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CHAPTER-1

OVERVIEW

1.1 Introduction

A Solar tracker is a device for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel towards the sun. In
solar tracking systems the surface of the module tracks the sun automatically throughout the
day. Tracking system increases the efficiency of the system considerably there by reducing
the cost per unit of output energy.

1.2 Why To Use Solar Tracking System

From many centuries, sun has been the primary source of energy for the
globe.Technically,solar energy can be defined as Electromagnetic energy transmitted from
the sun ( solar radiation).The amount of energy that reaches the earth is equal to one billionth
of total solar energy generated. But is that small? No. The amount of energy which strikes
the surface of the earth in one day exceeds daily consumption by 10,000 to 15,000 times. In
other words, the amount of solar energy intercepted by the earth every minute is greater than
the amount of energy the world uses in fossil fuels each year.

Moreover, of all the renewable energy sources available, solar energy has the smallest
environmental impacts. Electricity produced from photovoltaic cells does not result in air or
water pollution, deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human health.

In spite of these benefits, man is not able to use this energy completely and
economically. Two billion people in the world still have no access to electricity. For most of
them, solar energy would be their cheapest electricity source, but they cannot afford it. This
is because the price of electricity produced from solar cells is still significantly more
expensive than it is from fossil fuels like coal and oil. This is because of cost involved in

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converting the solar energy into required form of electrical energy and low efficiency of
solar system i.e., the output from the solar system is not completely sufficient for our needs.
The problem here is that the sun’s position is not constant throughout the day. The
output from the solar system depends on the intensity of sunlight and the angle at which
radiation is being incident. Hence there is a need to track the sun inorder to produce
maximum output throughout the day. The solution to the problem is our project “SOLAR
TRACKING SYSTEM”.

1.3 Analization of Solar Tracking System

A Solar tracker is a device for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel towards the sun. In
solar tracking systems the surface of the module tracks the sun automatically throughout the
day. Tracking system increases the efficiency of the system considerably there by reducing
the cost per unit of output energy.
Concentrators, especially in solar cell applications require a high degree of accuracy
to ensure that the concentrated sunlight is directed precisely to the powered device, which is
at the focal point of the reflector or lens. The output greatly depends on the angle of
incidence, Zenith angle and azimuth angle. Some solar trackers may operate most effectively
with seasonal position adjustment and most will need inspection and lubrication on an
annual basis.

FIG 1.1 Solar Panels

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1.3.1 Types of tracking systems

Solar trackers may be active or passive and may be single axis or dual axis. Single
axis trackers usually use a polar mount for maximum solar efficiency. Single axis trackers
will usually have a manual elevation (axis tilt) adjustment on a second axis which is adjusted
on regular intervals throughout the year. Compared to a fixed mount, a single axis tracker
increases annual output by approximately 30%, and a dual axis tracker an additional 6%.
There are two types of dual axis trackers, polar and altitude-azimuth.

Polar Trackers

Polar trackers have one axis aligned to be quasi-parallel to the axis of rotation of the
earth. , polar trackers are used on high accuracy astronomical telescope mounts, which rotate
on an axis exactly parallel to the earth's axis.

Fig 1.2 Polar Trackers

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Horizontal Axle
Several manufactures can deliver single axis horizontal axis trackers which may be
oriented by either passive or active mechanisms, depending upon manufacturer. Panels are
mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the
sun through the day.These devices are less effective at higher latitudes. The principal
advantage is the inherent robustness of the supporting structure and the simplicity of the
mechanism.

FIG 1.3 Horizontal Axle

Active Trackers
Active Trackers use motors and gears to direct the tracker as commanded by a
controller responding to the solar direction.

Fig: 1.4 Active trackers

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Passive Trackers
Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is driven to one
side or the other (by solar heat creating gas pressure) to cause the tracker to move in
response to an imbalance. As this is a non-precision orientation it is unsuitable for certain
types of concentrating photovoltaic collectors.

