1 MECHATRONICS

MECHATRONICS
ASSIGNMENT NO 1ST

SUBMITTED TO RESPECTED SIR, PROF. DR. ALTAF RAJPAR SAHAB

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, QUAID-E-AWAM
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,
NAWABSHAH.

SUBMITTED BY KHALIL RAZA BHATTI

ROLL NO 07ME40

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BY KHALIL RAZA BHATTI
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Q # 1. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN ROBOTS AND ROBOTICS?

HOW TO CLASSIFY ROBOTS? DEFINE ROBOT COMPONENTS AND
ROBOT DEGREES OF FREEDOM? IDENTIFY ROBOT COORDINATES
AND REFERENCE FRAMES?

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ROBOTICS & ROBOTICS

ROBOTICS IS ONE OF THE IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE AND IS DEFINED AS THE TECHNOLOGY OF BUILDING AND
USING ROBOTS WITH ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND COMPUTER
CONTROLLED HUMAN-LIKE CAPABILITIES. ROBOTICS IS DESIGN AND
MANUFACTURE OF INTELLIGENT MACHINES THAT ARE PROGRAMMED TO PERFORM CERTAIN SPECIFIC TASKS. ROBOTS
ARE GENERALLY DESIGNED TO BE A HELPING HAND. THEY HELP US IN DIFFICULT, UNSAFE OR BORING TASKS. SIMPLY
PUT, ROBOTS ARE MACHINES THAT CAN BE PROGRAMMED TO PERFORM A VARIETY OF JOBS, AND THEY CAN RANGE
FROM SIMPLE MACHINES TO HIGHLY COMPLEX, COMPUTER-CONTROLLED INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS.

ROBOT IS OFTEN APPLIED TO ANY DEVICE THAT WORKS AUTOMATICALLY OR BY REMOTE CONTROL , ESPECIALLY
A MACHINE (AUTOMATON ) THAT CAN BE PROGRAMMED TO PERFORM TASKS NORMALLY DONE BY PEOPLE .
BEFORE THE 1960S, ROBOT USUALLY MEANT A MANLIKE MECHANICAL DEVICE (MECHANICAL MAN OR
HUMANOID ) CAPABLE OF PERFORMING HUMAN TASKS OR BEHAVING IN A HUMAN MANNER. TODAY ROBOTS
COME IN ALL SHAPES AND SIZES, INCLUDING SMALL ROBOTS MADE OF LEGO, AND LARGER WHEELED ROBOTS
THAT PLAY ROBOT FOOTBALL WITH A FULL -SIZE BALL .
WHAT MANY ROBOTS HAVE IN COMMON IS THAT THEY PERFORM TASKS THAT ARE TOO DULL , DIRTY , DELICATE
OR DANGEROUS FOR PEOPLE . USUALLY , WE ALSO EXPECT THEM TO BE AUTONOMOUS, THAT IS, TO WORK USING
THEIR OWN SENSORS AND INTELLIGENCE , WITHOUT THE CONSTANT NEED FOR A HUMAN TO CONTROL THEM.
LOOKED AT THIS WAY , A RADIO CONTROLLED AIRPLANE IS NOT A ROBOT , NOR ARE THE RADIO CONTROLLED
COMBAT ROBOTS THAT APPEAR ON TELEVISION . HOWEVER , THERE IS NO CLEAR DIVIDING LINE BETWEEN FULLY
AUTONOMOUS ROBOTS AND HUMAN -CONTROLLED MACHINES. FOR EXAMPLE , THE ROBOTS THAT PERFORM
SPACE MISSIONS ON PLANETS LIKE M ARS MAY GET INSTRUCTIONS FROM HUMANS ON EARTH, BUT SINCE IT CAN
TAKE ABOUT TEN MINUTES FOR MESSAGES TO GET BACK AND FORTH , THE ROBOT HAS TO BE AUTONOMOUS
DURING THAT TIME.

