Chapter 17 – SE106

Chapter 17

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN AND DETAILING OF RCC

STRUCTURES AS PER CODAL PROVISIONS

J. N. Bandyopadhyay,
Department of Civil Engineering,
IIT, Kharagpur.

Abstract: This note has two parts. Part 1 explains the salient points of earthquake resistant
design, importance of ductility, its definition and the influencing factors, design and detailing for
ductility of girders, columns and beam-column connections. Three numerical problems have been
solved to illustrate the applications of the theory in the design. Part 2 discusses the various
sources of earthquake damages and several issues of earthquakes. Though the structural
designers are involved in designing against the vibration mainly, it is emphasized that the
awareness to other issues is also important to have a comprehensive approach to earthquake
resistant design and construction.

1. PART 1:

1.1 Introduction:

The earth tremor produces an equivalent horizontal thrust over and above the load taken up
commonly for the design. The simplest consideration, based on elastic design, is as follows:

i. Increase dead load and imposed load by 20 percent to allow for vertical movement.
ii. The magnitude of horizontal thrust depends on the acceleration of the tremor ranging
from 1m/sec2 in firm compact ground to 4m/sec2 in alluvial soil and filling.

Normally, for buildings up to 6m in the height, horizontal thrust of almost one-tenth of the
mass of the building is sufficient for all shocks except the major ones. The horizontal shearing
force on the building at any level is between 1/8th and 1/10th of the total weight (dead +
imposed loads) of the structure above this level.

iii. Calculation of bending moments and shearing forces on columns and floor beams is
similar to that of frames subjected to wind pressure.
iv. All parts must be efficiently bonded together so that the structure acts as a unit.
v. Panel walls, finishes and ornaments must be permanently attached to the frame to
ensure that they do not collapse independently in the event of a shock.
vi. Separate footings of columns should be connected by ties to resist the compressive
thrust or tensile pull of magnitude 1/10th of the load on the footing.

Structures designed on this simple elastic principle may even survive when subjected to severe
earthquake due to the following:

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Chapter 17 – SE106

i. Yielding at critical sections increases the period of vibration and helps to absorb
greater amounts of input energy.
ii. Assistance of non-structural partitions and the dissipated energy as they crack.
iii. Yielding of foundations helps to reduce the predicted response.

It is uneconomical to design structures to withstand major earthquakes elastically. Therefore, the

trend of design is that the structure should have sufficient strength and ductility to withstand large
tremors inelastically. For this the interconnections of the members must be designed particularly
to ensure sufficient ductility.

Hence, the objectives of the earthquake resistant design of structures are as follows:

i. The structure should be able to resist earthquakes of minor intensity without damage.
Such frequent but minor shocks are expected to be within its elastic range of
stresses.
ii. The structure should be able to resist moderate earthquakes with minor structural
and some non-structural but repairable damage.
iii. The structure should be able to resist catastrophic earthquakes with severe structural
damages but without collapse.

1.2 Ductility:

Ductility (µ) of a member or structure is defined as the ratio of absolute maximum deformation
(elongation, curvature or rotation) to the corresponding yield deformation (Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Thus:
∆u
µ= with respect to displacement (1)
∆y

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Chapter 17 – SE106

Φu
= with respect to curvature (2)
Φy
θu
= with respect to rotation (3)
θy
Ductility of a beam is normally determined for a particular cross section. A beam of width = b,
effective depth = d, depth of the neutral axis = kd (in elastic range) and = xu (in the limit state of
collapse), yield strain of tensile steel = εy, yield curvature = φy, we know:

εy
Φy = d −kd (4)
fy
where εy = Es
(5)

k = − mp + m 2 p 2 + 2mp (6)
280
m = modular ratio =
3σ cbc
σ cbc = Permissible stress of concrete in bending compression.
Similarly,
εu
Φu = , where εu = ultimate strain of concrete = 0.0035. (7)
xu
xu 0.87 f y Ast 0.87 f y p
= = ≤ ( xu ,max d ) . (8)
d 0.36 f ck bd 0.36 f ck

Substituting Eqs. (4) and (7) in Eq. (2), we have:

ε u ⎛ d − kd ⎞
µ= ⎜ ⎟ (9)
ε y ⎝ xu ⎠
εu ⎛ 1 + mp − m2 p 2 + 2mp ⎞
Or µ= ⎜ ⎟ (10)
fy Es ⎜⎝ xu d ⎟
⎠