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CHAPTER 2
AIM AND SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

2.1 Aim And Scope of The Project

From many centuries, sun has been the primary source of energy for the globe.
Technically, solar energy can be defined as Electromagnetic energy transmitted from the sun
( solar radiation).The amount of energy that reaches the earth is equal to one billionth of total
solar energy generated. But is that small? No. The amount of energy which strikes the
surface of the earth in one day exceeds daily consumption by 10,000 to 15,000 times. In
other words, the amount of solar energy intercepted by the earth every minute is greater than
the amount of energy the world uses in fossil fuels each year.

Moreover, of all the renewable energy sources available, solar energy has the
smallest environmental impacts. Electricity produced from photovoltaic cells does not result
in air or water pollution, deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human health.
In spite of these benefits, man is not able to use this energy completely and
economically. Two billion people in the world still have no access to electricity. For most of
them, solar energy would be their cheapest electricity source, but they cannot afford it. This
is because the price of electricity produced from solar cells is still significantly more
expensive than it is from fossil fuels like coal and oil. This is because of cost involved in
converting the solar energy into required form of electrical energy and low efficiency of
solar system i.e., the output from the solar system is not completely sufficient for our needs.
The problem here is that the sun’s position is not constant throughout the day. The
output from the solar system depends on the intensity of sunlight and the angle at which
radiation is being incident. Hence there is a need to track the sun inorder to produce
maximum output throughout the day. The solution to the problem is our project “SOLAR
TRACKING SYSTEM”.

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2.2 objective of the project

The main aim of our project is to make the panel to rotate according to the sun’s
direction from morning to evening automatically so that the panel grabs the solar enenrgy to
maximum extent possible throughout the day.

Intelligent Solar Tracking System For maximizing The Energy is used to generate
power from sunlight and can be used it by storing the generated power. This method of
power generation is simple and is taken from natural resource. This need only maximum
sunlight to generate power. This project helps for power generation by setting the equipment
to get maximum sunlight automatically. This system is tracking for maximum intensity of
light. When there is decrease in intensity of light, this system automatically changes its
direction to get maximum intensity of light.

Here we use two sensors in two directions to sense the direction of maximum intensity of
light. The difference between the outputs of the sensors is given to the micro controller unit,
which is used for tracking and generating power from sunlight. It will process the input voltage
from the comparison circuit and control the direction in which the motor has to be rotated so that
it will receive maximum intensity of light from the sun. The power generated from this process
is then stored in a lead acid battery and is made to charge an emergency light and is made to
glow.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL AND METHOD USED

3.1 Block Diagram


The block diagram of Intelligent Solar tracking System for Maximising The Energy
is as shown below. The different components used to build the System are explained in
different sections below.

POWER
SUPPLY M LOAD
I
C
R
O A
T
C 8
LDR1 O 9
N C
T 5
R 2
O
L
L
LDR2 ULN SOLAR
E STEPPER
2003 PANEL
R MOTOR
DRIVER

LDR 1

BATTERY

Fig LDR
3.1 Block
2 diagram of Intelligent Solar Tracking System for Maximising The
Energy

RS-232
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3.1.1 Interfacing Diagram

V c c ( + 5 V )
S O L A R P A N E L
R 1 R 2
1 0 k 2 . 2 k 1 2 1 4 0 V c c
O / P 1 2 2 3 9
1 2 3 3 8
L D R
1 2 4 M 3 7
Q 1 5 I 3 6

B C 5 4 7
6 C A 3 5 + 5 V
7 R T 3 4
V c c ( + 5 V ) 8 O 3 3
9
8 3 2
R 1 R 2
9
1 0 k 2 . 2 k 1 0 C 3 1
C
1 1 O 3 0
O / P 5
1 2 N 2 9
L D R 2
1 3 I 2 8 1 1 6
S T E P P E R
Q 1
1 4 R 2 7 2 1 5
M O T O R
1 5 O 2 6 3 U L N1 4
B C 5 4 7 1 6 L 2 5 4 2 0 0 13 3
1 7 L 2 4 5 D R I 1V 2E R
1 8 E 2 3 6 1 1

