. Dirty heat transfer surfaces. Unburned fuel loss. Radiation and other losses. tiny efficiency, Heat transfer, Boiler heat recovery plant. On line cleaning. General fuel efficiency ithin the boilerChapter 5 Chapter 6 Boiler Types Shell boilers. Water tube boilers. Sectional boilers. Magazine boiler. Boiler auxillaries. Solid Fuel Firing 49 67 Chapter 7 Principles. Fuel characteristics. Coal storage and handling. Ash handling. Fuel bed thickness. Types of mechanical stoker. Maintenance. Automatic controls. Pulverised Fuel Firing 81 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Drying the fuel. Conveyor and storage. Pulverised fuel burners. Ash handling. Liquid Fuel Firing Delivery, storage and handling. Fuel oil systems. Atomisation. Liquid fuel burners. Burner maintenance. Carbon deposit. Gaseous Fuel Firing Delivery, storage and handling. Combustion characteristics. Types of gas burners, High pressure burners. Gas circuit components. Burner maintenance. Automatic Control and Instruments Automatic control. Safety function. Functional control. Off7On control. High/Low/Off control. Modulating control, Anticipatory and sequential control. Oxygen trim control. Instrumentation. Fuel monitoring. Combustion efficiency. Heat exported. General instrumentation. Boilerhouse log sheets. Start-Up Procedures Precautions before lighting up. Procedure when lighting up and warming through a boiler. Procedure for bringing a boiler on line. Procedure for warming through steam pipework. General precautions, Warning—Water hammer. vi 87 99 107 119Chapter 12 Safety 125 Principle safety equipment for boiler plant. Steam boilers. Hot water boilers. Automatic controls and safety. Inspection and testing. Water gauges. W; : treatment. Safe isolation. Permit to work. Safety equipment. Fuel safety. General! safety points. Conclusions. Chapter 13. The Clean Air Act 143 Smoke. Smoke control areas. Grit emission and dispersion of combustion products. Chimney height. Acid smut formation. Grit arrestor. Efficiency of of grit arrestors. Index 185 vii1. Percentage of carbon dioxide in flue gas by volume 12 2. The combustion ofcoal 3.__ The relationship between CO2, CO and QO; in combustion 15 4. The principle of coal burning on a chaingrate stoker 8 5. Acid dewpoint and corrosion 20 6. Properties of steam 25 7. Solubility of O2 in water at atmospheric pressure 31 8. Nitrogen _pressurisation 35 9. Diaphragm air cushion pressurisation 35 10. Continuous running pump pressurisation Ll. Boundary layers—gas side 46 12. Packaged boiler (Courtesy Babcock Robey Ltd) 31 13. Three-pass, wet-back economic boiler (Courtesy Babcock 52 Robey Ltd) 14. Two-pass, dry-back economic boiler 53 15. Reverse-flame boiler (Courtesy Babcock Robey Ltd) 54 16. Lancashire boiler 55 17. Vertical smoke tube boiler 57 L8._Two-d fer tube boiler with 1 wall 58 19. Three-drum water tube boiler with refractory walls 59 20°F i circulation boil 60 21. Steam generator _ 61 23. Magazine boiler 64 24, Underfeed and overfeed principles of combustion 68 25. Vekos boiler (Courtesy British Coal/College of Fuel Tech 7 (London)) 26, Chain grate stoker 72 27. Ram type coking stoker 75 vill28. Principle of fluidised bed combustion 77 29. Fixed grate sprinkler stoker (Courtesy Saacke Ltd) 78 30. Underfeed stoker (Courtesy British Coal/College of Fuel 79 Tech (London)) 31. Pulverised fuel system 83 32.__ Parallel flow pulverised fuel burner 85 33. Fuel oil tank 88 34, Fuel oil ring main system (Courtesy Saacke Ltd) 91 35, Pressure jet burner nozzle 93 36. Low pressure air burner 95 37, Sectional view of rotary cup burner 95 38. Atmospheric injector burner 102 39. Dual fuel burner 104 40. Components in a 2MW gas train 105 41. Diagram of burner control sequence 109 42. Gas burner sequence operation 1 43. Fyrite flue gas analyser 117 44, Blowdown steps in gauge glass sequence 131 45. Automatic sequencing blowdown valve 133 47. Ringlemann chart 146 48. Simple grit arrestor 152 49. Multicell grit arrestor 153 50. Electrostatic precipitator 154 ixTABLES General fuel analysis Classification and properties of fuel oils Properties of natural gas and LPG Proximate analyses of typical British coals Sizes ofeoals 0. CT Flue gas analyses—theoretical and Practical 14 tn] eel ta! oe Constants for Siegert’s formula 40 Percentage heat loss to moisture 4l Radiation etc. losses Typical boiler efficiencies 45 Relationship between burning rate and draught 16 Flame speed and propagation for gases 100 Requirements for safety shut off valves 105 Allowances for dark smoke 144FOREWORD The popularity of the Boiler Operators Handbook has prompted the issue of another revised edition, The' previous edition was issued in 1981 with an emphasis on coal-fired boilers, The trend over the last decade has been towards oil and gas firing and this emphasis is now reflected in the new edition. : The good management of boiler plant should ensure the production of good quality steam in a safe and fuel efficient manner. If this is achieved, air pollution is minimised. All these aspects are emphasised throughout this new edition. The Boiler Operators Handbook is intended to help the operator carry out his important work with skill and efficiency. It is not a textbook nor does it go into great detail, However, it does contain sufficient information to encourage the operator to study the subject more extensively. An essential management responsibility is to ensure that operators are well trained to perform their functions both safely and efficiently. Because of this need the NIFES Consulting Group have been running regular training courses in Boiler House Management since 1954, This book is issued as the standard text on such courses. Any of NIFES offices will be able to give details of future courses, It is hoped that this new edition will help operators, supervisors and managers understand the principles that will result in the safe and efficient operation of their plants.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The cover photograph and Figures 12 and 15 are reproduced courtesy of Babcock Robey Ltd. Figures 29 and 34 are reproduced courtesy of Saacke Ltd. Figures 25 and 30 are reproduced courtesy of British Coal/College of Fuel Technology (London). Figure 18 is reproduced courtesy of Longman Group UK Ltd from Industrial Boilers by Gunn and Horton (1989), The content of Chapter 11 (Start-Up Procedures) is reproduced courtesy of the Property Services Agency. Extracts from M and E Engineering Guide Crown Copyright. xiiCHAPTER 1 FUELS IN COMMON USE Fuels are used to heat water or produce steam from boilers. The common fuels fall into one of four categories shown below: Solid—Coal, Coke, Peat, Wood Liquid—Oils, Coal Tar Fuels Gaseous—Natural Gas, Liquified Petroleum Gases Electricity—Generated by Solid, Liquid, Gas or Nuclear The first three are used most commonly to fire boilers and are composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen with small amounts of sulphur and incombustible material. Electricity is a second generation fuel and is used to heat small steam and hot water boilers for specialist applications. Table 1 General Fuel Analysis Fuel Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Ash Coal 85% 6% 3% 6% Oil 86% 12% 2% Trace Natural Gas 75% 25% Trace Nil In the United Kingdom all three fuels are indigenous and readily available for industrial, commercial and domestic use. Electricity is predominantly generated from coal, but an increasing proportion is produced at nuclear power stations.2 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK The formation of coal, oil and natural gas commenced millions of years ago when decayed vegetable matter was subjected to great heat and pressure. The types and properties of the fuels known today result from the variations that occurred during these processes. LIQUID FUELS Liquid fuels are predominantly of petroleum hydrocarbon origin. Fuel oils are classified by viscosity, or resistance to flow. Several methods of measuring viscosity have been used. Traditionally the Redwood Viscometer was used and the results expressed as the time in seconds for a certain amount of oil at 37.8°C to pass through an orifice. This method has now been superseded by a direct measurement of Kinematic viscosity at 100°C and expressed in centistokes (cSt). The figures given in Table I are minimum values. In practice the viscosity of a Class F fuel oil must not be less than 20 cSt but can be up to 39 cSt typically being about 23 cSt. Generally the trend is for oil deliveries to become more viscous requiring changes in storage and burning temperatures. Viscosity is reduced by heating fuel oil which reduces pumping energy, but more importantly allows good atomisation at the burner. GASEOUS FUELS Gaseous fuels form 3 families; the manufactured gases such as coke oven gas; naturally occurring gases as found offshore in British waters; and gases separated from crude oil, principally propane and butane. The first category is little used in industry and commerce being a by-product of coke production, for example for steelworks, Generally calorific values of gaseous fuels are expressed in Megajoules per cubic metre (MJ/m°) of the gas at normal temperature and pressure. Propane and Butane are produced as Liquified Petroleum Gases (LPG) and are stored in the liquid state under pressure and the calorific value may be quoted as GJ/tonne.s H or 1B Peypeds , ge 002-091 OL SP S660 OSO8t O08 lr 000 S oes Jeyung H se Srl-Ocl ss ov S660 O0€8l ODL LY oos Ee oor Aawop 9S ge OLL-08 OE 2 S60 05281 ood0r 000 § oz nub a ze Og-Sr Ob OL €60 O068i color 00g cB 3 $0 “souRe «= “SOURE «= “SOUE #0 OO96 ocooRe se og se5) a % De AYA ame eniity LON DoD 1 HO = i040 aaah ‘dwies ‘quia L dives symeds One A POOMpeLy SeYORSRUED JO BPRID SSED yang sung Gurdung ebesos DUOED SSous spuozes "A SHO 19n4 Jo seRsedoug pue uOHEDyWIESE]D “Z eGeLero o6 -#L C6r het 85'0-25'0 OL'2-06'1 so oolr-ee oos = 1e6 1s°0-09°0 SS b-Or'l _ ores — 6e-8E _ 670 dN Je jo ‘ evo, B/N jeyem 0) pasedwos —_ste 0} paseduioa BSt1od us'se0 on 42.36 O8RY sepLiTy “he! JOGA pinoy kunerO oytoeds —Ayaeab 2y!D0ds Od Pur Sep jemeN jo SoUedaY “¢ BIqELFUELS IN COMMON USE 5 Natural gas, propane and butane all contain small amounts of sulphur, 0.02% to 0.03%, in the form of a stenching agent. Sulphur is associated with low temperature corrosion but at this very low concentration is not considered a serious problem on most boilers, Gases mix readily with air to form a combustible mixture and safety in delivery, storage and use of gaseous fuels is of paramount importance. COAL Coals are classified on certain easily recognisable factors of which moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash contents are most important. These factors expressed as percentages of the whole constitute the proximate analysis of the coal. Volatile matter, which is the tars in the coal, is driven off when the fuel is heated and burns as a flame when combined with air. Coals containing a high percentage of volatiles tend to burn quickly and produce smoke, but anthracites with much lower amounts of volatiles burn slower and are unlikely to produce smoke. The volatile matter content is one of the principal factors which determines the way in which a coal behaves when burned. Table 4 Proximate Analyses of Typical British Coals Type of Fuel Votatile matter Fixed Garbon Moisture Ash Peat 52 26 18 4 Bituminous 34 51 6 9 Coal(1}* Bituminous 29 61 4 6 Coal(2’ Anthracite 6 87 2 5 a) Typical industrial steam raising coal 8} Typical coking coal 8 Another important property is the caking index. This is a measure of the tendency of coal to bind together on the grate, often resulting in smoke. The use of a strongly caking coal can prevent a boiler from producing its maximum design output and can also be difficult to burn using modern mechanical stakers.6 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK Coals are generally classified by the British Coal ranking system, which takes account of the volatile matter content and the caking properties. Typically coal ranks 700 and 800 are used for steam taising and hot water generation. Table 5 Classification of Coals Description of coai Rank Principal Source Secondary Source Anthracites 100 South Wales Central Scotland Steam 201 South Wales Kent ing steam 202-204 South Wales Kent Prime coking 301 South Wales, Durham Kent Very strongly caking 400 Durham, Yorkshire = Northumberland Strongly caking 600 Yorkshire, Durham = Northumberland Lancashire Nottinghamshire North Derbyshire Medium caking 600 Yorkshire Northumberland Nottinghamshire Lancashire North Dertyyshire Weakly caking 700 = Yorkshire Lancashire, North Nottin lhamshire Staffordshire, arbyshire Central Scotland Northumberiend Very weak caking 800 = Nottinghamshire Warwickshire Yorkshire Lancashire North Derbyshire Lothians Cannock Chase Non-caking 900 N hamshire Warwickshire North Derbyshire South Derbyshire Latoestorstiira a CALORIFIC VALUE The calorific or heating value of coal is expressed in kilojoules per kilogramme (kJ/kg) and is a measure of the energy stored in the fuel. The calorific value is only fully realised when one kilogramme of the fuel is burned. Two calorific values (CV) may be quoted for a coal, one the gross and one the net calorific value. The gross CV is the maximum theoretical heat available from the fuel and the netFUELS IN COMMON USE 7 value may be taken as the maximum practical heat available from the fuel. In this country calorific values are quoted on the gross basis, Typical values are 25 000 to 32 000 kJ/kg (11 000-13 000 Btu/ib) for bituminous coals and about 33 500 kJ/kg (14 400 Btu/Ib) for anthracites. SIZES Coal is also classified by size. When mined it is a mixture of sizes from large lumps down to dust and is graded by being passed over a screen, usually composed of a steel plate containing a number of holes of one size. For example, a screen with 75mm diameter holes lets through coal of less than 75mm in size and anything larger stays on it, Coal sizes are generally known by the names given in Table 6. Table 6 Sizes of Coals Name of Coal Passes Stays on through screen screen size mm in. mm in. Large Cobbles 150 6 75 3 Cobbles 100 4 50 2 Trebles 75 3 50 2 Doubles 50 2 25 1 Singles 25 1 13 1/2 Peas 13 12 6 1/4 Grains 6 1/4 3 1/8 Sized coal larger than singles is not often used in mechanically- fired boilers and many plants are fired by smalls which consist of anything below a certain size down to dust; e.g. 25mm smalls pass through a screen with 25mm holes (1"). Pulverised fuel (PF), solid fuel ground down to tiny particles, enables faster rates of burning to be obtained with solid fuel and is almost wholly confined to very large water tube boilers.8 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK ASH The ash content of the coal influences its calorific value and behaviour when burning on the grate. A high ash content coal has.a lower calorific value than a low ash content coal of equivalent rank. In the case of mechanical firing systems a balance between the need for sufficient ash content to protect the grate from overheating and a high calorific value must be achieved. An important characteristic of the ash from an operator's point of view is its fusion temperature or melting point and the nature of the resultant fused product. A high melting point ash does not readily produce clinker except when the normal rate of burning is grossly exceeded. A low melting point ash will certainly lead to operational problems but the severity will depend on the type of clinker formed. Large lumps of clinker are a problem to remove but