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ROBOTS COMPONENTS AND DEGREES OF

FREEDOM
CONTROLLER , ARM, DRIVE , END-EFFECTOR AND SENSOR ARE THE
BASIC PARTS THAT A USEFUL ROBOTIC SYSTEM MUST HAVE.
HOWEVER, ROBOTS WITHOUT ARMS AND END-EFFECTORS ALSO
DO EXIST ; FOR EXAMPLE , CERTAIN MOBILE ROBOTS USED FOR
SURVEILLANCE . BUT THE CONTROLLER , DRIVE AND SENSOR ARE
PREREQUISITES FOR ANY ROBOTIC SYSTEM, BE IT INDUSTRIAL ,
RECREATIONAL OR RESEARCH-ORIENTED .
CONTROLLER :
EVERY ROBOT IS CONNECTED TO A COMPUTER , WHICH KEEPS THE PIECES OF THE ARM WORKING TOGETHER.
THIS COMPUTER IS KNOWN AS THE CONTROLLER . IT FUNCTIONS AS THE ‘BRAIN’ OF THE ROBOT . CONTROLLER
ALSO ALLOWS THE ROBOT TO BE NETWORKED TO OTHER SYSTEMS, SO THAT IT MAY WORK IN COLLABORATION
WITH OTHER MACHINES, PROCESSES OR ROBOTS. M AJORITY OF ROBOTS TODAY ARE ENTIRELY
PREPROGRAMMED. THIS MEANS THAT THEY CAN DO ONLY WHAT THEY ARE PROGRAMMED TO DO AT THE TIME ,
AND NOTHING ELSE . HOWEVER , IN THE NEAR FUTURE , CONTROLLERS WITH ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE COULD
ALLOW ROBOTS TO ‘THINK ’ ON THEIR OWN AND EVEN PROGRAM THEMSELVES. THIS COULD MAKE ROBOTS
MORE SELF-RELIANT AND INDEPENDENT.
ARMS:
ROBOT ARMS COME IN ALL SHAPES AND SIZES. THE ARM IS THAT PART OF THE ROBOT WHICH POSITIONS THE
END -EFFECTER AND SENSORS TO DO THEIR PREPROGRAMMED BUSINESS. M ANY RESEMBLE HUMAN ARMS, AND
HAVE SHOULDERS, ELBOWS, WRISTS AND EVEN FINGERS. THIS GIVES THE ROBOT ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM. SO
A SIMPLE ROBOT ARM WITH THREE DEGREES OF FREEDOM COULD MOVE IN THREE WAYS: UP AND DOWN , LEFT
AND RIGHT , AND FORWARD AND BACKWARD . M OST WORKING ROBOTS HAVE SIX DEGREES OF FREEDOM.
D RIVE :
THE DRIVE IS THE ‘ENGINE ’ THAT DRIVES THE LINKS INTO THEIR DESIRED POSITION. WITHOUT A DRIVE , A ROBOT
IS AS GOOD AS DEAD. M OST DRIVES ARE POWERED BY AIR , WATER , PRESSURE AND ELECTRICITY .
END - EFFECTOR :
THE END -EFFECTER IS THE HAND CONNECTED TO THE ROBOT ’S ARM. IT IS OFTEN DIFFERENT FROM A HUMAN
HAND : IT COULD BE A TOOL SUCH AS GRIPPER , VACUUM PUMP , TWEEZERS, SCALPEL , BLOW TORCH OR JUST
ABOUT ANYTHING THAT HELPS IT DO ITS JOB. SOME ROBOTS CAN CHANGE END EFFECTORS AND BE
REPROGRAMMED FOR A DIFFERENT SET OF TASKS. I F THE ROBOT HAS MORE THAN ONE ARM, THERE CAN BE
MORE THAN ONE END -EFFECTER ON THE SAME ROBOT , EACH SUITED TO A SPECIFIC TASK.
SENSOR :

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MOST ROBOTS OF TODAY ARE NEARLY DEAF AND BLIND. SENSORS CAN PROVIDE SOME LIMITED FEEDBACK TO
THE ROBOT SO IT CAN DO ITS JOB . C OMPARED TO THE SENSES AND ABILITIES OF EVEN THE SIMPLEST LIVING
THINGS, ROBOTS HAVE A VERY LONG WAY TO GO.
SENSOR SENDS INFORMATION, IN THE FORM OF ELECTRONIC SIGNALS BACK TO THE CONTROLLER . SENSORS
ALSO GIVE THE ROBOT CONTROLLER INFORMATION ABOUT ITS SURROUNDINGS AND LETS IT KNOW THE EXACT
POSITION OF THE ARM, OR THE STATE OF THE WORLD AROUND IT.