V c c ( + 5 v )
1 9 R 2 2 7 1 0
1 C 3 1 6 2 0 2 1 8 9
C 1 2 1 5 V c c ( + 1 2 V )
1 0 u
3 1 4
1 0 u
4 1 3
C 2
1 0 u 5 1 2
C 4
6 1 1
7 1 0
1 0 u
8 9

5 3 2

Fig 3.2 Interfacing diagram of Intelligent Solar Tracking System for Maximizing the
Energy

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3.2 Micro Controller 8052

A micro controller is an integrated chip that is often part of an embedded system. It


includes a CPU, RAM, ROM, timers and i/o ports like a standard computer, but because they
are designed to execute only a single specific task to control a single system, they are much
smaller and simplified so that they can include all functions required on a single chip.
AT89C52 is a popular version of 8052. The Atmel AT89C52 is an 8052-based is a
low-power, high performance CMOS 8bit microcontroller with 32 I/O Lines, 2
Timers/Counters, 6 Interrupts/2 Priority Levels, UART, 4K Bytes Flash Memory, 128 Bytes
On-chip RAM. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out.
The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a
conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with
Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C52 is a powerful microcomputer which
provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control
applications.

3.3 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode, usually called an LED, is a semiconductor diode that emits


incoherent narrow-spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction of the p-n
junction, as in the common LED circuit. This effect is a form of electroluminescence.

A LED is usually a small area light source, often with extra optics added to the chip
that shapes its radiation pattern. LEDs are often used as small indicator lights on electronic
devices and increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area lighting.
The color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semi
conducting material used, and can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. LEDs can also be used
as a regular household light source. Besides lighting, interesting applications include
sterilization of water and disinfection of devices.

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3.3.1 Physical function of LED

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material


impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current
flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse
direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with
different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and
releases energy in the form of a photon.

The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap
energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the
electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical
emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED
have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-
ultraviolet light.

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-
shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.

LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-
type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well.
Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Substrates that
are transparent to the emitted wavelength, and backed by a reflective layer, increase the LED
efficiency. The refractive index of the package material should match the index of the
semiconductor, otherwise the produced light gets partially reflected back into the
semiconductor, where it may be absorbed and turned into additional heat, thus lowering the
efficiency. This type of reflection also occurs at the surface of the package if the LED is
coupled to a medium with a different refractive index such as a glass fiber or air. The
refractive index of most LED semiconductors is quite high, so in almost all cases the LED is
coupled into a much lower-index medium. The large index difference makes the reflection
quite substantial (per the Fresnel coefficients), and this is usually one of the dominant causes

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of LED inefficiency. Often more than half of the emitted light is reflected back at the LED-
package and package-air interfaces. The reflection is most commonly reduced by using a
dome-shaped (half-sphere) package with the diode in the center so that the outgoing light
rays strike the surface perpendicularly, at which angle the reflection is minimized. An anti-
reflection coating may be added as well. The package may be cheap plastic, which may be
colored, but this is only for cosmetic reasons or to improve the contrast ratio; the color of the
packaging does not substantially affect the color of the light emitted. Other strategies for
reducing the impact of the interface reflections include designing the LED to reabsorb and
reemit the reflected light (called photon recycling) and manipulating the microscopic
structure of the surface to reduce the reflectance, either by introducing random roughness or
by creating programmed moth eye surface patterns.

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials,


producing the following colors:

Fig 3.3 LED

• Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) — red and infrared


• Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) — green
• Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) — high-brightness orange-red,
orange, yellow, and green
• Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) — red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
• Gallium phosphide (GaP) — red, yellow and green

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• Gallium nitride (GaN) — green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue also white
(if it has an AlGaN Quantum Barrier)
• Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) — 450 nm - 470 nm — near ultraviolet, bluish-green
and blue
• Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate — blue
• Silicon (Si) as substrate — blue (under development)
• Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate — blue
• Zinc selenide (ZnSe) — blue
• Diamond (C) — ultraviolet
• Aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN), aluminium gallium
indium nitride (AlGaInN) — near to far ultraviolet (down to 210 nm)

With this wide variety of colors, arrays of multicolor LEDs can be designed to produce
unconventional color patterns.

