Surface Tension by Jaeger’s Method

Aim: To determine Surface Tension of water by Jaeger’s Method.

Apparatus: Jaeger’s apparatus, capillary tube, glass beaker, adjustable stand, thermometer,
Traveling Microscope etc.
Figure:

rg(h1σ − hρ )
Formula: Surface Tension T = dyne / cm
2
Observations:
1. Density of experimental liquid (water) [ρ ] = gm/cm3
2. Density of liquid (water) in the Manometer [σ ] = gm/cm3
3. Diameter of the orifice (Bore of capillary tube) [d] = cm
Hence Radius [r] = cm
4. Temperature of experimental liquid = °C
Observation Table:

Depth of the orifice Manometer Readings h1 = Ha – Hb Mean

inside the liquid in Upper level Lower level cm h1
Obs. No
the beaker Ha cm Hb cm cm
h cm

1 a =

2
b =

3
c =

Calculations:
Procedure:

 Find the diameter of the orifice of the capillary tube using traveling microscope.
 Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure. Clamp the capillary tube in a vertical position
such that it will dip in to the experimental liquid (water) kept in the beaker.
 Adjust the resting stand of the beaker such that the depth of orifice in the water is h = say a
cm. from the water level.
 Open the stopcock of the dropping funnel slowly so that water falls slowly into the bottle and
forces equal volume of air in to the tube ABCD. Adjust the flow of water into the bottle so
that a air bubble is formed at orifice in the water.
 The pressure indicated by the manometer rises and become maximum when the bubble
has a radius equal to the radius if the orifice.
 Note down the readings of manometer levels before the bubble breaks.
 Repeat the procedure for different values of h.
 Note the temperature of the water in the beaker.
 Calculate the surface tension using the formula.

Theoretical background:

The force of cohesion between molecules of a liquid gives rise to a phenomenon called surface
tension. According to this aspect of molecular attraction, the free surface of a liquid acts as though
it has a thin membrane stretched over it and that this membrane is under tension and trying to
contract.
Surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length acting on either side of a line
drawn on the liquid surface in equilibrium, the direction of the force being tangential to the surface
and perpendicular to the line.
There are many applications of surface tension. Capillary rise is a consequence of surface tension
and blotting paper work through capillary action. The surface tension of water is reduced, by
adding the detergent, when it is used for washing the clothes and utensils.
For detail theoretical background Refer the Book: Properties of Matter by D.S.Mathur.

Results:

The surface tension of water at ______ °C is = _________ dyne/cm

Viva-voce:

1) What are cohesive and adhesive forces?

2) What do you meant by surface tension?
3) What are the factors that affect the surface tension?
4) How does surface tension vary with temperature?
5) What is the difference in air bubble in liquid and a soap bubble?
6) In this experiment can we use mercury in the manometer?
7) What is the difference between a capillary tube and a tube?

For further details about the experiment refer the book: B.Sc. Practical Physics by C.L.Arora.
 Thermal Conductivity of a bad conductor by Lee’s Method
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor (say wood) by Lee’s Method.
Apparatus: Lee’s disc apparatus, Two thermometers, Circular disc of bad conductor, Screw gauge,
vernier calipers, stop watch, steam chamber etc.
Figure:

Formula:

 dθ 
msd  
Thermal Conductivity K =  dt θ 2 Cal / sec cm2 unit temp gradient

π r 2 (θ 1 − θ 2)
Observations:
value of smallest division on main scale
• Least count of vernier calipers = total number of divisions on vernier scale
= cm
1. Diameter of bad conductor disc D = (i) cm (ii) cm (iii) cm.
Mean D = cm
2. Radius of bad conductor disc r = D/2 = cm
value of smallest division on main scale
• Least count of micrometer screw = total number of divisions on circular scale
= cm
3. Thickness of bad conductor disc d = (i) cm (ii) cm (iii) cm.
Mean d = cm
4. Mass of the lower metallic disc m = gm.
5. Specific heat of the metal of the metallic disc s = Cal / gm °C
• Least count of stop watch = sec
• Least count of thermometer = °C
6. Temperature of upper hollow metal cylindrical vessel θ 1 = °C
7. Steady state temperature of lower metallic disc θ 2 = °C
Observation Table:
Obs. No. Time in seconds Temperature of metallic disc
t sec θ °C
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
Graph: Plot the graph of cooling curve. Find the slope dθ / dt at the steady state temperature
θ 2.