D EGREES OF F REEDOM :
DEGREE OF FREEDOM HAVING IN MIND AN I NFINITESIMAL MASS PARTICLE . IN THIS CASE THE NUMBER OF
DEGREES OF FREEDOM IS DEFINED AS THE NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT COORDINATES (NOT INCLUDING TIME )
WHICH ARE NECESSARY FOR THE COMPLETE DESCRIPTION OF THE POSITION OF A MASS PARTICLE .
A PARTICLE MOVING ALONG A LINE (INFINITESIMALLY SMALL BALL ON A WIRE ) IS A SYSTEM WITH ONE DEGREE
OF FREEDOM. A PENDULUM WITH A RIGID SEGMENT , WHICH IS SWINGINGIN A PLANE , IS ALSO A SYSTEM WITH
ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM (FIGURE 1.1). I N THE FIRST EXAMPLE THE POSITION OF THE PARTICLE CAN BE
DESCRIBED WITH THE DISTANCE , WHILE IN THE SECOND CASE IT IS DESCRIBED WITH THE ANGLE OF ROTATION .
A MASS PARTICLE MOVING ON A PLANE HAS TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM (FIGURE 1.2). THE POSITION OF THE
PARTICLE CAN BE DESCRIBED WITH TWO CARTESIAN COORDINATES X AND Y. THE DOUBLE PENDULUM WITH
RIGID SEGMENTS, SWINGING IN A PLANE , IS ALSO A SYSTEM WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM. THE POSITION
OF THE MASS PARTICLE IS DESCRIBED BY TWO ANGLES. A MASS PARTICLE IN SPACE HAS THREE DEGREES OF
FREEDOM. USUALLY ITS POSITION IS EXPRESSED BY THREE RECTANGULAR COORDINATES X, Y AND Z. AN
EXAMPLE OF A SIMPLE MECHANICAL SYSTEM WITH THREE DEGREES OF FREEDOM IS A DOUBLE PENDULUM
WHERE ONESEGMENT IS REPRESENTED BY AN ELASTIC SPRING AND THE OTHER BY A RIGID ROD . ALSO IN THIS
CASE THE PENDULUM IS SWINGING IN A PLANE.

FIG. 1.1 TWO EXAMPLES OF SYSTEMS WITH ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM: MASS PARTICLE ON A WIRE (LEFT ) AND
RIGID PENDULUM IN A PLANE (RIGHT )

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FIG. 1.2 EXAMPLES WITH TWO (LEFT ) AND THREE DEGREES OF FREEDOM (RIGHT )

FIG. 1.3 DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF A RIGID BODY

IN ROBOTICS WE ARE NOT INTERESTED IN MASS PARTICLES BUT RATHER IN RIGID BODIES, WHICH ARE EITHER
ROBOT SEGMENTS OR OBJECTS MANIPULATED BY THE INDUSTRIAL ROBOT . THE SIMPLEST RIGID BODY CONSISTS
OF THREE MASS PARTICLES (FIGURE 1.3). WE ALREADY KNOW THAT A SINGLE MASS PARTICLE HAS THREE
DEGREES OF FREEDOM , DESCRIBED BY THREE RECTANGULAR DISPLACEMENTS ALONG A LINE CALLED
TRANSLATIONS (T). WE ADD ANOTHER MASS PARTICLE TO THE FIRST ONE IN SUCH A WAY THAT THERE IS
CONSTANT DISTANCE BETWEEN THEM. THE SECOND PARTICLE IS RESTRICTED TO MOVE ON THE SURFACE OF A
SPHERE SURROUNDING THE FIRST PARTICLE. ITS POSITION ON THE SPHERE CAN BE DESCRIBED BY TWO CIRCLES
REMINDING US OF MERIDIANS AND LATITUDES ON A GLOBE . THE DISPLACEMENT ALONG A CIRCULAR LINE IS
CALLED ROTATION (R). THE THIRD MASS PARTICLE IS ADDED IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE DISTANCES WITH
RESPECT TO THE FIRST TWO PARTICLES ARE KEPT CONSTANT . I N THIS WAY THE THIRD PARTICLE MAY MOVE
ALONG A CIRCLE , A KIND OF EQUATOR , AROUND THE AXIS DETERMINED BY THE FIRST TWO PARTICLES. A RIGID
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BODY THEREFORE HAS SIX DEGREES OF FREEDOM: THREE TRANSLATIONS AND THREE ROTATIONS. THE FIRST
THREE DEGREES OF FREEDOM DESCRIBE THE POSITION OF THE BODY , WHILE THE OTHER THREE DEGREES OF
FREEDOM DETERMINE ITS ORIENTATION. THE TERM POSE IS USED TO INCLUDE BOTH POSITION AND
ORIENTATION .