3.3.2 Efficency and operational parameters

Most typical LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–60 mill watts of
electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of
continuous use at one watt. These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle
the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow
for heat removal from the LED die.

One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as measured
by its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the
efficiency of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt
LEDs available with a luminous efficacy of 18–22 lumens per watt (lm/W). For comparison,
a conventional 60–100 watt incandescent light bulb produces around 15 lm/W, and standard
fluorescent lights produce up to 100 lm/W. (The luminous efficacy article discusses these
comparisons in more detail.)

In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the company Cree,
Inc. to provide 24 mW at 20 mA. This produced a commercially packaged white light giving

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65 lumens per watt at 20 mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at
the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescent. In 2006 they
demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20
mA. Also, Seoul Semiconductor has plans for 135 lm/W by 2007 and 145 lm/W by 2008,
which would be approaching an order of magnitude improvement over standard
incandescent and better even than standard fluorescents. Nichia Corporation has developed a
white light LED with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA.

It should be noted that high-power (≥ 1 watt) LEDs are necessary for practical
general lighting applications. Typical operating currents for these devices begin at 350 mA.
The highest efficiency high-power white LED is claimed by Philips Lumileds Lighting Co.
with a luminous efficacy of 115 lm/W (350 mA).

3.3.3 Considerations in use

Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which light up regardless of the electrical polarity,
LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. When the voltage across the p-n
junction is in the correct direction, a significant current flows and the device is said to be
forward-biased. If the voltage is of the wrong polarity, the device is said to be reverse
biased, very little current flows, and no light is emitted. Some LEDs can be operated on an
alternating current voltage, but they will only light with positive voltage, causing the LED to
turn on and off at the frequency of the AC supply.

3.3.3.1 Advantages of using LEDs

 LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in battery
powered or energy-saving devices.
 LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that
traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
 The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a
usable manner.

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 When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not change their
color tint as the current passing through them is lowered, unlike incandescent lamps,
which turn yellow.
 LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling,
unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or HID
lamps that require a long time before restarting.
 LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock.
Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs are easily broken if dropped on the ground.
 LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000
hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes
typically are rated at about 30,000 hours, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000
hours LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of
incandescent bulbs.
 LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness
in microseconds; Philips Lumileds technical datasheet DS23 for the Luxeon Star
states "less than 100ns." LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster
response times.
 LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.
 LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike compact fluorescent lamps.

3.3.3.2 Disadvantages of using LEDs

 LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis,
than more conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems
from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies
needed. However, when considering the total cost of ownership (including energy
and maintenance costs), LEDs far surpass incandescent or halogen sources and begin
to threaten compact fluorescent lamps. In December 2007, scientists at Glasgow
University claimed to have found a way to make Light Emitting Diodes brighter and
use less power than energy efficient light bulbs currently on the market by imprinting

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holes into billions of LEDs in a new and cost effective method using a process
known as nano imprint lithography.
 LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating
environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in
overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-
sinking is required to maintain long life. This is especially important when
considering automotive, medical, and military applications where the device must
operate over a large range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate.
 LEDs must be supplied with the correct current. This can involve series resistors or
regulated power supplies.
 The spectrum of some white LEDs differs significantly from a black body radiator,
such as the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can
cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under LED illumination than
sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism. Color rendering properties of
common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art
white LEDs.
 LEDs do not approximate a "point source" of light, so cannot be used in applications
needing a highly collimated beam. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence
below a few degrees. This is contrasted with commercial ruby lasers with
divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.[30] This can be corrected by using lenses and other
optical devices.
 There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and white LEDs are now capable of
exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety
specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for Photo
biological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.

3.3.4 LED applications

 Some of these applications are further elaborated upon in the following text.
 Remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, often use infrared LEDs.

