Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Editors
Eyleen Chou
Scott Hamel
Contributors
Kira Langree
Tyler Lark
Maria Selk
Miranda Scheiber
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1.0 Introduction to Surveying
This section will present a basic understanding of the concepts and tools of Land Surveying.
Engineers Without Borders has been working with OFCB to create projects that will help the community of
Bayonnais. Some of these future projects require a large amount of surveying.
The easiest way to find the coordinates of a point is to start with a known location and measure the
difference in X, Y and Z between the known location and the new point. These measured differences in
the coordinates are refered to as ΔX, ΔY and ΔZ. For measuring purposes, it is convenient to separate
the Z coordinate (vertical coordinate, or elevation) from the X and Y (Horizontal Plane). In most surveying
methods, the “known point” is the location at which the instrument is placed. This will be discussed
further in sections 2.7 and 3.3.
The following sections will give a conceptual description of how to measure the difference between a
known and an unknown point in both elevation (ΔZ) and in the horizontal plane. .
In some cases, the vertical distance cannot be measured, perhaps because the elevation of the known
point is underground at the new point, or the distance is too large. In this case, Trigonometric Leveling is
used. In this technique, the angle between the horizontal line and a line directly to the new point (slant
line) is measured. If the slant distance between the two points is also known, simply trigonometry can be
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used to find the vertical distance. This technique is discussed in more detail in Section 2.4 and illustrated
in Fig XX.
1.3.2 Horizontal Location (X-Y coordinate)
Horizontal locations, or coordinates, are determined by measuring the Polar Coordinates of a point using
the known point as the origin. Polar coordinates are determined by measuring an angle and a distance.
In order to measure an angle, one must have a reference point to measure from, or a “zero point”. There
are two methods of determining your reference point depending on the equipment that is being used. If a
magnetic compass is being used to determine your angles, then the reference point is always the same,
magnetic north.
If an instrument that measures horizontal angles, such as a theodolite, is being used, then usually the
surveyor may choose what to use as the “zero point” In general, the surveyor will set this point as a
“backsight”, which is discussed further in Sections Error! Reference source not found. and 3.3.
Polar coordinates (θ,d) can be converted to Cartesian Coordinates (x,y) using the following formulas:
x = d * Sin (θ)
y = d * Cos (θ)
Each GPS satellite transmits data that indicates its location and the current time. The satellites are
synchronized so that these repeating signals are transmitted at the same instant. The signals, moving at
the speed of light, arrive at a GPS receiver at slightly different times, allowing the receiver to determine
the distance to each satellite. Once the receiver knows the location of the satellites (contained in the
signal) and the distance to each satellite, it can calculate its position using triangulation. Using 3
satellites, the position in 2-dimensions can be determined (location on the surface of the earth). Using 4
satellites, a GPS device can determine it position in 3-dimensions, (location and elevation).
Positions are displayed as a latitude and longitude, both in degrees, minutes, seconds and sometimes
decimals of a second. Elevations are displayed as meters above sea level. Accuracy can range from a
several hundred meters to with a few meters.
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1.3.4 Barometric Altimeter Surveying
An altimeter survey is one in which ONLY the altitude (or elevation) is recorded. Horizontal locations are
not determined or recorded. This is useful in situations where the surveyor is only interested in an
elevation (such as the top of a mountain) or in a change of elevation (such as the height of a waterfall).
As altitude increases, the barometric pressure (ie- air pressure) of the atmosphere decreases. A
barometric altimeter measures the atmospheric pressure, and the corresponding elevation is read directly
off the instrument.
Normal weather patterns cause the air pressure at any altitude to fluctuate slightly throughout the day.
Thus, even if the altimeter is at a point, the elevation reading may increase and decrease by several
meters throughout the day. Such pressure variations must be measured and accounted for when
conducting a barometric altimeter survey.
In a Topographic survey (or 3D survey), much of the same information as a Geographic Survey is
recorded, and in addition, elevations are measured. The finished product is a map of general features
(such as roads and rivers) along with contour lines and spot elevations (the exact elevation of a point,
such as a mountain top). These surveys are used more for engineering purposes. It is helpful for civil
engineers to know the contour of the land when building roads, bridges, structures, canals and dams, or
installing power lines, or irrigation systems. Since Topographic surveys are for a different purpose, the
level of detail recorded may be lower for a topographic survey. For example, a Topographic Survey may
cover an entire river valley and only record large buildings, the centerlines of roads and location of large
rivers, while a Property Survey might locate every small structure on the property along with the
boundaries (edges) of every roads and river or stream.
