CHEMICAL BONDS

H
Cl

BONDS HOLD ATOMS

TOGETHER TO
FORM MOLECULES
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

•(1) IONIC BONDS - ELECTRONS AS TRANSFERRED

FROM METALS TO NONMETALS (IONIC SALTS FOR
EXAMPLE NaCl, CaCl2)
•(2) COVALENT BONDS – ELECTRONS ARE SHARED
BETWEEN NONMETALS (DIATOMIC MOLECULES
FOR EXAMPLE THE HALOGENS, F2, Cl2, etc.)
•(3) COORDINATE COVALENT BONDS – A BONDING
PAIR OF ELECTRONS IS CONTRIBUTED BY ONLY
ONE ATOM IN THE BOND (FOR EXAMPLE
AMMONIUM ION, NH4+, HYDRONIUM ION, H3O+)
 WHY DO BONDS BETWEEN ATOMS FORM ?
• WHEN BONDS FORM THE STABILITY OF THE COMBINED
ATOMS INCREASES AS COMPARED TO THAT OF THE
INDIVIDUAL ATOMS. GENERALLY CHEMICAL
STABILITY IS RELATED TO THE ABILITY OF ATOMS TO
ATTAIN THE ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF AN INERT
GAS. FOR MANY ATOMS THIS MEANS ACQUIRING
EIGHT ELECTRONS IN THE OUTER SHELL. THIS IS
CALLED AN “OCTET” STRUCTURE.
• THE EXCEPTATIONS ARE SMALLER ATOMS (LIKE
HYDROGEN, LITHIUM, BERYLLIUM, ETC.) THESE
ATTEMPT TO ACQUIRE TWO ELECTRONS LIKE HELIUM.
• RECALL THE TERM “ISOELECTRONIC”. ATOMS
ATTEMPT TO BECOME ISOELECTRONIC WITH THE
NEAREST INERT GAS.
 IONIC BOND FORMATION - ELECTRON
TRANSFER BETWEEN METALS & NONMETALS

+9
2e
7e
8e

1e
18e ISOELECTONIC
8e WITH Ne
2e
+19

ISOELECTRONIC
WITH Ar
REPRESENTING ATOMS AND MOLECULES
USING ELECTRON DOT FORMULAE
(LEWIS DOT REPRESENTATIONS)
• LEWIS DOT FORMULAE USE THE ATOMIC
SYMBOL TO REPRESENT THE “KERNEL” OF THE
ATOM THAT IS THE NUCLEUS AND ALL INNER
ENERGY LEVEL ELECTRONS. DOTS ARE THEN
USED TO REPRESENT EACH OUTER ENERGY
LEVEL ELECTRON (VALENCE ELECTRONS)
• THE PAIRING OF THESE ELECTRON “DOTS”
APPROXIMATES THE PAIRINGS OF ELECTRONS IN
ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR (BONDING) ORBITALS
OF THE ATOM OR MOLECULE.
ELECTRON DOT REPRESENTATIONS
FOR SOME COMMON ATOMS
(LEWIS DOT NOTATIONS)
 COMMON PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BONDS

• COVALENT BONDS MAY BE SINGLE, DOUBLE OR

TRIPLE BONDS
• (1) SINGLE BOND – ONE PAIR OF BONDING
ELECTRONS JOINS TWO ATOMS TOGETHER
• (2) DOUBLE BOND – TWO PAIRS OF BONDING
ELECTRONS JOIN TWO ATOMS TOGETHER (OCCURS
PRIMARILY WITH CARBON, OXYGEN, NITROGEN
AND SULFUR)
• (3) TRIPLE BOND – THREE PAIRS OF BONDING
ELECTRONS JOIN TWO ATOMS TOGETHER (OCCURS
PRIMARILY WITH CARBON AND NITROGEN)
 COVALENT BONDING
(ELECTRON SHARING – SINGLE BOND)

+9
2e
6e
7e

6e
7e
2e
+9

BOTH ISOELECTRONIC
WITH Ne
 COVALENT BONDING
(ELECTRON SHARING – DOUBLE BOND)

+8

2e
4e
6e

6e
4e
2e
+8

BOTH ISOELECTRONIC
WITH Ne
 COVALENT BONDING
(ELECTRON SHARING – TRIPLE BOND)

