General Principles of Seed Production

Production of genetically pure & good quality pedigree seed is a task

requiring high technical skills & comparatively heavy finical investment.
During seed production strict attention must be given to the maintenance of
genetic purity & other qualities of seeds in order to exploit the full dividends
sought to be obtained by introduction of new superior crop plant varieties. In
other words seed production must be carried out under standardized & well
organized conditions.

GENETIC PRINCIPLES
Deterioration of variety
Genetic purity (trueness to type) of a variety can deteriorate due to several
factors during production cycles. The best means to ensure genetic purity
would be to overcome to the greatest possible extent the various factors
responsible for genetic deterioration. The important factors of apparent &
real deterioration. The important factors of apparent & real deterioration of
variety as listed by Kadam (1942) are as follows:-
1. Developmental variation
2. Mechanical mixture
3. Mutation
4. Natural Crossing
5. Minor Genetic Variation
6. Selective Influence of Diseases
7. The Techniques of the Plant Breeder

Of these mechanical mixtures, natural crossing & selective influence of

diseases are the most important reasons for genetic deterioration of varieties
during seed production, followed by raising the seed crop in areas outside
their adaptation which may cause developmental variation & genetic shifts
in varieties.

1. Developmental Variations:- When seed crops are grown in difficult

environment under different soil & fertility conditions or different
climatic conditions or under different photoperiods or at different
elevations for several consecutive generations the developmental
variation may arise. To minimize such variations to occur in the varieties
it is advisable to grow them in their areas of adaptation & growing
season.

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2. Mechanical Mixtures:- This is the most important source of variety
deterioration during seed production. Mechanical mixtures may often
take place at time of sowing, if more than one variety is sown with same
drill; through volunteer plants of the same crop in the same field or
through different varieties grown in adjacent fields; or during harvesting
& threshing operations. Often the seed produced of all the varieties are
kept on same threshing floor, resulting in considerable varietal mixtures.
Secondly combining or threshing equipment is often contaminated with
seeds of other varieties in augers, elevators etc. Further gunny bags, seed
bins, elevators etc are also quite often contaminated with seeds of other
varieties.
To avoid this sort of mechanical mixture contamination it would be
necessary to rogue the seed fields and practice the utmost care during
seed production, harvesting, threshing & further handling.

3. Mutations:- This is not a serious factor of varietal deterioration. In

majority of cases it is difficult to identify or detect minor mutations. The
mutant can be removed from seed plots to purify the seeds. In case of
vegetatively propagated crops periodic increase of true to type stock
would eliminate the deterioration effects of mutations.

4. Natural Crossing:- In sexually propagated crops natural crossing is

another most important source of varietal deterioration due to
introgression to genes from unrelated stocks which can be only solved by
prevention.
The extent of varietal contamination depends upon the amount of natural
cross-fertilization. The deterioration in variety due to natural crossing
occurs due to the following 3 reasons:-
i) Natural crossing with undesirable type.
ii) Natural crossing with diseased plant
iii) Natural crossing with off-type plants
In self fertilized crops, natural crossing is not a serious source of
contamination & variety deterioration unless the variety is male sterile &
is grown in close proximity to other varieties. But in Cross fertilized
crops, natural crossing is the major source of genetic contamination.
According to Bateman (1947) the extent of genetic contamination in seed
fields due to natural crossing depends upon the following factors:
i) The breeding system of species (ii) Isolation distance
iii) Varietal mass (iv) Pollinating agent

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 As the isolation between varieties is increased the contamination
generally deceases, although there may be small amounts of
contamination over wide distances. Isolation of seed crops, therefore is a
primary factor in seed production of crop plants cross fertilized by wind
or insects. The extent of contamination depends upon the direction of
prevailing winds, no: of insects present & their activity, humidity &
temperature at time of anthesis etc. In addition to these the mass of
varieties involved is also important in the amount of contaminating
influence.

5. Minor Genetic Variation:- Minor genetic variation may still exist even
in the varieties appearing phenotypically uniform & homogeneous at the
time of their release. During later production of cycle some of these
variations may be lost because of selective elimination by environment.
To over come these De Hann (1953) has suggested yield trials of lines
propagated from plants of breeder’s seed in the maintenance of self
fertilized crop varieties. Minor genetic variability may be constant
features in often cross fertilized crop species. Care during maintenance of
nucleus & breeder’s seed is necessary in such cases.