IDENTIFY ROBOT COORDINATES AND REFERENCE FRAMES?

SPACE COORDINATES
THE POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE SPACE COORDINATE SYSTEM USUALLY IS
LOCATED AT THE FIRST AXIS OF UNIVERSAL ROBOTS. IN LINEAR ROBOTS THE
POINT OF ORIGIN IS LOCATED AT THE INTERSECTION POINT OF THE THREE
LINEAR AXES.
DETAILING THE POINTS IN SPACE COORDINATES IN THE WORKSPACE IS SIMPLE .
ONE DISADVANTAGE IS THE AMBIGUITY OF THE JOINT POSITIONING. THE
COORDINATE DETAILS ALSO HAVE TRANSFORMED INTO JOINT COORDINATES. THIS
IMPLICATES A HIGH COMPUTATIONAL EFFORT FOR CONTROLLING AND A MAJOR
PROGRAMMING EFFORT FOR THE PRODUCER CONTROL UNIT .
COORDINATE DESCRIPTION: P (X, Y, Z, A, B, C)

JOINT COORDINATES
THE ANGLE AND LENGTH DESCRIPTION OF THE PARTICULAR ROBOT
AXES DESCRIBE THE ORIENTATION OF THE TCP EXPLICITLY . A
POLAR INSERTION OF THE COORDINATES IS BEST .
P (ANGLE A1, ANGLE A2... ANGLE A6).
JOINT COORDINATES ARE MAINLY USED FOR PROGRAMMING
ARTICULATED ROBOTS. INTERNAL CONTROLS ALWAYS USE JOINT
COORDINATES TO CONTROL THE POSITION .

WORKPIECE COORDINATES
IF A WORKPIECE HAS TO BE PROCESSED IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS,
ONE CAN SITE A WORKPIECE COORDINATE SYSTEM INTO ONE
CORNER OF THE WORKPIECE .
THIS COORDINATE SYSTEM IS ALSO USED PRIMARILY WHERE THE
WORKPIECE IS MOVING UNDER THE (STATIONARY ) MACHINE (CNC,
MILLING OR TURNING).
WITH THIS WORKPIECE COORDINATE , IT IS EASY FOR THE

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PROGRAMMER TO APPROACH THE VARIOUS MACHINING POSITIONS AT THE WORKPIECE AND TO PROGRAM THE
MACHINING.

THE POINT OF ORIGIN IS ALSO CALLED WORK PIECE POINT OF ORIGIN (W). THE CONTROL UNIT HAS TO KNOW
THE POSITION OF THE COORDINATE SYSTEM RELATIVELY TO THE SPACE COORDINATES.

Q NO. 2. DEFINE ROBOT APPLICATION AND TYPICAL WORKSPACE

FOR COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATION?

