On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

GROUP DYNAMICS & RELATIONSHIPS

Some Concepts & Integration with the Person- Centred Approach
The success or otherwise of groups is heavily influenced by individuals and their interaction.
Anybody involved in working with others, either as a team or group member, a facilitator,
supervisor, counsellor, leader or tutor, requires some considerable awareness of self and others.
This in turn requires an understanding of the basic attitudes and conditions of relationships outlined
by Rogers in a series of papers but more particularly in Rogers ( 1961 ), where he focused on
three of the six conditions for a therapeutic relationship — namely empathy, UPR( acceptance &
respect) and congruence. These three conditions are generally referred to as the ‘core conditions’.
In addition, as groups play an important part in society and within organisations, those individuals
who wish to work in a supportive role require some knowledge and understanding of group
dynamics and how the core conditions if applied can help groups to form and perform.

This essay will review seven effective qualities in relationships, the nature of groups and the
factors that affect their development. It will explore two of the general theories that underpin groups
and finally look at some of the important considerations that influence Person — Centred Groups.
However, it is founded on the basic principle that the theory that underpins person-centered groups
has many similarities with other group theories.

ESTABLISHING EFFECTIVE RELATIONSHIPS

The ideas set out in Rogers (1957) concerning the importance and efficacy of the six conditions for
therapeutic growth is not accepted by the majority of therapeutic approaches. However, there is
general agreement of the importance and effectiveness of three of these, namely the core
conditions. These are seen as a means of providing a solid foundation in any therapeutic
relationship and, moreover, in all inter-personal relationships. But what about relationships in
groups and how could the core conditions be lived out in inter-relationships in this setting?

In addition to the core conditions, the following seven essential qualities necessary for establishing
effective relationships in groups are proposed.

• The ability to honestly and effectively present yourself to others

• Adopting an open and congruent attitude.

• Sensitivity to others, their needs and their feelings

• An ability to accept and deliver empathic and constructive feedback

• Self- confidence — based on an acceptance of self and others

• The ability to allow and encourage others to contribute.

• A realistic understanding of your own abilities, gifts and strengths and the ability to use
these and to value and encourage complementary abilities, gifts and strengths.

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

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 On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

THE NATURE OF GROUPS

A group may be two or more people who form a relationship based on common interest(s). These
interests may be social, economic, professional, work based or many others. Most individuals
belong to one or more groups, for example, family, social, work professional and/or personal
development etc. Some of the very many reasons for and advantages of groups are:

• They allow individuals to pool their expertise and resources.

• They offer security and a sense of belonging.

• They provide a mixture of moral, emotional, physical and intellectual support.

•They provide a sense of identity and acceptance.

There are two main types of groups — formal and informal and these in turn can be classified as
either open or closed.

Formal Groups Formal Groups are set up to complete a specific task/assignment. Examples
of these are committees, Royal Commissions, project design group, counsellor accreditation
panels, quality panels , personal developmentgroups etc.

Informal Groups Informal groups tend to be mainly formed for social reasons. Members are
either related, share friendships or a sport, hobby or interest. Examples of these are tennis clubs,
social societies, choirs etc

Composition of Group Each Group , whether Formal or Informal can be composed of

members in one of two ways. These are:

Open Groups In open groups, membership is not tightly controlled and members come and
go. Consequently, these groups tend to be more informal, membership is voluntary and often
based on common interests. These groups tend to be less rigid in both their organisation and
membership.

Closed Groups Closed groups normally have a more stable membership. They frequently
have entrance criteria, a set of rules, contracts and often some form of constitution. These groups
offer greater stability and are normally set up for a specific purpose. A typical example of a closed
group is that of a Personal Development Group in Counselling or Therapy Training.

Once the nature of groups is understood it is then useful to explore the factors that lead to their
development and some group theories. However, prior to that a brief look at the connection
between leadership and group facilitator is important

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

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 On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

FACILITATING GROUPS

There are many differences between management, leadership and facilitating. A group facilitator,
particularly in a personal development group, is neither a manager nor necessarily a leader.
However, there are some similarities with the latter. The role of the facilitator in groups is more
important when groups initially form and, perhaps to a lesser extent, when groups are nearing the
completion of their task.