Slope [dθ / dt ] at point θ 2 = °C / sec

Temp.
(θ ) θ 2
……………

Time (t)

Calculations:
Procedure:
 Measure the diameter (D) and thickness of the bad conductor accurately.
 Set up the apparatus as shown in figure. Pass the steam in upper metallic chamber C , until
the thermometers show steady temperatures θ 1 and θ 2 corresponding to thermometers T1
and T2 respectively. Note down these temperatures.
 Remove bad conductor disc and place the upper metallic chamber C in contact with the
lower metallic disc A. Heat the lower metallic disc A about 10 °C above the steady state
temperature θ 2 . Now remove the upper metallic chamber C and allow cooling the lower
metallic disc A. Note down the temperatures at intervals of about 30 seconds till its
temperature falls to about 10 °C below the steady state temperature θ 2.

Theoretical background:
Heat is transferred from one point to other by conduction, convection and radiation. Heat is a form
of energy. Thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat transmitted through a unit thickness in a
direction normal to a surface of unit area, due to a unit temperature gradient under steady state
conditions. This intrinsic property is independent of the size, shape or orientation of the object of
the material.
For detail theoretical background Refer the Book: Treatise on Heat by Saha & Srivastava
Results:

The thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor ( )

is --------------------- Cal / sec .cm2. unit temp gradient

Viva-voce:
1) Which are the processes of heat transfer?
2) Define coefficient of thermal conductivity?
3) What is temperature gradient?
 4) What do you meant by steady state?
5) Why it is necessary to obtain the steady state before taking the observations?
6) Can this method be used to good conductors? Why?
7) In the present experiment if the thickness of the bad conductor is reduced to half, what will
be the effect on the thermal conductivity?

Young’s Modulus “Y” by Bending

Aim: To determine the Young’s modulus Y of a given material.
Apparatus: A uniform rectangular bar of the material (say meter scale), two knife edges fixed on
the rigid support, Hanger hook with pointer, slotted weights, spirit level, traveling microscope,
vernier calipers, micrometer screw gauge etc.
Figure:

Formula:

M gL3 g L3  M 
Y= =
3
 ' dyne / cm2
4 bd3 e 4b d  e 
where M →Mass attached
e → depression for each mass
e’ → depression for constant mass say 150gm
3
gL
By graph Y =
3
( s lp o)e
4b d
Observations:
1. Length of the bar between the knife edges L = cm
value of smallest division on main scale
• Least count of vernier calipers = total number of divisions on vernier scale
= cm
2. Breadth of the Bar “b” = (i) cm (ii) cm (iii) cm.
Mean b = cm
value of smallest division on main scale
• Least count of micrometer screw = total number of divisions on circular scale = cm

3. Depth of the Bar “d” = (i) cm (ii) cm (iii) cm.

Mean d = cm
value of smallest division on main scale
• Least count of Traveling Microscope = total number of divisions on vernier scale =
cm
Observation Table:
 Obs. Mass Microscope Reading Depression Depression for
No Attached for constant mass
M gm Loading Unloading Mean Each mass (say 150 gm)
cm cm cm e cm e’ cm
1 0
2 50
3 100
4 150
5 200
6 250

Graph: Plot the graph of depression for each mass (e) against mass attached (M)

↑
M
Mass M Slope =
e

Depression e →
Calculations:

Procedure:
 Find the least counts of vernier calipers and micrometer screw gauge. Measure the breadth and
depth of the bar accurately at the different places of the bar.
 Find the center of gravity of the given bar and put a marking line at this position. From this line of
C.G., mark points on either side at equal distance (say 35 cm) and draw sharp lines at these points.
 Place the bar horizontally on the two knife-edges as shown in fig. Such that it rests on the two
marked lines. Suspend the hanger with pointer from the C.G.position.
 Focus the microscope on the pointer so that its tip just touches the horizontal cross wire. Note this
reading of microscope against zero mass attached.
 Slowly insert 50 gm weight in the hanger. Adjust the micrometer screw on the top of the microscope
so that it again touches the horizontal cross wire. Note this reading of microscope.
 Gradually increase the load in steps of 50 and repeat the same procedure. Note microscope
readings.
 Now decrease the load in steps of 50gm and note the unloading readings of microscope starting
from 250gm to 0.

Theoretical background:
When an external deforming force acts on a body, there may be change in the length, volume or shape of
the body. On the removal of the force, the body more or less or completely regains its original state. This
property of a material of a body to regain its original state when the deforming forces are removed is called
elasticity.
The restoring force per unit area developed in the body is called Stress. Stress = F / a .
The ratio of change in dimensions to original dimensions is called as strain.
The Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain within elastic limit. ∴
Y = Stress / Strain = F/a ÷ l / L = FL / al.
For detail theoretical background Refer the Book: Properties of Matter by D.S.Mathur.

Results:
Young’s Modulus of the given material ( )
1. By observations = Y = dyne / cm2
2. By graph Y = dyne / cm2
Viva-voce:
1) What is modulus of elasticity?
2) How many modulus of elasticity do you know? State.
3) What is Young’s modulus?
4) What do you meant by the term elastic limits?
5) What is depression?
6) What would be the change in Y if the breadth of the given bar is made double?
7) Which is more elastic; rubber or steel?
For further details about the experiment refer the book: B.Sc. Practical Physics by C.L.Arora.

Study of Electric Energy Meter

Aim: To study the working and billing of electric energy meter.
Apparatus: Electric Energy meter fitted on the wooden board, Heater, high wattage bulbs,
well insulated connecting wires, etc.
Figure:

Formula:

1. Electric Energy received by the energy meter = nk Watt Hour

nk
= Kilowatts hours
1000

2. Electric Bill in Rs. = No. of units consumed x rate of one unit

Observations:
1. Energy meter constant k = 2400 rotations / kWh
= 1 / 2.4 = 0.4166 Wh / rotation
Observation Table:

Initial Final Ele. energy

Load No.of Time of n Ele. Power
Reading of Reading Units Received by
Appliance Rotations Rotations Recorded
meter of meter consumed Energy meter
of Disc t minutes nk / t watt
scale A scale B B - A nk Wh
n
20 (0.33) hr
Electric 20 (0.33) hr
Bulb of
200 20 (0.33) hr
Watts

Calculations:

Procedure: Note : While performing the experiment do not touch anything with naked hands.
Switch off the mains supply before handling.
 Note the initial energy meter scale reading.
 Make the connections as shown in the figure. Switch on the supply.
 As the disc of the watt-hour meter begins to rotate. Count the number of rotations for a known time
say 20 minutes measured accurately by stopwatch. Record the time and number of rotations.
 Switch off the mains and again repeat the procedure for another two observations for the same load
appliance.
 Switch off the mains. Disconnect the first appliance. Connect the second appliance and repeat the
whole procedure again taking three observations.

Theoretical background:
A watt-hour meter or electric energy meter is a device that measures the energy consumed in an electric
circuit. Its scale is calibrated to give the reading directly in kilowatt-hours or UNITS. The device may digital
or mechanical analog. Fig. shows a sketch of analog energy meter.
It consists of an armature M that can rotate between the field coils C1 C2 surrounding it. The field coils are
connected in series with the load and thus produce a magnetic field proportional to the current in the load
circuit. The armature coil is connected in parallel to the load. Thus its magnetic field is proportional to the
voltage applied to the load. The combined effect of these two fields is to produce a resulting torque
proportional to their product VI. Due to this the armature rotates at a speed which is proportional to VI i.e.
the power in watt consumed in the load circuit.
The lower end of the armature spindle carries an aluminum disc, which rotates between the pole pieces of
two magnets M1 and M2. The eddy currents induced in the disc, control the speed of rotation. At the upper
end of the spindle S, a gear arrangement operates the mechanical counter, which record the UNITS. The
number of rotations made by the disc is proportional to the number of units (kilowatt-hours) consumed.
For detail theoretical background Refer the Book:

Results:
1. The working of electrical energy meter is studied.
2. The billing procedure of energy meter is worked and the bill for one month
is …………….… Rs.
Viva-voce:
1) Define a kilowatt-hour.
2) What is electric energy meter?
3) Why the disc of energy meter rotates?
4) What is eddy current?
5) An electric iron is marked 750W-250V. What does it mean?
6) At present what is rate of electric power supplied by M.S.E.B.?
 Study of Analog Multimeter
Aim: To measure A. C. & D. C. voltages, value of resistors, diode testing, continuity testing using a
Analog Multimeter.
Apparatus: Analog Multimeter, Resistors, Diode, A.C. & D. C. variable voltage sources,
A.C. & D. C. voltmeters (0 – 25 V), Electric Bulb (100 watts), continuity testing circuit,
Figure:

Pointer Zero Setting

Function Switch
Range Switch
Probe Sockets
Zero ohms setting
switch

Observation Tables:
1. D.C.Voltage Measurements:

Obs. Voltage Measured by Voltage Measured by % Error

No. Voltmeter Vv volts Multimeter Vm volts
−
e = V v V m × 100
Vv
1
2
3
4
5

2. A.C.Voltage Measurements:
 Obs. Voltage Measured by Voltage Measured by % Error
No. Voltmeter Vv volts Multimeter Vm volts
−
e = V v V m × 100
Vv
1
2
3
4
5

3. Resistance Measurements:

Obs. Value of resistance by Value of resistance by % Error

No. Colour code Rc Ω Multimeter Rm Ω
−
e = Rc Rm × 1 0 0
Rc
1
2
3
4
5

Resistance of the filament of the electric bulb = Ω

4. Diode Testing:

Obs. Forward Reverse resistance Result

No. resistance Of the Diode Ω Given diode is in working
Of the Diode Ω Condition or faulty
1
2

5. Continuity Testing:

Continuous Discontinuous Points

Points In the circuit
In the circuit

Procedure:
1. D.C.Voltage Measurements:
 Set the position of the function switch on D.C. mode.
 Insert the black test lead (Probe) in the common or (-ve) socket and the red in the
+ve socket.
 Set the range switch on 50 V.
  Switch on the D.C. variable power supply.
 Connect the multimeter test leads to the output of the power supply. The polarities
should be maintained properly.
 Read the multimeter dial for D. C. Voltages carefully.
 For the voltages below 10 volts the range switch should be set at 10V.
 Record all output voltages of the power supply by connecting a D.C. voltmeter of
suitable range.
 Calculate % error in the measurements.
2. A.C.Voltage Measurements:
 Set the position of the function switch on A.C. mode.
 Insert the black test lead (Probe) in the common or (-ve) socket and the red in the
+ve socket. For A.C. voltage measurements the polarity is immaterial.
 Set the range switch on 50 V.
 Switch on the A.C. variable power supply.
 Connect the multimeter test leads to the output of the power supply.
 Read the multimeter dial for A. C. Voltages carefully.
 For the voltages below 10 volts the range switch should be set at 10V.
 Record all output voltages of the power supply by connecting a A.C. voltmeter of
suitable range.
 Calculate % error in the measurements
3. Resistance Measurements:
 Find and record the values of the resistance of the given resistors by colour code.
 The resistance values of the same resistors are to be measured using multimeter as
follows:
 Set the position of the function switch on D.C. mode.
 Connect the open metallic leads of the probes to each other. If the pointer of the
multimeter does not stand at zero ohm position on the resistance scale, adjust the
zero ohms switch till the pointer set at zero.
 Adjust the position of the range switch to Rx1. Connect the open leads of the probes
to the ends of the resistors and note the reading of the pointer on the Ohms scale.