If the beam has compression steel (Asc) where the compressive stress of steel is fsc, we have:
0 . 36 f ck bxu + f sc Asc = 0 . 87 f y Ast
xu
Accordingly, can be obtained as:
d
xu 0.87 f y Ast f sc Asc
= − . Using Ast = p bd and Asc = pc bd, we get
d 0.36 f ck bd 0.36 f ck bd
xu fy ⎛ f ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 0.87 p − sc pc ⎟⎟ . (11)
d 0.36 f ck ⎝ fy ⎠
When fsc= 0.87 fy, Eq. (11) gives:

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Chapter 17 – SE106

xu 0.87 f y x
= ( p − pc ) ≤ u ,max (12)
d 0.36 f ck d

Again, from the strain diagram of the beam at the collapse stage,
xu ε xu εu
= u Or = (13)
d − xu ε ym d ε u + ε ym

where
εu = ultimate strain of concrete = 0.0035
εym = maximum strain in tensile steel = µs εy
µs = strain ductility in steel.

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Chapter 17 – SE106

From Eq. (12), it can be written

0.36 f ck ⎛ xu ,max ⎞
( p − pc ) ≤
0.87 f y ⎜⎝ d ⎠⎟
. (14)

Employing Eq. (12) into Eq. (13)

0.36 f ck ⎛ εu ⎞
( p − pc ) ≤ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (15)
0.87 f y ⎝ ε u + ε ym ⎠

From the above equations, the ductility µ can be obtained from either Eq. (10) and Eq. (12) or Eq.
(9) and Eq. (13).

1.3 Factors influencing the ductility:

i. Steel ratio (p-pc) for doubly reinforced beam and p for the singly reinforced beam
(Fig. 4),
ii. Grades of steel and concrete (Fig. 4 with Fe 415),
iii. Shape of the cross section – T beam or rectangular beam,
iv. Lateral reinforcement.

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Chapter 17 – SE106

1.4 Design for ductility:

The design must satisfy both strength and ductility. The ductility can be ensured by proper
detailing of reinforcement, bar cut-offs, splicing and joint details. The following are the guidelines:

i. The structural layout should be simple, regular and should avoid any offsets from
beams to columns or columns from floor to floor. Stiffness of columns should
gradually change from floor to floor.
ii. The tensile steel beam should be restricted and more compression reinforcement
should be provided. Compression reinforcement should be enclosed by stirrups to
avoid buckling.
iii. The designer should aim to see that the inelasticity is restricted to beams only and
columns should remain elastic. To achieve this, all beam-column joints should follow:
∑M column > ( 1.2 )∑ M beam (16)
iv. The beams should have strong shear strength to avoid non-ductile shear failure by
providing sufficient shear reinforcement.
v. At sections of maximum moment in beams, closed stirrups or spirals will increase the
ductility of the members.
vi. The columns should preferably have spiral reinforcement if the axial load exceeds 0.4
times the balanced axial load of the columns.
vii. Sufficient splices and bar anchorages must be provided to prevent bond failures.
viii. All beam-column connections must be monolithic.

1.5 Detailing for ductility:

The following are the provisions of IS: 4326-1993, IS: 13920-1993 regarding the detailing for
ductility.

• Girders:

i. At any section of a flexural member and for the top as well as bottom reinforcement,
Ast Ast
the reinforcement ratio p (= for rectangular and for flanged section, and Ast =
bd bw d
Area of steel on either face of rectangular or flanged beam) should be as given
below, provided further that p should not exceed 0.025.

0.24 f ck
p> (17)
fy
ii. At least two bars should be provided continuously both at top and bottom (Fig. 5).
iii. The positive moment of resistance at the face of the joint should not be less than
one-half of the negative moment of resistance provided at that face of the joint.
iv. Each of the negative and positive moments of resistance at any section along the
length of the members should be at least one-fourth of the maximum moment of
resistance provided at the face of either joint.
v. Normal detailing rules are adequate and should be followed carefully.
vi. At section where the beam ends in a column, both the top and bottom bars of the
beam should be anchored into the column so as to develop their full strength in bond
beyond the section of the beam at the face of the column. To avoid congestion of
steel in a column, the use of hair pin type of bars spliced outside the column instead
of anchoring the bars in the column is suggested (Fig. 6).
vii. In addition to the shear due to factored loads, shear force due to plastic moment
capacities at the ends of the beam is to be considered to provide vertical stirrups as

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Chapter 17 – SE106

far as possible. The spacing of the stirrups should not be more than 0.25d in a length
of 2d near each end of the beam and 0.5d in the remaining length of the beam (Fig.
5).