Throughout the life of a group, the facilitator needs to be aware of three, often competing, needs.
These are the needs of each individual, the needs of the group and the needs of the task that the
group is required to address. Obviously these needs vary greatly and they also apply both to the
facilitator and to every member of the group. One model that addresses these needs is that of
John Adair, an acknowledged (British) expert in the field of leadership and group dynamics. This
model will now be briefly explored

FACTORS IN DEVELOPING GROUPS ;- Adair’s Model

There are many factors that influence the development of groups but these are based on three
main functions or needs of all groups. These three needs are outlined in the diagram below. This
diagram is adapted from John Adair’s Training for Leadership (1968) which forms the basis of
much leadership training, particularly in the armed and civil defence forces, in the NHS and in
many major commercial corporations. It is important to note, that although needs may differ
between the three areas — Individual, Group and Task, there is a large area of common need
shown where all three overlap. This ‘common area’ varies in size determined by many factors e.g.
composition of group, characteristics and experiences of individuals, the task, ethos of the system
/society/club , the stage of group development and many other personal and organizational
circumstances.

Adair (1968) suggests that there are four main factors that influence the development of the group,
these are: :1) Physical factors, 2) The characteristics and experience(s) of individuals, 3)The
process of development of groups and 4)Influences on performance.

The last of these is extremely varied and complex and will be (briefly) considered after looking at
group processes and two well known group theory/ models. However, some brief considerations
will be given to the first two of these and more detailed consideration to the third factor.

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

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 On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

Physical Group members can communicate more effectively when there are few or no
physical barriers to interfere with communication. This is why circles are often used in professional
development training. Further points concerning any meeting or working area are:

• Wherever possible, the area should be designed to ensure that all members can readily
and easily communicate with each other.

• A meeting area should permit members to sit in a circle or semi-circle

• The area should contain all necessary equipment — seating, tables etc.

• The area should permit/ensure confidential discussions.

Individual Characteristics The individuality and uniqueness of group members will influence the
whole group process. Individuals bring their own gifts, strengths, experiences and weaknesses!
deficits to the group. Personality types differ and similar types often work well together and
opposite types often clash. Attitudes and motivation differ some may desire success or money,
others not so much. All these difference can either be seen as gift and opportunity or as difficulties.
The latter poses problems and can adversely affect the group cohesion. The more members share
in common attitudes and goals, the more successful and harmonious is the group.

Process of Development There are a wide variety of group models. These tend to outline
/model the stages in group development, its life and tasks and problems. Several of these
‘theories’ will be examined. However, it is both important and interesting to note that all share a
number of key features.

• All Groups go through similar processes only the timing, severity and manner may vary

• Groups can often ‘get stuck’ at different stages in their life/development; sometimes not
progressing and sometimes ‘oscillating’ between two stages.

• Conflict in groups is not only inevitable, although often it is not aired or addressed. But
conflict is both desirable and essential for the healthy growth in the group It is more
important to focus on the ‘how’ of conflict. Just as in therapy, challenge is seen as both a
gift and an essential part in growth in understanding.

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

email : - petercreagh43@virginmedia.com GROUPTHEORY.doc
 On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

TUCKMAN’S MODEL

Tuckman (1965 - Development Sequence in Small Groups ) suggests that all groups go through
four stages of development. These are shown in the figure below.

FORMING

TUCKMAN’s MODEL
GROUP DEVELOPMENT
PERFORMING
STORMING

NORMING

FORMING Coming together - getting started :- Testing & Dependency

This is a period where individuals ’test the waters’ as they get to know each other. This can often
result in people trying to impress each other and also attempting to establish the standards and
boundaries expected by the group. The leader must be more directive and supportive during this
stage. Communication and assertiveness are important aspects which need to be borne in mind.
The group is often dependent on the leader and look for guidance.

STORMING The Honeymoon is over - POWER

Conflicts arise between group members as the’ bathe’ for position and status. Disagreements often
arise on the ‘mechanics’ of carrying cut the task and how responsibility should be shared. It is at
this stage that individuals make the basic decision of ‘fight or flight’ . Cliques and factions can form
and active / passive polarisation can occur. The group leader needs to be aware of these
tendencies and support or challenge as necessary. Good interpersonal skills are needed -
especially communication and negotiation. The leader should attempt to reduce the~ dependency
of the group on his1’ her input.

