Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Parlindungan Pardede
Universitas Kristen Indonesia
Abstract
This study was carried out to analyze grammatical errors committed by the fourth-
semester students of the English Department of FKIP-UKI Jakarta in their composition. To
achieve the objective, 25 paragraphs written by 25 students attending the class of Writing I
in the 2005/2006 Academic Year were taken as the corpus of the study. These paragraphs
were thoroughly examined to identify any morphological and syntactical errors made in
them. Using Politzer and Ramirez‟s Linguistic Category Taxonomy, each error was then
analyzed to determine its type and cause.
The results of the analysis revealed 306 grammatical errors identified in 114 sentences.
Based on the data analysis and calculation, it was found that the greatest number of all error
types was Noun Phrase (NP) errors. The amount of this type of errors was 148 (48 %). The
second major type of error was those included in Verb Phrase (VP) errors (76 items or 25
%). It was then followed by Word Order (WO) errors (22 items or 7 %) in the third place
and Verb-and-Verb Construction (VVC) errors (14 or 5 %) in the fourth. Successively, these
four major types of errors were followed by Past Participle Incorrect (PPI) errors (12 or 4
%); Some Transformation (ST) errors (12 or 4 %), Possessive Case Incorrect (PCI) errors (6
or 2 %); Simple Past Tense Incorrect (SPTI) errors (5 or 2 %); Indefinite Article Incorrect
(IAI) errors (4 or 1 %); Comparative Adjective/Adverb Incorrect (CAI) errors (4 or 1 %);
and Third Person Singular Verb Incorrect (TPSV) errors (3 or 1 %). The errors were caused
by two factors, i.e. inference from Indonesian and intralingual transfer within English.
These findings indicated that the students‟ competence to write grammatically correct
sentences in English was quite low. Therefore, lecturers of writing need to focus activities in
writing classes to improve students‟ skill in writing grammatical sentences.
Key Words: grammar, writing, errors, error-analysis, error taxonomy.
A. INTRODUCTION
Entering the global era, the use of English as the major means of international
communication grows rapidly. Wikipedia (2008) notes that although English is not an
official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a second
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or foreign language around the world. In the European Union, English is the language most
often studied as a foreign language (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%),
German (18%), and Spanish (8%). Among non-English speaking countries, a large
(87%), Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia
(56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%). Norway and Iceland also have
a large majority of competent English-speakers, and 100% of the younger generations in the
official language for aerial and maritime communications, as well as one of the official
languages of the European Union, the United Nations, and most international athletic
magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the
world. English is also the most commonly used language in the sciences. In 1997, the
Science Citation Index reported that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though
Due to its increasing use as the first global language, English proficiency is not only an
advantage but also a must for someone to apply for a job. One‟s failure to master it will
make him unable to compete in the global era. That‟s why English courses mushroom and
the kinds of course-material offered become more varied in order to meet people‟s diverse
needs. English for Daily Communication, English for Secretary, and English for Business
are some of the common courses offered nowadays. Moreover, the course-levels offered
have been widely diversified. Young children, teenagers, adults, and senior citizens can now
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In order to increase Indonesian students‟ mastery of English, since 1994 English has
been made a compulsory subject at any level of schools. In the practice of the teaching,
students are taught the four language skills—listening, speaking, reading and writing—and
My several years observation on the English proficiency of the freshmen of the English
Department of FKIP-UKI revealed that among the four language skills, writing seems the
most difficult to master for students. When they were asked to converse in English or to read
English texts, they could perform them (though in a great variety level of proficiency). But
when they were assigned to express their idea in writing, the majority became at a lost. This
English composition were low. According to Tongue (1997: 3) the low achievement was
due to the fact that the structures and vocabulary occasionally taught to the secondary school
students do not, as a rule, belong to the same language registers and styles as those found in
the prose for exciting narrative, elegant or humorous description, or reasoned discussion.
