Serviceability of Fabric

SERVICEABILITY
TEXTILE TESTING III
UNIT NO. 1
FIRST PART
©2004 www.vasantkothari.com 1
Ю INTRODUCTION
Ю SNAGGING
Ю PILLING
Ю FACTORS AFFECTING PILLING
Ю PILLING TEST
Ю ABRASION RESISTANCE
Ю FACTORS AFFECTING ABRASION RESISTANCE
Ю ABRASION TESTS
Ю WEAR
Ю WEAR OF TRIALS
Ю REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
PICTURE FROM PAGE 127
Have you ever had a favorite shirt that you had to
stop wearing because…
∂ It got a hole in it OR
∂ The edges became frayed OR
∂ Little balls of fiber collected on the fabrics ????
These types of physical changes in a fabrics
sometimes appear suddenly, but the process that
causes them usually occur gradually, as the textile item
is worn, used, and/or laundered.
These changes in the fabric are related to the

durability, or the period of serviceability, of the fabric.
A garment is considered to be serviceable when it is fit for its particular end use.
The particular factors that reduce the service life of a garment are heavily
dependent on its end use. Many people would equate the ability of a fabric to 'wear
well‘ with its abrasion resistance, but 'wear', that is the reduction in serviceable life,
is a complex phenomenon and can be brought about by any of the following factors:
 Change in Fashion
 Shrinkage
 Snagging & Pilling
 Fading of the Colour
 Failure of the Seam of Garment
 Wearing of edges of Cuffs, Collars, etc.
 Short fabrics.
Fabric ‘WEAR’, includes SNAGGING, PILLING & ABRASION

Changes are brought about by the exposure of the garment to a
number of physical and chemical agents during the course of its use.
Some of these agents are as follows:
1 Abrasion of the fabric by rubbing against parts of the body or
external surfaces.
2 The cutting action of grit particles which may be ingrained in dirty
fabrics and which may cause internal abrasion as the fabric is
flexed.
3 Tensile stresses and strains which occur as the garment is put on
or taken off and when the person wearing it is active.
4 The laundering and cleaning processes which are necessary to
retain the appearance of the garment.
5 Attack by biological agents such as bacteria, fungi and insects.
This is a particular problem for natural materials.
6 Degradation of the fabric by contact with chemicals which can
include normal household items such as bleach, detergents, anti-
perspirants and perfumes.
7 Light, in particular ultra-violet light, can cause degradation of
polymers leading to a reduction in strength as well as causing
fading of colours.
8 Contact of the garment with sharp objects leading to the
formation of tears.
SNAGGING
₪ A snag is a loop of fiber that is pulled from a fabric when
it is in contact with a rough object.
₪ Snagging can result in yarn breakage or in unsightly
puckering as the yarn is caught and pulled.
₪ Snags detract from the appearance of the fabric but do
not reduce any of Its other properties.
₪ Knit fabrics are particularly prone to snagging.
₪ Filaments yarns usually do not break as easily as staple
yarns; therefore, the problem of snagging is more evident
in fabrics constructed of filament yarns.
₪ Any fabric with long yarn float such as in a satin weave,
is more likely to snag than any other types of fabric
structures.
SNAGGING TEST
ASTM D 3939 ASTM D 5362
Ω Suitable for woven, knitted Ω More appropriate for

or home furnishing fabrics, lighter weight fabrics, and
has been used for
Ω Not suitable for light weight hosiery.
or open structured fabrics.
Ω In this test, fabric
Ω In this test, fabric
specimens are made into
specimens on a rotating covers for beans bags
cylindrical drum are subject and are randomly tumbled
to spiked balls, which in a cylindrical chamber
bounce randomly on the which has an inner
fabric surface, causing to surface of pins.
snag.
Ω e.g. Mace Ω e.g Bean Bag
Snag
Snagging Test Tester
In both tests, results are
©2004 evaluated using a visual scale.
www.vasantkothari.com 8
Mace Snagging Test
Mace Snagging Test
In the test a metal ball fitted with spikes
bounces randomly against a sleeve of the test
fabric as it rotates. The spikes only catch loops
of thread that are lying in a particular orientation
so that it is important to test both directions of a
fabric.
Four specimens, each one measuring
203mm X 330mm are tested. A seam is marked
on the back of the fabric 16mm from the shorter
edge. The fabric samples are then folded face to
face and sewn along the seam to form a tube.
The tube is turned inside out so that the face of the fabric is on the
outside. It is then slid over the cylinder of the machine and secured at
each end with a rubber ring.
A mace is placed on each of the four fabric samples so that the chain
holding it passes around the guide rod as shown in Fig. The machine is
then set to run for 600 revolutions (l0min).
When the test is complete the surface appearance of the specimen is
compared with a set of photographic standards and given a rating from
5 (no snagging) to 1 (severe snagging).
Bean Bag Snag Tester
Evaluates the snagging and picking
propensity of knit fabrics through a
procedure based on tumbling
specimens.
Features
∩ Two horizontal revolving chambers
with built-in tenter pins
∩ Multidirectional snagging simulates
end-use conditions
∩ Automatic shutdown revolution
counter
∩ Automatic pushbutton reset
SNAG POD
SNAGGING RESISTANCE TESTER
The SnagPod, octagonal in shape, incorporates 4
snagging bars, fitted with pins, inclined forward with the
direction of rotation.
The Pod rotates at