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

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 On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

NORMING Getting down to it RELATIONSHIPS

Group consciousness develops and boundaries established and maintained. Consensus, co-
operation and mutual support begins and working relationships are formed. The general group
atmosphere is clearer and issues are dealt with. The process and task are clearly separated.
members begin to identify with the group. It becomes a cohesive team and is ready to get on with
the task.

PERFORMING Getting an with it PERSONAL SATISFACTION

The task is performed - planning targets are met or revised. Relationships are not a pre-occupation
at this stage as individuals get personal satisfaction in achievements. Clear but flexible roles for
members are established and understood. For many groups it is during this stage that the leader
needs to employ a wide range of interpersonal skills and, where possible, to adopt a’ hands - off’
approach.

NOTE There is no linear time scale for these stages. Group make-up and tasks influence the
nature and time of each stage. Often stages repeat as new tasks or crisis occur. The group leader
( and members) should be aware of the likely stages and judge when it Is appropriate to press on.

MOURNING Closure & Endings ( An additional Stage for many Groups)

An additional phase is commonly recognised, this is often referred to as mourning. All groups
eventually come to an end. During this phase closure occurs. Many individuals find this difficult and
it is often marked by some or all of the following behaviours and or feelings. Loss, flight, some
minimise achievement, romanticising the past., looking ahead, commitment to group declines.

BENSON et al

Another popular model is that proposed by Benson and others( 1975) This too has four stages and
each of these brings its own issues. The stages are:

Beginning This is all about INCLUSION, where each member ponders over their place in the
group and whether or not they will either fit in and/or be accepted. Members who feel in any way
rejected will NOT commit to the group

Middle This is all about Control/ Power and Status. Here members often vie for position and power
or at least reflect on it. Often this involves rebellion and conflict. The wise facilitator and/or
members will hold or contain these feelings without rejection.

Later This is often about affection. Here control issues are addressed and resolved and mutual
respect, common interest and concerns come to the fore. The group thinks of ‘we’ rather than ‘I’
and individuals are heard. Conflict may continue but is handled constructively.

Separation This is about mourning and how individuals cope with this. Very often absenteeism
grows and strong feelings are expressed. In addition, some members may sabotage group tasks or
progress.

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

email : - petercreagh43@virginmedia.com GROUPTHEORY.doc
 On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

INFLUENCES ON PERFORMANCE

Other Group Members This can be both positive and negative. Always be aware of peer group
pressure and that once a group has reached the forming stage they can, and often do, resist the
leader.

Group Size There is no specific optimum number, this depends on the task and objectives of the
group. However, as the group grows in size the individual contribution becomes less. This can, in
certain circumstances, reduce motivation. Small groups form quicker and can perform more
effectively. They are also easier to administer and tend to be more flexible if circumstances
change. It is also easier for both the leader and group members to monitor individual contributions
to the group and its task

Group Skills Individual skills can determine effectiveness. Whenever group work is set, leaders
should try to ensure that each team or sub-group has a fair distribution of skills and talents.

Delegation Individual responsibilities are essential and should be clearly defined. These can either
be assigned by the leader or negotiated by individuals and! or the group Leaders should consider
both oral and written briefs and on long-term projects these should be restated and reviewed
regularly

There are many other considerations, such as group and individual status, regulations rules (either
imposed or set by the group, and the cohesiveness of the group.

All the previous sections have dealt with some general concepts and theories of Groups. Many of
these will apply to Person- Centred Groups providing some Primary Principles of the PCA are
adhered to.

Person Centred Group-work — Some Axioms

The Following Axioms for Person — Centred Groups are taken from Bozarth( 1998) and should be
viewed in line with the following comments

• Person Centred Theory and Application asserts the primacy of the Actualising Tendency
and the Six Necessary and Sufficient Conditions.

• We need to be wary of how we ‘integrate” other theories and concepts into the PCA .
Bozarth warns of the inherent difficulties in using a ‘pick and mix’ approach ( my words) to
integration

• If we ascribe to Point 1 above and use this as a ‘benchmark’ then it may be possible to
successfully integrate aspects of the preceding notes.

The following notes on the 5 axioms are NOT to be copied. They are re-produced with
express permission of J. Bozarth for use ONLY with Groups facilitated by this Author.

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

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 On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

Bozarth’s Five Axioms for Groups

Axiom 1:

The basic intent of the person-centered approach is. to perpetuate the nature and destiny of
humans and, in doing so, to perpetuate the nature and destiny of the universe. By considering the
actualizing and formative tendencies, this axiom was developed. The large-group exemplifies this
axiom in that a major intent of the facilitator is to create the trusting atmosphere that promotes both
individual growth and the ‘wisdom’ of the group.