• Columns:

i. Reinforcement of columns will follow that of girder if the average axial stress on
column under earthquake condition is less than 0.1 fck. If the average axial stress is
more than 0.1 fck , special confining reinforcement is required at the column ends.

(A) The cross-sectional area of bars forming circular hoops or spirals used for con confinement
of concrete is given by:
⎛A ⎞f
asp = 0.09 pDc ⎜ g − 1⎟ ck (18)
⎝ Ac ⎠ fy
where,
π
asp = area of spiral wire = φsp2
4
φsp = diameter of the spiral wire
Dc = outer to outer diameter of the core
Ag = gross area of the section
π
Ac = area of the core = ( Dc )2
4
fy = characteristic strength of spiral reinforcement but not greater than 415 N/mm2.
P = pitch of the helix.

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(B) In the case of rectangular closed stirrups used in rectangular sections, the area of bars is
given by
⎛A ⎞f
asp = 0.18 ph ⎜ g − 1⎟ ck
⎝ Ac ⎠ fy
where,
h = longer dimension of the rectangular confining stirrup (Fig. 7).

ii. The special confining steel where required must be provided above and below the
beam connections in a length of the column at each end which is largest of the
following:

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Chapter 17 – SE106

• One-sixth of clear height of the column,

• Larger lateral dimension of the column,
• 450 mm.
The pitch of the lateral ties should not exceed 100 mm (Fig. 8).

iii. Shear reinforcement must be provided in columns to resist the nominal shear
resulting from the lateral and vertical loads at limit state of collapse of the frame.
Further, the increased shear strength of column should be considered as per clause
40.2.2 of IS 456:
τ c' = τ cδ
⎛ 3Pu ⎞
= τ c ⎜1 + ⎟⎟ (19)
⎜ A f
⎝ g ck ⎠
where τ c' = increased shear strength,
Pu = axial compressive force in Newtons,
Ag = gross area of concrete section in mm2,
fck = characteristic compressive strength of concrete,
τc = design shear strength of concrete given in Table 19 of IS 456.

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Chapter 17 – SE106

Further, δ should not be more than 1.5. The spacing of shear reinforcement should not exceed
0.5d where d is the effective depth of the column from the compression fibre to the tension steel.

iv. Spiral columns should be used wherever possible, especially if Pu > 0.4 Pb, where Pb
is the balanced axial load.

• Beam-Column Connections:

The beam-column joints are generally the weakest links in a structure. Therefore, the following
special attention should be given:

1. Anchoring of beam reinforcement in the joint.

2. The ties as required at the end of the column should be provided through the
connection as well. However, the amount of reinforcement will be reduced to half
of this value if the connection is confined by beams from all the four sides.

1.6 Numerical Problems

Example 1:

An inner beam of one R.C. frame of span 6 m has a negative bending moment of 300
kNm and a shear force of 250 kN at the face of beam-column joint due to gravity and earthquake
loads. Design the beam for ductility using M 25 and Fe 415.

Solution 1:

(a) Areas of steel

Assume the dimensions of the section as 300 x 600 mm (Fig.9: Ex.1). With effective
cover as 55 mm, we have d ′/D = 0.1

Mu/bd2 = 1.2(300)106/300(545)(545) = 4.04

Table 20.3 of the book “Reinforced Concrete Limit State Design” by A.K. Jain (6th Edition) gives
pt = 1.2554 and pc = 0.6276. Minimum pt = 0.24 25 /415 = 0.267% and maximum pt = 2.5%.
Hence, we have Ast = 1.2554(300)(545)/100 = 2052.58 mm2. Provide 2-28 T + 2-25 T (1231
+ 981 = 2212 mm2) giving pt provided = 1.353%. Asc = 0.6276(300)(545)/100 = 1026.13 mm2.
Provide 1-28 T + 1-25 T (616 + 491 = 1107 mm2) giving pc provided = 0.677%.