60rpm. The test duration is 2000
revolutions and takes 30 minutes
to complete.
Four specimens are

tested simultaneously. The
specimens are mounted on felt-
covered, polyurethane tubes.
After testing, the

specimens are graded against a
series of nine SnagPod Reference
Photographs and are assigned an
alpha-numerical
©2004 rating. www.vasantkothari.com 12
PILLING
PILLING
The PILLS are defined as bunches or balls of tangled fibers that are held
to the surface of fabric by one or more fibers and the PILLING RESISTANCE is
defined as the resistance to the formation of pills on the textile fabrics.
The pills are formed during wear and washing by the entanglement of
loose fibers which protrude from the fabric surface. Due to rubbing action these
loose fibres develop into small spherical bundles anchored to the fabric by a few
unbroken fibres.
As pills form due to migration of fibres from the constituent yarns in the
fabric, it follows that the reduction of pilling may be effected by reducing this
migratory tendency. Fibres such as wool, polyester and nylon have a tendency to
pill, but generally wool fibre pills tend to break off from fabric during normal wear
due to low tenacity. The pills of synthetic fibres do not break away from the fabric
easily and become more visible.
Pilling was originally a fault found mainly in knitted woolen goods made
from soft twisted yarns.
Mechanism of Pill Formation
Pill formation involves three distinct stages:
1) Fibres are drawn to the fabric surface as a result of some
mechanical action, and these form FUZZ.
2) The fuzz entangles into PILLS &
3) The pills wear off under continued mechanical action, such as
Rubbing, Laundering, Drying etc., during wear and cleaning.
Effects of Pilling
 Pilling rarely effects the actual durability of a fabrics but it affects the
physical properties of the fabric like appearance, handle etc.
 In Dyeing, the pills are likely to absorb more dye resulting in deep
shade in contrast to the ground and consequently cloth appears skittery.
 In Printing, the sharpness of the outlines of the printed design in the
fabric will be spoiled in the presence of pills.
 In Finishing, the presence of pills hamper to a great extent in the
production of a clean and clear finish.
Fibre Properties Affecting The Stages of Pilling
STAGE FIBER PROPERTIES
Friction
Fuzz Formation Stiffness
Breaking Strength
Abrasion resistance
Shape
Linear density
Entanglement Stiffness
Recovery
Friction
Elongation
Breaking Strength
Pill- wear off Flex-Life
Factors Affecting Pilling Formation
Pill formation is a dynamic process, since pills are constantly
forming and wearing off. If the formation rate is greater than the break
off rate, pills will build up on the fabric. The formation rate is influenced
by the number of fiber ends, linear density, length, cross sectional
shape, yarn twist & fabric construction. Any combination that allows
fibres to migrate to the yarn surface will increase the formation rate
Some of the important factors responsible for pilling are given
below:
1) Fiber Parameters
2) Yarn Parameters
3) Fabric Parameters
4) Dyeing & Finishing Parameters
5) Frictional or Abrasive Forces
6) Relative Humidity
Fiber Parameters
1) Fiber Type : It is seen that NYLON is most prone towards fizzing,
owing to its high strength, a moderate inter fiber friction, and low
stiffness. WOOL and ACETATE are low tenacity fibres so the fiber
breaks instead of pilling out, resulting in a short fuzz. VISCOSE,
DACRON & ORLON are intermediate in behavior.
2) Fiber Length : Fibres with short staple length usually favour pilling
because the number of binding will be less during spinning into yarn &
hence it will be less firmly bound to the yarn. Long continuous filaments
fibres do not normally form pills. These long filaments do not abrade or
break easily and therefore do not tend to migrate to the surface of a
fabric in wear or cleaning.
3) Fiber Fineness : Finer fibres give less resistance to distortion and

hence higher tendency to pill. Coarser fibers have less tendency to pill
because they are stiff.
4) Fiber Crimp : The pilling tendency falls with an increase in the
fiber crimp.
5) Fiber Structure : Tendency to pilling increases in crystallinity and

orientation of the chain molecules in fibres.
6) Fiber Cross Section : A circular cross section with a smooth

surface of the fiber allows the fiber to come to the surface of the fabric
and forms the pills. Irregular cross sections such as star shaped
sections etc and a rough surface reduces pilling.
7) Fiber Strength : Higher the strength of the fiber, greater is the

scope for pilling.
8) Inter Fiber Friction : High inter fiber friction reduces the pilling
tendency.
9) Fiber extensibility : Higher the extensibility of fiber, the less is the