Axiom 2:

The primary thrust and abiding intent is to be a genuine person who attempts to understand and
who accepts the world of the other person from the perspective of that person. It is interesting that
Rogers’ comments on understanding in the community group suggest the importance of the
intention to understand and the willingness to have no preconceptions of what might occur. He
states:

That’s one of the ditties of learning to be truly empathic. You may not have known that this would
occur-or that would crop-up-but your whole mind-set is a readiness to understand, to grasp what it
is that has meaning for the person at this point and that gets across to the group- that desire to
understand (Rogers, 1975, p. 63)

Axiom 3

Individuals move toward the best growth mode available to them through their own best process.
Another comment of Rogers relates to this axiom and is reflective of periodic references. He said,
‘The whole aim is to relinquish any attempt to control the outcome, to control the direction, to
control the mood’ (Rogers, 1987, p. 64).

Axiom 4

The infusion of one’s self into the group as a genuine person and group member helps to facilitate
the group. Rogers indicated specifically that one thing about the facilitator ‘is the need for
genuineness’ (Rogers, 1988, p. 68). Genuineness helped him to be ‘more one of the group’ (p. 68)
and to even help a group realize ‘that I really was experiencing the whole thing with them’ (p. 69).
Maintenance of ‘spontaneity and openness to the moment-by-moment process of group
communication’ (p. 68) was one way he referred to the intertwining of genuineness and
empathy in the large group.

Axiom 5

There is no pre-supposition of what people will be like, or do, or become during or after the group
experience. One of the essential points in person-centered theory is that those with designated
‘leadership roles’, ‘accept what is’ (Rogers, 1987, p. 65). Rogers’ thoughts on this point are
relevant here in view of discussions about facilitator roles. In The Association for The Development
of the person-centered approach newsletter, the Renaissance, Rogers states:

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

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 On- Going Professional Training :- Group and Team Concepts

‘If you’re going to expect a certain degree of affect-if you expect that of the process-then that can
be artificial. If the degree of affect is what is comfortable, reasonable, or natural for this person, this
group, then that’s fine (Rogers, 1987, p. 65).And, more specifically stated: ‘It’s best to be fairly
naive or not full of expectations’ (Rogers, 1987, P. 65).

These are five important and fundamental axioms when considering person-centered community
groups and should guide both our discussions and participation in this and all Groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, this short essay has attempted to outline some important concepts and
considerations in the formation and relationships within groups. It has explored the nature and
types of groups and looked at some connections and similarities between Adair’s leadership
concepts and the facilitation and operation of groups. It has outlined some important and
fundamental axioms that affect all groups and particularly person-centred development groups.
Readers are encouraged to follow-up some of these concepts in the sources outlined in the short
bibliography.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adair, J (1968) Training for Leadership(Pub Unknown)

Benson,L Berger,M &Mease,W (1975) Family Communication Systems - Small Group Behaviour
Vol 6, 91-105
Bozarth, J (1998) Person-Centred Therapy — A Revolutionary Paradigm PCCS Ross on Wye
Bozarth, J ( 2000) Unpublished Work concerning th3e nature of Groups and the 5 Axioms
personal authorisation from Author to Peter Creagh in private correspondence. (not to be copied
unless for students)
French, T ( 1952)Tbe Integration of Behaviour — University Press Chicago
Lago, C &. MacMillan, M (Ed) 1999— Experiences in Relatedness — Groupwork and the Person-
Centered Aproach PCCS Ross on Wye
Merr, 1(1999) Learning and Being PCCS Ross on Wye
Rogers, C.R ( 1951) Client Centred Therapapy CONSTABLE London
Rogers,C.R ( 1957) The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change,
Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21 95-103)
Rogers, C ( 1961)On Being a Person — Constable
Tuckman, BW (1965) Development Sequence in Small Groups Psychological Bulletin 384-399
Williams, A (1991) Forbidden Agendas — Strategic Action in Groups , Routledge
Wright, H (1989) Groupwork Perspectives & Practice Scoutari Press – Middlesex

Peter Creagh, Trainer, Supervisor and BACP Registered Counsellor

email : - petercreagh43@virginmedia.com GROUPTHEORY.doc