(b) Shear force

Vu = 1.2(250) = 300 kN gives

τv = Vu/bd = 300/(0.3)(545) = 1.83 N/mm2

τc (from Table 19 of IS 456 with pt = 1.353%) = 0.716 N/mm2

τ cmax (from Table 20 of IS 456) = 3.1 N/mm2

Since τc < τ v < τ cmax , we have to provide stirrups. Providing 10 mm - 2 legged stirrups
2
(Asv = 157 mm ), we have the spacing of stirrups as

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Chapter 17 – SE106

sv = 0.87 fy Asv d/(Vu - τ c bd) = 0.87 fy Asv/( τ v - τ c )b

= 0.87(415)(157)/(1.83 – 0.716)300 = 169.61 mm.

Since maximum spacing is d/4 = 136.25 mm up to 2d (= 1090 mm) and then d/2 =
272.50 mm, provide 10 mm - 2 legged stirrups @ 130 mm c/c up to 1200 mm from the face of the
column and then @ 260 mm c/c beyond that symmetrically. The first stirrup may be provided at a
distance of 30 mm from the face of the support. There will be 10 stirrups in 1200 mm.

Example 2:

Design the column of a multistoried building for ductility with M 25 and Fe 415 subjected
to an axial force of 2000 kN and bending moment of 416.67 kNm.

Solution 2:

Let us take the column dimensions as 500 x 500 mm

Mu = 1.2(416.67) = 500 kNm

Pu = 1.2(2000) = 2,400 kN

Pu/fckbD = 2400/25(5)(50) = 0.384

Mu/fckbD2 = 500/25(125) = 0.16

d ′/D = 75/500 = 0.15

Chart 45 of SP-16 gives p/fck = 0.16. With p = 0.16(25) = 4%, we have Ast = 4(500)(500)/100 =
10,000 mm2. Providing 4-32 T + 8-28 T + 4-25 T (= 3217 + 4926 + 1963 = 10,106 mm2), let us
design the lateral ties (Fig. 10: Ex.2).

Lateral ties

Diameter is at least 32/4 = 8 mm or 6 mm, whichever is more. Let us take the diameter of
ties as 8 mm.

Maximum pitch is the lesser of (i) 500 mm, (ii) 16(25) = 400 mm, and (iii) 300 mm. So, we
provide 8 mm ties @ 300 c/c.

Confining reinforcement

Here, P/A = 2400 (103)/(500)(500) = 9.6 N/mm2 > 0.1 f ck (= 2.5 N/mm2). Hence, confining
reinforcement shall be provided.

From the equation asp = 0.18 p h{(Ag/Ac) – 1} (fck/fy), we have,

asp = 113 mm2 for 12 mm diameter bars

h = 500 – 2(40 + 12) = 396 mm > 300 mm

revised h = 396/2 = 198 mm < 300 mm.

Ag = 500(500) = 250000 mm2

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Chapter 17 – SE106

Ac = {500 – 2(40 + 12 + 8)} (380) = 144400 mm2

Ag/Ac – 1 = 0.7313

So, p = 113(415)/{0.18(198)(0.7313)(25)} = 71.9 mm

Provide confining stirrups of 12 mm diameter @ 70 mm c/c as shown in Fig.10: Ex.2.

Distance of confining stirrups (Floor height = 3200 mm)

The distance is the largest of (i) height of column/6 = 3200/6 = 533.33 mm, (ii) b = 500
mm, (iii) 450 mm. So, provide the confining stirrups for a distance of 700 mm (eleven numbers)
from the face of the joint.

Example 3:

Check (i) if the inner beam-column joint of a reinforced concrete frame satisfies weak
girder-strong column proportion and (ii) shear in beam and column using M 25 and Fe 415. The
details are given below:

Clear span of the left beam = 5 m, clear span of the right beam = 4 m, slab thickness =
120 mm, finish on slab = 50 mm, live loads on floor = 2.0 kN/m2, axial load on column = 800 kN,
beam dimensions = 300 x 600 mm, steel at top of the beam on either side = 1.6% (4-25 T + 2-20
T), steel at bottom of the beam on either side = 0.8% (2-25 T + 1-20 T), column dimensions = 300
x 600 mm, column reinforcement = 3.827% (8-28 T + 4-25 T), and height of storey = 3.2 m.

Solution 3:

(a) Beam-column joint in bending about the weak axis (using tables of SP-16)

Assuming d ′/d = 0.1 and with pt = 1.6%, Table 51 of SP-16 gives Mu/bd2 = 4.77. This
gives the hogging moment capacity as Mu = 4.77(300)(545)(545) = 425.04 kNm. The sagging
moment capacity is obtained as Mu/bd2 = 2.503 from Table 3 of SP-16 for d ′/d = 0.1 and p =
0.8%.