do not prevent good combustion of the fuel. A thin layer of biscuit like clinker covering the grate prevents air getting to the fuel thus producing smoke, and is difficult to break up and remove whilst the plant is in operation. Mixing coals from different colleries, coal fields or countries very often results in severe clinker formation problems. MOISTURE The percentage of moisture in fuels is reflected in the calorific value. A high moisture content reduces the fuels’ calorific value, reduces boiler output, and can also result in handling problems. However, some stokers need coal with moisture to prevent burn ack. COKE Coke is not often used as a fuel for industrial and larger non- industrial boiler plant, except where locally available from steel works. Two characteristics of coke are important:FUELS IN COMMON USE 9 a) itis very hard and abrasive thus increasing maintenance on mechanical handling systems. b) it burns slowly and cannot be used when boiler load changes are rapid.CHAPTER 2 COMBUSTION Combustion is the name given to the chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen which results in the liberation of heat. The oxygen is usually derived from the air. A boiler operator should know enough about combustion to ensure that the full heating potential of the fuel is realised on his plant. Combustion will not start in air or be maintained below a certain temperature, known as the ignition temperature. Once the fuel is ignited, it must supply sufficient heat to raise the temperature and establish continuous combustion. Thus the three requirements for combustion to be established are fuel, temperature/heat and air. All common fuels contain three substances which burn giving off heat: carbon, hydrogen and sulphur, Carbon (C) + Oxygen (O2) 33 730 kJ/Kg (14 500 Btu/Ib) of C Hydrogen (H2) + Oxygen (O2) 143 100 kJ/Kg (61 520 Btu/Ib) of H2 Sulphur (S) + Oxygen (O2) 9 100 kJ/Kg (3 910 Btu/Ib) of S The air for combustion contains 21% by volume as O2 and 79% as nitrogen (Nz). The N: takes no part in the combustion process but passes unchanged through the furnace and so carries heat away. Pure carbon can burn in air two ways: a) If there is enough air, it burns to carbon dioxide (CO)12 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK The O: in the air is then replaced by a similar volume of CO:. Thus, if the air is exactly the right amount, the products of combustion contain 21% CO. and 79% of nitrogen (see Fig. 1). b) If there is too little air, some of the carbon burns to form carbon monoxide (CO). In this case only 10457 kJ/kg (4.500 Btu/Ib) of carbon is released and combustion is said to be incomplete. When Hz: burns in air, the product of combustion is water (H20). Initially, this takes the form of steam, but on cooling, condenses into water which occupies a negligible volume compared with the original H2. The combustion of § in air produces sulphur dioxide (SO2) which if allowed to condense with the steam and form acid causes rapid corrosion. COMBUSTION IN PRACTICE In fuels, carbon, hydrogen and sulphur occur together and so burn together. When they burn together completely, each combines with some of the 21% of oxygen in air to form CO2, H20 and SO, If therefore exactly the right amount of air is provided to burn the fuel completely, the waste gases will contain only CO:, steam, AIR SUPPLY is percentage CO: at boiler outlet te—Temperature of flue gases leaving boiler °C ta—Combustion air temperature °C K is a constant factor dependent upon the Fuel40 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK Table 9 Constants for Siegert's Formula Fuel Gross CV Net cV Natural Gas 0.35 0.39 LPG—Propane 0.42 0.45 LPG—Butane 0.43 0.46 Fuel Oil—Class D 0.48 0.51 Fuel Oll—Class E,F & G 0.51 0.54 0.62 0.65 Coal For further details see BS 845—1987 Part 1 Example: Class G Fuel Oil tr= 220°C ta = 20°C CO: = 7.0% K = 0.51 Gross CV basis Dry Flue Gas Loss = 2:3! ae =20) . 14.6% Compare the same plant operating at 13% CO, Dry Five Gas Lose = 251.220 = 20) 7.99 It can be seen that reducing the excess air, as shown by operating at a higher CO», halves the flue gas loss in this example, and the thermal efficiency of the plant has been raised by 6.8%. Assume that tris now 300°C and CO; 13.0% as before Dry Flue Gas Loss = 9-51 C90 ~ 20) . 11.0% When compared to the previous example, the heat lost in the flue gases has increased from 7.8% to 11.0% or 3.2 units, i.e. a loss in efficiency of 1% for every 25°C rise in temperature. At boiler efficiencies around 75-80% the increase in fuel consumption is approximately 1% for every 18°C rise in flue gas temperature.BOILER EFFICIENCY AND HEAT TRANSFER a Loss Due to Moisture The heat loss from the water produced in combustion is not affected by the amount of excess air present, and to a much lesser degree is affected by the flue gas temperature. The losses due to the moisture from combustion can be treated as being independent of temperature and CO:. The magnitude of the loss is shown below: Table 10 Percentage Heat Loss to Moisture Fue! Gross CV Net CV Natural Gas 11.5 3.0 9.0 2.6 LPG—Butane 9.0 2.5 Fuel Oil—Class D 75 1.5 Fuel Oil—Class E,F & G 7.0 1.4 Coal 4.0 1.0 Clearly the boiler attendant needs some degree of instrumentation to know the flue gas temperature and CO, content to operate his plant efficiently. Even without basic instrumentation the operator must be aware of the areas in which changes in a preset or design condition can occur, resulting in increased excess air and/or increased flue gas exit temperature. AIR SUPPLY This has already been discussed in Chapter 2 in terms of the necessity to prevent inleakage of air to boilers and flues. The operator must be alert to the visual changes in the furnace regardless of the type of fuel used. For example, if smoke can be seen, is the fuel bed too thick (when solid fuel is used) or have the primary and secondary air dampers been incorrectly adjusted? Are dampers free to move or have they become jammed? In the case of fuel oil or gas, has the colour or length of the flame altered, has the noise level of the burner changed? Delayed mixing of air and fuel due to lack of turbulence or mismatch of primary and secondary air, can result in Jong flames, increasing flue gas42 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK temperatures. The linkages between the fuel controls and dampers should be inspected for wear and play at the joints. As indicated a great deal of information can be gained by looking at the firebed or flame. Intelligent interpretation of this data will enable an operator to get the maximum thermal efficiency out of his plant. DIRTY HEAT TRANSFER SURFACES Anything that can impede the transfer of heat from the fuel bed, the flame or hot flue gases through the metal plate or tube into the water increases the final flue gas exit temperature. That is, soot or fly ash on the flue gas side of the metal, and scale on the water side of the metal act as effective barriers to heat flow. The most effective guide to the rate of fouling is the increase in the flue gas exit temperature. A fitted or portable thermometer can be used to log the flue gas temperature on a regular basis. Experience will then determine at what temperature it is most economical to shut down the boiler for cleaning. If it is not possible to take flue gas temperatures, then regular examination of the heat transfer surfaces on the flue gas side should be carried out, and a cleaning schedule arranged and adhered to. On the waterside, correct water treatment and regular testing of the quality of both feed and boiler water should ensure a high degree of cleanliness. In those very old pattern boilers which have brickwork baffles to separate various gas passes, such baffles should be checked for defects or holes. Any reduction in the time the flue gases are in contact with the metal by such short-circuiting, will reduce heat transfer and so increase the flue gas exit temperature. Flue gas temperature must be related to boiler load. A sustained and progressive increase in temperature at full load is a sure indication of fouling of heat transfer surfaces, or possibly progressive overfiring of the boiler due to burner wear. This latter case will lead to increased maintenance costs and possibly to boiler failure, due to flame impingement or overheating of the rear tube plate in the case of economic boilers. It is never good practice to operate a boiler for long periods at its maximum rating, andBOILER EFFICIENCY AND HEAT TRANSFER 43 operators should use a larger boiler or a second boiler where available to avoid sustained overload conditions. UNBURNED FUEL LOSS For fuel oil and gas burning incomplete combustion produces CO, which is a heat loss. In the case of oil CO is accompanied by smoke and fouling, so is readily noticed and rectified, With gas, usually only CO is produced, but this is highly toxic and may effect the boiler attendent. Unburnt fuel losses generally are restricted to solid fuel firing, Carbon takes a long time to burn, so regardless of what type of grate or stoker is employed, some of the carbon will pass through unburned into the ash, Each type of coal is different, a moving grate running too fast or with too thick a firebed may result in excessive carryover of unburned fuel. Fuel continuing to burn off the grate can damage the boiler. It is with burning solid fuel that the skill needed by the attendant is greatest. Unburned solid fuel also appears in grit, dust and fly ash collected from the flue gases before they are discharged via the chimney. In order to keep carbon in dust at relatively low levels, care must be taken in adjusting draught levels, Excessive primary underfire draught will lift fine particles from the fire bed where they are entrained by the secondary air and flue gases, and carried forward through the boiler flue passes. The physical size of the fuel and the type of stoker installed influences the degree of carryover, but the operator must still balance his primary and secondary air to produce draughts and turbulence, just sufficient to overcome the resistances of the various flue gas passes and burn the fuel cleanly. RADIATION AND OTHER LOSSES Every boiler will lose heat by radiation and convection, but this can be minimised by effective insulation of the boiler shell or the steam and water drum. Carelessly installed or damaged insulation rapidly increases heat losses.44 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK The data shown in Table 11 gives an indication of the magnitude of losses under this heading, even for reasonably insulated boilers. Table 11 Radiation, etc. Losses Boller Type Dasign Details % Loss A Water tube and multitubular shell bollers 03 5 MW and above B As above 2 MW to 5 MW 0.5 c As above less than 2 MW 1.0 B Economic Boifer 16 E Brickset Water Tube Boller—water walls 2.0 F Brickset Water Tube Boiler—no water walls 25 a Brickset Cornish and Lancashire Boilers 4.0 H Sectional Boiler 4.0 At first glance, it does not appear as though the operator has any control over the part radiation losses have to play in the attainment of the highest possible thermal efficiency, since these losses are fixed by design. However, the above radiation losses are quoted at maximum continuous rating (MCR) and if the boiler plant operates on low outputs the percentage loss in proportionately increased, i.e. at half rating, the radiation loss doubles, The quantity of heat lost by radiation is the same even when the boiler is not firing if it is maintained at temperature or pressure. Load conditions therefore have an effect on the attainment of the highest thermal efficiency and it is in this regard that co- operation is required between Production and Boiler House Personnel. Boiler plant will work at optimum efficiency at a steady firing rate of 80% MCR. Load fluctuations leading to intermittant firing rapidly reduces overall plant efficiency. OPERATING EFFICIENCY The maximum attainable thermal efficiency of a boiler depends on its type and design. The following table shows typical efficiencies for various types of boiler based on the net CV of theBOILER EFFICIENCY AND HEAT TRANSFER 45 fuel. The values will be about 3% lower of coal; 7% for oil; and 10% for gas fuels when based on the Gross CV of the fuel. Table 12 Typical Boller Efficiencies Type of Boiler Net Efficiency % Packaged, 87 Water ibe wih economia 85 Economic, 2. 78 Lancashire with economiser 75 Vertical smoke tube 72 Sectional 70 Lancashire 65 HEAT TRANSFER In a boiler, heat transfer through the metal is by conduction, and to the metal from the fuel bed, flame and hot gases by convection and radiation. The balance between convection and radiation is governed by the design of the heating surfaces. In the furnace of a boiler radiation predominates. For modern shell and water tube boilers, some 70% of the total heat transfer takes place in the furnace. The three main factors effecting radiant heat transfer in the boiler are: flame temperature, flame shape and fouling of heat transfer surfaces. For flame temperature read flame colour, A coal fire should have a bright red flame, an oil flame should be bright orange, and a gas flame a clear blue. Flames or fire beds should, as far as is practicable, fill the boiler furnace. They should be as long and wide as can be achieved without impingement on metal or refractory surfaces. In practice, firebeds and flames must be at least two thirds of the length of a furnace tube or overall thermal efficiency of the boiler will be reduced. Heat transfer by convection from the hot flue gases is effected by the gas velocity and heat transfer surface fouling. There is a stagnant layer of air and flue gases called a boundary layer on all metal surfaces in the boiler as shown in Fig 11. This layer acts to insulate the metal from the flue gases. The slower the velocity of the gases the thicker is the boundary layer. Modern designs of boiler have attempted to scrub this boundary layer down to a46 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK minimum thickness either by increasing turbulence or gas velocity. Turbulence can be increased by installing swirlers, retarders or turbulators, which are metal spirals inside the tubes to spin the gases and increase the velocity over the surface of the tube. Modern package boilers, especially those firing liquid and gaseous fuels, are characterised by having smaller diameter tubes to effect high velocity convective heat transfer compared with boilers of the earlier generation. BOILER HEAT RECOVERY PLANT The greatest loss of heat from a boiler is that carried away by the hot flue gases to the chimney. Recovery of some of it, either into boiler feedwater via an economiser, or to preheat the combustion air via a plate heat exchanger, will increase the overall thermal efficiency of the plant. In general for every 7°C increase in feedwater temperature, the boiler fuel consumption is reduced by 1%. For combustion air preheating there is a fuel saving of 1% for every 20°C rise in air temperature. HIGH GAS-SIDE FILM RESISTANCE CAUSED BY STAGNANT LAYER EEE SLOW ; MOVING —_-!