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2.0 Surveying Methods
Chapter 1 provided an introduction to the concepts used to locate objects and points in space. The
following sections describe some of the equipment and methods used to employ these concepts.
Automatic Level
An automatic level is another piece of sighting equipment used
in surveying. It can be used in place of the theodolite.
Automatic levels are designed so that they are sighting
horizontally; they cannot measure vertical angles. Data
collection when using the automatic level will be easier
(because you always know the vertical angle is zero). However,
the shots may be closer together especially on slopes.
Abney Level
An abney level is a surveying instrument that consists of a spirit
level and a sighting tube. It is used to measure the angle of
inclination of a line from the observer to the target point.
Tripod
a three-legged rack to hold the theodolite
Tape
a measuring tape used to measure distances between two
points (oftentimes, the theodolite and graduated rod)
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Graduated rod
a telescoping pole used to measure height. The height is
sighted with the theodolite.
Axe de visée, axe de collimation (Line of Sight): ligne passant par les foyers de l’objectifs d’une lunette et
le point de mesure en correspondance avec le réticule.
Basculement (Swing/Turn an angle): la lunette du théodolite est tournée de 200 gr autour de l’axe
horizontal pour éliminer les erreurs instrumentales.
Calage et mise en station (Locate and Level Station) : opération effectuée par l’opérateur pour amener
l’axe vertical de l’appareil à l’aplomb d’un repère sur le sol.
Correction : valeur algébrique à ajouter à une valeur observée ou calculée pour éliminer les erreurs
systématiques connues.
Croisée du réticule (Crosshairs): croix dessinée sur le réticule représentant un point de l’axe de visée.
Erreur de fermeture (Error): écart entre la valeur d’une grandeur mesurée en topométrie et la valeur fixée
ou théorique.
Fils stadimétriques (Stadia): lignes horizontales marquées symétriquement sur la croisée du réticule.
Elles sont utilisées pour déterminer les distances à partir d’une échelle graduée placée sur la station.
Hauteur de l’appareil (Height of scope/instrument) : distance verticale entre l’axe horizontal de l’appareil
et celle de la station.
Lunette (scope/lens): instrument optique muni d’une croisée de réticule ou d’un réticule, utilisé pour
établir un axe de visée par l’observation d’un objet de mesure.
Nivelle (Level, bubble): tube en verre scellé, presque entièrement rempli d’un liquide (alcool) dont la
surface intérieure a une forme bombée obtenue par moulage, de sorte que l’air enfermé forme une bulle
qui prend différentes positions suivant l’inclinaison du tube.
Nivellement (Leveling, v.): opération consistant à mettre une ligne ou une surface dans la position
horizontale, ou mesurage de différences de niveaux.
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Repères (Reference Points) : points dont on connaît les coordonnées.
Réticule (Eye piece): disque transparent portant des traits ou des échelles. Il permet d’effectuer
correctement des lectures.
Signal, balise (Control Point): dispositif auxiliaire pour indiquer l’emplacement d’une station (par un jalon).
Station : tout point à partir duquel ou vers lequel on effectue une mesure. Cela peut être un point spécifié
sur un bâtiment ou un point marqué dans la zone d’étude.
Stadia Ratio : The ratio of the viewed length between the stadia lines using an objecta t a distance and
the distance from the scope to the object.
Backsight :
Azimuth: a horizontal angle measured clockwise from any fixed reference plane or base line (in land
navigation measured from a north base line or meridian).
Zenith Angle: the vertical angle between an object or a point and the Zenith (90° to level or horizontal
plane)
Elevation: the height of a geographic location above a fixed reference point (often the reference point is
sea level)
Tri-brac: Triangular piece of equipment placed on a tripod beneath a theodolite used to level the
instrument,
Cartesian Coordinate System : A coordinate system in which the coordinates of a point are its distances
from a defined set of perpendicular lines (called axes) that intersect (the intersection point is called “the
origin”), In 2-d, there are two axes and two coordinates (usually denoted x and y), while in 3d, there are
three axes and three coordinates (x,y, and z).
Polar Coordinate System : A 2 dimensional coordinate system in which the coordinates of a point are
determined by an angle and distance from a specified origin or reference point.
“Pick up”: Picking up means determining the location and orientation of an object by surveying multiple
points on the object as necessary. For example, if one is going to “pick up the school”, this would include
taking points at the corners of the building, the height of the roof, etc.