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 Glow lights, as a more expensive but longer lasting and reusable alternative to Glow
sticks.
 Movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice
 The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs.
 In optical fiber and Free Space Optics communications.
 Toys and recreational sporting goods, such as the Flash flight
 Lumalive, a photonic textile
 In pulse oximeters for measuring oxygen saturation
 LED phototherapy for acne using blue or red LEDs has been proven to significantly
reduce acne over a 3 month period.
 Some flatbed scanners use an array of red, green, and blue LEDs rather than the
typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control
of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate
color balance, and there is no need for warm-up.
 Computers, for hard drive activity and power on. Some custom computers feature
LED accent lighting to draw attention to a given component. Many computer
manufacturers use LEDs to tell the user its current state. One example would be the
Mac, which tells its user when it is asleep by fading the LED activity lights in and
out, in and out.
 Sterilization of water and other substances using UV light.

3.3.5 LED schematic symbol

3.4 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

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A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the
device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound
electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and
its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

3.4.1 Physical function of LDR

A photo resistor or Light Dependent Resistor or CDS Cell is an electronic component


whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to
as a photoconductor.

A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the


device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound
electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and
its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

Fig 3.4 Light dependent resistor(LDR)

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor


has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, eg. Silicon. In intrinsic
devices, the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have

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enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap. Extrinsic devices have
impurities added, which have a ground state energy closer to the conduction band — since
the electrons don't have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and
lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its
atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for
conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic Semiconductor.

3.4.2 Cadmium sulfide cells

Cadmium sulfide (CdS) cells rely on the material's ability to vary its resistance
according to the amount of light striking the cell. The more light that strikes the cell, the
lower the resistance. Although not accurate, even a simple CdS cell can have a wide range of
resistance from less than 100 Ω in bright light to in excess of 10 MΩ in darkness. Many
commercially available CdS cells have peak sensitivity in the region of 500nm - 600nm
(green light). The cells are also capable of reacting to a broad range of frequencies, including
infrared (IR), visible light, and ultraviolet (UV). They are often found on street lights as
automatic on/off switches. They were once even used in heat-seeking missiles to sense for
targets.

Standard cadmium based LDRs have a frequency response that varies according to
light level, but is routinely below 1Hz, so they are unsuitable for data links and picture
scanning. Silicon based photodiodes and phototransistors are orders of magnitude faster.
Probably the best known LDR is the ORP12. Smaller cheaper devices are more popular
today.

3.4.3 Circuit symbol

Fig 3.4 Circuit symbol of LDR

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3.4.4 Applications

Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can
be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, security alarms,
street lights and outdoor clocks.

They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent
lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction.

Lead sulfide- and indium antimonide-LDR are used for the mid infrared spectral
region. At the other end of the scale, Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared
detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
Continues power dissipation is 80mW and the Maximum voltage which can be applied to its
100V

3.5 Stepper Motor

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into


discrete mechanical movements. The stepper motor is used for position control in
applications like disk drives and robotics.
The name stepper is used because this motor rotates through a fixed angular step in response
to each input current pulse received by its controller. In recent years, there has been wide-
spread demand of stepper motors because of the explosive growth of computer industry.
Their popularity is due to the fact that they can be controlled directly by computers,
microprocessors and programmable controllers. Stepper motors are ideally suited for
situations where precise position and precise speed control are required without the use of
closed-loop feedback. When a definite number of pulses are supplied, the shaft turns through
a definite known angle. This fact makes the motor well suited for open-loop position control
because no feedback need be taken from the output shaft.

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Every stepper motor has a permanent magnet rotor also known as shaft surrounded by a
stator poles. The most common stepper motor s has four stator windings that are paired with
a center-tapped. This type of stepper motor is commonly referred to as a four-phase stepper
motor. The center tap allows a change of current direction in each of two coils when a
winding is grounded, there by resulting in a polarity change of the stator.