-—-- MOVING GAS —* GAS Se 7 SS >. is SS eS PE LLL TURI GAS-SIDE FILM RESISTANCE Fig 11 Boundary layers—gas sideBOILER EFFICIENCY AND HEAT TRANSFER 47 An economiser is an extension of the boiler and is at the same pressure, thus is subject to the same safety requirements as the boiler. Additionally the water circulation temperature entering the economiser must not be too low potentially causing excessive sulphur corrosion, or too high so that steam bubbles form in the tubes. As a general guide the water temperature should be above 55°C and not higher than 20°C below the steam saturation temperature at the boiler operating pressure, which can be obtained from steam tables. In order to monitor these temperatures, thermometers are required at the inlet and outlet of the economiser. Most firing equipment can be designed or adapted to use preheated combustion air, A simple plate or tubular heat exchanger in the flue gas stream recovers heat. Metal heat exchangers are subject to sulphur corrosion if flue gas temperatures drop too low. In large installations, stainless steel or borosilicate glass heat exchangers have been installed to overcome corrosion. ON LINE CLEANING When firing solid fuel, metal surfaces in the path of the furnace gases need regular cleaning to remove sooty deposits. Soot blowers of various kinds have been used to remove soot and dust from shell and water tube boilers, and also economisers and air heaters. Traditionally these were high speed steam or compressed air jets, but recent developments have produced infra-sound and ultra- sound units, i.e. low and high frequency. Correct installation and use of soot blowers reduces maintenance and retains the optimum efficiency of a plant over an extended period. GENERAL FUEL EFFICIENCY WITHIN THE BOILER HOUSE In this chapter recovery of heat from flue gases has been considered, but any other wasted heat within the boiler house may be recovered and increase plant efficiency.48 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK Any contaminated hot condensate that must be discharged to drain, or exhaust steam, can be used to preheat feedwater. Flash steam escaping from a condensate tank or blowdown pit can be “‘sparged’ under water to condense it, producing hot water needing less water treatment chemicals. It is difficult to operate a plant at maximum efficiency unless instrumentation is available, either permanently installed or portable.CHAPTER 5 BOILER TYPES A boiler is a vessel used for transferring the heat, liberated by the combustion of fuel into water, either to produce hot water or steam, or into a thermal fluid which is usually a mineral oil. The water, steam or fluid then transports the heat to the point of use. There are three basic types of boiler used for industrial and large commercial applications. These are discussed under the headings of shell, water tube and sectional boilers. There are variations within these types and there are also some boilers which do not fit exactly under these headings. In this Chapter the types most commonly in use are described together with some of the older models which are still in service. SHELL BOILERS The cylindrical shell of the boiler contains the water. The furnace, where combustion takes place, and any fire tubes or smoke tubes, pass through the water and are therefore also contained within the shell. Some older types of boiler have external, brickwork flues. The diameter of the smoke tubes has an influence on the efficiency and physical size of the boiler. Flue gases can pass at the same rate through one, 100mm (4 in) diameter smoke tube as through five, 45mm (1.75in) tubes. However, the five small diameter tubes have 2.25 times more50 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK surface area to transfer heat from the flue gases to the water. A large number of small diameter tubes is therefore preferred to enable a small, efficient boiler to be constructed. Shell boilers fall into two main categories; horizontal and vertical boilers. Horizontal Boilers The majority of horizontal shell boilers are now supplied as packaged units and are referred to as packaged boilers. The packaged boiler is skid mounted, complete with burner, feed pump, valves, fittings and a basic electrical system. The boiler only requires connecting to the site services to make it operational. This is illustrated in Fig 12. Most packaged boilers are 3-pass, wet-back boilers as shown diagrammatically in Fig 13. The flue gases pass down the furnace tube to the combustion chamber at the rear, where they change direction to pass through the first set of smoke tubes to the front smoke box. Another change of direction puts them down the second set of smoke tubes to the gas outlet at the rear. This will connect with the flue, taking the gases to the chimney. The flue gases have passed three times through the water space in the shell, making this a 3-pass boiler. A small number of 4-pass boilers have been built. These have another pass of smoke tubes, bringing the flue gases to the front of the boiler before discharging them to the chimney. In Fig 13 it can be seen that the rear combustion chamber is completely surrounded by water, and this gives rise to the term wet-back, The packaged boiler has developed from the earlier designs of Economic boiler. There is a grey area where it is difficult to fully distinguish between packaged and skid-mounted Economic Oilers. Economic boilers can be 2- or 3-pass, wet- or dry-back. An example is in Fig 14. The flue gases pass twice through the shell to the gas outlet at the front smoke box, and the rear combustion chamber is outside the main shell containing the water. The rear combustion chamber is shown to be lined with refractory brick. The heat radiated from the refractory ensuresBOILER TYPES 51 1 Furnace (1st Gas Pass) 8 Safety Vane ‘2 Tubes (2nd Gas Pasa! ‘0 Main Steam Stop Valve ‘3 Tubes (3rd Gas Pasa) 10 Feed Check Valve 18 Feed Water Pump: 4 Combustion Chamber 11 Water Level Controls 18 Control Pane! 5 Front Smoke Box 12 Marways 47 Burner 6 Rear Outiet Box 13. Spare Connection (sisem) 18 Forced Oraught Fan 7 Wiatergauge Assembly 14 Spare Connection (water) 16 Fan inet Silencer Fig 12 Packaged boiler (courtasy Babcock Robey Ltd)52 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK THIRD PASS OF TUBES GAS QUTLET COMBUSTION CHAMBER FRONT SMOKE BOX SECOND PASS OF TUBES Fig 13 Three-pass, wet-back packaged boiler (courtesy Babcock Robey Ltd) that all the volatiles and any particles of carbon from the coal fire are completely burnt before they can be carried into the smoke tubes. The high temperatures could cause overheating, and possible failure, if combustion was allowed to take place in the smoke tubes. This function is what gave the rear combustion chamber its name. The refractory brick also has a second function, to protect its: supporting steelwork from high temperatures in this part of the uer, In wet-back boilers, the water takes heat away from the steel and protects it from the high temperatures, Refractory lining is therefore not needed as protection, nor is it needed to complete the combustion of fuel oil or gas and refractory is now not normally found in these boilers.BOILER TYPES 63 SAFETY VALVE petal STAY RODS Fig 14 Two-pass, dry-back economic boiler However, some coal fired wet-back boilers still retain refractory in the rear reversal chamber, so that it again becomes a true combustion chamber. Packaged boilers vary in output from about 300 kW (1 000 Ib/h) to 20 000kW (70 000 Ib/h). The larger boilers have twin furnaces. The physical size of coal fired boilers is bigger than oil or gas fired boilers of the same output. There are two reasons for this. Coal burns slowly, therefore a large quantity has to be in the furnace to provide the required rate of heat input. Secondly the stokers and grates are big pieces of equipment which need larger diameter furnace tubes than oil or gas burners. The maximum size of the skid mounted packaged boiler is limited by the problems of transportation from the manufacturer to site. The most common restrictions are road bridges; the boiler on its transporter can rarely avoid having to pass under a bridge. Another limiting factor is the diameter of the shell. For a given steam pressure, the thickness of the shell plate must be increased as the shell diameter gets bigger. There comes a point when54 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK increasing the plate thickness becomes uneconomical and can result in unacceptable technical problems. Packaged steam boilers are generally operated at pressures ranging from about 5 bar (70 psi) to 17 bar (250 psi). The reverse flame, or thimble boiler is a variation on the conventional design of shell boilers as shown in Fig 15. The combustion chamber is in the form of a thimble, and the burner fires down the centre. The flame doubles back on itself within the combustion chamber to come to the front of the boiler. Smoke tubes surround the thimble and pass the flue gases to the rear of the boiler and the chimney. It can be argued that this is a 3-pass boiler: a conventional Ist pass in the furnace tube, the 2nd pass being the reverse action of the flame in the furnace tube, and a 3rd pass through the smoke tubes. Purists would deny this. Reverse flame boilers are used to provide hot water and steam. The steam boilers normally have the smoke tubes above the furnace tube removed to enlarge the steam space. This type of boiler is available in outputs up to 3500 kW (12 500 Ib/h). “THIMBLE” FURNACE Fig 15 Reverse flame boiler (courtesy Babcock Robey Ltd)BOILER TYPES 65 There are still some of the old, Lancashire boilers in service. Most were designed for firing coal, but many have been converted to oil and even gas firing as fuel prices changed and automatic operation became fashionable. The shell of the Lancashire boiler incorporates two furnace tubes as shown in Fig 16. After the first pass through the furnace tubes the flue gases leave the boiler shell and enter the brickwork flues. Each furnace has its own bottom or sole flue, making the second pass and its own side flue making the third pass. Dampers in the side flues allow individual control of the combustion rate of the coal in the two furnaces. This enables the output of the boiler to be varied over a wide range to meet fluctuating loads. Outputs are usually of the order of 3 500 kW (12 500 Ib/h). The flues have large cross-sectional areas and heat transfer from the flue gases is poor, giving the boilers a low efficiency. On most Lancashire boilers the relatively hot flue gases leaving the side flues were diverted through an economiser to preheat the boiler feedwater. This improved the overall operating efficiency to an acceptable level. The Cornish boiler, which is very rare, is similar in principle to the Lancashire boiler, but it only has one furnace. Vertical Boilers The most common type of vertical shell boiler now produced is the direct fired gas water heater, which is not really within the SIDE FLUES BOTTOM FLUES Fig 16 Lancashire boilers56 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK scope of this Handbook. But it does illustrate the principle that vertical boilers are compact and take up a small floor area. Vertical steam boilers have relatively low outputs with the largest not exceeding 3 000 kW (10 500 Ib/h). The cross tube boiler is one of the smaller, simpler types. It has a vertical cylinder containing water, with a firebox at the bottom and a flue passing upwards through it to a chimney on top. Cross tubes of large diameter increase the surface through which heat from the hot gases is transmitted to the water, This type of boiler, due to its basic design is thermally inefficient and has almost disappeared from the industrial scene, although it is occasionally used for mobile cranes, The much more efficieni smoke tube boiler has a large number of small diameter tubes passing through the water space, thus increasing the metal surface through which heat is transferred to the water and effectively increasing the flue gas velocity. The tubes usually lie horizontally as shown in Fig 17. The metal in the furnace above the source of heat is dished, thus exposing a greater area to radiant heat. All these factors combine to give a relatively good, efficient boiler. The dished furnace was designed to absorb radiant heat from a glowing, incandescent coal fire. The radiated heat transfer from oil and gas flames is reduced, raising the temperature of the gases leaving the furnace. Retarders are often fitted in the smoke tubes of these boilers when they are converted to oil or gas firing. These increase the heat transfer rate in the fire tubes and restore the boiler to its original design efficiency. WATER TUBE BOILERS Water tube boilers are made up of relatively small diameter drums or headers, connected by water tubes which can be operated at high pressure, Convection currents circulate water from the top steam drum through downcommers in a comparatively cool part of the boiler to the bottom, water or mud drum. The risers in the hot part of the boiler promote circulation from the water drum back up to the steam drum.BOILER TYPES 57 CHIMNEY SMOKE TUBES Fig 17 Vertical smoke tube boller Steam bubbles form in the upper parts of the risers which further assists circulation through the boiler tubes. The steam is separated from the water in the steam drum and passes out of the boiler. The water is recirculated. The furnace and flue gas paths over the water tubes may be lined with refractory brick, or have water cooled walls. Water cooled walls are made up of tubes with longitudanal fins welded together to provide a continuous wall. Boiler water is circulated through the tubes, increasing heat transfer. Fig 18 shows a two-drum boiler with water walls, whilst Fig 19 illustrates a three-drum boiler with refractory brickwork. The outputs of water-tube boilers range from 8 500 kW (30 000 Ib/h) to power station boilers rated at 2000 MW (3 200 tonnes/h). Water tube boilers come in many configurations to accommodate this wide range of outputs and there are 2- 3- and 4-drum boilers of straight or bent tube design, plus other variations.58 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK PENDANT SUPERHEATER Two-drum water tube boiler with water cooled walls These boilers were common in the paper making and other industries which had big demands for electrical power and steam. Steam generated at high pressure and superheated would be fed to a turbine driving an alternator to generate electricity. Low pressure steam leaving the turbine would then be used for the process. Not all water tube boilers feed turbines, some are installed to produce process steam in the large quantities demanded in some industries. The smaller water tube boilers can be built at the manufacturers and delivered to site as one unit. Most, however, are built in sections and erected on site. A variation is the forced circulation boiler which is constructed to operate with a circulation rate through the tubes much higher than a conventional boiler. The forced circulation is achieved via a separate pump which, in some boilers circulates water at twenty times the rate of evaporation. A forced circulation boiler is shown diagrammatically in Fig 20. The coiled tube boiler or steam generator is to all intents a ‘once through’ water tube boiler as illustrated in Fig 21. These are much smaller boilers, usually not exceeding outputs of 2 000 kW (7 000BOILER TYPES 59 SATURATED STEAM DRUM SUPERHEATER ORUM ‘AR ATER ORUM SCREEN » WATER ORUM Fig 19 Three-drum water tube boiler with refractory walls Ib/h). It has a rapid steam-making capacity from cold and responds quickly to changing loads. Water is pumped through the coiled tube, which receives radiant and convected heat, and the firing rate is proportional to the load. There are no drums; the feedwater circulates through the coils, partially flashed into steam in a separator, and the remainder recirculated. The size and weight of the boiler are, therefore, considerably reduced. The