Mu = 2.503(300)(545)(545) = 223.04 kNm

∑ M girder = 425.04 + 223.04 = 648.08 kNm

For column Pu = 1.2(800) = 960 kNm gives Pu/fckbD = 1.2(800)/(25)(3)(60) = 0.213 and
p/fck = 3.827/25 = 0.153. Chart 32 of SP-16 gives Mu/fckbD2 = 0.256. The column moment Mu =
0.256(25)(300)(600)(600) = 691.2 kNm.

∑ M column = 2(691.2) = 1382.4 kNm

We need to satisfy ∑ M c > 1.2 ∑ M g . Here,

∑ M c {= 1382.4 kNm} > 1.2 ∑ M g {= 1.2(648.08) = 777.7 kNm}

So, the requirement is satisfied.

(b) Shear capacity of left beam having spacing at 4 m c/c

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Chapter 17 – SE106

Live loads = 4(2) = 8 kN/m

Dead load of slab = 4(0.12 + 0.05)(25) = 17.0 kN/m

Dead load of web of beam = 0.3(0.48)(25) = 3.6 kN/m

Total dead load = 20.6 kN/m

Factored shear force due to gravity loads = 1.2(20.6 + 8)(5)/2 = 85.8 kN

Factored shear force due to plastic hinge = 1.4(648.08)/5 = 181.46 kN

Thus, Vu = 85.8 + 181.46 = 267.26 kN

τv = 267.26/300(0.545) = 1.63 N/mm2

τc (from Table 19 of IS 456 for p = 1.6%) = 0.756 N/mm2

τ cmax (from Table 20 of IS 456) = 3.1 N/mm2

Since τc < τ v < τ cmax , we provide 8 mm - 2 legged stirrups (Asv = 100 mm2) of spacing

sv = 0.87 fy Asv/( τ v - τ c )b = 0.87(415)(100)/(1.63 – 0.756)(300) = 137.7 mm c/c.

The maximum spacing of stirrups for a distance of 2d (= 1090 mm) = 0.25(545) = 136.25
mm. Beyond that distance, the spacing = 0.5(545) = 272.5 mm.

Since, the spacing calculated is 137.7 mm for 8 mm - 2 legged stirrups, let us change the
diameter of stirrups as 10 mm beyond 1090 mm, for which the spacing is

0.87(415)(157)/(1.63 – 0.756)(300) = 216.36 mm c/c.

Let us then provide 8 mm - 2 legged stirrups @ 130 c/c up to 1.2 m, the first one at a distance of
30 mm from the face of the joint. This needs ten stirrups. Beyond 1.2 m, provide 10 mm - 2
legged stirrups @ 200 c/c, symmetrically.

(c) Checking of column for storey height = 3600 mm

Factored shear in column Vu = 1.4(648.08)/3.6 = 252.03 kN. This gives

τv = 252.03/3(60) = 1.4 N/mm2

τc (from Table 19 of IS 456 with 1.913% Ast at each face) = 0.806 N/mm2. This shall be
multiplied with a factor = 1 + 3(1.2)(800)/(30)(6)(25) = 1.64. However, multiplying factor is limited
to 1.5. So, τ c = 1.5(0.806) = 1.209 N/mm2.

τ cmax (from Table 20 of IS 456) = 3.1 N/mm2

Since, τc < τ v < τ cmax , we provide 8 mm - 2 legged mild steel stirrups, for which the
spacing is

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Chapter 17 – SE106

sv = 0.87 fy Asv/( τ v - τ c )b

= 0.87(250)(100)/(1.4 – 1.209)(300) = 379.58 mm.

The maximum spacing is 0.5(545) = 272.5 mm. Hence, provide 8 mm - 2 legged mild
steel stirrups @ 250 mm c/c except in the confining steel zone.

(d) Confining steel

Here, axial stress = 1.2(800)/30(6) = 5.33 N/mm2 > 0.1 fck (= 2.5 N/mm2), we provide
confining steel of rectangular closed loops of spacing p which is lesser of 0.25(300) and 100.
So, p = 75 mm c/c. h = 200 mm (see Fig.11, Ex.3).

asp = 0.18 p h{(Ag/Ac) – 1} (fck/fsp)

= 0.18(75)(200)[{(300)(600)/(184)(504)} – 1] (25/415)

= 153.05 mm2

Provide 2-10 mm bars = 157 mm2. These confining steel bars shall be provided for a
distance greater of (i) storey height/6 = 3600/6 = 600 mm, (ii) b = 300 mm or (iii) 450 mm. So, we
provide 8 numbers of 2-10 mm @ 75 c/c up to 630 mm from the joint. The first one is at a
distance of 30 mm from the joint.