+7

2e
5e
2e

5e
2e
2e
+7

BOTH ISOELECTRONIC
WITH Ne
 ELECTRON DOT REPRESENTATIONS OF
POLYATOMIC MOLECULES AND IONS

WRITING THE DOT FORMULA FOR METHANE - CH4

STEP I – DETERMINE THE TOTAL NUMBER OF

VALENCE ELECTRONS FOR ALL ATOMS.
CARBON (C) HAS 4 VALENCE ELECTRONS
HYDROGEN (H) ATOMS HAVE 1 VALENCE ELECTRON
FOR EACH OF THE FOUR ATOMS (4 x 1 = 4)
THE TOTAL NUMBER OF VALENCE ELECTRONS = 8

STEP II-SELECT THE CENTRAL ATOM (THE ONE THAT

CAN FORM THE GREATEST NUMBER OF BONDS)
AND PLACE THE OTHER ATOMS SYMMETRICALLY
AROUND IT.
WRITING THE DOT FORMULA FOR METHANE CH4

OCTET (8)
FOR CARBON

HYDROGEN
REQUIRES
ONLY 2
ELECTRONS

STEP III -PLACE TWO DOTS (ELECTRONS)

BETWEEN EACH BONDED PAIR OF ATOMS.

STEP IV -FILL IN OCTET STRUCTURES FOR ANY

REMAINING ATOMS UNTIL ALL THE ELECTRONS
ARE USED.*(HYDROGEN, BERYLLIUM & BORON ARE
COMMON EXCEPTATIONS TO THE OCTET RULE)
 WRITING THE ELECTRON STRUCTURE FOR
MONOCHLOROETHENE - C2H3Cl
2C=2x4=8e
3H=3x1=3e
1 Cl = 1 x 7 = 7 e
TOTAL VALENCE ELECTRONS =18
OCTETS
COMPLETE
2 ELECTRONS
8 ELECTRONS STILL REMAIN
REMAIN PLACE THEM
TO COMPLETE
COMPLETE
THE OCTETS
OCTET FOR
FOR BOTH
CHLORINE
CARBONS
DOUBLE BOND
 WRITING ELECTRON DOT REPRESENTATIONS FOR
POLYATOMIC IONS CONTAINING RESONANCE
STRUCTURES (CARBONATE ION - CO3-2 )
1 C = 1 x4 = 4 e
3 O = 3 x 6 = 18 e
-2 CHARGE = 2 e
TOTAL VALENCE ELECTRONS = 24
18 ELECTRONS
REMAIN -2
COMPLETE
THE OCTETS

ALL ELECTRONS ARE

USED BUT AN OCTET
FOR CARBON MUST
BE CREATED

RESONANCE BOND
RESONANCE STRUCTURES OCCUR WHEN A DOUBLE
OR TRIPLE BOND MAY EQUALLY WELL BE PLACED
AT MORE THAN ONE BONDING SITE

FOR EXAMPLE IN THE CARBONATE ION

PREVIOUSLY SHOWN, THE DOUBLE BOND COULD
HAVE BEEN PLACE BETWEEN ANY OF THE
THREE CARBON – OXYGEN BOND SITES.

IT COULD -2
HAVE BEEN
PLACED HERE
OR HERE
WHEN RESONANCE OCCURS THE DOUBLE BOND
IS SAID TO BE DELOCALIZED WHICH MEANS
THAT IT MOVES CONTINUALLY FROM ONE
BONDING SITE TO THE NEXT.