combustion chamber is pressurised and heat is released at a higher rate than in a conventional boiler. A combination of forced flow rates on both the gas and water sides of the coiled tube provides high turbulence and velocities for efficient and rapid heat transfer. The fully automatic controls and proportioning system for fuel and air enable the unit to be operated with the minimum of supervision. The boiler is a packaged unit in the sense that it is mounted with its auxiliaries on a single base plate. High purity feedwater is essential. The coiled tube boiler is also used as a thermal fluid heater. The fluid is circulated through the boiler as if it were a conventional60 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK ECONOMISER SUPERHEATER EVAPORATOR STEAM AND WATER DRUM CONVECTION DISTRIBUTOR SECTION HEADER EVAPORATOR (RADIANT SECTION) Forced circulation boiler hot water boiler, except that the fluid can be heated up to a high temperature, typically 250°C (480°F), without being pressurised, When used in this way, one boiler would normally be dedicated to one item of process plant. SECTIONAL BOILERS The cast iron sectional boiler is used extensively in low pressure hot water central heating systems. The number of intermediate sections can be varied to make up a boiler of the required output. These boilers range in size from 30 kW (100 000 Btu/h) to 750 We ce 000 Btu/h). A typical cast iron sectional boiler is shown in Fig 22.BOILER TYPES TO FURNACE on SUPERHEATED FROM # DRY STEAM TO STEAM OUTLET INTERMEDIATE SUPERHEATER Fig 21 Steam generator 61 8B WET STEAM TO PRIMARY SEPARATOR ———> STEAM SEPARATOR TRAP WATER DISCHARGE (BLOWDOWN) A. ECONOMISER INLET B. FLUE GAS OUTLET C. COMBUSTION AIR INLET DO. ACCESS/RELIEF PORT E. INTERMEDIATE COIL F. FURNACE COIL G. ECONOMISER COIL H. SUPERHEATER COIL J. AIR CASING K. SOOT BLOWER L. CROSSOVER HEADER The hollow sections contain the water to be heated and the outer surfaces of the sections provide the heating surface, the majority of them surround the fire where the main heat transfer from the burning fuel to the water takes place. The hot gases then pass to the chimney by way of internal flues in the sections. These flues and the primary heating surface of the firebox must be kept clean by frequent brushing and scraping. Sectional boilers originally designed for hand-firing of coal or coke are still in use today, having been converted to oil firing and62 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK FLOW CONNECTION RETURN CONNECTION Fig 22 Cast iron sectional boiler then to gas firing. Those boilers still burning coal are usually fitted with an underfeed stoker. Steel sectional boilers are available, but whilst they are cheaper than cast iron, they are prone to corrosion and will not take the abuse that many central heating boilers suffer. MAGAZINE BOILER The boiler shown in Fig 23 consists of a rectangular vessel containing a number of vertical tubes. Each one is fitted with a spiral element which gives a swirling action to the hot gases passing through from the furnace and ensures quick heat transfer. Loose fly ash and soot deposits are removed from the elements by a shaker while the boiler is operating. There are two identical furnaces below the water vessel, each with an inclined grate. Fuel from the main storage hopper is gravity fed down a central passage, dividing to give an equal quantity to each furnace. Fuelbed thickness is controlled by a gate pre-set for the type of fuelBOILER TYPES 63 in use, and a regular quantity of fuel flows to the furnace over a water-cooled tuyere. Air is supplied from a fan in the base of the boiler. Most of it passes sideways into the fuelbed as primary air, though part is used to supply pre-heated secondary air over the fire. The amount of air supplied through the tuyere controls the combustion rate. The fires are cleaned by a ram which discharges ash and clinker over the rear of each grate into the ashpit. This type of boiler can also be used in the smaller central heating installations. BOILER AUXILLIARIES Steam turbines. are usually fed steam at superheated temperature, and to get to this higher temperature steam must be taken out of the steam and water drum and put through a set of tubes called a superheater. Superheaters are normally associated with water tube boilers and examples are shown in Figs 18 and 19. The superheater is located within the main body of the boiler and is at the same nominal pressure as the boiler. There is no water in the superheater and special precautions have to be taken when starting-up and shutting-down a boiler that has one fitted. These will be detailed in the instruction manual provided by the manufacturer. The temperature of the flue gases leaving a boiler operating at high steam pressures must be relatively high. An economiser can be fitted in the flue between the boiler and chimney to take some useful heat out of the gases. Feedwater is pumped through the economiser and raised in temperature before passing into the steam/water drum. The economiser is full of water which is at the same nominal pressure as the boiler, it is therefore classed as a pressure vessel and subject to the statutory requirements. The main precautions that have to be observed with an economiser are that the water should not be allowed to boil, and the temperature of the surfaces exposed to flue gases should not be below the acid dew point. Most economisers are made of cast iron to protect them from the effects of acid corrosion. However, the economiser is normally64 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK WATER ; HEADER iii} --7 REGULATOR _. TUYERES CLINKER BAR AIR RATE Fig 23 Magazine boiler bypassed on start-up to minimise the likelihood of acid formation when it is cold. Economisers were almost exclusively restricted to water-tube and Lancashire boilers until natural gas became available as a commercial fuel. There is only a trace of sulphur in natural gas, therefore economisers can be operated at relatively low temperatures without risk of damage. It is now economically viable to fit economisers to some shell boilers.BOILER TYPES 65 Natural gas has also made possible the condensing boiler. This is a low temperature hot water boiler fitted with a stainless steel heat exchanger in the flue, designed to condense the water vapour formed when burning natural gas. The return water is passed through this heat exchanger before going into the main boiler. Boilers of the size found in power stations are often fitted with air preheaters. This is another heat exchanger fitted in the flue between the economiser and the chimney. It is used to preheat the combustion air supply.CHAPTER 6 SOLID FUEL FIRING PRINCIPLES All methods of firing solid fuel in a boiler, whether by a mechanical stoker, or the now rare hand firing, follow one of two principles: a) underfeed stoking b) overfeed stoking Fig 24 shows the elements of the two processes, With overfeed combustion the incoming coal is heated by radiation from the ignited fuel bed, and by convection from the hot gases eminating from the fuel bed. These hot gases will contain little or no free oxygen, so the rapidly heated new fuel will not be burned completely. The volatile matter will tend to produce smoke unless secondary air is injected into the furnace. The rapid heating rather than combustion of the coke remaining, promotes caking of the coal. This is an advantage with coal of rank 900, to bind together small particles and prevent carry forward, but a distinct disadvantage for coals of rank 600 or less. The underfeed principle however, heats the new coal by radiation in the presence of air. The coal is heated less rapidly, but the released volatile matter combines with air and is less likely to produce smoke. This principle will burn all ranks of coal but is68 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK UNDERFEED PRINCIPLE OF COMBUSTION IGNITED FUEL IGNITION PLANE UNIGNITED FUEL AIR FLOW OVERFEED PRINCIPLE OF COMBUSTION UNIGNITED FUEL IGNITION PLANE IGNITED FUEL AIR FLOW Fig 24 Underfeed and overteed principles of combustion more suitable than the overfeed method for coals with strong caking properties, Before looking at the various forms of mechanical stoker, there are several other factors common to all of them to consider. FUEL CHARACTERISTICS For all types of stoker, except the fluidised bed system, the coal must contain a minimum of 6% ash. The ash forms a protective barrier between the incandescent fuel bed and the grate. Too low an ash content will result in overheating and damage to the grate. The ash should have a fusion temperature above | 150°C to minimise clinker formation as it melts. Coals with low melting point ash can be burned successfully by following the basic rules: a) use a thin fire bed b) avoid disturbing the fire bedSOLID FUEL FIRING 69 c) do not refire grit or riddlings Coals as fired should be slightly moist, especially with smalls. Completely dry coal ignites quickly and burns very rapidly which can damage the grate or stoker. Any addition of moisture to the coal should be done as close to the firing appliance as possible, otherwise difficulties in fuel handling may be experienced. COAL STORAGE AND HANDLING Freshly mined coal contains absorbed gases, such as methane (firedamp), which are given off over the first three months of storage. As these gases are evolved, heat is produced which in the case of large stock piles can lead to spontaneous combustion. Where coal is stored in stockpiles they should be no higher than 2m (6ft) and not more than 200 tonnes each. In many modern plants coal is stored in bunkers or silos which largely exclude air from the fuel, so spontaneous combustion is unlikely to take place. All methods of getting the coal from the delivery lorry to the boiler involves multiple handling, at each stage some of the coal is broken up into smaller pieces producing fines and dust. When wet, fines and dust will rapidly clog the coal delivery system to the boiler. Dry coal dust which is an unavoidable consequence of solid fuel firing, is easily ignited and in extreme cases can cause explosions. In summary, the rules are to avoid excessive handling of the fuel and keep the boilerhouse as clean as possible. ASH HANDLING Ash may be removed from the boiler by hand or by an automatic system. The ash and grit removed from a boiler is a mixture of carbon and various minerals, not all of which are beneficial to the boiler operator. A dust mask should always be worn for manual deashing associated with the transportation of dry material by air into a collection silo. With this form of ‘lean phase’ ash handling system, care must be taken to allow the ash to cool before it is sent70 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK to the silo, otherwise clinker formation may occur. Material conditioning employing a rotary valve and sprayed water system is very often installed at the outlet of the silo, to minimise . atmospheric pollution. FUEL BED THICKNESS The correct fuel bed thickness for a plant depends on: a) the size and kind of fuel b) how much ash it contains c) the type of combustion equipment d) the boiler load The optimum depth can only be gauged by experience. It is difficult to get good results with a firebed less than 75mm (3in) thick, because the primary air passing through the grate will tend to create blow-holes resulting in uneven combustion and too much excess air. Generally firebed thicknesses for coal are between 100mm (4in) and 150mm (6in). TYPES OF MECHANICAL STOKER Overfeed Drop Tube This principle evolved in Holland during the late 1950's as a mechanised combustion chamber external to the boiler. The design was developed to be integrated into horizontal shell boilers as shown in Fig 25. This system is widely used for burning graded coal, but with washed smalls, excessive carry-over will take place if the fines content of the coal is too high. Coal is conveyed to the top of the boiler by a lean phase pneumatic system then dropped through a tube connecting the outside of the boiler with the furnace onto the grate. The transport air forms part of the secondary air, the rest of which is supplied in an annulus around the drop tube by a forced draught fan which also supplies the primary air under the grate.SOLID FUEL FIRING 71 COAL FEEO INLET PATENTED GRIT RE-FIRING SYSTEM FITTED HERE OUT D00R Fig 25 Vekos boiler (courtesy of British Coal/College of Fuel Technology (London)) In some designs the grit carry over collected at the grit arrestor is returned to the front of the grate for refiring. Most versions of this stoking principle incorporate fixed grates requiring manual deashing. Development of continuous automatic systems is being undertaken. This: type of stoker needs little attention and deashing is required every 6 to 8 hours for a bituminous coal of agerage ash content. ! The system can be fully automatically controlled with the coal regulated by a variable speed screw from bunkerage and full damper control of the FD fan combustion air. Another advantage of this drop tube system is that solid wastes such as wood, can be burned provided it is of suitable size for the pneumatic conveying system.72 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK Chaingrate This stoker has no counterpart in hand firing and operates on the underfeed principle. The grate is an endless chain fed with fuel from an elevated hopper via a guillotine door. The chain carries the fuel under an ignition arch where it starts to burn, and ash and clinker are discharged over the back end into the ashpit as shown in Fig. 26. These stokers vary in detail and the manufacturer's instructions should be followed. They readily adapt to full automatic control and need little attention. In some cases, provision is made for mechanical ash and clinker removal. There are also ‘mini’ chaingrate stokers designed for use with sectional and central heating boilers and some small steam boilers. The guillotine is raised or lowered to vary the thickness of the fuel bed and the grate speed altered to suit the boiler load or the type of fuel in use. Some of the stokers are fitted with compartmented sections under the grate allowing the air supplied to be varied along its length, which keeps the fire even and ensures that ash and clinker are satisfactorily burned out on discharge. The air at the back of the grate can also be reduced to prevent the fuel burning out too soon and leaving the back end bare. These stokers usually work best under balanced draught conditions. They are fitted with a forced draught fan to raise the ‘Cool hopper Fieggoar raning door Agtractory fgnition wren ‘Stoker speed taguiator and slerver ‘Auto stoker ‘ond sally elute! Auto aan Sy extractor t watery cuter Fig 26 Chain grate stokerSOLID FUEL FIRING 73 pressure of air under the grate sufficiently for it to pass through against the resistance of the chain links and the fuel. Secondary air, damper-controlled, can be admitted over the fire through separate ducting and passes into the furnace through ports in the front of the furnace door or ignition arch; but in practice is often not required with this stoker. A wide variety of fuels can be burned, but the most suitable are smalls or small graded coal. Coke breeze can also be burned, but advice should be sought on this. Ash content should be not less than 8% to ensure that a sufficient thickness of ash rests on the chain links to prevent overheating. Fuels sometimes need moisture conditioning and should be just moist enough to ‘ball’ when ‘squeezed in the hand. It is usual to have