The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when
electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The direction of the
rotation is determined by the stator poles. The stator poles are determined by the current sent
through the wire coils. As the polarity of the current is changed, the polarity is also changed
causing the reverse motion of the motor The sequence of the applied pulses is directly
related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is
directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly
related to the number of input pulses applied. While a conventional motor shaft moves
freely, stepper motor shaft moves in a fixed repeatable increment which allows one to move
it to a precise position. This repeatable fixed movement is possible as a result of basic
magnetic theory where poles of he same polarity repel and opposite poles attract.
The stepper motor converts digital signals into fixed mechanical increment of
motion. It thereby provides a natural interface with the digital computer. It is a synchronous
motor such that the rotor rotates a specific incremental number of degrees for each pulse
input given to the motor system. These motors can provide accurate positioning without the
need of position feedback sensors when compared to other motors. The position is known
simply by keeping track of the input step pulses. Usually, position information can be
obtained simply by keeping count of the pulses sent to the motor thereby eliminating the
need of expensive position sensors and feedback controls.

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Stepper motors are rated by the torque they produce, step angle, steps per second and the
number of teeth on rotor.
The minimum degree of rotation with which the stepper motor turns for a single
pulse if supply to one wire or a pair is called step angle. The minimum step angle is always a
function of the number of teeth on rotor .i.e., the smaller the step angle the more teeth the
rotor possess.
Steps per complete revolution = Number of phases (coils) x
Number of teeth on rotor
Smaller the step angle, greater the number of steps per revolution and higher the resolution
or the accuracy of positioning obtained. The step angles can be as small as 0.72˚ or as large
as 90˚. The motor speed is measured in steps per second.
Steps per second = (Revolution per minute x steps per Revolution)/ 60
Stepping motors has the extraordinary ability to operate at very high speeds (up to 20,000
steps per second) and yet to remain fully in synchronism with the command pulses, when the
pulse rate is high, the shaft rotation seems continuous. If the stepping rate is increased too
quickly, the motor loses synchronism and stops. Stepper motors are designed to operate for
long periods with the rotor held in a fixed position and with rated current flowing in the
stator windings whereas for most of the other motors, this results in collapse of back emf and
a very high current which can lead to a quick burn out.
A stepper motor is a special kind of motor that moves in individual steps which are
usually .9 degrees each. Each step is controlled by energizing coils inside the motor causing
the shaft to move to the next position. Turning these coils on and off in sequence will cause
the motor to rotate forward or reverse. The time delay between each step determines the
motor's speed. Steppers can be moved to any desired position reliably by sending them the
proper number of step pulses.

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Fig 3.5 Stepper motor

3.5.1 Back emf

A motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Its
action is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming’s left
hand rule.
Fleming's left hand rule (for electric motors) shows the direction of the resultant
motion of the motor on a conductor carrying a current in a magnetic field.
The left hand is held with the thumb, index finger and middle finger mutually at right angles.
The First finger represents the direction of the magnetic Field.
The Second finger represents the direction of the Current (in the classical direction, from
positive to negative).
The Thumb represents the direction of the Thrust or resultant Motion.
Energy conversion is not possible unless there is some opposition whose overcoming
provides the necessary means for such conversion. In case of generator it was the magnetic
drag which provided the necessary opposition. The equivalent in the case of a motor is called
as the back emf.
As soon as the armature or the rotor starts rotating, dynamically (or motionally)
induced emf is produced in the armature conductors. The direction of this induced emf as
found by the Fleming’s right hand rule, is in direct opposition to the applied voltage. That is
why this is known as BACK EMF or counter emf. The electrical work done in overcoming
this opposition is converted into mechanical energy developed in the armature. Therefore, it
is obvious that but for the production of this opposing emf energy could not have been
possible.
When the armature rotates the conductors also rotate and hence cut the flux. In
accordance with the laws of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in them whose
direction, is in opposition to the applied voltage. This induced emf is called back emf.
Obviously supply voltage has to drive armature current against the opposition of back emf.

23
These motors also suffer from EMF, which means that once the coil is turned off it
starts to generate current because the motor is still rotating. There needs to be an explicit
way to handle this extra current in a circuit otherwise it can cause damage and affect
performance of the motor.
The ULN2003 / MC1413 is a 7-bit 50V 500mA TTL-input NPN darlington driver.
This is more than adequate to control a four phase unipolar stepper motor such as the
KP4M4-001.