tendency to pill.
Yarn Parameters
1) Yarn Type : Ring spun yarn is more resistant to pilling than Open
end spun yarn and Air jet spun yarn is the most pill resistant. During
ring spinning the longer and finer fibres tend to stay in the center of the
yarn and shorter and coarser fibres at the outside & this reduces the
pilling tendency.
2) Yarn Count : Pilling can be effectively control by using finer yarns.
3) Yarn Twist : The higher the twist in the yarn, the less is the pilling
because of compactness and because there is less protruding fibres in
the yarn.
4) Blends : Blended material has higher liability to pilling as compared
to the pure material, because of incompatibility between the fibres.
5) Yarn Hairiness : Pilling is less with hairy yarn.
6) Yarn Plying : Plied yarns are less prone to pilling than single yarn.
7) Yarn Evenness : The tendency to pilling is greater if the thik and
thin places are present in the yarn.
Fabric Parameters
1) Fabric Type : Knitted fabrics tend to pill more readily than woven fabrics
because greater amount of yarn surface area is exposed, low twist yarn.
2) Fabric Compactness : A very tight, compact construction, such as
denim, usually exhibits little or no pilling during its life. However, a loosely
knitted or woven fabric will have more tendency to pill. Any fabric with soft,
fuzzy surface will have good chance of pilling.
3) Fabric Structure : It appears that, when the fabric structure is open,
the freedom for fibres to migrate increases, facilitating formation of pill.
4) Fabric Weight : The pilling tendency falls with an increase in the weight
per unit area of the fabric.
5) Weave : The twill woven fabric gives substantially more pills than the
plain woven fabric. The long floats in twill weave expose longer length of
fibres and hence results in more pills.
6) Intersection : Insertion of higher intersection restricts the movement of
yarn in fabric and thus controls pilling.
7) Ends and Picks : Higher EPI/PPI, tight and compact fabric, less pills.
Dyeing & Finishing Parameters
After DYEING, fabric tenacity may be increased or reduced.
Again, a fabric surface is made rougher or smoother and hairiness
reduces or increases by the type of dye used and the method of dying
employed and the pilling tendency will be affected in accordance with
the properties of interfiber friction and tenacity.
Improper DRYING temperature may accelerate pilling.
CALENDERING is the another process where some more
pilling can take place due to the abrasion with the rollers in motion.
SINGEING facilitates the reduction of pilling tendency.
Relative Humidity
Reducing the R.H. from 80%-11% causes a marked decrease
in the pilling propensity, giving approx. five fold reduction in the peak
pilling of knitted fabrics.
Frictional or Abrasive Forces

Increase in frictional or abrasive force increases pilling.
PILLING TEST
PILLING TEST
ABRASION TUMBLING
There are more than 20 different test methods that

have been developed to determine the resistances of fabrics
to pilling. The measurement of pills is in two stages, the
formation of pills by means of laboratory-test apparatus
being followed by the evaluation of pills objectively or
subjectively.
ABRASION PILLING TESTERS
1)BRUSH AND SPOUNGE PILLING TESTER :
The instrument, shown in figure, has brushes that are rotated on
top of the specimen for specific period of time, causing the fibers to
loosen. The brushes are then replaced by sponges which are rubbed
against the specimen, causing the loosened fibres to entangled.
Six position tester accelerates

and simulates normal wear and pilling
propensity of woven and knitted fabrics
used in apparel and automotive
interiors by brush and/or sponging
specimens together in a circular motion
to form pills. Specimens are evaluated
under standard lighting conditions
using a pilliscope, light cabinet or
similar, against users standard fabrics
or piling photographs.
2) MARTINDALE PILLING TESTER
The Martindale Abrasion tester can be

used for assessment of pilling fabrics.
The normal sample holders are
replaced with light weight holders
which are keyed so that they may
have the vertical movement but
cannot turn on their axes.
The samples are given
multidirectional movement and are
rubbed against the standard fabrics.
After a predetermined number of rubs
the samples are examined. This may
be repeated in stage of 500 cycles up
to 3000 or 5000 and the rate of
development of pills are noted.
TUMBLING PILLING TESTERS
1) RANDOM TUMBLE PILLING TESTER
In this test fabric specimens are
subjected to a random rubbing motion
produced by tumbling specimens in a
cylindrical test chamber lined with a
mildly abrasive material. In order to form
pills that resemble those produced in
actual wear in appearance and structure,
small amounts of grey cotton lint are
added to each test chamber with the
specimens.
Three samples each 105mm square are cut at
an angle of 45° to the length of the fabric. The
edges of the fabric samples are sealed by a
suitable rubber adhesive to stop them fraying. All
three samples are then placed in one test
chamber which has been fitted with a fresh cork
liner and 25 mg of the cotton lint is added.
The machine is run for 30 min periods during

which time the samples are tumbled by an
impeller in the centre of the chamber. After
each 30 min cycle the fabric is assessed and
the chamber cleaned out and loaded with a
fresh supply of lint. The number and timing of
the cycles depend on the type of fabric being
tested and would be laid down in the relevant
specification. Figure shows the chambers of a
random tumble pilling tester.
2) ICI PILLING TESTER
For this test four specimens
each 125mm X 125mm are cut
from the fabric. A seam
allowance of 12mm is marked on
the back of each square. In two
of the samples the seam is
marked parallel to the warp
direction and in the other two
parallel to the weft direction. The
samples are then folded face to
face and a seam is sewn on the
marked line.
This gives two specimens
with the seam parallel to the
warp and two with the seam
parallel to the weft. Each
specimen is turned inside out
and 6mm cut off each end of
it thus removing any sewing
distortion.
The fabric tubes made are then mounted on rubber tubes so that the length of
tube showing at each end is the same. Each of the loose ends is taped with
poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) tape so that 6mm of the rubber tube is left exposed
as shown in Fig. All four specimens are then placed in one pilling box. The
samples are then tumbled together in a cork-lined box as shown in Fig.
The usual number of