a fuel bed about 100-130mm (4-5in) thick and level across the width of the grate at the guillotine. An uneven fuel bed can result if the guillotine door is out of alignment. Coal distribution over the grate will be affected if the fuel in the hopper is too low and the fire will run off the end of the grate if the hopper runs empty. Generally, the stoker should be operated with as little interference as possible, but with coking coals, it may be necessary to run the slice along the sides of the grate to prevent fuel sticking to the furnace tubes and causing an uneven fuel bed. The grate speed can be varied over wide limits up to approximately |2m/h (40ft/h) and should be controlled according to the boiler load, making sure that it is not so high that live fuel is dumped over the end of the grate into the ashpit. The burning rate varies from as low as 75 kg/m’h (1 51b/ft*h) to well over 170 kg/m7h (35lb/ft*h). A boiler fitted with a chaingrate stoker can be banked. The level in the fuel hopper should be allowed to fall during the 30 minutes beforehand, the guillotine door then being raised about 50mm (2 in) above normal, to empty the hopper on the grate, and the grate and forced draught fan stopped to leave a heavy bank of fuel just inside the door. The door is then lowered as far as possible and ps underneath sealed with fine ash. The flue dampers are left just sufficiently open to prevent emission of smoke from the boiler front. The ashpit is cleaned out and the doors closed. Care is essential to ensure that the grate links are not overheated. When the boiler is re-started, the bank of fuel is broken up and raked back to mix with the fresh fuel. The hopper is filled with74 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK fuel, the guillotine raised to the normal position, and the forced draught fan started. The grate is then started at lowest speed which is increased as the ignition arch heats up. The travelling grate is similar to the chaingrate stoker. It is used in the larger boilers and has separate driving chains to reduce the stress on the links of the grate. Coking This stoker imitates the coking method of hand firing. There are several different types, but in each one the fuel is fed from an overhead hopper to the front of a reciprocating piston or ram. In the type illustrated in Fig 27, the ram pushes the fuel on to a coking plate, where it ignites and finally is moved towards the ash discharge end by the reciprocating action of the firebars. The grate of a coking stoker is formed of cast iron or heat resisting steel firebars which are driven backwards and forwards by a system of cams. First, all the firebars move forward, taking the fuel bed with them. Second, individual or groups of bars return to their original position, leaving the fuel bed forward. Volatile matter released early in the travel of the fresh fuel is ignited and burned without smoke as it passes over the incandescent fuel at the back of the grate. The length and frequency of the ram stroke can be altered to vary the amount of fuel fed to the furnace. Ashes are removed by use of a long shovel, by first opening the hinged sealing door at the rear of the grate. It is necessary to keep this door in good repair to reduce air leakage. A wide range of coal, from smalls to singles, can be used on these stokers. The ash content of the coal can be as high as 12%, but unless special firebars are used, should not be less than 6% or overheating and burning out of the bars will occur. Coals with pronounced caking tendencies are not suitable for a coking stoker, although weakly-caking coals tend to reduce riddling losses. The slice and poker should be used sparingly. The main advantages of a coking stoker are: a) it can burn a wide range of coals, except those with pronounced caking qualities; b) it needs little attention apart from infrequent slicing of the fuelbed;SOLID FUEL FIRING 75 Bottom cating plate Pate holes SECTIONAL ELEVATION PLAN OM GRATE Ram type coking stoker c) if care is taken with the air supply and the fuel bed left undisturbed, smoke is unlikely; d) there is little risk of grit emission, even when the coal contains a large amount of fines. The fire should be 300 to 350mm (12 to 14in) thick at the front of the grate, tapering off towards the back, with the whole grate covered. In older types of high ram stoker, with a high narrow ram, there is a tendency for partially burned coal to pile up in the middle of the grate leaving the sides thinly covered. This can be avoided by fitting a V-shaped projection in the centre of the top coking plate so that the coal is thrust towards the sides. The trouble is not likely to occur with wide and low rams, as fitted to modern stokers. An over-thin fire which allows too much air to pass through the bed can be cured by increasing the coal feed or reducing the draught. If the fuel bed is too thick at the back, partly burned coal can be carried into the ashpit. This can be prevented by reducing he (coal feed or increasing the draught according to the load on the oiler, Coking stokers are usually designed for a maximum burning rate of 170kg/m7h (35 Ib/ft’h) but rates of 245kp/m7h (50 Tbifth) or more have been obtained with shortened grates when using76 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK certain specific types of coal. Control is difficult if the burning rate is less than 58kg/m7h (12 1b/ft’h). If the rate is consistently low, the stoker manufacturer should be asked to replace the bars so that the grate area can be reduced and the burning rate increased. If the load is reduced for a short time, or for only part of each day, an air deflector plate can be fitted under the grate. This is less effective than shortening the grate but better practice than using the full grate on reduced load, Boilers with coking stokers usually have induced draught fans, but the thick fuel bed and small area of air passages through the grate make draught requirements high. The amount of draught over the fire will vary with the burning rate, but the following table is a general guide. Table 13 Relationship between burning rate and draught Burning Rate per hour Draught equi Ibyté mbar in.wg 100 20 0.6 0.25 125 25 1.0 0.4 150 30 1.3 05 170 35 1.7 0.7 195 40 3.0 1.2 The firebars can become red hot if there is insufficient draught or if clinker prevents the air from passing through and cooling them. The coking stoker, with its thick fire, is slow to respond to changes in steam demand and steam users should give the operator advance notice if the load is likely to be varied greatly. When necessary, the fire should be sliced by passing the poker through it at grate level without unduly disturbing the fuelbed. Some coking stokers are provided with ports for this purpose. Fluidised Bed This is a relatively new process for burning solid fuel, or for that matter any other kind of fuel. The principle is illustrated in Fig 28. A bed of refractory, sand-like material, is supported on a perforated diffuser plate through which air from a fan is passed at a high enough velocity to cause the bed to lift and ‘boil’. The bed isSOLID FUEL FIRING 1” initially raised in temperature by burning an auxilliary fuel, usually oil or gas, until the bed reaches 650°C. Coal of almost any size or quality is now supplied, either to the top of the bed or injected into it where it mixes with the bed material and burns almost completely, The combustion temperature is less than 950°C which avoids problems relating to ash fusion and clinker formation. The bed material consisting mainly of silica and zirconia sands, can be blended with such substances as limestone and dolomite to react with and retain most of the sulphur in the fuel, The bed materials, in constantly rubbing against each other, are gradually reduced in size until they and the fine particles of fuel and ash are carried-over through the flue passes. A separation system is needed to return the unburned fuel to the bed. Sprinkler or Spreader This is one of the original stokers which imitated the overfeed hand firing principle. The coal is thrown through the secondary air onto the grate and its tendency to cause grit and smoke emission led to a decline in popularity. Recently, the principle has been re- established by one of the major oil burner manufacturers to provide a multifuel burning system. Fig 29 shows schematically the plant with the coal being metered by a screw from the bunker LOW AIR VELOCITY HIGH AIR VELOCITY Fig 28 Principle of fluidised bad combustion78 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK or silo, and blown into the boiler where a deflector blade spreads the fuel over the grate area. The system is designed to be fitted into existing oil or gas fired boilers. Careful attention must be given to the distribution of combustion air, both through the grate and over the fire, to control smoke emission. The grate area is small and a thin bed is used to give a high burning rate, This system is suitable for coal ranks 500-900. Underfeed or Retort As with the chaingrate stoker, the retort stoker has no counterpart in handfiring. Its main use was for vertical shell boilers and cast iron sectional heating boilers, and it is in this latter area that it is making a comeback. The retort system can be made almost as automatic as oil or gas firing. This type of underfeed stoker is illustrated in Fig 30. Fuel is delivered from a hopper or outside bunker by a screw conveyor to a retort. As the fuel passes up through the retort, combustion air is supplied under pressure to jets or tuyeres placed FRONT AND REAR SECONDARY AIR NOZZLES FROM COAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM GRIT RECYCLE INJECTION Fig 29 Fixed grate sprinkler stoker (courtesy Saacke Ltd)SOLID FUEL FIRING 79 at the top or uppersides of the retort. Volatile matter from the fresh coal rises through the incandescent coal on the top of the retort, reaching ignition temperature as it meets the air supply, thus ensuring smoke free operation. The coal at the heart of the retort burns slowly in an atmosphere depleted of air. This enhances any coking properties of the coal and may produce coke ‘trees’ in the middle of the fuel bed. Coals which are non-caking or weakly caking, i.e. ranks 700-900, should only be used. Most installations require manual deashing, but recent designs have developed a screw ash removal system. Retort stokers for central heating boilers are often fitted with a ‘kindling’ clock control, that brings on the coal feed and forced draught fan for a short period every hour. This keeps the fire alight in the retort ready for full operation under clock control. MAINTENANCE All forms of mechanical stokers work under the most stringent conditions of wear from the fuel and ash, and extreme heat from FORCED DRAUGHT FAN, STOKER MOTOR AND GEARBOX BOILER SKIRT OR PLINTH ELEVATION Fig 30 Underfeed stoker (courtesy British Coal/College of Fuel Technology (London)) .80 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK the fire. To give satisfactory service, they must be thoroughly cleaned at regular intervals and the moving parts kept as free as possible from coal or ash dust. Preventative maintenance is considerably more effective than breakdown maintenance and cheaper in the long run. The plant manufacturer recommends certain types of oil and grease and a lubricating schedule. These should be strictly adhered to and the lubricants properly sealed for storage to prevent contamination by grit or dust. Any adjustments necessary, such as tensioning chaingrates, should not be delayed, and defective parts should be replaced as soon as possible. AUTOMATIC CONTROLS Most types of stoker are capable of incorporating some degree of automatic combustion and demand control, i.e. fuel/air ratio once set for a given fuel can be maintained, and fuel feed adjusted to suit boiler demand. It must be remembered that coal fired plant cannot react as quickly to load changes as oil or gas fired plant, and with the exception of the retort stoker have limited turndown ratio (the maximum firing rate to the minimum firing rate). If a boiler with a fixed or moving grate is shut down, by switching off the forced and/or induced draught fans for any length or time, the coal left on the grate is likely to form clinker which must be broken up or removed before the boiler refires. Damage to grates, refractories and ash pit seals may occur. To use such a boiler for a single shift application would require either the drawing of the fire (complete removal) or the banking of a fire during the off period. Banking means having a small fire, usually at the front of the grate, which is allowed to burn slowy, just sufficient to offset the heat losses from the boiler. Assuming the boiler insulation is in good order and dampers are provided to restrict the flow of cooling air through the boiler, little temperature or pressure should be lost through drawing the fire.CHAPTER 7 PULVERISED FUEL FIRING The firing of Pulverised Fuel (PF) is treated separately from general solid fuel firing, as it is more akin to oil firing. A good grade of PF should have particles of not greater than 0.13mm (0.005in) and between 75% and 85% should pass through a 200 BS sieve. The finely ground fuel is burned at a nozzle or jet. Pulverised fuel is used mainly in power generating stations or cement kilns, but rarely used in small steam raising plants due to the problems associated with containing the flame within the fire tube length, but more particularly due to the large capital requirement on plant to remove the fine grit and dust particles from flue gases and the cost of the pulverising equipment. It has several advantages: a) cheaper and lower grade fuels can be burned as PF; b) the burners readily respond to load changes; c) banking losses are practically eliminated; d) automatic control can be used; e) the position of the flame and therefore, the hot or high temperature zone in the furnace, can be altered; f) very high air pre-heat temperatures can be used; g) burning rates are higher than for conventional grates. A boiler using PF can produce over 450 tonnes/h of steam and the largest steam-raising units are fired with this fuel. There are however, some disadvantages. The capital cost of pulverising plant is considerable and the plant occupies a lot of ground space.PULVERISED FUEL FIRING 83 Pulverised fuel can be purchased for installations without pulverising plant. It is delivered into a storage hopper or bunker and thereafter handled in the manner already described. In a multiple installation of boilers and, or burners, a ring main system can be used to distribute the PF from the hopper. The fuel is airborne in the ring main and any unburned surplus is separated out in cyclones at the hopper. PULVERISED FUEL BURNERS A PF burner should give a rapid and intimate mixing of the fuel with the combustion air and must produce a flame shape suitable for the furnace. A ‘turbulent’ flow burner produces a short flame and a ‘parallel’ flow burner a longer one. RETURN AIR CYCLONE > _| COLLECTOR NZ BURNERS SECONDARY AIR FAN AIR-SWEPT FAN PRIMARY PF MILL AIR AND FUEL TRANSPORT FAN Fig 31 Pulverised fuel system84 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK Since the fuel is transported in air, some combustion air is delivered into the burner with the PF, secondary air entering the furnace through an air register surrounding the burner similar to that used with liquid fuel burners. If a short intense flame is needed from a turbulent flow burner, secondary air is admitted round the jet through: which the primary