Theoretical background:
Multimeter is a very useful test instrument. By operating a multi-position switch on the meter they
can be quickly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an ohmmeter. Thus multimeter is a
device used for measurement of A.C., D.C. voltages, currents and resistances. Therefore it is also
known as AVO (Ampere, Volt, Ohm) meter.
Analog multimeter has a pointer, which moves continuously along the scale, and the measurer
reads the position of the indicator on the scale.
In digital multimeter the measurement result is given in numerical form.
An analog multimeter essentially consists of a sensitive moving coil galvanometer. It is provided
with several scales on its dial, reading the current in amperes, potential difference in volts and
resistance in ohms.
For detail theoretical background Refer the Book:

Results:
The working with multimeter is learned.
The A.C., D.C. voltages and resistances are measured using multimeter.
The diode testing & continuity testing is made using multimeter.
Viva-voce:
1) What is multimeter?
2) Give the ranges of the a.c., d.c. voltages and resistance.
3) Why does the zero of the resistance scale start from the extreme right hand side of the dial?
4) Why the adjustment of zero ohm is necessary before measuring a resistance value?
5) What is the difference between analog and digital multimeter?

For further details about the experiment refer the book: B.Sc. Practical Physics by C.L.Arora.

Resistor Color Code

Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To Memorize : B. B. ROY of Great Bharat has Very Good Wife

How to read the code value

First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold ( 5%) and sometimes silver (10%) & if
no tolerance band is marked (20%).

Starting from the other end, identify the first band - write down the number associated with that
color; in this case it is Blue so write down ‘6’.

Now identify the second band, here it is red so write down a '2' next to the six. (i.e.62)

Now read the colour of the third or 'multiplier' band and write down that number of zeros. In
this case it is two so we get 6200 . Thus the value of given resistor is 6200 ohms.

BS 1852 Coding for resistor values

BS 1852(British Standard 1852). In most of the circuits the letter R is used for Ohms and K for
Kohms M for Megohms and placed where the decimal point would go.
 BS 1852 coding examples
R33 0.33 ohms
2R2 2.2 ohms
Charging & discharging 470R 470 Ohms
of a condenser 1K2 1.2K ohms

through 22K 22K ohms

22K2 22.2K ohms
Resistance
4M7 4.7M ohms
Aim: To determine the time
constant of a RC circuit by 5K6G 5.6K ohms 2%
charging & discharging of a 33KK 33k Ohms 10%
capacitor
through resistance 47K3F 47.3 K Ohms 1%
Apparatus: Electrolytic capacitor, resistor, D.C. power supply, Charging discharging key,
D. C. voltmeter (0 – 25 V), Stopwatch, connecting wires etc.
Circuit Diagram:

Formula:
Time Constant (τ ) = RC
Where R & C are values of resistor & capacitance used in the circuit.
Observations:
i. The valve of the resistor ( R ) by colour code = Ohms
ii. The value of the capacitor C = Farad
iii. Least count of voltmeter = volts
Observation Table:
 Charging of the capacitor Discharging of the capacitor
Obs. No. Time ‘t’ Voltage ‘V’ Obs. No. Time ‘t’ Voltage ‘V’
sec volts sec volts
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Graph: Plot the graph of Voltage (V) against time (t) for both charging and discharging.

Charging curve

Vmax

63.2% of Vmax ……………

Voltage
V volts 36.8% of Vmax …………….