revolutions used in the test is
18,000 which takes 5 h.
Some specifications require
the test to be run for a
different number of
©2004 revolutions.
A s s e s s m e n t O f P i l l i n g
The specimens are removed from the tubes and viewed using oblique
lighting in order to throw the pills into relief.
Evaluation of Pilling can be done OBJECTIVELY or SUBJECTIVELY.
OBJECTIVE methods characterize

pills in terms of their number, weight
and size.
SUBJECTIVE methods assessed
the pills either by comparing the pilled
samples with a set of standard
photographs or by following the
guidelines given in the British
Standards Institution’s rating scheme.
Grade 5 No or very weak formation of No. of Pills Grade
pills 0–4 5
5 – 10 4
Grade 4 Weak formation of pills
11 – 20 3
Grade 3 Moderate formation of pills 21 – 40 2
Grade 2 Obvious formation of pills 41 – 60 1
Grade 1 Severe formation ofwww.vasantkothari.com
©2004
pills 60 And Above 0
32
5 - no pilling
4 - slight pilling
3 - moderate pilling
2 - severe pilling
1 - very severe pilling
Pill formation is accompanied by
other surface phenomenon, such as
loss of cover, colour change, or the
development of fuzz. Since the
overall acceptability of a specific
fabric is dependent on both the
characteristics of the pills and the
other factors affecting the surface
appearance, it is considered
desirable that fabrics tested in the
laboratory be evaluated subjectively
with regards to their acceptability
and not rated solely on the numbers
©2004 www.vasantkothari.com
of pills developed. 33
ABRASION
RESISTANCE
Abrasion is just one aspect of wear and is the
rubbing away of the component fibres and yarns
of the fabrics.
Abrasion may be classified as follows :-
► Plane or Flat Abrasion –

A flat area of material is abraded.
► Edge Abrasion –
The kind of abrasion which occurs at collars and folds.
► Flex Abrasion –
In this case rubbing is accompanied by flexing and bending.
Factors Affecting Abrasion Resistance
1) Fiber Type :- It is thought that the ability of a fiber to withstand
repeated distortion is the key to its abrasion resistance. Therefore high
elongation, elastic recovery and work of rupture are considered to be more
important factors for a good degree of abrasion resistance in a fiber than its
high strength.
Nylon is generally considered to have best abrasion resistance.
Polyester and Polypropylene are also considered to have good abrasion
resistance. Acrylic and Modacrylic have a lower resistance. Wool, Cotton
and high wet modulus Viscose have a moderate abrasion resistance.
Viscose and Acetates are found to have the lowest degree of resistance to
abrasion.
2) Fiber Properties :- One of the results of abrasion is the gradual
removal of fibres from the yarns. Therefore factors that affect the cohesion
of yarn will influence their abrasion resistance. Longer fiber incorporated
into fabric confer better abrasion resistance than short fibres because they
are harder to remove from the yarn. For the same reason filament yarns
are more abrasion resistance than staple yarns made from the same fibres.
Increasing fiber diameter up to a limit improves abrasion resistance.
3) Yarn twist :- An optimum amount of twist in a yarn to give the best
abrasion resistance. At low-twist factors fibres can easily be removed from
the yarn so that it is gradually reduced in diameter. At high twist levels the
fibres are held more tightly but the yarn is stiffer so it is unable to flatten or
distort under pressure when being abraded.
Abrasion resistance is also reported to increase with increasing
linear density at constant fabric mass per unit area.
4) Yarn Crimp :- The crimp of the yarn in the fabric affects, whether the
warp or the weft is abraded the most. Fabrics with the crimp evenly
distributed between warp and weft give the best wear because the damage
is spread evenly between them.
5) Fabric Count :- The higher the fabric count the higher the resistance
to abrasion. Where there are more yarns to absorb energy from the
abradant force, the stress on each individual yarn is reduced.
The effect of fabric count on abrasion resistance is closely related
to yarn size and fabric thickness, which both can affect abrasion resistance
as well. The bigger the yarn and, therefore, the thicker the fabrics, the more
resistance they are to abradant force.
6) Float Length :- Long floats in a weave are more exposed and will
abrade faster, usually breaking
©2004
the yarn.
7) Chemical Finishes :- Some finishes which coat the fabric surface can
improve abrasion resistance. In contrast durable press finishes, which are
widely used on cellulosic fabrics, may decrease abrasion resistance.
Durable press finishes work by forming rather stable chemical
bonds between adjacent molecular chains. This can make fiber stiffer and
more brittle, and may restrict fiber movement in response to an abradant
force, causing the fabric to abrade more quickly.
8) Other factors :- Abrasion is also influenced by moisture and by the
direction of abrasive force.
The effect of moisture is complicated, in that it can either improve
abrasion resistance or cause fiber to abrade more quickly. Moisture can
work as a lubricant reducing the friction and slowing the abrasion process.
Similarly, fibres having lower tensile strength when wet may abrade more
easily when wet than when dry.
Depending upon actual wear that a fabric encounters, abrasion
may occur primarily in one direction of the fabric or it may be
multidirectional. Directional effects are more likely to occur in flat abrasion
than in other type of abrasion.
ABRASION TESTS
A number of important points require consideration before abrasion
resistance tests are carried out. The choice of method may be
governed by the types of apparatus available, the precision demanded
and so forth. Some of the more important points are outline below….
1) Type of Abrasion :- This may be plane, flex or edge abrasion or a