air and the fuel are passed, the two streams meeting at right angles with a high degree of turbulence and quick and effective mixing. Tertiary air is admitted through the burner surround or register. In parallel flow burners, primary air and PF are admitted together through a central orifice and secondary air flows through a concentric outer channel, usually provided with swirl-inducing fins to ensure that the two streams mix rapidly (Fig 32). In some large installations, parallel flow burners are mounted together in batteries, possibly on trunnions, so that flame direction can be altered and the high temperature zones inside the furnace controlled. A modification of this principle allows the air and fuel to discharge from the burner in practically unmixed streams, making it possible to control the rate of ignition and combustion and place the flame at practically any position within the furnace. The velocity of the.flame, or the rate of flame propagation, varies with the volatile content of the coal and the value of the air/coal ratio. The rate of flame propagation increases as the ash content of the fuel is reduced and as the ratio between volatile matter and ash increases. A bituminous coal with a volatile content of 30% and only 5% of ash can have a flame speed of 14 m/s (45ft/s) whilst a fuel with only 15% volatile matter and 5% ash will have a flame speed of approximately 4.3m/s (14ft/s). The flame speed rises to a maximum as the air, coal ratio increases and then begins to fall with high excess air intakes. The velocity of flame propagation of the air/fuel mixture in the burner is also important. The burner will backfire if the flame speed for the mixture is greater than the speed at which the mixture passes through the burner. If the flame speed is much less, the flame will lift off from the burner and ignition may be lost. The rate of flame propagation also affects the ease with which a PF burner can be lit. Where the correct mixture for normal running provides a fast rate of flame propagation, provision is made in the burner for some of the carrying air from the air/fuel stream to be extracted for a short period during ‘light-up’.PULVERISED FUEL FIRING 85 REFACTORY BRICK TERTIARY AIR PORT SECONDARY AIR SUPPLY PULVERISED FUEL AND PRIMARY AIR SUPPLY Fig 32 Parallel flow pulverised fuel burner Pre-heated primary and secondary air are useful when burning PF, but primary air should not be pre-heated when pulverised pitch is used. When a bituminous coal is burned, care must be taken that the primary air temperature is not so high that the volatiles begin to distil off before the coal passes through the burner tip. Temperatures of up to 370°C (700°F) are possible, however, when firing semi-anthracites and anthracites. ASH HANDLING As the fuels used for pulverising generally have high ash contents, mechanical methods of ash removal are usually needed and PF furnaces vary in type according to the way this is done. When ash forms and solidifies inside the furnace, it is known as a dry bottom furnace. In a slag type furnace, the ash is deliberately kept above fusion temperature and tapped from the furnace as slag.86 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK As PF burns in suspension in the air streams, not all the ash is deposited inside the furnace. Some escapes through other passages in the boiler and eventually reaches the chimney top. For this reason, it is illegal to operate a PF furnace without a grit arrestor. Pulverised fuel used in shell-type boilers burns in the furnace tube and ash is deposited further along the tube, Steam blowers are generally used to blow the ash forward into the flues where it can be collected. There are very few, if any, shell boilers now fired on PF,UB) [10 JOR ee 61g AldHILVI 3A1VA L3LNO AHSLL-H0 ond HLM yaL¥aH 3A1VA NIVUO NOISUSHHI TO 3NI1 450-MVUO 10 41d0d TWAVYOHLIM 4N3H313 Y3LV3H ANIOd ONITHS 3nd ONIVWS SYM 3ATWA 3uld WALSdiO Od NOISIAOUd HIM BOLVIION! LYOTS adid LN3A’ ¥Y3A03 JTOHNVHLIQUID FUEL FIRING 69 holding 24 hours supply (day usage tanks) which are heated and are for oil/water separation. The heavier grades of fuel oil have to be heated before they can be pumped from the storage tank to the boiler house. The storage temperatures for the various grades are given in Chapter 1. Heating is usually by steam coil or electricity, heating the required flow by means of an outflow heater and in the case of Class G and H with bulk heating of the tank contents. The pipework carrying the heated heavier grades of fuel oil from storage should be insulated and requires electrical or steam trace heating inside the insulation to prevent the oil cooling and becoming too thick to pump. Filtering of oil is of the utmost importance to remove foreign matter. Filter units should be cleaned on a regular schedule before they become clogged. All foreign matter will collect at this point including any water still in the oil and any waxes. In the extreme weather conditions of continuing sub-zero temperatures, waxes will form in Class D oil which will block the filters. Low temperature electric tracer heating of the filter units solves this problem. Whilst it is not customary to provide a source of heat in storage tanks or around mains containing gas oil, it has been known for flow to be impeded under extreme conditions of cold or exposure, and in these circumstances a facility for the application of moderate heat might be considered desirable. Safety in the storage of fuel oils is not a critical problem from the explosion hazard point of view. Storage temperatures are generally too low to give off enough vapour to form an explosive mixture with air and are well below the flash point of the fuels. ‘Wherever heaters are installed in tanks, care should be taken to make sure that thermostatic controls are correctly set and functioning and that tanks are kept filled. The large vapour space over a nearly empty tank will give a much more violent explosion than a nearly full tank. In multi-tank installations, each tank fill point should be clearly numbered together with its capacity and the grade of oil it contains. Considerable damage can be done by trying to burn the wrong grade of oil in a boiler.90 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK FUEL OIL SYSTEMS Gravity Feed This system can be used when only one or two burners are involved. The oil is delivered into an overhead tank from a tanker or by a transfer pump from storage. A pipe conveys the oil from fre tank to the burner and the oil must be thin enough to flow reely. Circulation Ring Main at Atomising Temperature Oil from the storage tank passes via the outflow heater to the pumps and final heaters, where the temperature is increased to ensure the correct atomising temperature at the burner. See Table 2 in Chapter 1. The heated oil is then circulated through a main from which tappings are taken to each of the burners. Surplus oil is returned to the inlet of the final pre-heaters. The pressure in the ring main depends on the type of burner and is controlled by a spring-loaded relief valve in the return loop. See Fig 34, Circulating Ring Main at Storage Temperature Oil is pumped to the ring main and supplied to the burners through individual final heaters. Except when gas oil is used, the main should be fitted with suitable electrical or steam tracing and lagged. ATOMISATION Fuel oil in bulk will not burn readily even when raised to its ignition temperature. Combustion can only take place where the air can get at the oil, which is on the surface. To burn oil quickly in a controlled way the surface area of oil must be in contact with turbulent air. The oil is atomised, being broken down into tiny droplets 20 to 40 microns in diameter, a micron being | millionth of a metre. Droplets which are too big will pass out of the flame before they burn completely and droplets that are too small may pass through the flame so quickly that they are not burned at all.LIQUID FUEL FIRING 93 changed manually at the discretion of the operator or the engineer in charge. This is necessary because of the limited ‘turn-down’ possible with pressure jets. The range of load with a single tip being of the order of 2:1. Fully automatic pressure jet burners were developed for packaged boilers. The compact pressure jet arrangement consists of a motor driven fan, providing combustion air and also geared to or connected to an oil pump. Within the same general external sheet metal casing are housed transformer ignition electrodes and a sequence controller for the ignition and shut down of the burner. All units are prewired, easy to install and being completely automatic require very little attention. Such burners are available as on/off, high/low/off or fully modulating units and these terms apply to the control system rather than to the principle of the burner design as such, These systems are discussed in Chapter 10, The straightforward pressure jet burners are associated with an air register and forced or induced draught, or a balanced draught system can be incorporated. The function of the air register is to control the quantity of secondary air to match the input, and distribute the blown, swirled air evenly around the burner head. BURNER BODY SWIRL . \CAaP PLATE CHAMBER Fig 35 Pressure jet burner and nozzle94 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK Spill Jet Burners Conventional pressure jet systems have a limitation of a low turn-down ratio, and the spill jet system enables turn-down ratios of 4:1 to be achieved; the burner can operate down to a quarter of full load, In this system, oil is pumped to the atomiser at constant pressure and at a flow rate matched to the maximum output requirement of the boiler. However, changes of oil output are achieved by altering the amount of oil returned to the suction side of an oil pump. Even with a wide turn-down range, the degree of atomisation is quite constant, although perhaps somewhat coarser than with the standard pressure jet burners. Variations in flame width may occur, resulting in difficulties when applied to certain types of boilers. Steam or Air Assisted Pressure Jet Atomisers Oil is supplied to a pressure jet nozzle and is delivered as a spray to a mixing nozzle where air or steam is admitted through a series of orifices, as an additional means of securing fine atomisation, The steam or air quantity used is less than 1.0% of the steam generated, or less than 1.0% of the combustion air. A turndown ratio of 6:1 is possible and the system enhances the admixture of combustion air due to its high energy. In general, combustion is cleaner and less stack solids are produced. High Pressure Air or Steam Burner (Blast Atomisers) Oil is supplied at a controlled rate to a nozzle, where air or steam at pressures over 1 bar (15 psi) meet the fuel at an angle and cause atomisation. Only a small proportion of the total air is provided via the burner as primary atomising air, the rest being supplied as secondary air around the burner. In the steam burner all the air is supplied around the burner, similar to the method of secondary air admission.LIQUID FUEL FIRING 95 REGULATOR AIR SWIRL CHAMBER FUEL TUBE Fig 36 Low Pressure alr burner PRIMARY AIR FAN ROTARY CUP 14800 - 5600 APH) Fie ae ™ SECONDARY A —————me. FUEL SUPPLY AIR SUPPLY FROM FORCED DRAUGHT FAN Sectional view of rotary cup burner96 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK The Medium Pressure Air Burner This uses the same principle as the high pressure system but the air pressure applied ranges from 70 mbar to | bar (1 to 15 psi). Low Pressure Air Burner This uses the same principle as the foregoing but the air pressure is supplied from a fan at between 25 and 100 mbar (10 to 40in w.g.). From 25 to 100% of the air passes through the burner. (See Fig 36). In most applications the burners are associated with air registers. Rotary Cup Burners Oil is fed onto the inner surface of a rapidly rotating cone, or cup, where it is finally thrown from its lip. and its breakdown assisted by an air blast fed around the periphery of the cup. Both the rotation of the cup and the fan is achieved by one motor and all are housed together with the essential ignition and fuel/air ratio controls in one external casing. This gives a packaged assembly in the same way as for fully automatic pressure jet burners. Secondary air can be supplied either by means of an induced or forced draught fan. In modern burners all the air is supplied by a forced draught fan. A good flame profile is achieved and the burners are relatively insensitive to changes in viscosity of oil when a metering pump is used. The burners tend to be noisy. Rotary cup designs are available as fully automatic, semi- automatic or hand controlled units and various principles of automatic control are available. (See Fig 37). There are advantages and disadvantages with all these burners, The pressure jet is simple, robust, cheap to buy and with a wide range of sizes and spray patterns to suit any furnace, On the debit side, it needs the highest oil preheat temperature for atomisation, tequires regular cleaning and maintenance, and its knife edge orifice is easily damaged resulting in poor atomisation and flame shape. Air and steam blast atomisers provide turndown ratios of 4:1 or better, require lower oil preheat, are less prone to damage, and flame shape can be easily adapted to suit any furnace. Capital and running cost are obviously higher and the air or steam used toLIQUID FUEL FIRING 7 atomise must be at a stable pressure to keep the droplets the correct size. Steam jet burners have a disadvantage in that they cannot be used on a boiler until steam is available. Usually Class D oil and pressure jets are used to raise steam before the heavy oil burners are fired. Rotary cup burners are the most expensive to buy and maintain, but require the lowest oil preheat, have a good turndown ratio and are especially good for atomising heavier grades of fuel oil. BURNER MAINTENANCE Burners can easily be damaged during cleaning, but they must be cleaned at frequent intervals to remove small amounts of carbon or gum which form and may prevent correct atomisation. An oil burner withdrawn for cleaning must be stripped down according to the manufacturer's instructions and soaked in diesel oils or paraffin. When the solids have softened, the burner parts should be cleaned with a soft rag free from anything that can scratch the metal. The remaining deposits can then be removed with a very soft metal or wood scraper, anything hard will undoubtedly damage the surfaces. Some of the burner manufacturers provide special ‘dollies’ of soft metal for cleaning out the small jets. These are of the correct size and shape for the plant concerned and no effort should be made to force through a wrongly sized dolly or serious damage will result, If any part of a burner becomes damaged or worn, or an orifice becomes deformed, a replacement should be obtained. CARBON DEPOSIT Carbon is sometimes found inside the furnace on the sides of the furnace tubes and the refractory quarl for the following reasons: a) The air supply is wrong or not properly directed. b) The burner needs adjustment or modification. c) Atomisation is imperfect because of damage to the nozzle or quarl.98 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK The location of the deposit may be a guide to the cause. If it forms on only one side of the furnace tube, the burner is probably off-centre and needs realignment, or the burner jet orifice may be damaged. If a rotary cup is not centrally situated in relation to the primary