Fig 3.6 Pin diagram of ULN 2003

It is recommended to connect a 12v zener diode between the power supply and V DD
(Pin 9) on the chip, to absorb reverse (or "back") EMF from the magnetic field collapsing
when motor coils are switched off. (See Douglas W. Jones' rather more sophisticated
example)

3.5.2 Driving a stepper motor

The four leads of the stator winding are controlled by the four bits of the 8051 port
(p1.0-p1.3). However, since the 8051 lacks sufficient current to drive the stepper motor
windings, we must use a driver such as uln2003a to energize the stator. Instead of the
uln2003a, we could have used transistors as drivers.
However, notice that if transistors are used as drivers, we must also use diodes to
take care of inductive current generated when the coil is turned off. One reason that the

24
uln2003a is preferable to the use of transistors as drivers is that the uln2003 has as internal
diode to take care of back emf.
Most stepper motor circuits that are available online have a bunch of transistors,
Sometimes power transistors too quite a complicated circuit that drives you away far from
using it. Well i felt for most robotic use the stepper motor can be driven by a simple
ULN2003 IC that costs just 12 bucks in my backyard.
While controlling the stepper motor with an embedded or distributed microcontroller for a
specific application, the controlling
signals from the controller to the stepper
motor must be boosted up using a driven
circuitry in order to have the
compatibility between them. In the
following figure, we show that the stepper
motor is driven with ULN 2003 driven
circuitry.

Fig:3.7 Driving a stepper motor

Fig: 3.8 Connection ckt to Stepper motor

The following steps show the 8051 connection to the stepper motor
Use an ohmmeter to measure the resistance of the leads. This should identify which COM
leads are connected to which winding leads.

25
The common wire(s) are connected to positive side of the motor’s power supply.
To distinguish common wire from a coil-end wire is by measuring the resistance.
Resistance between common wire and coil-end wire is always half of what it is between coil-
end and coil-end wires. Just take your multimeter and check the resistance between the
wires. One wire is a common and it must bear a resistance of 75 ohms with all the other
wires then that is the common wire. This is due to the fact that there is actually twice the
length of coil between the ends and only half from center (common wire) to the end.
A pulse is an electrical signal that repeats ON and OFF voltages as shown in the
illustration below. Each cycle of ON and OFF (1 cycle) is called a “pulse.” Normally, 5 volts
is used. ON is high and OFF is low.

3.5.3 Working principle of stepper motor

To make a stepper motor rotate, you must constantly turn on and off the coils. If you
simply energize one coil the motor will just jump to that position and stay there resisting
change. This energized coil pulls full current even though the motor is not turning. The
stepper motor will generate a lot of heat at standstill. The ability to stay put at one position
rigidly is often an advantage of stepper motors. The torque at standstill is called the holding
torque.
Because steppers can be controlled by turning coils on and off, they are easy to
control using digital circuitry and microcontroller chips. The controller simply energizes the
coils in a certain pattern and the motor will move accordingly. At any given time the
computer will know the position of the motor since the number of steps given can be
tracked. This is true only if some outside force of greater strength than the motor has not
interfered with the motion.

When a phase winding of a stepper motor is energized with current, a magnetic flux
is developed in the stator. The direction of this flux is determined by the “right hand rule”
which states: “if the coil is grasped in the right hand with fingers pointing in the direction of
the current in the winding (the thumb is extended at right angle to the fingers), then the
thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field.”

26
The number of times the stepper motor turns on and off depends on the number of
teeth present on the rotor and this is shown with an example in which four-step sequence is
considered. Four-step sequence means, after completing every four steps, the rotor moves
only one tooth pitch. In this example, the rotor has only 25 teeth and so it makes 100 steps
for one complete rotation.

Figure 1 illustrates one complete rotation of a stepper motor. At position 1, we can


see that the rotor is beginning at the upper electromagnet, which is currently active (has
voltage applied to it). To move the rotor clockwise (CW), the upper electromagnet is
deactivated and the right electromagnet is activated, causing the rotor to move 90 degrees
CW, aligning itself with the active magnet. This process is repeated in the same manner at
the south and west electromagnets until we once again reach the starting position.