combination of more than one of these factors.
2) Type of Abradant :- A number of different abradants have been

used in abrasion tests including standard fabrics, steel plates and
abrasive paper or stones (aluminum oxide or silicon carbide). The severity
as well as the type of action is different in each case. For the test to
correspond with actual wear in use it is desirable that the abrasive should
be similar to that encountered in service. An important concern is that the
action of the abradant should be constant throughout the test. It is likely
that the abradant itself will wear during the test thus changing its abrasive
properties.
3) Pressure :- The severity of the abrasion will obviously be affected by
the pressure applied. Here again suitable standards must be set up.
High pressure will reduce the time taken to reach the end point of a
test but the acceleration of the destruction of the fabric may lead to
false conclusions.
4) Speed :- A rise in temperature of the sample can occur with high
rubbing speeds; this can affect the physical properties of thermoplastic
fibres.
5) Tension :- It is important that the tension of the mounted specimen is
reproducible as this determines the degree of mobility of the sample
under the applied abradant.
6) Direction of Abrasion :- In many fabrics the abrasion resistance in
the warp direction differs from that of the weft direction. Ideally the
rubbing motion used by an abrasion machine should be such as to
eliminate directional effects.
7) Abrasive Motion :- The rubbing movement may be reciprocating,
rotary, or multi-directional.
8) Backing the Specimen :- The hardness of the backing of the
specimen may affects the results. In some tests a hard backing is
©2004
used, in others a felt or foam rubber.
9) Cleanliness of the specimen and instrument :- The region where
abrasion taking place should be handled minimum. The abrasion region
should be free from foreign matters such as the wax, graphite etc.,
otherwise they will act as lubricants and affect the end point.
10) Condition of Specimen :- All fabrics should be conditioned in
standard testing room atmosphere, prior to testing.
11) End point of Test :- The end point may be the completion of a given
number of abrasion cycles, the appearance of a hole or broken threads,
the rupture of specimen. Automatic stop motions are often built into the
tester so that the motor is switched off as soon as a hole appears or the
specimen breaks.
12) Interpretation of Results :- No general rule is given on the
interpretation of the results from abrasion tests. The effect of special
finishing treatments can be assessed by determining the abrasion
resistance of the fabrics before and after the finishing treatments.
Abrasion resistance test is one of the series of different tests which are
used to the merit rating of the fabrics.
Assessment of Abrasion Damage
♠ Comparison of abraded specimen with an unabraded
specimen.
♠ The number of cycles required to produce a hole, broken
threads or broken strip.
♠ Loss in weight.
♠ Change in thickness.
♠ Loss in strength, e.g. tensile, tearing or bursting. The loss
may be expressed in terms of percentage of unabraded
fabrics.
♠ Change in other properties e.g. air permeability, luster.
♠ Microscopic examination of the damage to yarns and
fibres.
Methods to Test Abrasion
The following are the common tests to evaluated the abrasion
or wear resistance of fabrics commonly used in apparel.
1) Inflated Diaphragm Method :-
For light to medium weight fabrics. E.g. Shirting, Sheets, Skirts,
Sheets, Blouses, Slakes, Trousers etc.
2) Flexing and Abrasion Method :-
For Corduroy, Velour and Pile fabrics.
3) Rotary platform Method :-
For Heavy fabrics such as those used for Jeans, Overcoats,
Carpets and so on.
4) Accelerator method :-
For all types of fabrics.
5) Edge and Fold Abrasion Method :-
Fabrics frequently wear out on edges and folds such as the
cuffs, collars, sleeve, vertical creases of trousers and so on. The
resistance to such abrasion can be determine by this test methods.
ABRASION TESTING INSTRUMENTS
1)The W.I.R.A. Abrasion Tester :-
Circular specimens are mounted in holders and rubbed over
pads of abradants.
A standard worsted fabric may be used as the abradant.
Multidirectional or Unidirectional rubbing is possible.
Assessment is by appearance loss in weight, thickness.
2)The L.I.R.A. Abrasion Tester :-
Two inch wide strips of fabric, under tension, are
rubbed by a carborundum abrader which has a reciprocating motion.
The number of rubs are noted, or change in
strength after a given number of rubs.
3)The Shiefer Machine :-
A flat circular specimen and a flat circular abrasive surface are
used. Both rotate in same direction but their axes are slightly out of line
in order to produce multidirectional abrasion.
A thickness gauge is built into tester, visual examination of
fabric properties measured. 43
©2004 www.vasantkothari.com
4)The Wyzenbeek Tester :-
A strip of fabric rests on a cylindrical abrasive surface which is
given an oscillatory angular movement.
Emery paper is used as abradant.
Present loss in strength or residual strength noted after 250 cycles.
5) The Stoll Universal Tester :-
The stoll is a multipurpose instrument which can test
fabrics under various conditions – flat, flex, edge etc. The sample may be
tested wet or dry.
6) The L.I.N.R.A. Wear Tester :-
Two small samples of materials are mounted over
rubber diaphragms inflated to a hemispherical shape. These samples are
then carried in weighted heads so that they rest on a steel turntable
covered with an abradant base cloth. Small steel balls are embedded in the
turn table under the base cloth so that, as the turn table revolves under the
samples, the latter are also given a slight rotation every revolution of the
turntable to ensure that the samples are given equal wear in all directions.
The resulting wear is a combination of abrasion and flexing, and the end
point is determined by inspection.
7) The Taber Abraser :-
In this instrument the fabric is subjected to the wear
action of two abrasive wheels which press onto a rotating sample.
The wheels are arranged at diametrically opposite sides of the
sample so that they are rotated in the opposite direction by the
rotation of the sample and multidirectional abrasion is achieved.
The wheels normally used for testing textiles are the rubber base
resilient type composed of abrasive grains embedded in rubber.
These are made in different abrasive grain sizes. The loads used
can be 125, 250, 500 or 1000 gf (1.23, 2.45, 4.9 or 9.81 N).
Evaluation can be by: (1)
the number of cycles to a visual end-point, (2) residual breaking
load, or (3)percentage loss in breaking load.
8) The Accelerotor :-
The Accelerotor abrasion tester has an action that is quite different
from most other abrasion testers. This instrument uses the ‘impeller
tumbler’ method to abrade the specimen. The impeller is a two bladed unit
of an elongated S shape, 4.5 inch long and mounted on a central shaft
inside a cylindrical chamber, which is about 5.5 inch in diameter and 2.75
inch deep. Its inside surface being lined with the selected abrasive backed
by foam rubber. The 3 gms. fabric specimen is whisked and tumbled about
inside the chamber and hence suffers abrasion damage.
Evaluation by weight loss & by loss in strength.
9) Martindale Abrasion Tester :-
This apparatus is designed to give a controlled amount of