air annulus surrounding the lip, the flame can be deflected towards one side or the other of the furnace tube. Soot or smoke can form if atomisation is poor, combustion slow, or the flame is chilled by cold air or by impinging on a cold surface.CHAPTER 9 GASEOUS FUEL FIRING In this chapter only natural gas and commercial propane and butane (LPG) will be discussed, but many of the observations and principles contained apply to other fuel gases that may be used. DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING Natural gas is delivered by pipeline under the control of British Gas. There is no on-site storage, and handling is governed by law—'The Gas Safety (Installations and Use) Regulations’. It is outside the scope of this Handbook to go through all the regulations in detail, but they cover all aspects of the specification of gas installations, soundness testing required before connection to the mains supply, and purging procedures to be carried out before alteration work can be undertaken. Natural gas is about half the density of air, so when it escapes it will readily disperse throughout a building. If the leak is isolated and no source of ignition is available, the potential explosive hazard will clear itself due to natural ventilation. To this end all gas fired boiler houses must have ventilation at high and low level and an external gas shut-off valve. LPG will be stored at the site either as a cylinder for pilot gas ignition of oil or dual fuel burners, or bulk installations. The gas is stored at pressure in liquid form. If the gas escapes it is much heavier than air so will collect at low level, in drains, pipe trenches,100 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK cellars etc. It will not disperse by natural ventilation as will natural gas. Again, this Handbook cannot cover in detail all the Tecommendations for a safe LPG installation. The LPG Manufacturers Association produce a series of booklets covering most aspects of LPG storage and use. With LPG cylinders used for pilot gas ignition, some simple common sense rules can be applied: a) site the cylinder outside the boilerhouse with an isolating valve b) do not take gas pipes through pipe trenches c) store the minimum number of cylinders protect cylinders from flooding, tampering, extremes of temperature, and corrosive chemicals such as water treatment products. COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS Gases need to be mixed with combustion air before they can burn and the air/gas mixture has a characteristic flame speed between the upper and lower limit of flammability. This is the speed at which the flame moves along a tube containing the mixture when the waste gases of combustion escape to atmosphere, Flame speeds depend on the air/gas ratio and vary from one gas to another. There are also upper and lower limits to the air/gas ratio outside which a flame cannot be propagated and in many burners air/fuel ratios are automatically adjusted throughout the range of the burner output. These limits are shown in Table 14. Table 14 Flame Speed and Propagation for Gases f Gas Fi. tion Fla (% gas in air) Natural Gas Butane ; Commercial Propane 2.4-9.5 0. a 1 ata ~ P os noGASEOUS FUEL FIRING 101 The flame speed of the air/gas mixture also determines the stability of the flame at the burner tip. If too high, the gas may light back into the burner, if too low, the flame will lift off the burner tip and ignition may be lost. The tendency for the flame to lift off is greater for natural gas than LPG. It is therefore necessary to modify or change the burner completely when converting from one gaseous fuel to another. Most large scale industrial gas burners are designed to effect flame retention at the burner ports, ensuring a stable flame without lift-off. All designs produce a local reduction in pressure near the burner ports which ‘suck’ the flame back for flame stability. TYPES OF GAS BURNERS Low Pressure burners operate over the range 2.5-10 mbar (1-4 in w.g.) gas supply pressure, whilst high pressure burners operate over ranges 12-175 mbar (5-70 in w.g.). The low pressure burners, usually of the multi-jet type are used for low heat input, the positioning of the jets matching the size and shape of the combustion chamber of the boiler to which they are fitted. Combustion air is either naturally or fan induced and the systems are sometimes known as ‘free flame’ burner units. Fig 38 shows a typical natural draught injector type. HIGH PRESSURE BURNERS These are used for larger heat inputs, nominally above IMW (3 x 10°Btu/h), and are further classified according to the arrangement for mixing gas and combustion air. The following are some examples of high pressure burners. Gas Ring Type The air is controlled by an adjustable register, and this alters the quantity, velocity and direction of flow, and exercises a similar function to air registers used with pressure jet type oil burners. The gas supply, from a ring, is positioned between the register and the102 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK ADJUSTABLE SLIDE GAS ORIFICE CONNECTION TO venturi = BURNER GAS/AIR MIXTURE NEEDLE VALVE Fig 33 Atmospheric injector burner furnace wall surrounding the burner opening. Gas is directed from the ring across the air stream towards the burner opening, the mixture of gas and air entering the furnace through a throat or guard. The system can readily be adapted for dual fuel firing, although it necessitates the withdrawal of the oil burner when firing with gas. It can usually be seen on the older Economic, Lancashire and Water Tube Boilers. Centre-diffusion tube burners are also used. The gas is supplied to the centre of the burner and the gas burner unit is sometimes made large enough to contain concentrically a mechanical atomising liquid fuel jet which is also again retracted when firing gas only. Air registers and a diffuser are provided to ensure the rapid mixing of gas and air, thus giving good and rapid ignition with a minimum of excess air. Turbine gas burners driven by the pressure energy of the gas supply are also available and are similar to the rotary or spinning cup oil burners in terms of maintenance of fuel/air ratio at various fuel input. Again such burners can be made available for dual fuel burners. Some shell boilers are fired by low pressure blast burners, the gas being supplied at pressure between 5 mbar and 20 mbar, (2 and 8104 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK QUARL GAS INLET FLAME DETECTION Fig 39 Dual fuel burner pulverised fuel is directed from the corners of the boiler across a small circle at the furnace centre, whilst a forced air supply is directed across the gas nozzles. GAS CIRCUIT COMPONENTS The potential for hazard with burning gases requires safety equipment to protect plant and personnel. Burners are designed to operate at specified gas pressures which must remain stable. British Standards state that an industrial gas burner of 60kW (205 000 Btu/h) and above should be capable of safely operating at 50% over, and under, design pressure. In order to stabilise the pressure a governor is installed. Over and under pressure sensors may be installed to cut off the gas supply should it go out of the preset limits.GASEOUS FUEL FIRING 105 Burners of 60kW and above must have two safety shut-off valves (SSOV) installed to cut off the gas supply when the burner is not firing. The statutory requirements are shown in Table 15. Table 15 Requirements for Safety Shut Off Valves Burner Output SSOV 60- 600kW 1 class Gre +1 class Two 600-1000kW 2 class One 1000-2000kW 2 class One with Chack above 2000 kw 2 class One with Proving The check required in the range 1-2 MW is to show the valves are in the closed positions and usually consists of microswitches. The proving required above 2 MW is to verify that the SSOV’s are not only closed but are also gas tight. This can either be carried out using gas line pressure or an inert gas, or by vacuum testing. The check or proving must be carried out before a burner may be fired. Fig 40 shows the components of a 2 MW gas ‘train’. In this case the start or pilot gas is in parallel so comes under the same safety requirements as the main burner. BURNER MAINTENANCE Just because gas is a clean fuel does not mean that gas burners do not need maintenance. They require cleaning to a lesser degree, HIGH AND LOW PRESSURE PROVING SWITCHES tx<}-— px} SSOV MOD. VALVE IV RESTAICTOR co GavERNOR oe aurea issov) Fig 40 Components in a 2 MW gas train106 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK but are as vulnerable as oil burners to damage due to careless handling, resulting in flame distortion. The possibility of burner damage leading to incomplete combustion producing toxic carbon monoxide is always present.CHAPTER 10 AUTOMATIC CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTS AUTOMATIC CONTROL Automatic controls are found in all modern boiler houses. They control the plant so that it can safely meet variations in the load without an operator having to make adjustments. These controls are now so sophisticated that many gas, oil and even coal fired boiler houses are only partially supervised. This reduced level of supervision puts an added responsibility on the boiler operator to rigourously adhere to all the safety procedures laid down for his plant. Maintenance, adjustment and installation of automatic control is a specialised field, the principles involved ranging from the very simple to the extremely complex. Whatever the system, the automatic device starts by measuring the variable to be controlled and comparing it with a set standard of temperatures, pressure, water level, steam or water flow, or draught and often combinations of these parameters. The difference between the measured and set point initiates corrective action until the two points are brought together. At this stage, when there is no difference between them, the automatic device falls into neutral. To give a simple example, when water ina108 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK tank is controlled by a ball valve, the floating ball measures the level and keeps the valve open until the water in the tank reaches the required point. Automatic systems must be maintained and adjusted by a skilled technician. The operator should only be required to check, by reference to the instruction book, that the system is in accurate working order and report any defects to the responsible engineer. Logging of data is just as essential in the efficient operation of automatically controlled boilers as it is for manually operated boilers. Uncharacteristic deviations from the norm could give an indication that the control system is not functioning properly. Total reliance on the automatic control system may breed an attitude of indifference towards the plant and signs of possible danger ignored, It is still important to carry out visual checks of such things as water level in the gauge glass and flame conditions each time you enter the boiler house. Automatic control in relation to boilers of all types serves three purposes:— a) a safety function b) a combustion efficiency function c) labour saving function SAFETY FUNCTION Before a burner is started the first essential is to make sure it is safe to initiate ignition. To illustrate automatic control of an oil or gas burner Fig 41 shows a sequence diagram the steps of which mean: : 1. Control temperature or pressure stat ON —load demand 2. Safety interlock checks: Hot water pressurisation —correct Water level —correct Micro switches on burner mounting and access doors —closed Boiler house ventilation fan —operating Others as fitted 3. Fuel Safety Checks:AUTOMATIC CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTS 109 es NOS YS Fig 41 Diagram of burner control sequence Oil —Fire valve —open —Spillage sump switch —open Gas —Safety shut valve check Oil —Temperature check Gas —Pressure check Air Flow switch in flue—check showing no flow Set dampers and air registers to pre-purge positions Start Combustion Air Fan—Check air flow switch Pre-Purge: Oil —15 seconds at full combustion air flow Gas —30 seconds at full combustion air flow Set fuel and air controls to start up—low ire Flame gimulation check: Oil —Photo electric cell : Gas —Ultra violet cell Jprove operating Spark ignition—ON—Pilot or Start gas Spark ignitor—OFF110 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK 13. Pilot or Start gas flame proving—flame detection 14. Main Fuel ON 15. Pilot or Start gas OFF 16, Main flame proving—flame detection 17, Burner under Functional Control—Continuous monitoring of flame and air flow 18. Temperature/pressure satisfied—Control Stat OFF 19. Post purge of explosive gases and fuel safety checks. Positions 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 13, and 16 are considered hazardous and lead to ‘Lockout’. For older oil burners 17 can lead to one attempt to relight the burner upon flame failure. A simple block diagram for a gas burner up to main flame proving is given in Fig 42. FUNCTIONAL CONTROL By this is meant a control related to the attainment of a set pressure, temperature, flow and thermal efficiency of the boiler. Doubtless the boiler attendant has heard control referred to as on/off, high/low/off, or modulating and it is necessary to define these terms, and in particular their effect on thermal efficiency. ON/OFF CONTROL The simplest example is where a steam pressure or hot water temperature control can be set to give a ‘run or stop’ signal to a single motor driving a burner or stoker. On a stoker the motor drives both the air and fuel feed mechanism, although with oil and gaseous fuel burners, controls are incorporated to give purging and ignition periods. The operator has to select a fuel feed rate which is greater than the heat demand rate in order to attain and maintain a relatively steady pressure or temperature, There is a tendency to overshoot the control limit, particularly with solid fuel, ForAUTOMATIC CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTS. 113 There is one advantage in an on/off system, since the fuel/air ratio is fixed and providing the burner, and its mechanical linkage between fuel and air remain without alteration, the system may be set for the highest practical CO, or lowest oxygen. In the case of a high/low/off and Modulating burner, the various burner, valve, air supply devices may not be capable of giving a constant CO; or O2 content throughout the range of fuel inputs. Nevertheless, these systems lead to higher overall thermal efficiency and steadier steam pressure and temperature. ANTICIPATORY AND SEQUENTIAL CONTROL By relating changes in steam flow to heat input, a faster speed of response can be attained and yet more effective control achieved. A greater degree of flexibility is possible with multi-boiler installations where significant load changes occur throughout a given day. Consider the following example: Three boilers are available each at 11 000 kg/h steam output. The work load varies between 9 000 kg/h and 32 000 kg/h. Clearly at 32 000 kg/h three boilers are required, whilst at 18 000 kg/h and 9 000 kg/h, two boilers and one boiler, respectively, are required. By controlling from a master steam flow recorder, the system can be designed to use only the number of boilers related to the load to minimise heat and purging losses. OXYGEN TRIM CONTROL Some larger systems use rapid response oxygen analysers as trimming devices to alter the fuel/air ratio and the use of the so- called ‘clean’ fuels has made this system more effective since flue