2. PART 2:

2.1 Sources of earthquake damage:

Vibration of the structure in response to ground shaking at its foundation is the concern of the
structural engineer, and which is taken into account by codal provisions of the different seismic-
resistant design codes. However, these codes do not include any provision due to other effects,
which may even exceed that due to vibration, as the procedure of their estimation and the needed
steps for the design are outside the scope of the structural engineering discipline. Even then, it is
essential that the structural engineer should be aware of the different seismic hazards in order to
advise the client of potential damage involved in selecting sites in such zones. Hence, the first
step in the design procedure of a future structure should be the analysis of the suitability of the
site selected with proper consideration for the potential of any one of the following types of
damage.

The different ‘Direct’ and ‘Indirect’ seismic effects are as follows:

2.1.1 Direct effects:

• Ground failures, which include Surface faulting, Vibration of soil (or effects of seismic
waves), Ground cracking, Liquefaction, Ground lurching, Differential settlement, Lateral
spreading and Landslides.

(A) Damage due to surface faulting:

These damages to buildings and facilities along the fault scarps vary widely from completely
demolished houses to rupture of the foundations, tilting of the foundation slabs and walls.
Sometimes houses also have minor damage.

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(B) Damage due to liquefaction:

The instability of the soil in the area affected by internal seismic waves can cause significant
damage. The mechanical characteristics of the soil layers, the depth of the water table and the
intensities and duration of the ground shaking influence the soil response. Deposits of loose
granular materials if present in the site may be compacted by the ground vibrations induced by
the earthquake. This will cause large settlement and differential settlements of the ground
surface. Further, the compaction of the soil may result in the development of excess hydrostatic
pore water pressures of sufficient magnitude to cause liquefaction of the soil, resulting in
settlement, tilting and rupture of structures.

The seismic-resistant design provisions of most codes only assure an effective design and
construction of structures against damage due to the possible vibratory response of the structure
to the shaking introduced at their foundation by the ground. However, it may not be possible to
have success in all such cases. The only option remains in those areas is to prohibit the
construction of building structures there.

(C) Damage due to ground shaking:

Integrated field inspection and post-earthquake analyses of structural damage due to earthquake
shaking is one of the most effective means of having expertise knowledge on seismic response
with a view to improving the state of the art and of the practice in seismic-resistant design and
construction. Such integrated inspection and analyses revealed that in addition to the soil
conditions mentioned above, the seismic performance of a structure is very sensitive to type of
foundation; configuration of the structure; structural material; and design and construction
detailing.

(D) Damage due to sliding of superstructure on its foundation:

One of the basic guidelines in the seismic-resistant design and construction of structures is that
the whole structure-foundation system should work as a unit, and that the superstructure be tied
or anchored properly to the foundation.

• Vibrations transmitted from the ground to the structure.

(E) Damage due to Structural Vibration:

i. Wood-Frame Houses:

The inertia forces develop during the vibratory response of a structure to earthquake ground
shaking whose intensity depends on the product of the mass and acceleration. Hence, it is of the
utmost importance to reduce the mass of the structure to a minimum. It is obvious that timber is
the most efficient earthquake-resistant material for low-rise buildings among the traditional
structural materials - timber, masonry, concrete, steel and aluminum. However, provision of
proper lateral bracing and tying of all components together from the roof down to the foundation
are to be followed.

ii. Concrete structures:

Concrete is a comparatively heavy material and have a very good compressive strength. Due to
its very small tensile and flexural strengths steel reinforcement is provided when used in
structures. Such reinforced concrete can be used effectively in seismic-resistant construction. To
overcome its relatively low strength per unit weight when normal weight aggregates are used, the
use of lightweight aggregate concrete offers a significant advantage in seismic regions.