ROBOT APPLICATIONS:
BEFORE GOING TO REALIZE THE APPLICATIONS OF THE ROBOTS WE HAVE TO CLASSIFY THOSE FIRST WITH SOME
OF THE STANDARDIZATION PROCESS THAT PRESENTLY BEING PURSUED GLOBALLY . ACCORDING THE JAPANESE
STANDARDS, THOSE ROBOTS ARE DEFINED IN THREE MAIN CATEGORIES.
MANIPULATOR : A MACHINE WHICH CAN DO MOVEMENTS LIKE THE UPPER ORGANS OF A HUMAN BEING, AND
WHICH IS DIRECTLY CONTROLLED BY THE OPERATOR .
PLAYBACK ROBOT: A MANIPULATOR WHICH CAN BE PROGRAMMED , AND WHICH CAN READ THE INFORMATION
IN THE MEMORY TO PERFORM THE REQUIRED TASKS.
INTELLIGENT ROBOT: A ROBOT WHICH CAN LIMIT ITS ACTIONS DURING THE WHOLE SENSING AND RECOGNIZING
FUNCTIONS. IT HAS THE ABILITY TO SENSE AND MAKE DECISIONS BY MEANS OF PROGRAMMING BEFOREHAND ,
AND IS ALSO NAMED AS "ROBOT WITH ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ".
HAVING ADOPTED THE ABOVE ROBOTS CLASSIFICATION, ROBOTICS HAS INFINITE APPLICATIONS WHILE SOLVING
THE REAL WORLD PROBLEMS. I T DEPENDS ON THE CONDITION , SIMULTANEOUSLY TIME ROBOTS CAN BE UTILIZED
FOR THE SEVERAL APPLICATIONS AND ITS NATURE OF RESOLVING THE HURDLES VARIES. I F ROBOT IS DESIGNED
TO PERFORM A SPECIAL TASK BUT IT ’S NOT THE ONLY TASK THAT IT IS GOING TO PERFORM. M OREOVER IT CAN
BE USED FOR SOME OTHER APPLICATIONS THAT EVEN THE ROBOT ’S MANUFACTURER OR DESIGNER HAS NOT
THOUGHT OF PERFORMING.
MOST COMMON APPLICATION OF ROBOTS ARE :
* BODY ; SPOT AND ARC WELDING, STICKING
* PAINT WORKSHOP ; PAINTING OF THE INNER AND OUTER SIDES OF THE BODY , SEALING, RUNNING THE MOULD
PRESS
* EDGE SMOOTHING AND FINAL ASSEMBLY ; CLEANING, GROUND DYEING, STICKING, GLAZING OF FRONT
WINDOWS, ULTRASONIC WELDING OF INSTRUMENT CLUSTER
* MOTOR AND TRANSMISSION; INSTALLATION OF BLOCK, GASKET AND CYLINDER HEADS, ASSEMBLING OF
WATER AND OIL PUMPS, CLEANING OF CRANK SHAFT BURRS, APPLICATION OF FLUID SEALING TO MOTOR
COMPONENTS, HANDLING AND PALLETIZING OF MACHINES

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* PRODUCTION OF AUTOMOBILE PARTS; ARC WELDING, PAINTING, CUTTING, INSTALLATION, HANDLING ETC. OF
VARIOUS COMPONENTS.
* PRODUCTION; ASSEMBLING AS WELL AS THE SEALING AND PAINTING OF BODIES OF MICROWAVE OVENS,
WASHING MACHINES ETC.
* ASSEMBLING; MOTOR AND VALVE INSTALLATIONS OF THE ABOVE MACHINES.
ROBOTS WORKSPACE FOR COMMON CONFIGURATION:
The robot workspace consists of all points that can be reached by the robot end-point. It plays
an important role when selecting an industrial robot for an anticipated task. It is our aim to
describe an approach to determine the workspace of a chosen robot. Regardless of the
constraints imposed by the plane it will become come with the most important characteristic
properties of the robot workspaces. Industrial robots usually have the ability to turn around the
first vertical joint axis. We shall therefore rotate the working surface around the vertical axis of
the reference coordinate frame and thus obtain an idea of the realistic robot workspaces. Let us
consider the planar two-segment robot manipulator as shown in Figure below. The rotational
degrees of freedom are denoted as 1 and 2 and the lengths of the segments l1 and l2 will be
considered equal. The coordinates of the robot end-point can be expressed with the following
two equations:

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THE WORKSPACE OF A ROBOT IS AN IMPORTANT CRITERION IN EVALUATING MANIPULATOR GEOMETRIES.