“Taking a shot”: Taking measurements to point. That is, recording the distance, horizontal angle, and
possibly vertical angle of that point. This term comes from the fact that the surveying instrument, such as
a theodolite, is usually referred to as a “gun”.
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Pacing is the technique of determining a distance by walking between the two points and counting the
number of steps that it takes. A single pace is the distance travelled in two steps, that is if you are
counting paces, you would count each time you take a step with your right foot (or if you prefer, your left).
If one knows the distance travelled in a single pace, it is easy to find a distance. This method is of course
not accurate, but it will provide a good estimate of a distance. The accuracy increases if the distance is
paced several times and the results are averaged. See section Error! Reference source not found. for
techniques on pacing,
2.3.2 Stadia
Stadia is a method of determining distance by using optical magnification. Many surveying instruments
have indicator lines overlayed on the lens (similar to the cross hairs) that are a preset distance from the
cross hairs. Because there is a known magnification of the lens, the measured length of the stadia lines
using an object at a distance is a specified ratio of the distance from the scope to the object. More
simply, if you look through the scope with a 1:100 stadia ratio at a rod with markings (or a tape measure)
and read a distance of 0.142 m between the stadia lines, then the rod is 14.2 meters away.
2.3.3 Tape
Taping is the technique of using a calibrated measuring device to determine a distance. This is not
necessarily limited to a tape measure; string, sticks, anything can be calibrated and then used to measure
distance. In most cases, however, this takes the form of using a tape measure. The tape can be steel or
cloth. Practices of taping are discussed further in section 3.5.3
Trigonometric leveling is slightly more complicated than described in Section 1.3.1 because the surveyor
must account for the height of the instrument HI) and the height of the rod (vertical scale). This is
illustrated in Fig XX.
ZB = ZA + HI + d*sin(a) - HR
where :
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d = slant distance between points
HI = Height of instrument
HR = Height of rod
a = vertical angle between points
The Abney is a small square tube with an eyepiece at the observer’s end and horizontal cross-hair at the
objective end. Near the center of the tube is a 45 mirror, which reflects half the line-of- sight upwards
through an aperture in the tube, Mounted above the aperture is a bubble level which is affixed to a
movable index arm. The index arm can be adjusted and indicates an angle using gradations on the arc of
the index arm. To use the Abney, the instrument is held to the eye and sighted on a target, centering the
cross-hair against the target. The index arm is then adjusted until the bubble (visible in the right half of
the field-of-view) is centered against the target and the cross-hair. The vertical angle can then be read off
the index
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2.5 Finding Horizontal Angles
As discussed in section 1.3.2, horizontal angles, along with distance, are used to determine
horizontal location (x, y coordinates). There are several techniques, which are covered in the
sections below, beginning with the least accurate.
2.5.1 Compass
The compass is a simple instrument that utilizes the earth’s magnetic field. When held level, the needle
of a compass points to Magnetic North, which is not the same as True North (or the north pole). When
surveying with a compass, one must account for this difference and adjust appropriately. This is
discussed further in section 3.4. Since the compass always points in essentially the same direction, one
can measure horizontal angles by determining the angle between the object that is being sighted, and
Magnetic North. This is called a “Compass Bearing” and is illustrated in Fig XX. While this method is
simple, it is only accurate to within a few degrees.
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2.6 Putting It All Together
Recall that in order to locate new points, all three coordinates must be defined (or two if elevation is not
considered). To do this, a complete set of information must be gathered about each point. Combining
the various methods discussed in this chapter is necessary to get the appropriate survey in the least
amount of time with the equipment available. However, remember that you must use enough methods to
ensure that you have gathered all the required data. For example, if you only record a horizontal angle to
a point, but not the distance, you cannot locate it in the XY plane. Below is a list of combinations that can
be used to complete the indicated survey.
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In addition, note that it is best to use methods with similar accuracy, such as compass and pacing, or
Theodolite and Tape. It does not make sense to measure a horizontal angle to a precision of 10
seconds, and then pace the distance.
2.7 Traverse
In the previous sections, most of the surveying methods assumed that the surveyor determines the
relationship of a new point to a “known point”. This “known point” is usually the place where your
instrument is set up (also known as a setup location, or Station). But what if the surveyor cannot see all
the required points or objects from one setup location? Or what if the location of the Station is unknown?
This is where a Traverse will come in. A Traverse is simply a series of Stations that starts from a known
location and extends to wherever the surveyor needs it to go. Many times a traverse is along a road, path
or river. Commonly a traverse is linear, that is the stations form a single line. Sometimes however, the
traverse must branch off to cover other areas, similar to a fork in a road.