Another possible reason for the low achievement in writing was possibly the fact that
writing is a very complex process due to the many skills involved and the many activities to
be carried out. The skills involved in writing cover the application of correct grammatical
rules, choosing exact diction, using proper punctuations, and organizing ideas into
appropriate sentences, paragraphs and passage. The activities to be performed in writing are:
brainstorming and researching to generate ideas, outlining the ideas, drafting, reviewing,
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Realizing the complex nature of writing in English, to master it, one should
intensively learn and practice it in a relatively long period of time. Thus, to enable
Indonesian students to write well in English, they should be taught it as early as possible.
They should probably learn and practice it since the first time they are able to use writing
This study deals with the application of correct grammatical rules in writing. This
factor was chosen the focus of study because, the present writer‟s informal observation
result indicated that many students‟ compositions were difficult to comprehend due to the
extensive grammatical errors found in them. Such errors should certainly be avoided
because they made the ideas or messages unclear. However, to avoid such errors in writing
necessitates accurate information about the background, types, and causes of the error made.
Such information could be obtained by identifying the errors made by students in their
compositions. Then, the result of the identification could be used as a good feedback to
determine procedures for avoiding the same errors in the next writing.
Problems Identification
Based on the discussion in the background section above, the present writer identified
1. Students could not write well in English because they did not master the grammatical
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Problems Limitation
Due to the fact that grammatical errors seems to be very dominant in students‟
composition, the problem of this study was limited to the analysis on the grammatical errors
in their composition.
Problems Formulation
problems limitation above, the problems of this study were formulated as follow:
1. What types of grammatical errors were committed by the fourth-semester students of the
This study was carried out to gain information about types and causes of grammatical
The findings of this study could be used as a feedback for readers, especially teachers
and students involved in the teaching of English composition the English Department of
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B. THEORETICAL BASIS AND CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
Language Errors
Language errors can be defined as any deviation from the rules of language use which
reflects imperfect mastery of the language. Brians (2007) defines it as “deviations from the
editors, teachers, and literate executives and personnel officers.” In parallel with this, Dulay,
et.al. (1982: 138) language errors as parts of conversation or composition that deviate from
Either a native speaker or a language learner can commit mistakes. The only
difference between them is that the native speaker does it due to fatigue, inattention, stress,
or tiredness, while the language learner does it because of imperfect mastery of the
language. In relation to that, the native speaker can correct the mistake he made if he were
given chance to do so, whereas the language learner is unable to do the same for he has not
mastered the rules of using the language. That is why the term „error‟ is also defined as “the
systematic deviations due to the learner‟s still developing knowledge of the second language
Errors Analysis
Language learning, like any other human learning, such as learning to swim, to ride
bike, or to play tennis, is fundamentally a process that involves the making of mistakes.
When one jumps into the water to learn to swim, he initially finds it difficult to use his arms
and legs to keep floating. But through continuous learning and practice he will discover the
best combination of movements to keep himself afloat and propelling through the water. Just
like learning to swim, in the initial stages of language learning a person makes a lot of
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mistakes since he has very limited linguistic system within which the language operates. But
the mistakes gradually diminish as he gets feedback from his environment and learns from
Based on the discussion above, it is obvious that the occurrence of errors in a second or
foreign language learning is not only natural but also positive. Language learner‟s errors can
10-11) emphasizes: “A learner‟s errors … are significant in [that] they provide evidence of
how language is learnt or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in
the discovery of the language.” In addition, Corder (1973: 265) states that studying students‟
errors also has immediate practical applications for foreign language teachers because these
see what kind of errors are committed the most and why students produce them. To analyze
errors properly, someone must understand the nature and procedure of error analysis. Ellis
(1988: 10) proposes that error analysis “involves the collection of samples of classroom
description, the explanation of errors by reference to various learning process and the
Errors Analysis is a work procedure with certain steps or stages to fulfill. These steps
are what we call as methodology of error analysis. According to Ellis (1985, 51-52), there
are five steps to be taken in an error analysis. First, selecting a corpus of language, including
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the activities of deciding the size of the sample, the data to be sampled, and the homogeneity
of the sample. Second, identifying the errors in the corpus by searching any parts of the
expressions in the corpus that deviate from the language rules. Third, categorizing the errors
by classifying them into groups formed based on proper criteria. Fourth, explaining the
errors using the psycholinguistic cause of the errors. Fifth, evaluating the errors which
involve an assessment of the seriousness of each error in order to take accurate decisions for
reducing and even preventing the same errors repeated in the future.