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For regions of moderate to high seismic risk it is necessary to reinforce the concrete structural
members carefully: the proper amount and correct detailing of the reinforcing steel plays an
important role in the seismic response of a reinforced concrete structure.

iii. Steel structures:

Steel comes out of steel plants having excellent quality control. The stiffness per unit weight of
steel is practically the same as of any other traditional constructional material. However, its
strength, ductility and toughness per unit weight are significantly higher than concrete and
masonry materials. Accordingly, the slenderness of steel structural members usually exceeds
significantly that of other structural members. Hence, buckling becomes a serious problem. The
danger of buckling becomes much more at higher yielding strength of the steel. Further, the plate
elements used extensively to form the structural shapes are prone to local buckling, particularly
when strained in the inelastic range. Accordingly, the compactness requirements for the cross
section of the critical regions of structural members are more stringent in earthquake-resistant
design than that of normal condition. Moreover, the field-connection of the structural members is
another problem in achieving efficient seismic-resistant construction.

2.1.2 Indirect effects (or Consequential Phenomena):

i. Tsunamis
ii. Seiches
iii. Landslides
iv. Floods
v. Fires

2.2 Earthquake-resistant construction:

2.2.1 Introduction:

Earthquake resistant designed buildings do not guarantee safety against collapse or serious
damage as many of the aspects involved in the design of structures have large uncertainties.
Moreover, construction and maintenance, including repair, retrofitting and/or modifications, must
also be considered in addition to the design aspects.

2.2.2 Importance of construction and maintenance:

Design and construction of a structure are closely related and the success depends mostly on the
simplicity of detailing of the members, connections and supports. A design is only effective if it
can be constructed and maintained.

2.2.3 Need for a comprehensive approach to earthquake-resistant construction:

It is first necessary to establish the design criteria, that is, behavior of the structure -
serviceability, damageability, and safety against collapse. After that, the selection of the design
earthquake(s) should be done according to the comprehensive approaches. In this
comprehensive attempt, instead of a single deterministic analysis of a single selected model,
several models are to be considered based on possible ranges over which the parameters
governing the behavior of the real system can vary.

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2.2.4 Importance of conceptual design:

In conceptual design, an understanding of the behavior dominates the numerical computations.

This helps to avoid or minimize the effects of seismic excitation. For that, it may be important to
(1) control or decrease the demands as much as possible, and (2) be generous in the supply,
particularly by providing large ductility with stable hysteretic behavior (toughness).

2.2.5 Control or decrease of demands:

The conceptual idea would be to control the input to the structure foundation by adopting the use
of base isolation techniques including energy absorbing devices in the system. Similarly, a
decrease in demand in the case of buildings can be achieved by a proper selection of the
configuration of the building and its structural layout and by the proper proportioning and detailing
of the structural and non-structural components.

2.2.6 Soil-foundation-superstructure system:

Except for the cases where base isolation techniques and/or energy dissipation devices are used,
the whole substructure and superstructure should be tied together so that they can work as a unit.

2.2.7 Integral action of foundation:

(A) Substructure:

First, simple foundation layout and substructure system are to be selected. Secondly, the different
elements of the substructure are to be tied together. This is very important in the case of a
structure built at a site with poor, loose saturated granular soil, where moderate or strong ground-
shaking (with effective peak accelerations exceeding about 0.15g) involving several cycles may
cause permanent horizontal displacements due to lateral spreading and/or subsidence of the
ground. These types of soil movement can cause damage to structures.

(B) Pile foundations:

Piles can be used to advantage when the surface soil is very soft and/or can liquefy. However,
they should be designed with the following considerations: (1) the pile caps should be tied
together with tie beams or a reinforced concrete slab that can work in tension and compression
so that the foundation can act as a unit (assuring the integrity of the foundation); (2) bearing,
rather than friction piles, should be used if the foundation materials might liquefy; (3) the piles
should be able to carry not only axial but also shear and bending forces (which can be developed
due to relative horizontal displacements between different layers in the soil deposit). Therefore,
in the case of concrete piles, these should not only be longitudinally reinforced but also confined
by suitable lateral reinforcement, particularly immediately below the pile cap.

(C)Bridge foundations and supports:

Failure of bridge foundations and/or supports and by the lack of integral action between the
substructure and the superstructure may lead to their collapse. Liquefaction of loose saturated
granular foundation soils is also a major source of bridge failure.

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(D) Need for tying together the superstructure:

This is to ensure integral action between the substructure and the superstructure as well as
among the different components of each of the main parts of the whole structural system.

2.3 Proper selections for the superstructure:

The choice of the basic plan shape and configuration of a superstructure to withstand earthquake
ground shaking is the most critical. Building structures have several types and configurations but
there is no universal ideal configuration for any particular type of building. However, the following
guiding principles will help the designer in selecting an adequate building configuration, structural
layout, structural system, structural material and the non-structural components.