As stated above, hubs are semi-permanent markers. They may be lost or change location. If you are
setting hubs in a road, a truck’s tire may move the hub, especially if it has recently rained. A good
surveyor should always double check the location of a hub if it has not been used recently. The method
of doing this is by setting, and then later locating, “Control Points”. Control points are precise and
permanent points (or points on an object) that can be found and relocated at a future time. Multiple
control points should be placed at each hub for two reasons: accuracy of relocating your hub increases
with more points, and your control points might disappear (trees can get cut down, large rocks moved,
etc.). Control points are discussed further in Chapter 3, but some common ones are a nail in a tree
(called a Tree Bench Mark or TBM), plate embedded in a concrete slab, or an iron pipe buried in the
ground.
Backsights are generally used as the “zero point” for determining Horizontal angles from a new Station.
This is arbitrary, as technically any point can be used as a “zero point”, but this is a convention and can
make the math easier when the survey is completed. Determining the relative location of the Backsight,
also called “Sighting the Backsight”, also provides a check to the location of the hub that the Station is set
up on (also called “Occupying the Hub”). Sighting the Backsight is essentially the same as locating the
Foresight, just in reverse.
2.7.3 Loop
One possible configuration of doing a traverse, or “running a traverse”, is to set the hubs such that the
first hub can be sighted from the last Station. This is called a “Closed Loop” because it will look like a
closed shape (instead of a line) on a map. There are many advantages to doing a Closed Loop, usually
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called just a loop, but the primary one is that the error of the survey can be determined. This is done by
comparing where the first hub is predicted to be, to where it is measured to be. Using all of the data from
the Traverse, a surveyor should be able to predict the relative location of the first hub (angle and
distance) from the Station, when occupying the last hub. (In fact, a surveyor should be able to predict the
location of the first hub from ANY hub, but this may be a very large distance.) Then, if the traverse is a
loop, the surveyor can MEASURE the distance from the Station to the first hub. Inevitably, these will not
be the same. If the traverse has been done well, the difference in the locations will be off by a few
centimeters. Traverse errors are generally expressed in centimeters or millimeters (or inches).
Points defining a polygonal object will also be connected using straight lines. Thus, if picking up an object
with straight sides (like a building), it is best to locate the corners. For a square building, if the corners
are roughly 90 angles, only three corners are necessary. For circular objects like a water tank, at least 3
points are also required to define the circle.
One example of this is if a stream has a wide flat bottom and then high, steep banks. If the surveyor only
records points at the stream centerline and top of the banks, then the stream will be recorded as a v-
shaped ravine. However, if the surveyor records the edge of the stream at the bottom and the top of the
bank, then the stream will be accurately recorded. This can be seen in Fig XX.
In addition, when conducting a 3D survey, it is important to remember that any objects that are picked up,
such as buildings, also provide an elevation at that point. This may be necessary and useful, such as
when locating the centerline of a road, or unnecessary. In some cases, the surveyor is interested in the
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elevation, such as the top of a water tank, but should not be included in the topography map. These
points should be noted as such in the field notes.
Here is an example title page. Anything that is underlined would be changed according to what surveying
work you are doing.
Survey Field Notebook
Location: North of the water source
Project: Surveying for EWB-OFCB-Bayonnais Hydroelectric
Book: 1 of 5
Instruments used: T2 Theodolite
Name: Kenold
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For the Index Page, you must have columns for page number, date, and title of each of the pages in your
notebook. When you begin, you will only have one line in your index. As you collect more data, you will be
adding more lines to your index.
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The remaining pages in your notebook should be very detailed. You must write down as much as you can
about what you are surveying. Recorded field notes consist of a combination of tabulated data, sketches,
and descriptions. The total record of any survey in the field notebook should provide a clear and concise
picture of the survey performed. This information will include descriptions of the starting and closing
stations, a description of any principal station established, the area or locality in which the work is
performed, the purpose of the survey, and general remarks on weather, terrain, or other conditions that
may be factors in evacuating the results. The information in the field notes must be complete enough that
anyone not familiar with that particular survey operation can take the notebook, return to the locality, and
recover or reconstruct any portion of the survey.
Note that the students recorded the date, location, and weather in the upper right hand corner. In
addition, each student’s name was written next to a symbol of what their job was during the survey. For
example, W. Doolittle has an open book next to his name, so he was recording data. R. Rodgers was
sighting (tripod symbol). D. Evans and H. Trigger were taking measurements (Φ).