Observing the working-procedures above, it can be concluded that the final purpose of
error analysis is to get feedback to form a starting point for handling language teaching
remedy. The remedy, in turn, can prevent or reduce errors possibly being committed by
learners.
Source of Errors
four major factors (Brown, 1980: 173-178). The first source of error is the fact that the
from the native language, or inference, or using first language system in second language
communication which is different from the system of the second language. For instance, it‟s
quite common to hear English learners say /sp/ for „ship‟, the bag of Tom instead of Tom‟s
The second source of error is intralingual transfer, or, the negative transfer of
items within the target language, or, in other way, the incorrect generalization of rules
within the target language itself is a major factor of errors in second language learning.
This source of error shows that the learner of target language is attempting to build up
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theories or hypotheses about the target language from his limited experience of it in the
classroom or textbook. This kind of transfer can be found in such utterances as Does
Jack can do it?, She writed a letter, and I don't know where is he.
The third major source of error is the context of learning. Context refers, for
example, to the classroom with its teacher its materials in the case of school learning, or
the social situation in the case of untutored second language learning. In a classroom
context the teacher or the textbook can lead the learner to make faulty hypotheses about
the language, what Richards (1974: 179) called "false concepts" and what Corder (1981:
131) termed "induced errors". Students often make errors because of poor teaching in the
target language; for example, look at and look out are presented contiguously by their
teacher.
strategies used by the learner to get a message across to a hearer. Learners obviously use
production strategies in order to enhance getting their messages across. It is possible, for
example, a Second Language (ESL) learner say, "He works hard for the well done of his
family". While the utterance showed a nice little humor, it had an incorrect
Error Taxonomies
In order to make the process of error analysis proceed systematically, all steps
errors, should be conducted carefully. Among those four steps, the stage of the
classification of errors is often the most complicated step, because its ex ecution should
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be based on directly observable characteristics which include learner's environmental
hypotheses‟ by the learner, and others). In accordance with that, the writer will only
focus on error taxonomies that classify errors according to some observable surface
feature of the error itself, without reference to its underlying cause or source. Dulay et
al. (1982: 145-146) call these descriptive taxonomies consisting of four commonly used
taxonomies for the bases of error classifications. First, Linguistic Category Taxonomy
which classifies errors according to either or both the language component or the
particular linguistic constituent the error affects. Second, Surface Strategy Taxonomy
which deals with how the ways of surface structures change. Third, Comparative
errors and certain other types of constructions. Forth, Communicative Effect Taxonomy,
Many error taxonomies have been based on the linguistic item which is affect ed
both the language components or the particular linguistic constituent the error affects.
(grammar), semantics and lexicon (meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style).
Technically, in conducting error analysis, every component above can be divided into
smaller elements. For example, within syntax one may ask whether the error is in the
main or subordinate clause; and within a clause, which constituent is affected, e.g. the
noun phrase, the auxiliary, the verb phrase, the preposition, and so forth.
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For language teaching, this Linguistic Category Taxonomy is really appropriate
and useful, because it has three advantages, especially for: (1) curriculum developers
workbooks; (2) teachers and students, who can use such materials as a "barometer" to
feel that they have covered certain aspects of the language in their classes; (3)
researchers, who use it as a reporting tool which organizes the errors they have collected.
Among of many kinds of linguistic category taxonomies which are popular, the
one proposed by Politzer and Ramirez (1973)—as shown in Table 1—is often made as a
reference.