Discharging curve
0
← τ → Time t sec

Calculations:
Procedure:
Theoretical background:
A capacitor or condenser is a device consisting of two parallel plates separated by a dielectric
material. It is used for the storage of charge. It is possible for dielectric materials such as air or
paper to hold an electric charge because free electrons cannot flow through an insulator. However,
the charge must be provided by some source. The capacitance of a condenser is measured in
Farads.
There are two main effects observed with capacitors, charging and discharging. An applied voltage
charges the condenser. The accumulation of charge results in building up of potential difference
across the condenser plates and this is known as charging. The action of neutralization of charge
by connecting a conducting path across the dielectric is known as discharging. In the discharging
process the charge stored in the condenser starts decaying.
For detail theoretical background Refer the Book:

Results:
1. Theoretical value of RC time constant (τ ) is = sec.
2. From the charging curve value of time constant (τ ) is = sec.
 3. From the discharging curve value of time constant (τ ) is = sec.
Viva-voce:
1) What is an electrolytic condenser?
2) What do you know by charging & discharging?
3) What is the unit of time constant? How?
4) Define the time constant of an RC circuit.
5) Why the charging and discharging process is nonlinear?
For further details about the experiment refer the book: Physics Practicals for F.Y.B.Sc
By H. B. Gajare & others (N.M.U. published)

Frequency of A. C. Mains
Aim: To measure frequency A. C. mains using a sonometer and bar magnet
Apparatus: Sonometer with non-magnetic material wire, Bar Magnet pair, A.C voltage source,
Slotted weights with hanger, meter scale
Figure:

Formula: 1 T
×
ρ λ z
Frequency of A.C. (n) = H
1
Frequency of A.C. (n) = × Slope z
ρ H
Observations:
i. Mass per unit length i.e. Linear density of wire (ρ) = M / L = gm / cm.

ii. Least count of meter scale = cm

Observation Table:
Vibrating (Resonating) Mean Mean
Obs. Mass Length cm vibrating Wavelength T= mg
T T T
No. attached Length λ = 2  cm dyne
m gm Loading Unloading s λ λ
 cm
 1 100

2 150

3 200

4 250

5 300

Graph:

T Slope =

λ
Calculations:
Procedure:
 Go through the observations and fulfill them.
 Set the apparatus as shown in figure. Stretch the wire with the minimum tension. Keep the
two knife-edges C and D as far apart as possible.
 Set the two bar magnets on the two sides of the center of the wire with their opposite poles
facing the wire as shown.
 Connect the output of the A.C. source to the ends of the wire. Switch on the supply. The
wire stats vibrating.
 Move the knife edges C & D slowly towards each other so that the magnets always remain
at the center of the wire.
 Keep moving the knife-edges slowly till the wire vibrates with maximum amplitude.
 Measure the distance between the two knife-edges.
 Repeat the above procedure by increasing the tension in suitable steps.

Theoretical background:
If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the lines of force, a
force begins to act on the conductor. The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
If the current passing through the conductor is alternating, then the force reverses its direction in
step with that of a. c. The conductor therefore experiences a periodic force, which tends to set the
conductor into vibrations. If the frequency of vibrations of the conductor equals the frequency of
alternating current, resonance takes place and the conductor vibrates with maximum amplitude.
The length of the vibrating wire when the amplitude of vibration is maximum is called resonating
length. This principle can be used to determine the frequency of A. C.

Results:

1. The frequency of A. C. mains by calculations is ( n) = Hz

2. The frequency of A. C. mains by graph calculations is ( n) = Hz

Viva-voce:
1) What do you mean by the term A.C.?
 2) What is meant by frequency of A.C.?
3) Why does the wire vibrate when the current is passed through it?
4) What is resonating length?
5) What is the effect of thickness (diameter) of wire on the results?
6) In India what is the standard value of A.C. frequency?