There are more examples of how to take field notes for different types of surveys (e.g. triangulation,
traverse, etc.). However, this will be covered in a later section Appendix E: More Field Book Techniques
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• Tighten clamp nut in the middle of the leg.
• Remove the plumb bob from tripod accessory case. Insert bayonet socket into bridge screw.
Secure by turning clockwise ¼ turn.
• Position tripod so that plum bob is 1/2 inch from station point.
• Set legs in ground, push down firmly with your foot
• Remove plumb bob assembly and return to tripod accessory case.
• Remove head cover and stow it on the bracket
• Remove the theodolite from the carrying case
• Loosen the three nuts and pull levers away from carrying case base
• Grasp the right-side axle bearing with one hand and place your other hand below the main
housing to lift the theodolite from the carrying case base.
• Install the theodolite on the tripod
• Position theodolite on tripod head and secure it loosely with the bridge screw
• Center the circular level bubble using leveling screws.
• Look through the optical plummet eyepiece and adjust eyepiece until the circular marks are
clearly visible
• Adjust the theodolite on the tripod head until the station point is centered on the eyepiece circular
marks
• Tighten down the bridge screw to secure the theodolite in place.
• Install the illumination system
• Install the telescope eyepiece sunglass filter as necessary
• Proceed on to leveling the theodolite
NOTES:
If you’re on a slope, have 2 legs on the downhill side.
Once you’re close to level, plant one leg and move the 2 others while watching the optical plumb.
If placing a hub in a solid object, such as a tree, root, concrete or pavement, a nail will usually be
sufficient. If placed in the soil, obviously a nail will not be immobile or easy to find again. Thus, the nail is
usually placed in a wooded stake after the stake has been driven into the ground.
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To use a compass to take bearings off a real point on the landscape (as opposed to a map) use your
compass to measure the angle clockwise from magnetic north to this point on the landscape. This is
called magnetic bearing. Remember that the bearing is measured clockwise. Thus, if you think of north
as 12 O’clock on a watch, then a bearing to the right of that (say 1 o’clock) is greater than north, and a
bearing to the left of north (like 11 o’clock) is less than north. To determine the horizontal angle between
two points, simply subtract the two bearings. This difference will be the number of degrees between the
two points, referenced from where you are standing.
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In this section, you will learn how to measure ground distance using measuring tape and pacing.
3.5.1 Pacing
As discussed in Error! Reference source not found., pacing is using one’s normal steps to measure
distances. The following paragraph outlines how to do this.
Accurately measure a pacing course on level ground. Repeatedly pace off the course, counting off the
number of paces it takes to complete the distance. Keep a natural comfortable pace that can be held all
day. Don’t try to adjust to even standard, but try to count your pace to the course distance. It is easier to
measure the number of paces per meter (for example, 46 paces per 100 meters) than measuring number
of meters per pace. Measure your pace against different terrains and at different times of day, because
your pace may change between the morning and afternoon or when walking on different terrains
There are many methods to keep track of the distance traveled when using the pace count. Some of
these methods are: put a pebble in your pocket every time you have walked 100 meters according to your
pace count; tie knots in a string; or put marks in a notebook. Do not try to remember the count; always
use one of these methods or design your own method.
Certain conditions affect your pace count in the field, and you must allow for them by making
adjustments.
a) Slopes. Your pace lengthens on a downslope and shortens on an upgrade. Keeping this in mind,
if it normally takes you 120 paces to walk 100 meters, your pace count may increase to 130 or
more when walking up a slope.
b) Winds. A head wind shortens the pace and a tail wind increases it.
c) Surfaces. Sand, gravel, mud, snow, and similar surface materials tend to shorten the pace.
d) Elements. Falling snow, rain, or ice cause the pace to be reduced in length.
e) Clothing. Excess clothing and boots with poor traction affect the pace length.
f) Visibility. Poor visibility, such as in fog, rain, or darkness, will shorten your pace.
3.5.2 Stadia
The extra two cross hairs in the scope can tell you a horizontal distance. The
stadia distance (SD) is the distance between these two cross hairs. In this
example, SD= 15-13.45=1.55 ft. To get horizontal distance (HD ) the formula is
SD=100 HD. (This will be off by more if the vertical angle is very large) Then
there is the formula that sin^2 of the zenith * SD gives you your vertical angle.
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3.6 Graduated Rod
You must be able to sight readings on the graduated rod with the theodolite to take vertical
measurements. You can make the graduated rod taller by extending or telescoping the inner tubes of it.