gas sample lines are less prone to blockage. The development of a reliable method of continuously monitoring the oxygen content of the flue gases using the Zircon probe has made it possible to operate burners with even less excess air, The signal from the probe is used either to operate a supplementary damper to meet a target O2 reading of flue gases, orCHAPTER 11 START-UP PROCEDURES Each boiler plant is slightly different from all the others, so it is impossible to cover every aspect involved in lighting up a boiler and bringing it onto line. In this chapter a general procedure is set out for a steam boiler, many of the precautions would be common for a hot water boiler. PRECAUTIONS BEFORE LIGHTING UP Check: a) b) c) d) e) Boiler House ventilation inlet and outlet grilles clean and free from obstruction; fans (where fitted) operating correctly. The area adjacent to the boiler, clean and free of all combustible material. Forced draught fan(s) inlet(s) clean and free from obstruction. Hand operated flue damper, where fitted, in safe OPEN position. Smokebox and flue condensate drains OPEN and clear of obstruction.120 a) a) b) c) d) BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK Feed Tank/Hot Well water level correct and feed supply available. Boiler Water level correct. Gauge glasses clean and guards in position. Gauges indicating correctly. All valves or cocks in the steam and water connections to the float chambers of water level controls are in the OPEN position. Boiler Pressure Gauge valves or cocks OPEN and pressure gauge indicating zero. Blow-down valve correctly SHUT and not leaking. Boiler Air-Cocks OPEN, Steam Range Isolating Valve SHUT. Drain Valve on the intermediate pipe between the Boiler Stop Valve and the Steam Range Isolating Valve OPEN. Boiler Stop Valve free in operation and SHUT (hand-tight only). Solid Fuel Fired Boilers When re-starting a boiler which has been ‘banked’, a fire door is not to be opened until draught has been established for a period sufficiently long enough to allow any accumulation of explosive gases in the combustion space and flues to be purged from the system. Oll and Gas Fired Boilers Burner fuel connections free of leaks, air damper linkages etc., correctly connected. Boiler Furnace free from any accumulation of oil. Swing-open burners (where fitted), in the closed position for firing and locking devices secure. Burner fuel supply and return valves (where fitted) OPEN. PROCEDURE WHEN LIGHTING UP AND WARMING THROUGH A BOILER a) b) Check electrical power supply available at the Burner/Stoker contro! panel. Switch firing equipment controls to ‘MANUAL!’ setting.START-UP PROCEDURES 121 c) d) e) 8) h) j) a) b) Initiate oil/gas burner light up sequence on ‘Low-Flame’, where provided and confirm establishment of flame, and that the automatic damper (where fitted) moves to a safe open position, or ignite the solid fuel bed and initiate the operation of the mechanical stoker, Control the warming through process by stopping and starting the burner or stoker in order to limit the temperature rise of the boiler water to a rate corresponding to: 1°C/min for cold boilers (after prolonged shut down) 2°C/min for warm boilers (shut down overnight) When a full flow of steam is seen to be issuing, SHUT air cocks. When boiler pressure reaches 0.7 bar g, control firing rate to maintain that pressure. Carefully crack OPEN the: boiler stop valve to purge the intermediate pipe of air and condensed water and to warm through. When the piping is thoroughly warmed through SHUT the pipework drains. Continue raising steam in a controlled manner until system working pressure is reached. At frequent intervals, intermediate pipe drains are to be gradually opened to ensure that the system remains clear of condensed water and to prevent any possibility of water hammer. When manhole and handhole doors have been removed, check the tightness of their securing nuts as the boiler warms through. PROCEDURE FOR BRINGING A BOILER ON LINE Cold System Check all system drain valves are OPEN. Crack OPEN the system isolating valve, slowly warm through the pipework and purge of air and condensed water. Check steam traps (where fitted) for correct discharge of water,c) d) 8) a) b) c) d) e) BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK Continue the warming through process until the system is at working pressure and temperature. SHUT system drains. Slowly OPEN the isolating valve(s) to their full extent. Slowly OPEN the boiler stop valve to its full extent. Switch burner/stoker controls to AUTOMATIC. Operational Pressure Ensure that the boiler pressure is at system pressure down- stream of the isolating valve. Crack OPEN the system isolating valve to allow the pressure to stabilise. Slowly OPEN the isolating valve to its full extent, Slowly OPEN the boiler stop valve to its full extent. Switch burner/stoker controls ta AUTOMATIC. PROCEDURE FOR WARMING THROUGH STEAM PIPEWORK a) b) c) dq) e) f) 8) h) i) Check that all system isolating valves, including those fitted to.branch pipes are SHUT. Check all system drain valves are OPEN. Crack OPEN the system isolating valve at the source of live steam. Slowly warm through the section of pipework up to the next isolating valve and purge of air and condensed water. Check steam traps (where fitted) for correct discharge of water. Continue the warming through process until the section being purged is at working pressure and temperature. SHUT the drains in that section. Slowly OPEN the isolating valve at the source of live steam to its full extent. Crack OPEN the next isolating valve and warm through the next section of pipework in a similar manner. Continue to progressively warm through the system pipework until it has been completely purged of air and water and is all at working pressure and temperature.124 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK d) Where it may be necessary to open drains on a pipe system suspected of containing water OPEN drains gradually.CHAPTER 12 SAFETY PRINCIPLE SAFETY EQUIPMENT FOR BOILER PLANT Every steam boiler or hot water boiler operating on a closed pressurised system is a potential hazard. Safety is of paramount importance in the design, operation and maintenance of both burner and boiler. To comply with the Factories Act 1961, and the Health and Safety at Work Act, the boiler must be fitted with certain valves, cocks, gauges etc in order to operate safely. These requirements are the MINIMUM and boilers supplied today need to meet the more stringent requirements laid down by the Associated Office Technical Committee (AOTC) of the Boiler Insurance Companies. These rules have been incorporated into British Standards, in particular BS:759 and BS:2790. The requirements as given below are for a continuously attended boiler installation. STEAM BOILERS Every steam boiler shall have attached to it: a) A suitable safety valve separate from any isolation valve, which shall be adjusted to prevent the boiler being operated126 b) c) d) e) BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK above its maximum permissible working pressure and shall be fitted directly to or as close as practicable to the boiler. BS:6759 recommends at least two safety valves being fitted, each capable of passing the full evaporative rate of the boiler, but contains the provision that boilers with an evaporative capacity below 3 700 kg/hr may be fitted with a single valve. Various patterns of approved safety valves may be fitted to a boiler the principle requirement being that once set for pressure it can be rendered tamperproof. Both valves are normally set to lift at 10% above the normal boiler operating pressure, but must not be set to lift at a pressure in excess of the maximum permissible working pressure. A suitable stop valve connecting the boiler to the steam delivery pipe directly attached to the boiler or as near as practicable. Since 1975, where two or more boilers are connected to a common header or steam manifold, the steam connection shall be provided with a stop valve and a stop and check valve capable of being locked in the closed position. Prior to this, two stop valves were commonly installed. A suitable feedwater stop and check valve and where a common feedwater system supplies several boilers, an additional lockable stop valve shall be fitted to each feed ine, A blowdown valve or cock fitted at or near the lowest point of the boiler. Where valves from more than one boiler deliver into a common discharge pipe or vessel, then a common handle or operating device only capable of being removed when the valves are fully closed, shall be provided. In the case where more than one type of valve key is used, these must be permanently attached to each other. At least one and preferably two water level gauges of an approved type shall be fitted directly to the boiler shell. The fitting of water level gauge glasses to water level control chambers is no longer approved, but existing equipment may continue in use subject to the approval of the Boiler Inspector, A steam pressure gauge connected to the steam space and easily visible to the boiler operator. Prior to 1975 pressureSAFETY 129 restoration of the power supply, an electrically or mechanically activated device may be used to restore the automatic firing controls. Any existing lock-out condition existing prior to supply interruption must be maintained. Automatic power failure restart is not suitable for all fuels or burner/boiler arrangements. For hot water boilers the requirements are similar. Automatic firing controls will cut off fuel or air supplies to the burner/stoker in the event of the following: Flame/pilot flame failure—oil or gas Ignition failure—oil or gas Combustion air flow failure Water temperature reaches contro! set point Water temperature reaches alarm set point—lockout Loss of water in pressurisation unit Loss of pressure in pressurised system The same conditions apply for hot water as for steam in the event of electrical interruption/failure. Automatic controls in themselves are not a complete substitute for a boiler operator. Even the most sophisticated automatic controls need testing for correct operation on a regular basis. NAWSYN = INSPECTION AND TESTING All boilers operating above atomspheric pressure are subject to inspection and testing throughout their working lives. Before a new boiler may be taken into use, an examination must have been carried out by the manufacturer or from a boiler inspecting company or association, and a certificate issued specifying its maximum permissible working pressure and the nature of the tests to which the boiler and fittings have been subjected. Each boiler is to have such a Thorough Examination carried out by a competent authority at a maximum interval of 14 months, On the first occasion when the boiler is operated after a Thorough Examination, or as soon as possible thereafter, the boiler is to have a Supplementary Examination carried out by the competent authority.130 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK The Thorough Examination requires the cleaning of all water and fireside deposits, removal of burner/stoker equipment, and dismantling of all equipment directly mounted onto the boiler shell. In addition, every ten years all refractories, baffles and covering are removed to expose headers, seams of shell and drums etc for ultrasonic/radiographic testing. The above tests are the minimum requirements which may be added to or increased in frequency at the discretion of the Inspecting Authority. Defects effecting the integrity of the boiler pressure vessel also require examination and any repair or modification carried out. WATER GAUGES One of the most common causes of catastrophic failure of steam boilers is loss of water level resulting in metal overheating and softening. Whether a boiler is continuously or partially supervised, the most important indication of boiler safety is the water gauge glass. As indicated earlier, two independent gauges are desirable which must be easily read from the firing floor. Several patterns of water level gauges are approved, most common of which is the tubular glass type, fitted with transparent safety screens manufactured to the appropriate British Standard. On entering a boiler house it is important to be able to decide immediately whether a lack of a clear water level in a gauge glass means the boiler is flooded or at a dangerously low water level. A white backing plate with coloured diagonal stripes may be used, as the refraction caused by the water causes the stripes to distort visibly. Gauge glasses can fail due to thinning, either caused by high alkalinity in the boiler water or abrasion due to high velocity steam during testing. As this simple equipment is so vital it is necessary to verify its correct operation at least once every shift. Gauges that become dirty or damaged by abrasion should be replaced. An accepted procedure for blowing down and verifying gauge glasses is as follows (see Fig 44).SAFETY 131 Close water cock Open drain cock Close drain cock Close steam cock Open water cock Open drain cock Close drain cock Open steam cock Open and then close drain cock. PEN AY PY No Drains from water gauges should be run safely to waste or the main blowdown vessel and the passing of steam (4), water (6) and steam and water (9) should be observed. The above is not the only accepted blowdown procedure, but the separate check of both water and steam connections to the boiler is essential. After (9) the water level in the gauge glass should be quickly restored. Unusual or excessive discoloration of the water should be investigated. Some boiler manufacturers are fitting sequencing valves to gauge glasses replacing the three traditional cocks. Fig 45 shows START STEP 2 STEP 6 STEP 9 Fig 44 Blowdown steps in gauge glass sequence132 BOILER OPERATORS HANDBOOK the operation of such a valve. As can be seen, the sequence of operation is as follows: ' 1. Opens steam and water to drain 2. Water only to drain 3. Steam only to drain 4. Return In order to properly clear the connections a pause of 5 seconds is required at (2) and (3). The drain from this type of valve should also be visually checked for passage of steam and water. Special care must be exercised as normally there is now no means of isolating the steam connection to remove, clean or replace the gauge glass. Rapid fluctuations in the gauge glass level is an indication of violent boiling inside the boiler, usually because of priming. The probable causes of this have already been discussed in the section on water treatment. WATER LEVEL CONTROLS Water level controls are predominantly of two types: a) Float or displacer operated b) Conductivity Probe Either of the two types may be mounted inside the boiler shell or in an external chamber with steam and water connections to the boiler. Internally mounted controls are usually restricted to boilers having an evaporative capacity of less than 2250 kg/hr. With externally mounted controls, a number of dangerous incidences have occurred where isolation valves on the steam or water connections have been left closed after blowing down to test the control or to maintain it. Whenever possible no isolation valves should be fitted and only a sequencing valve (see Fig 45) should be used. Only when a boiler cannot be shut down to enable maintenance to be carried out to the control chamber is it permissible to fit an isolation valve in the steam pipe and even then it should be of a type that cannot be left accidently closed, preferably being lockable in the open position.