• The superstructure and non-structural components of building should be light and avoid
unnecessary masses. Smaller masses will have smaller earthquake forces (inertia
forces).
• The building and its superstructure should be simple, symmetric and regular in plan and
elevation to prevent significant torsional forces, avoiding large height-width ratio and
large plan area.
• Superstructure should have relatively shorter spans than non-seismic-resistant structure
and avoid use of long cantilevers.
• The non-structural should either be well separated so that they will not interact with the
rest of the structure, or they should be integrated with the structure. On the latter case, it
is desirable that the structure should have sufficient lateral stiffness to avoid significant
damage under minor and moderate earthquake shaking, and toughness with stable
hysteric behavior (that is, stability of strength, stiffness and deformability) under the
repeated reversal of deformations which could be induced by severe earthquake ground
motion. The stiffer the structure, the less sensitive it will be to the effects of the
interacting non-structural components, and the tougher it is, the less sensitive it will be to
effect of sudden failure of the interacting non-structural elements.
• Some building components (architectural, mechanical, and electrical) can become very
responsive during the earthquake shaking of the building foundation. The effects of the
interaction can be grouped into two categories: first, the effect of the response of the
structural system on the non-structural components; and second, the effect of the non-
structural components on the response of the structural system. The more flexible the
basic structural system, the worse the effects of the non-structural components will be.
• Superstructure should be detailed so that the inelastic deformations can be constrained
(controlled) to develop in desired regions and according to a desirable hierarchy.
• Superstructure should have the largest possible number of defense lines. It should be
composed of different tough structural subsystems which interact or are interconnected
by very tough structural elements (structural fuses) whose inelastic behavior would permit
the whole structure to find its way out from a critical stage of dynamic response.
• A structure should have the largest possible number of internal and external
redundancies. Further, it should have sufficient ductility, toughness and stable hysteric
behavior under repeated cycles of deformation reversals. To achieve this it is necessary
to proportion (size) and detail its members, connections, and supports so that all the
inelastic deformations are constrained (controlled) to develop in desired regions and
according to a desirable hierarchy, and are dispersed in a sufficiently large number of
regions over the plan and height of the whole structure.
• Superstructure should be provided with balanced stiffness and strength between its
members, connections and supports. Collapse and severe damage of buildings due to
lack of good connections is common.
• The stiffness and strength of the entire building should be compatible with the stiffness
and strength of the soil foundation.

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2.4 Guidelines for achieving efficient seismic-resistant design:

• Important of construction aspects:

A large percentage of damage and failure is due to poor quality control of structural materials
and/or poor workmanship - problems which should be avoided by carefully inspected during
construction.

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3. Acknowledgements:

Most of the materials of Part 1 have been taken from (i) Reinforced Concrete Designer’s
Handbook (10th Edition) by C. E. Reynolds and J. C. Steedman and (ii) Reinforced Concrete –
Limit State Design (6th Edition) by Professor A. K. Jain. Major materials of Part 2 are from
Structural Engineering Slide Library, The University of California, Berkeley, USA, by W. G.
Godden and V. V. Bertero. The author is indebted to all of them for the materials available in
those books and document. Moreover, other relevant codes and text books frequently consulted
are also gratefully acknowledged, and they are mentioned in the References below.

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4. References:

1. Bertero, V.V. and Bresler, B., “Design and Engineering Decisions: Failure Criteria
(Limit States),” Proceedings of 6th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, New Delhi, India, January 1977.
2. Bertero, V. V., “State of the Art in Seismic Resistant Construction of Structures,”
Proceedings of the Third International Earthquake Microzonation Conference,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, June 1982, Volume II pp 767-
805.
3. Mahin, S. A., and Bertero, V. V., “Nonlinear Seismic Response of a Coupled Wall
System,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 102, ST9 pp 1759-1780,
September 1976.
4. P.C.Varghese, “Advanced Reinforced Concrete Design”, Prentice-Hall of India
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2001.
5. IS 4326: 1993, “Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Design and
Construction of Buildings”, BIS, New Delhi.
6. IS 13920: 1993, “Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces”, BIS, New Delhi.
7. A.K.Jain, “Quality Assurance and Control for Structures Subjected to
Earthquakes”, Indian Concrete Journal, Vol. 70, No.11, pp. 601 – 608, November
1996.

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