Be sure to extended the largest diameter telescoping parts before the smaller diameter telescoping parts,
otherwise the numbers will be off. You can try this on your own and notice the difference between
measurements when you extend different parts of the rod.
From the vertical angle set up, the number on the graduated rod that falls between the crosshairs of the
viewer is the vertical height. Both the number read from the rod and the height of the eyepiece of the
scope should be recorded.
3.7 Auto-Level
3.7.1 Nivellement direct ou géométrique
Les méthodes de nivellement direct constituent l’arsenal le plus efficace pour déterminer l’altitude de
points particuliers. La précision des déterminations dépend du matériel employé (cf. §Error! Reference
source not found.) mais aussi et surtout, des méthodes, ce que nous allons aborder maintenant :
• Nivellement par rayonnement : la première mesure est effectuée sur un point d’altitude connue, de
façon à déterminer l’altitude du plan de visée. A partir de là, toutes les altitudes sont déterminées par
différence par rapport à ce plan. Cette méthode permet de lever rapidement un semis de points
matérialisés (sondages, points de berges, de fonds…). Elle présente néanmoins l’inconvénient de n’offrir
aucun contrôle sur les déterminations : toute erreur de lecture est indétectable et fatale.
• Nivellement d’itinéraires par cheminement :
c’est la méthode la plus couramment employée
pour déterminer les altitudes de points matérialisés,
non situés à une même distance d’une seule
station d’appareil. Elle est également plus sûre,
quant aux éventuelles erreurs de lecture, et plus
intéressante du point de vue de la précision des
déterminations : on dispose de méthodes de
compensation des erreurs très efficaces. Plusieurs
règles sont appliquées pour minimiser l’influence
des erreurs systématiques et accidentelles : les
portées équidistantes, les contrôles de marche, le
contrôle sur fermeture…
• Nivellement de franchissement : cette
méthode est beaucoup plus difficile à mettre en
œuvre et s’applique dans le cas de franchissement
de vallées, où le principe des portées équidistantes
est inapplicable. On travaille dans ce cas simultanément avec deux appareils, de part et d’autre de
l’obstacle (le cas idéal étant de pouvoir les aligner avec les mires), afin de minimiser les erreurs
instrumentales et atmosphériques.
• Nivellement d’auscultation : cette dernière méthode a pour objectif de déterminer la cote d’un repère
et ses variations dans le temps (barrage, pont, bâtiment). Elle nécessite l’application de tous les principes
énoncés précédemment, et plus encore : équidistance, réglage optimal du niveau, mires en invar,
contrôles, problèmes de réfraction accidentelle (intérieur/extérieur d’un bâtiment), sûreté des repères…
Pour résumer :
Le principe du nivellement géométrique est la mesure d’une différence d’altitude, ou d’une
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succession de différences, par rapport à un plan ou un point connu. Il est réalisé au niveau, et
la précision des mesures peut aller de 1/10ème de mm à quelques mm, selon les matériels et
protocoles mis en œuvre.
De manière générale, la relation entre l’altitude du point de départ R1 et le point d’arrivée R2
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d’un nivellement par cheminement est donné par la relation :
Z R2 =Z R1 +∑(AR− AV) Eq. 1
où AR représente les lectures Arrière (en rapport à la direction de l’itinéraire), et AV les lectures Avant.
Lorsque les altitudes des points de départ et d’arrivée sont connus, on peut alors calculer la fermeture du
cheminement :
f =ΔH obs −ΔH th Eq. 2
3.8 Theodolite
3.8.1 Theodolite Usage Tips
Convenient Horizontal Angle Measurement Method for Theodolites equipped with dual swiveling
horizontal plates:
1. align the top part of the theodolite with the lower swiveling plate such that an angle of zero
appears in the viewing window.
2. Tighten the upper plate such that the theodolite is locked to the lowering swiveling plate and
proceed to point this to the reference object which you wish to measure the horizontal angle from.
3. Tighten the lower swivel plate such that it locks the coordinate plane with zero aligned on the
reference point.
4. Loosen the upper plate and rotate the theodolite, aiming it at the desired object to measure the
horizontal angle between the object and reference point.
To use the horizontal fine adjustment knobs, the rough adjustment knobs must first be tightened
Once the theodolite is appropriately placed the person at the theodolite will need to read the vertical
angle, the horizontal angle, the vertical height, and use the stadia to get the horizontal distance.
3.8.2 Vertical Angles
1. Unlock the vertical clamp and tilt the eyepiece until the point of interest is aligned on the
horizontal lines. Lock the clamp in place. The point of interest will be whatever number on the
graduated rod is easiest to read.