MANIPULATOR WORKSPACE MAY BE DESCRIBED IN TERMS OF THE DEXTEROUS WORKSPACE AND THE ACCESSIBLE
WORKSPACE. DEXTEROUS WORKSPACE IS THE VOLUME OF SPACE WHICH THE ROBOT CAN REACH WITH ALL
ORIENTATIONS. THAT IS, AT EACH POINT IN THE DEXTEROUS WORKSPACE , THE END -EFFECTOR CAN BE
ARBITRARILY ORIENTED . THE ACCESSIBLE WORKSPACE IS THE VOLUME OF SPACE WHICH THE ROBOT CAN REACH
IN AT LEAST ONE ORIENTATION . I N THE DEXTEROUS WORKSPACE THE ROBOT HAS COMPLETE MANIPULATIVE
CAPABILITY . HOWEVER , IN THE ACCESSIBLE WORKSPACE , THE MANIPULATOR 'S OPERATIONAL CAPACITY IS
LIMITED BECAUSE THE TERMINAL DEVICE CAN ONLY BE PLACED IN A RESTRICTED RANGE OF ORIENTATIONS.

Robot workspace analysis for Common Configuration:

FOR THE ROBOT PRESENTED IN THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLES WE HAVE A SET OF PARAMETERS THAT ALLOW
REPRESENTING THE POSITION /ORIENTATION OF THE PLATFORM. AT THE SAME TIME WE HAVE VARIOUS
GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS THAT DESCRIBE THE POSSIBLE GEOMETRY OF THE ROBOT. EXAMPLES OF THE THESE

PARAMETERS ARE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE , THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE VECTOR AND
A FIXED DIRECTION IN SPACE (THIS ANGLE REPRESENT THE AMPLITUDE OF THE MOTION OF THE JOINT WE HAVE

AT ).
IN PRACTICE ALL THE GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS ARE SUBMITTED TO CONSTRAINTS. FOR EXAMPLE THE

DISTANCES MUST SATISFY , THE ANGLE MUST BE SUCH

THAT WHERE IS A UNIT VECTOR THAT DESCRIBES THE MAIN

ORIENTATION OF THE BALL -AND -SOCKET JOINT AT AND IS THE MAXIMAL POSSIBLE ROTATION OF THIS
JOINT. ALL THESE CONSTRAINTS IMPLY THAT THE VALUE OF THE ELEMENTS OF ARE RESTRICTED TO LIE IN A
SPECIFIC REGION EMBEDDED IN THE 6-DIMENSIONAL SPACE , THIS REGION BEING CALLED THE REACHABLE
WORKSPACE OF THE ROBOT AS THE POINTS OF THIS REGION DEFINE ALL THE POSITION /ORIENTATION THAT CAN
BE REACHED BY THE PLATFORM.
IN SOME CASES IT IS POSSIBLE TO FIND AN ANALYTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE WORKSPACE (FOR EXAMPLE IF THE
ORIENTATION IS FIXED AND ONLY THE DISTANCE CONSTRAINTS ARE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT ) BUT AS SOON AS ALL
THE CONSTRAINTS ARE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT SUCH ANALYTICAL FORM IS DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN . I NTERVAL
ANALYSIS ALLOWS TO OBTAIN AN APPROXIMATION OF THE WORKSPACE AS A SET OF 6-DIMENSIONAL BOXES. IT
IS ONLY AN APPROXIMATION AS THE ALGORITHM, BASED ON A CLASSICAL BISECTION METHOD , DISCARD BOXES
WHOSE WIDTH IS LOWER THAN A GIVEN THRESHOLD . AT THE SAME TIME IT IS POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN A BOUND ON
THE ERROR BETWEEN THE VOLUME OF THE APPROXIMATION AND THE VOLUME OF THE WORKSPACE. A VARIANT
OF THE ALGORITHM ALLOWS SOLVING EFFICIENTLY A VERY PRACTICAL PROBLEM: IS A GIVEN REGION INCLUDED
IN THE REACHABLE WORKSPACE OF THE ROBOT ?
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Q. NO 3. HOW TO REPRESENT A POINT IN SPACE IN MATRIX FROM

VECTOR O SPACE IN MATRIX FROM? REPRESENT A FRAME AT THE
ORIGIN FIXED REFERENCE FRAME.
Representation of a Point in Space

A point P in space can be represented by its three coordinates relative to a reference frame as:

Where , and are the three coordinates of the

point represented in the reference frame obviously,
other coordinate representations can also be used to
describe the location of a point in space.

 A point P in space : 3 coordinates relative to a

reference frame

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