A. Morphology
1. Indefinite Article Incorrect A ant
2. Possessive Case Incorrect The man feet
3. Third Person Singular Verb Incorrect The bird help man
4. Simple Past Tense Incorrect
a. Regular past tense The bird he save him
b. Irregular past tense He putted the cookie there
5. Past Participle Incorrect He was call
6. Comparative Adjective/Adverb Incorrect He got up more higher
B. Syntax
1. Noun Phrase
a. Determiners He no go in hole
b. Nominalization By to cook it
c. Number He got some leaf
d. Use of Pronouns My brother he go to Mexico
e. Use of Prepositions He came (to) the water
2. Verb Phrase
a. Omission of Verb He in the water
b. Use of Progressive Tense The bird was shake his head
c. Agreement of Subject and Verb The apples was coming down
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4. Word Order The bird (object) he was gonna to shoot it
5. Some Transformations
a. Negative Transformation They won‟t have no fun
b. Question Transformation How the story helps?
c. There Transformation There is these hole
d. Subordinate Clause Transformation For the ant could get out
Writing Composition
There is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for second or foreign
language learners to master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing
ideas, but also in translating these ideas into readable text. The difficulty becomes
greater if their language proficiency is weak. Coffrey (1987: 2) revealed that, writing,
meaningfully express, for examples, intentions, ideas, hopes, and findings to other
people. Thus, the purpose of learning writing skill is communicative competence which
means students are able to compose language components well and to express ideas or
(1978: 62) states that: "... writing is the act of making up correct sentences and
transmitting them through the visual medium as marks on paper". To achieve this goal, a
learner must face a complex set of challenges that include mastering numerous lexical,
grammatical, and syntactic skills which must seem both daunting at times and possibly
insurmountable at others.
In fact, sometimes the written word is the only acceptable way to communicate. A
company might, for instance, require a written letter of application before granting you a
job interview. An English teacher could ask the student to write an essay examination, or
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you may have to-do a research report in your major field of study. Therefore anyone
needs to write sentences or texts correctly on paper in order to send the intended
messages to others.
Coffrey (1987: 2) indicates that it is essential to have certain standard ways of presenting
information in written form that people generally understand, namely, the short essay.
The short essay, or the composition, as it is sometimes called, is a type of writing that
concisely makes a point to the reader in approximately 500 words or one and one-half to
is a very complex process and cannot be learnt in a short time. Based on the survey
carried out by Richards and Renandya (2002: 315 - 3l8), the writing process as a private
activity may be broadly seen as comprising four main stages: planning, drafting
(writing), revising (redrafting), and editing. These writing activities must be done step
by step and are comprised of four stages. First, planning (prewriting), is any activity in
the classroom that encourages students to write by generating tentative ideas and
gathering information. Sufficient ideas are gathered at the planning stage, the second
activity shall be drafting, may proceed quickly. At the drafting stage, the writers are
focused on the fluency of writing and are not preoccupied (influenced) with grammatical
accuracy or the neatness of the draft. Third, revising which is conducted at the third
stage of writing process. In this activity, the students reexamine what was written to see
how effectively they have communicated their meanings to the readers. The last stage of
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writing process shall be editing. At this stage, students are engaged in tidying up their
text as they prepare the final draft for evaluation by the teacher.
Conceptual Framework
ideas, messages, hopes and findings to other people (readers) through the visible marks
difficult to master. The difficulty lies not only in creating and organizing ideas, but also
in translating these ideas into readable text. Meaning to say, in order to make the readers
receive the intended ideas or messages, the writer has to be able to express them
language. For most people, it is very hard to do even though they write by using their
mother tongue. The difficulty becomes even greater if they write in second or foreign
language. Therefore, it is no wonder that Indonesian students make a lot of errors if they
write in English.