2. Looking through the small eyepiece, use the minutes and seconds adjuster to align one of the
degrees on the vertical scale with the double lines just below it.
3. The reading is the degree that has been aligned and the minutes and seconds is read from the
right hand scale. See accompanying figure.
4. To complete the reading, it may be necessary to measure the distance from the theodolite to the
point of interest.
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3.8.3 Horizontal Angles Using a Theodolite
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This view through the small eyepiece shows the vertical and horizontal degree scales and the minutes
and seconds scale.
22
• Look for landmarks that will be permanent, you don’t want to include something in your survey
data that will not be able to be referenced later on.
• Pegging trees is possible, the peg will not move up while tree grows.
x-distance
x-distance
60
z-distance
17.6
y-distance
Ground Distance: 50m
Vertical Angle
Horizontal Distance: Ground Distance x cos(θ), x-distance = 50m x cos(60°) = 25 m
Vertical Distance: Ground Distance x sin(θ), z-distance = 50m x sin(60°) = 42.86 m
Horizontal Angle
Vertical Distance: Horizontal Distance x sin(θ) / cos(θ), y-distance = 25 m x sin(17.6°)/ cos(17.6°) = 8.00
m
-Also- Vertical Distance: Horizontal Distance x tan(θ), y-distance = 25 m x tan(17.6°) = 8.00 m
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4.2 Angle Calculations
Recording data in surveying requires precise angle measurements. Angles are usually expressed in
degrees, minutes and seconds (57° 42’ 30”). Sometimes, a precise angle is expressed in degrees with
many decimals (57.70833°), or as degrees, and minutes with decimals (57° 42.5’). If minutes are
expressed, the degrees must be an integer, and if seconds are expressed, the minutes must be an
integer. Seconds are typically expressed in integers.
It is important to be able to convert degrees in both directions. To convert from degrees, minutes and
seconds (dd.mm.ss), to degrees (dd.dddd):
58° 39’ 13” = 58° + 39’/60 + 13”/3600 = 58° + 0.65° + 0.00361° = 58.6536°
To convert decimal degrees (dd.dddd) to degrees, minutes and seconds (dd.mm.ss), subtract the integer
part and multiply the remainder by 60 to get minutes, then repeat for seconds.
Example: D = 49.5125°
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5.0 Appendix A: More Stadia Information
From http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/astro/stadia.htm (edit this)
The Stadia is a method of measuring distances rapidly with a telescope (usually on an engineer's transit
or an alidade) and a graduated rod. When the telescope is focused on the rod, the distance s intercepted
on the vertically-held rod between two stadia hairs seen in the eyepiece gives the distance D as D = ks,
where k, the stadia constant is often made to be 100. Therefore, if 6 ft is intercepted on the rod, then the
distance from the telescope to the rod is 600 ft. There are small corrections to this that will be mentioned
below. If the line of sight is inclined, the vertical angle is also measured and can be used to reduce the
results to horizontal and vertical distances. Stadia can give results correct to about 1 ft under the best
conditions, which is often sufficient, and can also serve as a check on more precise measurements.
The term stadia comes from the plural of the Greek stadion, the word for a distance of 185 to 192 metres
(607-630 ft). A very similar length is the modern furlong, or eighth of a mile, 660 ft. A "stadion" was also
an athletic venue, with lengths laid out for competition and seats for spectators. The Latin stadium, stadia
was a direct borrowing with the same meaning.
Distance over the ground was traditionally measured by long poles or rods laid successively end to end.
The ancient Egyptians used rope for the same purpose. This practice is reflected in the traditional rod,
pole or perch of 16.5 feet. This odd length came from dividing down an English mile of 5280 ft, first into
furlongs of 1/8 mile or 660 ft, then into tenths, or chains, of 66 ft, and finally into quarters of this, or 16.5
feet. Four rods make a chain, ten chains a furlong, and 80 chains a mile. The Gunter's chain of 100 iron
links and length 66 ft was much easier to use and carry than an ungainly pole, and gave more accurate
results. 10 square chains is an acre, so Gunter's chain was closely related to traditional measures of
distance and land areas. The engineer's chain of 100 links, each 1 ft long, replaced Gunter's chain, and
was itself replaced by the 100 ft steel tape, which is an excellent and easily handled way to measure
distances. Doing this is still called "chaining," however, and the people who do it are called chainmen.