-2

-2
-2
 COMMON PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BONDS
(CONT’D)
• COVALENT BONDS MAY BE POLAR OR NONPOLAR
• (1) POLAR BONDS OCCUR WHEN SHARED ELECTRON
PAIRS ARE SHIFTED AWAY FROM ONE OF THE
BONDED ATOMS AND TOWARDS THE OTHER. ONE
END OF THE BOND THEREFORE IS MADE MORE
NEGATIVE AND THE OTHER END OF THE BOND IS
LEFT MORE POSITIVE. THE GREATER THE ELECTRON
SHIFT, THE MORE POLAR THE BOND BECOMES.
• (2) NONPOLAR BONDS OCCUR WHEN ELECTRON PAIRS
ARE SHARED EQUALLY AND THE BOND PAIR IS
CENTRALLY LOCATED BETWEEN THE ATOMS. THIS
BOND HAS NO POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE END.
 COMMON PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BONDS
(CONT’D)
• THE DEGREE OF BOND POLARITY DEPENDS ON
HOW WELL ONE ATOM ATTRACTS ELECTRONS
AS COMPARED TO THE OTHER BONDED ATOM.
• MORE NONMETALLIC ATOMS (HIGH
ELECTRONEGATIVITIES) ATTRACT ELECTRONS
THE BEST WHILE METALLIC ATOMS (LOW
ELECTRONEGATIVITIES) ATTRACT ELECTRONS
MOST POORLY.
• WHEN BOTH BONDED ATOMS ARE
NONMETALLIC THEIR ELECTRONEGATIVITY
VALUES ARE COMPARED TO DETERMINE THE
DEGREE OF BOND POLARITY.
 COMMON PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BONDS
(CONT’D)
• THE LARGEST POSSIBLE DIFFERENCE IN
ELECTRONEGATIVITIES BETWEEN BONDED ATOMS
IS THAT FOR A CESIUM FLOURINE BOND (∆ EN =3.3)
THIS REPRESENTS THE MOST IONIC POSSIBLE BOND.
• THE SMALLEST POSSIBLE DIFFERENCE IN
ELECTRONEGATIVITIES BETWEEN BONDED ATOMS
OCCURS IN ALL DIATOMIC MOLECULES. SINCE EACH
AOM HAS THE SAME ELECTRONEGATIVITY, THE
DIFFERENCE IS ZERO (∆ EN = 0). THIS REPRESENTS A
COMPLETELY NONPOLAR BOND.
• ELECTRONEGATIVITY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
THESE EXTREMES (3.3 AND 0) INDICATE THE
RELATIVE POLARITY OF A BOND
KINDS OF CHEMICAL BONDS

IONIC BONDING
∆ EN = (4.0 – 0.70) = 3.3

+δ -δ POLAR COVALENT
BONDING
∆ EN = (3.0 – 2.5) = 0.5

NON POLAR
COVALENT BONDING
∆ EN = (3.0 –3.0) = 0
 BOND FORMATION AND HYBRIDIZATION
• ATOMS GENERALLY FORM AS MANY BONDS AS IS
POSSIBLE. OFTEN THE BONDING CAPACITY OF AN
ATOM CAN BE INCREASED BY A PROCESS KNOWN
AS HYBRIDIZATION.
• IN THIS PROCESS, ORBITALS THAT ARE CLOSE TO
EACHOTHER (IN TERMS OF ENERGY) MERGE
TOGETHER FORMING NEW ORBITALS CALLED
HYBRIDS. THE FORMATION OF THESE NEW HYBRIDS
ALLOW PREVIOUSLY PAIRED ELECTRONS TO
SEPARATE AN MOVE INTO NEW ORBITALS THEREBY
ALLOWING FOR MORE BONDS TO BE FORMED.
• ORBITALS COMMONLY ENGAGING IN THIS PROCESS
ARE S AND P ORBITALS AT THE SAME ENERGY
LEVEL. EVEN S, P AND D ORBITALS CAN HYBRIDIZE.
 BOND FORMATION AND HYBRIDIZATION
(CONT’D)

• RULES GOVERNING ORBITAL HYBRIDIZATION

• (1) THE NUMBER OF HYBRID ORBITALS THAT ARE
FORMED EQUAL THE NUMBER OF ATOMIC
ORBITALS USED IN THE HYBRIDIZATION.
• (2) ALL THE NEWLY FORMED HYBRID ORBITALS
ARE OF EQUAL ENERGY.
• (3) LIKE ATOMIC ORBITALS, A MAXIMUM OF TWO
ELECTRONS CAN BE PRESENT.
• (4) AN ELECTRON PAIR PRESENT IN AN ORBITAL
MAY BE A BONDING ELECTRON PAIR OR A LONE
ELECTRON PAIR WHICH DOES NOT FORM A BOND.
• (5) ALL BONDS DO NOT REQUIRE HYBRIDIZATION
IN ORDER TO FORM.
HYBRIDIZATION AND PERIODIC TRENDS
• TRENDS IN BONDING BETWEEN ATOMS OCCUR
IN SIMILAR FASHION AMONG MEMBERS OF THE
SAME CHEMICAL FAMILY (COLUMNS ON THE
PERIODIC TABLE).
• THE BONDING CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH
FAMILY ON THE PERIODIC TABLE ARE
DEMONSTRATED IN THE FOLLOWING FRAMES.
• ALTHOUGH ELEMENTS IN A FAMILY GENERALLY
DO ACT SIMILARLY, NOT ALL THE ELEMENTS IN
A PARTICULAR FAMILY ACT IN EXACTLY THE
SAME WAY.
 LITHIUM WITH
UNHYBRIDIZED NO HYBRIDIZATION
LITHIUM (BEFORE REACTING)
(CAPABLE OF FORMING ONE BOND)