Realizing that language errors can be used for knowing language learning process
which can then be made as a guideline for designing language teaching materials and
Error analysis of Grammar in the composition of the students attending the class of
Hopefully, the result of this research can give essential information for language
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C. METHODOLOGY
This study employed a qualitative research method, which, according to Selinger and
Shohamy (1989: 124) is: “a useful approach whenever an investigator is concerned with
discovering or describing second language acquisition in its natural state or context and
where there are no assumptions about what that activity consists of or what its role is in
acquisition”. The technique employed to obtain the data was document-study, because the
students attending the class of Writing I in the 2005/2006 Academic Year. The whole
collected data was then thoroughly examined to identify any grammatical errors made in
them. Finally, by using Politzer and Ramirez‟s Linguistic Category Taxonomy, each error
was descriptively analyzed by using the following four steps. First, the errors were identified
by carefully examining all erroneous sentences. Second, the errors were classified by
comparing each erroneous sentence to its reconstructed counterpart, and every error was
placed in eleven groups named based on Politzer and Ramirez‟s Linguistic Category
Research Findings
The average number of sentences in each of the 25 paragraphs was 10. Thus the sum of
all sentences in the whole corpus was around 250. Based on the error analysis on the corpus,
114 sentences were found ungrammatical. This revealed that on average each paragraph
contained 46% erroneous sentence. In other words, there were, on average, 4 or 5 erroneous
sentences in a paragraph. In addition, the 114 erroneous sentences contained 306 errors.
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Therefore, on average there were 2.68 (or almost 3) errors in each erroneous sentence.
Actually, the analysis could reveal much more numbers of erroneous sentence because the
errors tabulated in the analysis were only the ones which could clearly be understood and
The overall sum and percentages of error types found in the 25 paragraphs are
Data Interpretation
Based on the analysis and calculation made on the data, it was found that the greatest
number of all error types was Noun Phrase (NP) errors. The amount of this type of errors
was 148 (48 %). This error type was divided into five sub-categories, namely: determiners,
nominalization, number, use of pronouns, and use of prepositions. The followings are
(1.a.) * What is more, these modifications offer greater number choices which make travels
exciting more. (3/7).
(2.a.) * … English teachers from Singapore are competed with English teachers from
Indonesia in order to teach in much Indonesian schools. (5/4-5)
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(4.a.) * I have two relatives who can be classified as global worker. He is Uncle Tino and
Aunt Deasy. (11/4-5)
In sentence (1.a.), the writer omitted preposition „of‟ which should have been put
between the word „number‟ and „choices‟. This finding revealed that the writer did not fully
master the use of preposition. The NP error in sentence (2.a.) is the use of „much‟ before the
countable noun „Indonesian Schools‟. The correct number to put here is „some‟. The NP
error in sentence (3.a.) is the omission of determiner „the‟ before the word „first‟. In
sentence (4.a.), the NP error is the use of pronoun „He‟ to represent two persons—„Uncle
Tino and Aunt Deasy‟. The reconstructed versions of these four sentences are:
(1.b.) What is more, these modifications offer greater number of choices which make travels
…
(2.b.) … English teachers from Singapore are competed with English teachers from
Indonesia in order to teach in some Indonesian schools.
(4.b.) I have two relatives who can be classified as global worker. They are Uncle Tino and
Aunt Deasy.
The second largest number of error was those included in Verb Phrase (VP) errors (76
items or 25 %). This error type was divided into three sub-categories, namely: omission of
verbs, use of progressive tense, and agreement of subject and verb. The followings are
(5.a.) * Nowadays, foreign travels has become routine experience for millions of middle and
working-class people. (3/2-3)
(6.a.) * A mobile phone release yesterday will probably out of date after a month. (4/3)
(7.a.) * Competition and change two major characteristics of the global era. (5/1)
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In sentence (5.a.), the writer used the auxiliary verb „has‟ for a plural subject—
„foreign travels‟. This finding revealed that the writer did not fully master the rules dealing
with the agreement of subject and verb. The VP error in sentence (6.a.) is the use of
„release‟ to form a participial phrase. The correct word to put here is „released‟. The VP
error in sentence (7.a.) is the omission of verb „are‟ which should be placed between the
words „change‟ and „two‟. The followings are the reconstructed versions of these three
sentences.
(5.b.) Nowadays, foreign travels have become routine experience for millions of middle and
working-class people.