6. Selective Influence of Disease:- The selective influence of diseases in

varietal deterioration is also of considerable importance. New crop
varieties often become susceptible to new races of diseases often caused
by obligate parasites & are out of seed programmes. Similarly
vegetatively propagated stocks deteriorate fast if infested by viral, fungal
& bacterial diseases. During seed production it is very necessary to
produce disease free seeds/stocks.

7. Techniques of plant Breeder:- In certain instances serious instabilities

may occur in varieties due to cytogenetical irregularities not properly
assessed in the new varieties prior to their release. Premature release of
variety still segregating for resistance & susceptibility to disease or other
factors may also be important in the deterioration of varieties. This could
be looked upon as the factor of the variety testing programme
In addition to the factors discussed above, other factors such as break
down in male sterility, certain environmental conditions & other heritable
variation may considerably lower the genetic purity.

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 Maintenance of Genetic Purity During Seed Production
The methods suggested by Horne (1953) and Hartmann & Kester (1968)
may be used wholly or partly in part to maintain high levels of genetic purity
during seed production.
The various steps suggested by Horne (1953) to maintain varietal purity
are as follows:
a) Use of approved seed only in seed multiplication.
b) Inspection & approval of fields prior to planting.
c) Field inspection & approval of growing crops at critical stages for
verification of genetic purity, detection of mixtures, weeds and for
freedom from noxious weeds & seed borne diseases. Etc
d) Sampling & sealing of cleaned lots.
e) Growing of samples of potentially approved stocks for comparison with
authentic stocks.

The various steps suggested by Hartmann & Kester (1968) to maintain

varietal purity are as follows:
a) Providing adequate isolation to prevent contamination by natural crossing
or mechanical mixtures.
b) Roguing of seed fields prior to the stage at which they could contaminate
the seed crop
c) Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity.
d) Avoiding genetic shifts by growing crops in areas of their adaptation
only.
e) Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic purity & quality of seed.
f) Adopting the generation system.
g) Grow out test.

The mechanism of maintaining genetic purity is further strengthened by the

generation system. In this system, the seed production is restricted to four
generations only. Starting from breeder’s seed, the seed can only be
multiplied upto three more generations, i.e. foundation, registered &
certified.

The Important safeguards for maintaining genetic purity during seed

production thus are:-
a) Control of seed Source: The use of seed of an appropriate class & from
an approved source is necessary for raising a seed crop. Four classes of
seeds, namely breeder’s, foundation, registered, certified are generally

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 recognized in seed certification. The classes are given below as defined
by the Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA):
Breeder’s Seed: It is seed or vegetative propagating material which is
directly controlled by the originating or in certain cases, the sponsoring
breeder or institution and which provides for the initial & recurring increase
of foundation seed.
Foundation Seed: foundation seed include seed stock so handled as to most
nearly maintain specific genetic identity & purity and that may be
designated or distributed by an agricultural experiment station. Production
must be carefully supervised or approved by representatives of the station.
Foundation seed is the source of all other certified seed classes, either
directly or through registered seed.
Registered Seed: It is progeny of foundation or registered seed that is so
handled as to maintain satisfactory genetic identity & purity and that has
been approved and certified by a certifying agency. This class of seed should
be of a quality suitable for production of certified seed
Certified Seed: It is progeny of foundation, registered or certified seed that
is so handled to maintain satisfactory genetic identity & purity and that has
been approved & certified by certifying agency.

b) Preceding Crop Requirements: This has been fixed to avoid

contamination through volunteer plants & also the soil borne diseases.

c) Isolation: The isolation of seed crops from various sources of

contamination is necessary requirement for raising seed crops.
Contamination may be due to natural crossing with other varieties grown
alongside & off types present in the seed fields; contamination cue to
mechanical mixtures at time of sowing , harvesting, threshing, processing
& handling of seeds and contamination due to seed-borne diseases from
near by fields. Protection from these sources of contamination is
necessary for maintaining genetic purity & good quality seed. Isolation is
required during raising of a seed crop to avoid contamination due to
natural crossing & disease infection, by sowing, harvesting, threshing and
handling of seeds to avoid mechanical mixtures.

d) Roguing Of Seed Fields: The existence of off type plants, i.e. plants
differing in their characteristics from those of the seed variety is another
potent source of genetic contamination. Although a low %age of such
plants may not seriously jeopardize the genetic purity of the variety, their