Verification of Kirchhoff’s Laws

Aim: To verify the Kirchhoff’s Current & Voltage Laws.
Apparatus: Resistors, D.C. variable supply, D.C. Milliammeter ( 0 – 50), D. C. voltmeter (0 – 25V),
Plug keys, connecting wires etc.
Circuit Diagram:
1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law 2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Observations:
i. Values of resistors by colour code: R1 = Ω, R2 = Ω,
R3 = Ω, R4 =
Ω
ii. Least count of voltmeter = volts
iii. Least count of milliammeter = mA = Amp.
Observation Table:
For Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

Obs. Current (mA) measured for

No V = 4V V = 6V V = 8V
Path
1 Branch ABC
I1 = I1 = I1 =
with K1 0n
2 Branch ADC
I2 = I2 = I2 =
with K2 0n
For 3 Path AC
I = I1 + I2 = I = I1 + I2 = I = I1 + I2 =
Kirchhoff’s with K1 & K2 0n
Voltage Law:

Obs. Input Voltage measured across volts

No Voltag R1 (A&B) R2 (B&C) R1+ R2 (A&C) R3 (A&D) R4 (D&C) R3+ R4 (A&C)
e
V1 V2 V= V1 + V2 V3 V4 V = V3 + V4
volts
Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts
1 4
2 6
3 8

Procedure:
For Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
 Connect the circuit as shown in circuit 1.
 Adjust the power supply for 4V output and then switch on the power supply.
 Make the keys K3 and K1 on. Measure the current I1 that flows through the branch ABC.
 Make the keys K3 and K2 on. Measure the current I2 that flows through the branch ADC.
 Make the keys K3 , K1 and K2 on. Measure the current I that flows through the complete circuit
ABCD. Verify I = I1 + I2.
 Repeat the above procedure for 6V and 8V.
For Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
 Connect the circuit as shown in circuit 2. Do not connect the voltmeter.
 Adjust the power supply for 4V output and then switch on the power supply.
 Make the keys K3 and K1 on. Measure the voltage V1 between the points A & B, V2 between the
points B & C, and V between the points A & C. Verify V = V1 + V2.
 Similarly make the keys K3 and K2 on. Measure the voltage V3 between the points A & D, V4
between the points D & C, and V between the points A & C. Verify V = V3 + V4.
 Repeat the above procedure for 6V and 8V.

Theoretical background:
Kirchhoff’s Current Law: The algebric sum of currents entering and leaving any point in a circuit
must be equal to zero.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: The algebric sum of voltages around any closed path of a circuit is zero.
These laws are used for solving electrical networks.
For detail theoretical background Refer the Book:
Results:
 1. Kirchhoff’s current law i.e. I = I1 + I2 is verified.
2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law i.e. V= V1 + V2 is verified.
Viva-voce:
1) State Kirchhoff’s laws.
2) State Ohm’s law.
3) Can we apply Kirchhoff’s laws for A.C. circuits? How?
4) What do you meant by the term ‘Algebric Sum’?
5) What are the conventions to connect ammeter and voltmeter in a circuit?
For further details about the experiment refer the book: Physics Practicals for F.Y.B.Sc
By H. B. Gajare & others (N.M.U. published)

Verification of Circuit Theorems

Aim: To Study the Thevenin’s Theorem & Norton’s Theorem.
Apparatus: Resistors, D.C. variable supply, D.C. Milliammeter ( 0 – 50), D. C. voltmeter (0 – 25V),
Resistance Box, connecting wires etc.
Circuit Diagram:

Observations:
i. Values of resistors by colour code: R1 = Ω, R2 = Ω,
ii. D. C. input voltage = volts
Observation Table:
For Thevenin’s Theorem

For Thevenin’s Theorem

Obs. R1 R2 Theoretical Short Experimental Isc Load Required Theoretical Load

No. Ω Ω Circuit current To get half Isc
 R1 R2 
Req =  
V Ω  R1 + R2 
Isc = R mA mA
1
Ω
1
2
3

Procedure:
For Thevenin’s Theorem:

Obs. R1 R2 Theoretical VTH Experimental VTH Load Required Theoretical Load

= To get half VTH
No. Ω Ω  R1 R2 
 R2  Req =  
  × V Ω R
 1 + R 2 
 R1 + R2  volts
volts Ω
1
2
3
 Moment of Inertia of a flywheel
Aim: To determine the M.I.of a flywheel about its own axis of rotation.
Apparatus: Flywheel, D.C. a strong and inextensible string, Slotted weights, stop watch, vernier
Calipers, pan, etc.
Figure:

Pan

Formula:
grn 1  ∆M 
1. M. I. Of a flywheel I = ×  gm.cm2
4π  ∆A  Mean
Where g = Acceleration due to gravity = 980 cm / sec2
r = Radius of the axle
n1 = number of turns of the string on the axle
2. Frictional couple F1 = Intercept on m-axis × g× r dyne / cm
3. Energy lost per rotation E = 2π F1 erg / cycle
Observations:
1. Mass of the pan or hanger (m1) = gm
value of smallest division on main scale
• Least count of vernier calipers = total number of divisions on vernier scale = cm
2. Diameter of the axle “D” = (i) cm (ii) cm (iii) cm.
Mean D = cm
∴Radius of the axle ‘r’ = D/2 = cm
3. Number of turns of the string on the axle (n1) = 10
Observation Table:
Obs. Mass Total Mass No. of Time taken by n2 A= ∆M Mean
No. Attached M= m,+ m1 revolutions Flywheel to t2 ∆A
m gm of the wheel after come to rest ∆M
gm 2 By Gauss
the string is t2 sec.  n2  method ∆A
detached  
 t2 
n2
1
2
3
4
5

Graph: Plot the graph of M against A.

Intercept
A

Calculations:
Procedure:
 Measure the diameter of the axle using vernier callipers. Hence calculate radius.
 Adjust the length of the string such that 10 turns can be wound on the axle.
 Attach the string to the peg of the axle and wound 10 turns uniformly. Attach minimum mass
(m) to the hanger or pan at the other end of the string.
 Release the hanger or pan slowly .As soon as the string slips from the peg start the stop
watch and count the number of rotations (n2) of the flywheel from the marked line, till it just
comes to the rest. Stop the stopwatch. Note the time ( t2 ) sec. Take three observations
and obtain mean values of n2 and t2.
 Repeat the above procedure for another five different increasing values of (m).
Theoretical background:
A heavy disc capable of rotating about a fixed horizontal axis is called a flywheel. The rotational
motion is caused and altered by a couple. A couple produces angular acceleration just as a force
produces linear acceleration. To produce a given angular acceleration in a body, greater is the
rotational inertia of the body and hence greater is the couple required. The measure of rotational
inertia of the body is called moment of inertia. The moment of inertia is equal to the moment of
couple required to produce angular acceleration in the body about the axis of rotation. In rotational
motion it does not depend on the mass alone but also depend upon the distribution of mass about
the axis of rotation and its distance from the axis of rotation.
For detail theoretical background Refer the Book: Properties of Matter by D.S.Mathur.

Results:
 1. The moment of inertia of the given flywheel about its axis of rotation is
gm.cm2.
2. Frictional couple F1 = dyne / cm
3. Energy lost per rotation E = erg / cycle

Viva-voce:
1) Define inertia and moment of inertia.
2) What is meant by radius of gyration?
3) On what factors does moment of inertia of a body depend?
4) How and why does the flywheel stat rotating?
5) Why the flywheel continues its revolutions even after the string has slipped off the axle?
For further details about the experiment refer the book: Physics Practicals for F.Y.B.Sc
By H. B. Gajare & others (N.M.U. published)

Hysterisis
Aim: To draw a hysterisis loop for the given magnetic material specimen using the given setup.
Apparatus: Hysterisis experiment setup, D.C. power supply ( 0-12V, 3A), rheostat, D.C. ammeter,
Commutator key, Magnetometer, solenoid, specimen, 12V A.C. source, etc.
Diagram:
Magnetometer

Set Obs. Current Deflection Mean

No. I Amp θ 1 θ 2 θ
1 0
2 0.2
. .
I . .
Observation . .
Table: 11 2

1 2
2 1.8
. .
II . .
. .
11 0

1 0
2 0.2
. .
III . .
. .
11 2
Graph: Plot the graph of ‘θ ’ against ‘I’