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d : Thickness of bars
a : opening
b : spacing
ΔH
δ : slope
α : angle of flow
bars L : height of bars
Flow velocity v 0
Horizontal support
δ
dd α
V0
support
L
bb aa bar
d/a
α
As can be seen, the head loss coefficient depends on several factors, such as for example the way of
cleaning of the rack. The presented equations (Figure 5.21) are strictly only valid for rectangular
bars, but experience has proven that they can also be used for other bar shapes. Cleaning of
trashracks is very important to reduce possible head losses through the system. Manual cleaning is
very difficult, especially during floods. Therefore, mechanical cleaning is recommended.
Another formula for computing head losses in clean trashracks is the Kirscmer formula, detailed in
Chapter 2, section 2.2.2.1. This formula is only valid when the flow approaches the screen at right
angles.
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Travelling carriage
Oil cylinder
Rack
Drain
Trashrack
The raker in Figure 5.22 is operated through oleo-hydraulic cylinders. The secondary cylinder
pushes out or retracts the raker, which rides on a hinged arm. The raker pushes out in its way down
to the bottom of the screen and then retracts to travel up along the screen. The raker itself is a series
of prongs protruding from a polyamide block that moves along the spaces between the bars. The
trash is conveyed to the top to be dumped on a conduit or on to a conveyor. If dumped into a
conduit a small water pump delivers enough water to wash the trash along the canal. The problem
of trash disposal must be solved case by case, bearing in mind that a trash raker can remove large
amount of debris.
When the trashrack is very long the trash raker described above is assembled on a carriage that can
move on rails along the intake. Automatic control can be programmed to pass along the supporting
structures without human aid. Using telescopic hydraulic cylinders the raker can reach down to 10
m deep, which combined with the almost limitless horizontal movement, makes it possible to clean
large surface screens (Photo 5.10).
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5.5.5 Vorticity
A well-designed intake should not only minimise head losses but also preclude vorticity. Vorticity
can appear for low-head pressurized intakes (power intakes) and should be avoided because it
interferes with the good performance of turbines - especially bulb and pit turbines. Vortices may
effectively:
Empirical formulas exist that express the minimum degree of submergence of the intake in order to
avoid severe vortex formation. Nevertheless, no theory actually exists that fully accounts for all
relevant parameters. The minimum degree of submergence is defined as shown in Figure 5.23.
ht
D
DD
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The submersion is defined as ht. The following formulas express the minimum values for ht:
V
KNAUSS h t ≥ D ⋅ ⎜ 1 + 2. 3 ⋅ ⎟ (5.2)
⎜ g ⋅D ⎟
≥ 4.4 ⋅ (V ⋅ D0.50 )
0. 54
NAGARKAR ht (5.3)
GORDON ht ≥ c ⋅ V ⋅ D (5.5)
It is important to highlight that V is the velocity inside the downstream conduit in m/s and D is the
hydraulic diameter of the downstream conduit in m.
Beside a minimum submersion, constructive measures might help to prevent vortex formation. For
example, asymmetric flow conditions may be prevented by means of vertical walls, piles, screens,
floating rafts or by appropriate design of the entrance shape.
5.6.1 General
Conveyance intakes are designed on rivers in order to eliminate possible floating debris and bedload
transport. However, they cannot prevent the entrance of suspended sediment transport. For this, a
sediment trap is projected downstream of an intake. The main objective of such a trap is to avoid
sedimentation of downstream structures (canals, shafts, etc.) as well as to limit the possible damage
of sediments on the hydro mechanical equipment.
A sediment trap is based on the principle of diminishing the flow velocities and turbulence. This
results in a decantation of suspended sediments in the trap. This diminishing is obtained by an
enlargement of the canal, controlled by a downstream weir as shown in Figure 5.24.
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decantation
decantation
channel
vT weir
Sediment deposit Q
vD h
Flushing element
Flushing channel
4
A sediment sluicing system that minimises the sluicing time and the wasted water can be used .
ρ s − ρE
Pe = μ ⋅ ∀ ⋅ ⋅ V3 (5.6)
R
in which μ is a friction coefficient between the turbine blades and the grains, ∀ is the volume of the
grains, ρs and ρE are the densities of grains and water, R is the radius of the blades and V is the
grain velocity. The volume of the grains is directly related to the efficiency of the trap.
Reparation intervals of Francis turbines are around 6-7 years for a sediment trap efficiency of
0.2 mm, 3-4 years for an efficiency of 0.3 mm and 1-2 years for an efficiency of only 0.5 mm. It is
obvious that the cost of a sediment trap increases with its efficiency. Hence, an optimum efficiency
may be found as a function of the construction costs, the energy losses, the reparation costs of the
turbines and the exploitation costs. Experience has shown that the most economical solution is
around 0.2 mm efficiency for severe conditions (significant gross head, quartz particles) and around
0.3 mm for normal conditions.
5.6.3 Design
The necessary length of a sediment trap is defined by the equipped discharge of the intake and by
the chosen efficiency of the trap (grain diameter that still deposits inside the trap). The length has to
be such that all grains have the time to deposit before leaving the trap. This happens when the
deposition time tD equals the transfer time tt. The former is defined as h/vD and the latter as L/vT
(see Figure 5.24). Hence, the minimum length required to deposit a grain of diameter dD is given:
Q
L≥ (5.7)
vD ⋅ B
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