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 continued presence would certainly deteriorate the genetic purity of the
variety. The removal of such plants is referred to as roguing.
There are three main sources of off type plants. Firstly the off type plants
may arise due to presence of some recessive genes in homozygous
conditions at time of release of varieties. The recessive genes may also
arise by mutation. The heterozygous plants segregate from the characters
affected by the particular gene in later stages of production cylces & give
rise to off types. Another source of off type plants is the volunteer plants
arising from accidentally planted seeds or from seed produced by earlier
crops. For this reason the fields for producing seed of a particular variety
should not have grown a potentially contaminating variety for a specified
no: of preceding years.
Mechanical mixtures as described earlier also constitute the major source
of breakdown in genetically homogeneity.
Off type individual plants should be rouged out of seed production fields
before pollination occurs. Regular supervision by trained personnel is
imperative. In other instances it may be necessary to control certain seed-
borne diseases.

e) Seed Certification: The genetic purity in commercial seeds production is

often maintained through a system of seed certification. The principal
objective of seed certification is to maintain & make available crop seeds,
tubers or bulbs and some times turf grasses which are of good seeding
value and true to variety. To accomplish these purposes, qualified & well
experienced personnel of seed certification agency carry out field
inspections at appropriate stages of crop growth. They also make
inspections to verify that the seed crop/seed lot is of the requisite genetic
purity & quality, after harvesting to verify quality & at the processing
plants draw samples for seed testing & sometimes for grow out test also.
In addition to inspection seed certification agency also lay down the field
& seed standards to which the seed crop & seed lot respectively must
conform to get approval as certified seed. The field standards include
land requirement, isolation requirements maximum permissible off type
shedding tassels (in case of hybrid maize program) etc.

f) Grow-out Test: Varieties being grown for seed production should

periodically be tested for genetic purity by grow-out tests, to make sure
that they are being maintained in their true form.

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 AGRONOMIC PRINCIPLES

Standardized seed production, besides genetic principles involves the

application of the following agronomic principles to preserve good seed
quality & abundant seed yields.

Selection of a Suitable Agro-climatic Region

A crop variety to be grown for seed production in an area must be adapted to
the photoperiod & temperature conditions prevailing in that area. The crop
varieties sensitive to photoperiodism & temperature should be grown in
selected localities where these could be economically produced.
Regions of moderate rainfall & humidity are much more suited to seed
production than regions of high rainfall & humidity. Most crops require a
dry sunny period & moderate temperatures for flowering & pollination.
Excessive dew & rain cause hindrance in normal pollination resulting in
poor seed set. Similarly too high temperature causes desiccation of pollen
resulting in poor seed set. If hot dry weather conditions prevail during
flowering, many crops such as vegetables, legumes & fruit trees fail to set
seed effectively & produce many seedless fruits. The crops invariably
require cool conditions with low atmospheric humidity to flower & pollinate
normally. In wind pollinated crops bright sunny weather with gentle winds
which cause an even flow of pollen over crop during flowering is conductive
to best pollination & good seed set. Though other crops e.g. oil crops can
withstand hot periods during flowering, but very high temperature results in
premature flowering & production of poor quality seeds. Similarly very cold
temperatures may also damage seed quality especially in the early phases of
seed maturation. In general regions with extreme summer heat & very cold
winters should be avoided for seed production unless particular crops are
especially adapted to grow & produce seed under these conditions.
Apart from complicating pollination, excessive rainfall leads to a higher
incidence of diseases & makes seed harvesting extremely difficult. It may
also result in delayed maturity & pregermiantion of seed in many standing
crops. As the seed crop approaches maturity it becomes increasingly
susceptible to shattering. Strong winds & heavy rainfall at or near harvest
time may cause heavy seed losses particularly in crops which have a
tendency to shatter their seed readily. Such conditions may also complicate
the harvesting & subsequent harvesting operations.
It is therefore clearly evident that ample sunshine, relatively moderate
rainfall & the absence of strong winds have decided advantages for

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productive & high quality seed production & must be kept in view in the
selection of areas for seed production.

Selection of Seed Plot

The plot selected for seed crop must have following characteristics:-
a) Soil texture & fertility of plot should be according to the requirement of
the seed crops.
b) The seed plot should be free from volunteer plants, weed plants & other
crop plants.
c) The soil of the seed plot should be comparatively free from soil-borne
diseases & insect pests.
d) In the preceding season the same crop should have not been grown on
this land, if it is so required by seed certification standards.
e) It should be feasible to isolate the plot as per requirements of certification
standards.