abrasion between fabric surfaces at comparatively low pressures in
continuously changing directions.
In the test circular specimens are abraded under known
pressure on an apparatus, shown in Fig., which gives a motion that is
the resultant of two simple harmonic motions at right angles to one
another. The fabric under test is abraded against a standard fabric.
Resistance to abrasion is estimated by visual appearance or by loss in
mass
©2004 of the specimen. www.vasantkothari.com 47
Four specimens each
38mm in diameter are cut using the
appropriate cutter. They are then
mounted in the specimen holders
with a circle of standard foam
behind the fabric being tested.
The test specimen

holders are mounted on the machine
with the fabric under test next to the
abradant. A spindle is inserted
through the top plate and the correct
weight (usually of a size to give a
pressure of 12kPa but a lower
pressure of 9kPa may be used if
specified) is placed on top of this.
The standard abradant should be
replaced at the start of each test and
after 50,000 cycles if the test is
©2004 continued beyond this number. 48
www.vasantkothari.com
10) B.F.T Abrasion Testing Machine :-
In B F T machine the designers have eliminated many of

the variables normally associated with abrasion testing. Special
attention is paid the following points :
† The end point of the test is determined by the machine – it

stops automatically when the end point is reached.
† The abrasion used in the various accessories is made of the

special steel whose abrasive characteristics remains constant and
are capable of being reproduced to an engineering specification.
† The machine is sturdily built and capable of being run smoothly

at high speeds for a long time.
† The results of tests on the machine have been examined

against a large volume of data on serviceability of fabrics. These
results can be analysed and expressed numerically and fabrics
may be ranked in order of merit.
FEATURES OF B.F.T. MACHINE
• The mechanical parts are
mounted on a rigid platform P.
• A solid aluminum carriage C is
reciprocate with a 1.5 in. stroke at
700 rpm by a crank and connecting
rod; a six digit counter records the
number of cycles.
The head H is mounted over a top of the reciprocating carriage and move
vertically due to parallel link motion.
Counterpoise weights are employed, so that with no weights on the
spigot S the movement is just balanced; hence known vertical loadings can
be obtained by adding the required weights to the spigot.
The control unit and the electric motor are mounted below the platform.
Three types of test are made and three sets of interchangeable
accessories are provided for Flex abrasion, Ball Toughness and Flat
Abrasion.
For FLEX TESTING the abradant is
a flex plate. The flex plate is a stainless
steel plate about 0.037 inch thick with one
edge tapered off and rounded to 0.017
inch diameter.
This plate is given a reciprocating
motion. Tension is applied to the test
specimen of 5” X 1” wide strip. The sample
is secured at one end over a row of stenter
pins on the carriage and then led round
the radiused edge of the flex plate and the
free end is then secured over the stenter
pins on the head H.
A load of 4lbs. is added to the spigot S and a 2 lbs. weight to the bell
crank lever and at this point the specimen will have a tension of 4lbs.
When the machine is switched on, the reciprocation of the carriage
causes the fabric to be repeatedly pulled back and fourth round the edge
of the flex plate and continuously flexing is achieved. Eventually the
fabrics breaks and switch is operated, automatically stopping the
machine. The number of cycles is read from the counter and recorded. 5
tests are carried out in warp way or weft way or both and the mean is
calculated. Since the number of cycles obtained is quite high, the mean
©2004 is divided by 1000 for easy
value www.vasantkothari.com
handling of the result. 51
The flex test is related to the
behavior of the fabric in internal
motion and also to the coherence
of the fabric structure and
roughness of individual fibres.
Local stress become very high
during flexing and individual fiber
is broken.
In other words the