WHEN BONDSPROMOTION
FORM WITH
NO ELECTRON 1
OR
HYDROGEN (H 1s )
HYBRIDIZATION OCCURS

COMPOUND
LiH
RESULTS
BONDING
ORBITAL 3P
2S

1S
 BERYLLIUM
UNHYBRIDIZED IN HYBRIDIZED
BERYLLIUM STATE
(BEFORE REACTING)
(CAPABLE OF FORMING TWO BONDS)

WHEN BONDS FORM WITH

ELECTRON PROMOTION 1
AND
HYDROGEN (H 1s )
HYBRIDIZATION OCCURS

COMPOUND
BeH2
BONDING
RESULTS
ORBITALS
3P
SP HYBRID ORBITALS
2S

1S
 BORON IN
UNHYBRIDIZED HYBRIDIZED
BORON (BEFORESTATE
REACTING)
(CAPABLE OF FORMING THREE BONDS)

WHEN BONDS
ELECTRON FORM WITH
PROMOTION AND
HYDROGEN (H
HYBRIDIZATION 1s1)
OCCURS

COMPOUND
BH3
BONDING
RESULTS
ORBITALS 3P
SP2 HYBRID ORBITALS
2S

1S
UNHYBRIDIZED
CARBON CARBON (BEFORE
IN HYBRIDIZED REACTING)
STATE
(CAPABLE OF FORMING FOUR BONDS)

WHEN BONDS
ELECTRON FORM WITH
PROMOTION AND
1s1)
HYDROGEN (HOCCURS
HYBRIDIZATION

COMPOUND
CH4
RESULTS
BONDING
ORBITALS 3P
SP3 HYBRID ORBITALS
2S

1S
 NITROGEN IN HYBRIDIZED STATE
UNHYBRIDIZED NITROGEN
(CAPABLE OF FORMING(BEFORE REACTING)
THREE BONDS
WITH ONE LONE ELECTRON PAIR)

ELECTRON
WHEN BONDS
PROMOTION
FORM WITH
AND
HYBRIDIZATION
HYDROGEN (H 1s1)
OCCURS
LONE e-PAIR

BONDING COMPOUND
ORBITALS
3P NH3
RESULTS
SP3 HYBRID ORBITALS
2S

1S
 OXYGEN IN HYBRIDIZED STATE
UNHYBRIDIZED
(CAPABLE OXYGEN
OF FORMING (BEFORE
TWO BONDSREACTING)
WITH TWO
LONE ELECTRON PAIRS)

WHEN BONDS FORM WITH

ELECTRON PROMOTION 1
AND
HYDROGEN (H 1s )
HYBRIDIZATION OCCURS
TWO LONE e-
PAIRS

BONDING COMPOUND
ORBITALS H2O
3P RESULTS
SP3 HYBRID ORBITALS
2S

1S
 FLOURINE IN HYBRIDIZED STATE
UNHYBRIDIZED CARBON (BEFORE REACTING)
(CAPABLE OF FORMING ONE BOND
WITH THREE LONE ELECTRON PAIRS)

ELECTRON PROMOTION
WHEN BONDS AND
FORM WITH
HYBRIDIZATION
HYDROGEN OCCURS
(H 1s1)
THREE LONE e-
PAIRS
COMPOUND
BONDING HF
ORBITALS RESULTS
3PORBITALS
SP3 HYBRID
2S

1S
 COORDINATE COVALENT BOND FORMATION

LONE e- PAIR
HYDROGEN
ION WITH
NO ELECTRONS

AMMONIUM
AMMONIA
ION
NH3 IS
FORMED NH4+