Accurate chaining is subject to many errors, which are largely systematic, but with care they can be
overcome. These errors include thermal expansion and elasticity of the tape, as well as ground
irregularities.
Distances are now conveniently measured by timing modulated laser beams returned by retroreflectors.
Large distances can be covered at one leap, and the intervening ground does not have to be traversed on
foot. Stadia shares these advantages. Microwaves were first used for this purpose, but have now been
superseded by lasers. The main errors are in estimating propagation conditions, temperature and
humidity, which affect the velocity of light, and are often poorly known or vary over the path. Even without
consideration of these uncertainties, laser ranging is more accurate than stadia, but is also much more
expensive. We also have Global Positioning System location, which is accurate to roughly 1 metre (with
special care, centimetre accuracy is possible, but it requires work). In spite of these excellent alternatives,
it is still interesting to know the stadia method, which is often applicable in unusual circumstances.
The stadia method is an application of paraxial optics. The telescope consists of an objective (usually one
achromatic lens, but sometimes more) that produces an image of the distant scene close to its focal
plane, which is then examined by the eyepiece. We will be concerned only with the objective. The action
of the telescope objective is described by principal planes, nodal planes and focal lengths. Since the final
and initial media are the same, the nodal planes coincide with the principal planes, and the primary and
secondary focal lengths are equal. The telescope is mounted so that the outer principal plane of the lens
is a distance c from the axis of the instrument, that is vertically over the occupied location. If the distance
of the stadia rod from the instrument axis is D, then the object distance is D - c. The corresponding image
distance d behind the other principal plane is then given by 1/d + 1/(D - c) = 1/f.
Fine lines are etched on a glass reticle placed approximately at the focal point of the telescope objective.
These were once crosshairs made of spider web, and are still called crosshairs for that reason. There are
vertical and horizontal crosshairs for sighting purposes, and two shorter stadia hairs at equal distances
above and below the horizontal crosshair. The separation of the stadia hairs is denoted by i. The
eyepiece is adjusted so that the crosshairs are sharp, and
the telescope then focused so that the object viewed is
also sharp, so that their images occur at the same point.
We now make use of the unit angular magnification
property of the nodal points to establish that the angle
s/(D - c) of the rod intercept as seen from the outer nodal
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point is equal to the angle i/d at the inner nodal point, or 1/d = s/i(D - c). The relations are illustrated in the
diagram. When this is substituted in the lens equation, the result is f + fs/i = D - c, or D = (f/i)s + (f + c),
which is the fundamental stadia formula. The derivation is confused in Breed and Hosmer; the principles
are not clearly stated, and reference is made to a different diagram than the one appearing on the page,
possibly one from an earlier edition. I hope that this derivation will make things clear, since they really
aren't very difficult. Now, f/i will be a constant determined by the construction of the telescope and reticle,
and is usually called k, the stadia constant of the instrument. It is commonly 100, but a more accurate
value can be established by experiment if necessary. k = 100 corresponds to an angle of 0.01 radian, or
0.573°. The correction (f + c) is to be added to ks to find D. If f = 200mm and c = 100 mm, then (f + c) is
30 cm, or about 1 ft. This correction is sometimes ignored.
The formula just derived applies to a horizontal sight on a vertical rod, or to an inclined sight on a rod held
perpendicular to the direction of view. It is not easy to hold a rod perpendicular to the line of sight, so it is
held accurately vertical. If s is the intercept on a vertical rod, then s cos α would be the intercept,
approximately, if the rod were held perpendicular to the line of sight. The slant distance is, then, D' = ks
cos α = (f + c). Now it is easy to find the horizontal distance D = D' cos α and the vertical distance V = D'
sin α. At one time, tables were prepared for performing these calculations, but with pocket calculators
they are no longer necessary. A pocket calculator can reduce the data quickly and accurately, including
the correction (f + c) without any approximation.
References
C. B. Breed and G. L. Hosmer, The Principles and Practice of Surveying, 11th ed. (New York: John Wiley
& Sons, 1977). pp. 100-108.
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6.0 Appendix B: More Field Book Techniques
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7.0 Appendix C: Resources
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-34-331/ch5.htm
http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/GEOMETRONICS/docs/BasicManual2000_02.pdf
http://www.scribd.com/doc/2963203/BASIC-LAND-SURVEYING-GLOSSARY-ePalmetto
http://books.google.com/books?id=2gB7w9XlNJAC&pg=PA80&dq=surveying+horizontal+vertical+
angles&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0
http://jb.henry.free.fr/cours/Chapitre2.htm
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