Isolation of Seed Crop

The seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields of the same crop &
other contaminating crops as per requirements of certification standards. The
isolation of a seed crop is usually done by providing distance between seed
fields & contaminating fields. In hybrid maize seed production if the
distance isolation is not feasible for nay reason, instead time isolation could
be provided. Even the distance isolation requirement could be reduced in
certified maize seed production by planting additional border rows. On a
small scale i.e. in nucleus/breeder’s seed production the isolation can also be
provided by enclosing plants or group of plants in cage or enclosing
individual flowers or by removing male flower parts & then individual
artificial pollination.
After seed crop has been harvested isolation of seed produced of different
varieties is necessary to avoid mechanical contamination. Similarly bags or
other containers used to hold the seed must be carefully cleaned to remove
any seed which may have remained in the bags from previous lots.

Preparation of Land
The land for seed crop must be prepared well. Good land preparation helps
improved germination, good stand establishment & destruction of potential
weeds. It also aids in water management & good uniform irrigation.

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Selection of Variety
The variety for seed production must be carefully selected. Except in
exceptional cases it should satisfy the following criteria’s:
a) The variety should be adapted to agro-climatic conditions of the region.
b) The variety should really be high yielder.
c) The variety should posses other desirable attributes, namely disease
resistance, earliness, grain quality.

Seed
The seed used for raising a seed crop should be of known purity, appropriate
class & invariably obtained from an authorized official agency. While
buying the seed the following factors should be carefully examined:
a) That the seed of the appropriate seed class is bought for raising a
foundation seed crop, seed of the breeder’s seed class is required & for
raising a certified seed crop the seed of the foundation seed class is
required for sowing.
b) That the tag & seals of the breeders/foundation seed bags purchased are
intact.
c) That the validity period has not expired.
d) That all the bags are of the same variety.

Seed Treatment
The seed may require seed treatment before planting, if they are not already
appropriately treated. This could be easily done with help of a revolving
drum at the farm. Depending upon the requirement one or more of the
following seed treatments may be given:
a) Chemical seed treatment.
b) Bacterial inoculation for legumes.
c) Seed treatment for breaking dormancy due to hard seeded ness.

Time of planting
The seed crops should invariably be sown at their normal planting time.
Depending upon incidences of disease & pests, some adjustments could be
made if necessary. At time of planting there should be sufficient soil
moisture for germination to take place.

Seed Rate
Lower seed rates than usual for raising commercial crop are desirable
because they facilitate roguing operations & inspection of seed crop.

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Method of Sowing
The seed crops should be sown in rows with the exception of thickly sown
crops where the sowing could be done by broadcasting. The most efficient &
ideal method of sowing is by mechanical drilling, as it allows the deposit of
the seeds in desired amount at uniform depth. It is of utmost importance to
ensure that the seed drills/planters are absolutely clean, i.e. free from left
over seeds of other crops.
The sowing of seed crops in rows helps in conducting effective plant
protection measures, roguing operations & field inspections. For many crops
spacing within row is often more important than distance between rows,
close spacing in row usually stimulate fibre & oil crops to branch more
profusely at top & produce more seeds. For herbage crops too especially
grasses adequate space for the penetration of air & sunlight to reach
developing inflorescence at the base of the plants appear to be of special
importance. For hybrid planting of two parents namely female parent line &
male parent line has to be done in a definite proportion 4:2 or 6:2. It is
imperative to ensure that the seeds of male & female parent line do not get
mixed while planting. After planting of the male & female lines six to eight
border rows of the male parent may also be sown if required. After sowing
male rows should be marked to facilitate later operations.

Depth of Sowing
Depth of sowing is extremely important in ensuring a good plant stands.
Small seed should be usually be planted shallow, but larger seeds could be
planted a little deeper. Seeds would emerge from greater depths in sandy
soils than in clay soils and also in warm soil as compared to cold. In dry
soils seeds should be planted slightly deeper as so that they come in contact
with moisture.

Roguing
Adequate & timely roguing is extremely important in seed production. As
mentioned earlier the rogue which differ from normal plant population in
being weak or sickly or bolters or dissimilar may cause quick deterioration
in seed stocks by crosspollination, transmission of diseases etc. they should
therefore be removed at earliest possible date before flowering. It is wise to
remove the whole plant and not just the flower head. The no: of roguings
necessary will vary with the crop, cleanness of planting seed & stage of the
multiplication of the seed crop.