flex abrasion can be
described as the effect of
application of short range
elastic strains to the
interior of the fabric and
these are of an oscillatory
nature.
FLEX RESULT, P = Mean value of 5 tests / 1000

In BALL TOUGHNESS test a
cover plate with hardened steel strip is
clipped on to the top of the carriage.
The test strip is mounted over this steel
plate and secured by stenter pins on
either side of carriage. The abradant is
3/16 inch ball bearing in a special
holder which is attached to the head H.
A load of 1.5 lbs. is added to the spigot.
The sample will be 6 inch X 1 inch in size. if the warp ball toughness is to
be tested, the long side of the specimen will be parallel to the weft.
With the motor running, the carriage reciprocates beneath the ball and in
time the ball penetrates the fabric and then contacts the hardened strip.
When this happen a very small current flows and machine switches off. 5
tests are carried out for warp and weft and mean values are recorded and
the ball toughness B is calculated by dividing 100 for easy handling of
results.
BALL TOUGHNESS,
©2004 B = Mean value of 5 tests / 100
In FLAT ABRASION the
abradant is a stainless steel
gauge mounted in a special
holder which is fixed to upper
head by springs. The test
specimen is stretched over a
resilient pad of conducting
material and clipped to the
carriage.
A 2 lbs. load is added to the spigot S. An extra counterpoise weight is

clipped to the rear end of the upper link of the parallel motion in order to
balance the mass of the gauge holder. After a certain amount of rubbing
the steel gauge comes into contact with the resilient pad and a current
flows which switches off the machine. 5 tests are conducted and the flex
resistance F is calculated by dividing 1000.
FLAT ABRASION, F = Mean value of 5 tests / 1000

Interpretation of Results --
For routine interpretation of results two methods of Wear assessment
are used :
METHOD 1 – The ‘Duty Factor’, D
The Ball and Flex results are presented as a harmonic mean
and this mean is termed the ‘Duty Factor’.
Duty Factor, D = 2 / ( 1 / B + 1 / P )
It was found that poor fabrics had low duty factors and good
fabrics, higher duty factor. For example, a poor overall fabric when
tested gives a value B = 2.6 and P = 3.5
Then the Duty factor, D = 2 / ( 1 / 2.6 + 1 / 3.5 ) = 3.00 and
For another fabric which suppose to be a good fabric, the
B = 24.7 and P = 46.4, giving
The Duty Factor, D = 2 / ( 1 / 24.7 + 1 / 46.4 ) = 32
METHOD 2 – The ‘Figure of Merit’, M
It is the harmonic mean of the ball, flex, and flat test
values.
Figure of Merit, M = 3 / ( 1 / B + 1 / P + 1 / F )
Low value of any of three results will reduce the figure of

merit. If a fabric has a weak link, M will be reduced. For example,
if B = 100, P = 100 & F = 100, M also will be equal to 100. But in a
fabric if B = 100, P = 100 & F = 2, then M will suddenly drop to
5.7.
Therefore the fabric designer has to find out the reason for
the materials low flat abrasion value. In many commercial end
uses, no weak links are permissible, e.g. in shirting, trouserings
and suiting. Generally, heavy work cloths require higher
standards that cloths for the leisure wear.
WEAR
Wear is the net result of a number of agencies which reduce
the serviceability of an article.
Some important agencies like bending and stretching, tearing,
abrasion, laundering and cleaning.
The nature of these wearing agents is so varied in type and
severity that it is virtually impossible to design a wear tester.
The laboratory approach, therefore, is to design instruments
which may test fabrics reactions to individual wearing agents.
It is necessary to study all the test results and search for the
relationships between laboratory tests and fabric performance in
actual service.
WEARER TRIALS
 The main purpose of laboratory tests is to obtain prior knowledge of
the performance of textile products in service.
 The assumption is made that when such tests are carried out, there is
some relationship between the results of the laboratory tests and the
performance of the items in use.
 Since actual wear is such a complex phenomenon, however, laboratory
tests are usually designed to evaluate only one or a limited number of
variables at a time.
 When comparing these trials with laboratory testing there are certain
important differences.
 In general user trials are not widely used in industry.
 The trials are often used to compare a new material or process against
one that is known to be satisfactory in service.
The cost of user trials may be very high.
Advantages of Wearer Trials
1 In a wearer trial the material receives treatment similar to that