(6.b.) A mobile phone released yesterday will probably out of date after a month.
(7.b.) Competition and change are two major characteristics of the global era.
The third major type of error found in the corpus was Word Order (WO) errors (22
items or 7 %). The followings are two examples of WO errors found in the corpus.
(8.a.) *It is driven by international trade and investment and aided by information and
technology transportation. (1/2-3)
(9.a.) *…, these modifications offer greater number choices which make travels exciting
more. (3/7).
“transportation technology”. The WO error in sentence (9.a.) is that the expression „exciting
more‟ should have been written „more exciting‟. The writers of these sentences seemed to
translate the pattern of Indonesian Word Order into English. The followings are the
(8.b.) It is driven by international trade and investment and aided by information and
transportation technology.
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(9.b.) …, these modifications offer greater number choices which make travels more
exciting.
Verb-and-Verb Construction (VVC) error found in the corpus was quite significant.
The amount of this type of errors was 14 (15 %). The followings are two examples of VVC
(11.a.) * One‟s mastery of English will help him to develop his career. (9/5).
The VVC error in sentence (10.a.) is that the use of present participle „accelerating‟
after „to be going to.‟ The correct verb to use after „to be going to‟ is the infinitive
„accelerate.‟ In sentence (8.a.), the correct form verb to use is infinitive without „to‟ because
it is preceded by the verb „help‟. The followings are the reconstructed versions of these two
sentences.
(11.b.) One‟s mastery of English will help him develop his career.
Both Past Participle Incorrect (PPI) error and Some Transformation (ST) error were in
fifth and the sixth ranks. Each of them had 12 items or 4 %. The ST error was composed of
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(14.a.) * Because they can communicate easily with many people, they are proficient in
English (9/9).
In sentence (12.a.), the use of verb „get‟ is definitely wrong because the sentence is a
simple perfect tense. The correct verb to put in the sentence is „got‟ or „gotten‟. The ST error
in sentence (13.a.) is the omission of auxiliary verb „does‟ necessary to form a question in
simple present tense. In sentence (14.a.), the ST error is the misplacement of subordinate
conjunction „because‟. In the sentence, the first clause states the result while the second
expresses the cause. Thus, the conjunction should have been put before the second clause.
(14.b.) They can communicate easily with many people because they are proficient in
English.
Successively, these six major types of errors were followed by Possessive Case
Incorrect (PCI) error (6 items or 2 %); Simple Past Tense Incorrect (SPTI) errors (5 items or
Adjective/Adverb Incorrect (CAI) errors (4 items or 1 %); and Third Person Singular Verb
Incorrect (TPSV) errors (3 items or 1 %). Since their numbers were not very significant, it
The errors committed by students in their compositions were obviously caused by two
major factors, i.e. the inference from Indonesian and intralingual transfer within English.
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The inference from Indonesian took place because the students transferred Indonesian rules
into English. The intralingual transfer was committed because the students were apt to build
up rules of English based on their limited knowledge and experience of that target language.
Conclusions
Based the analysis and interpretations made in the former sections, the following
1. The subjects‟ competence to write grammatically correct sentences was quite low
because, on average, each paragraph they wrote contained 46% erroneous sentence, and
2. All the errors were caused by two factors, i.e. inference from Indonesian and intralingual
Suggestions
Based the findings, analysis, interpretations, and conclusions presented earlier, some
1. To enable students to write more accurately, they need more practice on producing
grammatical sentences, especially in the aspects of noun phrases, verb phrases, word
teachers must provide a lot of intensive contextualized practices to students in order that
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2. Teacher should focus on major error types rather than trying to correct every single
error. The error to concentrate on should be those that are most frequently occurred in
3. Due to the limitation of the number of corpus and the linguistic items dealt with in this
study, the findings might not applicable to larger populations of students. Thus, to obtain
a more accurate and representative result, further studies with a larger number of corpus
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This paper was presented in the FKIP-UKI English Department Bimonthly Collegiate Forum held on
August 11, 2006.
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