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Roguing in most of the field crops may be done at any of the following
stages as per needs of the seed crop.
a) Vegetative /preflowering stage
b) Flowering stage
c) Maturity stage

Supplementary Pollination
Provision of honey bees in hives in close proximity to the seed fields of
crops largely cross-pollination by insects, ensure good seed set & thereby
greatly increase seed yields.

Weed Control
Good weed control is a basic requirement in producing good quality seed.
Weeds may cause contamination of the seed crop in the following ways in
addition to reduction in yield:
a) The presence of weed seeds at time of crop harvest leads to mixing of
weed seeds with crop seeds. In many instances it is difficult to remove
them during the processing of seeds.
b) The presence of weeds in the seed field or nearby areas may serve as host
to no: of diseases.
Good & effective weed control therefore would be necessary to obtain good
seed yields & to avoid contamination.

Disease & Insect Control

Successful disease & insect control is another important factor in raising
healthy seed crops. Apart from reduction in yield, the quality of seeds from
disease & insect damaged plants is invariably poor. Poor disease & insect
control affects seed quality in the following three ways:-
a) There are a no: of diseases which are systemic. If these are not checked
the seed produced will get infected with spores of such diseases &
produce diseased plant in next season.
b) There are certain diseases which are not systemic, leave their spores on
seed coats. If not checked this results in a greater susceptibility to various
seedling diseases which can affect the crop.
c) Seed yield & quality are reduced.
Following principles may be adhered for an effective management of
diseases & pests in seed crops:-
a) Plant only treated seed.
b) Prepare & adopt appropriate schedule of spraying for effective disease &
insect control.

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c) Roguing of diseased plants & ear heads from time to time also helps in
checking the further spread of diseases.

Nutrition
In the nutrition of see crops nitrogen, phosphorous potassium & several
other elements play an important role for proper development of plants &
seeds. It is therefore advisable to know & identify the nutritional
requirements of seed crops & apply adequate fertilizers. Adequate
fertilization results in maximum yields, god seed quality & better expression
of plant type which facilitate roguing & thereby helps in maintaining higher
genetic purity as well.

Irrigation
It has been stressed earlier that comparatively dried regions are more
suitable for good quality, disease free seed production. In such regions
irrigation is essential to obtain good seed yields. The irrigations may be
required before planting & at intervals upto flowering. One or two
irrigations beyond flowering are desirable for may seed crop. In general
lighter soils need more irrigation than heavier soils.

Harvesting Of Seed Crops

Time of Harvest: The optimum time of harvest is when the seed is fully
mature, when weather damage has just begun & the seed is easily harvested
& cleaned resulting in minimum harvest losses. Harvesting at earlier stages
makes combining difficult & relative losses due to threshing & cleaning are
greater. Similarly harvesting at a late stage may result in increased weather
damage to seeds & losses due to shattering seeds & lodging of plants in the
field. The optimum harvest time is somewhere between these two extremes.

Method of harvesting: In India harvesting of crop is done by hands. This if

done at appropriate time gives good quality of seed. However the subsequent
quality of seed is dependent upon the handling of harvested crop & the care
taken during threshing. Every effort should be made to avoid chance
mechanical mixing, mechanical injury to seed during threshing. Lot identity
should be maintained. If harvesting is done with combine & the seed crops
are directly combined in the fields, threshing is not required. Precautions
must be taken to adjust the combines properly so as to keep various losses &
mechanical injury to seed during combining.

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Drying Of Seeds
The seed lots are usually are at high moisture content at the time of
harvesting & threshing. In order to preserve seed viability & vigour it is
necessary to dry seeds to safe moisture content levels.
Important precautions to be taken in this respect are:
a) Identity of the lots must be maintained.
b) Care should be taken to ensure that mechanical mixture does not take
place.
c) Drying of seeds to safe moisture limits should be done rather quickly. If
the seeds are to be artificially dried they should be supplied to processing
plants soon after harvesting.

Storage of Raw Seeds

The best method of storing seed for short period is in stacks or bags in
ordinary building or godowns. After sun drying the seed should be filled in
neat & clean bags. if old bags are to be used they should be properly cleaned
& treated before use. Each and every bag should be marked appropriately.
The stacks of bags should be made on wooden pallets. The godowns to be
used for storage should be of seed should be dry, cool, clean & sprayed with
malathion & later fumigated as & when necessary.

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