experienced in normal wear.
2 A wearer trial tests all the components which make up a garment such as
buttons, sewing thread, seams, lining and cuffs. Laboratory tests on the
separate components may not show faults due to making up.
Disadvantages of Wearer Trials
1 Wearer trials are difficult to control and organise as it is necessary to rely
on the user to treat the article normally and to report accurately and at the
required time on its performance. It is quite possible that in a large trial some
garments may be untraced at the end of the work because of people
moving, losing interest or the article may become lost or destroyed.
2 Wearer trials are expensive because of the cost of producing garments
from a fabric rather than testing the fabric itself. Parallel trials may also be
needed using control garments if, for instance, an improved product is to be
compared with a standard product. There are also the personnel costs to be
considered in collecting, assessing and distributing articles.
3 It is impossible to achieve 'normal wear'. The intensity of wear depends on
a large number of factors: the type of employment of the wearer, the size
and weight of the person, the individual habits of the wearers, the time of
year. The weather also influences the wearing of other garments at the same
time as the test garment so having an effect on the pilling performance of the
test garment for instance.
4 One of the main problems in conducting wearer trials is that of finding
suitable groups of people who live similar lives, come together on a
regular basis and who will co-operate. It is not possible to select 50
people at random from the phone book as they would never be seen
again after handing out the garments. Suitable groups of people include:
police officers, nurses, post-office staff, boarding school pupils, prisoners
and students.
5 In a trial the garments are usually examined and assessed at regular
intervals. These assessments cannot be destructive as the garments
have to be worn again, so they have to be subjective. Ideally an
individual trial would finish at some definite change in property such as
the appearance of a hole but the criteria for judging that the end of a
garment's useful life has been reached are not usually as definite as this
and involve a judgment as to what is unacceptable. Therefore there is a
serious problem with the accuracy and reproducibility of these
assessments and their relationship with laboratory tests.
6 The most serious problem with wearer trials is that they take a very
long time to complete as their time span must be similar to that of the life
expectancy of the article being tested and are therefore no use if rapid
results are required.
Advantages of Laboratory Tests
1 They are rapid. Most tests can be completed within a day.
2 They are designed to give objective results. A numerical result
or rating allows one fabric to be ranked as being better or worse
than another fabric even when the differences between them are
small.
3 The tests are under the direct control of the tester. This allows
the conditions of test to be exactly specified and factors other than
those under test to be kept constant.
4 They can be reproduced. An identical test carried out on the
same fabric should ideally give the same result in any laboratory
and with any operator.
Disadvantages of Laboratory Tests
1 Laboratory tests can only imitate wear conditions
2 For a complete evaluation of a fabric it is necessary to use a
large range of expensive equipment.
3 Laboratory tests are rapid because many of them aim to
accelerate the natural causes of wear. Speeding up a test may
give false results, for example the continuous action of abrasion
tests may cause heating of the material which is not present in
normal use.
REFERENCES
µ PRINCIPLES OF TEXTILE TESTING
µ TEXTILE TESTING
µ PILLING
µ PHYSICAL TESTING OF TEXTILE
µ TEXTILE TESTING : FIBRES, YARNS & FABRICS
µ TEXTILE TESTING AND ANYLISIS

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Serviceability of Fabric

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SERVICEABILITY

TEXTILE TESTING III

PICTURE FROM PAGE 127

These changes in the fabric are related to the

Fabric ‘WEAR’, includes SNAGGING, PILLING & ABRASION

ASTM D 3939 ASTM D 5362

Ω Suitable for woven, knitted Ω More appropriate for

The Pod rotates at

Four specimens are

After testing, the

3) Fiber Fineness : Finer fibres give less resistance to distortion and

5) Fiber Structure : Tendency to pilling increases in crystallinity and

6) Fiber Cross Section : A circular cross section with a smooth

7) Fiber Strength : Higher the strength of the fiber, greater is the

9) Fiber extensibility : Higher the extensibility of fiber, the less is the

Frictional or Abrasive Forces

There are more than 20 different test methods that

Six position tester accelerates

The Martindale Abrasion tester can be

The machine is run for 30 min periods during

The usual number of

Evaluation of Pilling can be done OBJECTIVELY or SUBJECTIVELY.

OBJECTIVE methods characterize

► Plane or Flat Abrasion –

1) Type of Abrasion :- This may be plane, flex or edge abrasion or a

2) Type of Abradant :- A number of different abradants have been

This apparatus is designed to give a controlled amount of

The test specimen

In B F T machine the designers have eliminated many of

† The end point of the test is determined by the machine – it

† The abrasion used in the various accessories is made of the

† The machine is sturdily built and capable of being run smoothly

† The results of tests on the machine have been examined

In other words the

FLEX RESULT, P = Mean value of 5 tests / 1000

A 2 lbs. load is added to the spigot S. An extra counterpoise weight is

FLAT ABRASION, F = Mean value of 5 tests / 1000

Low value of any of three results will reduce the figure of

1 In a wearer trial the material receives treatment similar to that

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