Fig 3.9 Principle of stepper motor

3.5.3.1 Illustration of Stepper motor


You may double the resolution of some motors by a process known as "half-
stepping". Instead of switching the next electromagnet in the rotation on one at a time, with
half stepping you turn on both electromagnets, causing an equal attraction between, thereby
doubling the resolution.

27
3.5.4 Types of stepper motor
There are basically two types of stepper motors depending on the arrangements of the
electromagnetic coils. They are unipolar and bipolar

3.5.4.1 Unipolar motors


In a unipolar stepper motor, there are four separate electromagnets. To turn the
motor, first coil "1" is given current, then it's turned off and coils 2 is given current, and then
coil 3, then 4, and then 1 again in a repeating pattern. Current is only sent through the coils
in one direction; thus the name unipolar.
A unipolar stepper motor will have 5 (or 6) wires coming out of it. Four of those
wires are each connected to one end of one coil. The extra wire (or 2) is called "common"
and is connected to the other ends of all four coils. To operate the motor, the "common" wire
is connected to the supply voltage, and the other four wires are connected to ground through
transistors, so the transistors control whether current flows or not. A microcontroller or
stepper motor controller is used to activate the transistors in the right order. These are the
cheapest way to get precise angular movements.

3.5.4.2 Bipolar motors


In a bipolar motor, there are only two coils, and current must be sent through a coil
first in one direction and then in the other direction; thus the name bipolar. Bipolar motors
need more than 4 transistors to operate them, but they are also more powerful than a unipolar
motor of the same weight. To be able to send current in both directions, engineers can use an
H-bridge to control each coil or a step motor driver chip. This type of motor is not regularly
used for robotics.

Bipolar controllers can switch between supply voltage, ground, and unconnected.
Unipolar controllers can only connect or disconnect a cable, because the voltage is already
hard wired. Unipolar controllers need center-tapped windings.
It is possible to drive unipolar stepper motors with bipolar drivers. The idea is to connect the
output pins of the driver to 4 transistors. The transistor must be grounded at the emitter and

28
the driver pin must be connected to the base. Collector is connected to the coil wire of the
motor.

3.6 stepper motor advantages and disadvantages

3.6.1 Advantages
• The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
• the motor has full torque at standstill(if the windings are energized)
• Precision positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have
an accuracy of 3-5% of a step and this error is non cumulative from one step to the
next.
• Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
• Very reliable since they are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the
motor is simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
• The motors response to the digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making
the motor simpler and less costly to control.
• It is possible to achieve very slow speed synchronous rotation with a load that is
directly coupled to the shaft.
• A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the
frequency of the input pulses.

3.6.2 Disadvantage
• Resonances can occur if not properly controlled
• Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.
• This motor can also be heated at standing because of the torque require to hold it in
position.

29
3.7 when to use stepper motors

Computer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning
systems, particularly when digitally controlled as part of a servo system. Stepper motors can
be used to advantage where you need to control rotation angle, position and synchronism.
Stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, flatbed scanners, typewriters, and printers, x-y
plotters, milling machines, valve actuators, medical equipment, fax machines, automotives
and many more devices.

3.8 Applications of stepper motor

Stepper motors are used for operation control in computer peripherals, textile
industry, IC fabrication and robotics etc. applications requiring incremental motion are
typewriters, line printers, tape drives, numerically-controlled machine tools, process control
systems and X-Y plotters.. Stepper motors also perform countless tasks outside the computer
industry. It includes commercial, military and medical applications where these motors
perform such functions as mixing, cutting, striking, metering, blending and purging. They
also take part in the manufacture of packed food stuffs, commercial end-products and even
the production of science fiction movies.

3.9 ULN Stepper motor driver

ULN is mainly suited for interfacing between low-level circuits and multiple
peripheral power loads. The series ULN20XX high voltage, high current darlington arrays
feature continuous load current ratings. The driving circuitry in- turn decodes the coding and
conveys the necessary data to the stepper motor, this module aids in the movement of the
arm through steppers.

30
3.10 Pin connection of ULN Steeper motor Driver
The driver makes use of the ULN2003 driver IC, which contains an array of 7 power
Darlington arrays, each capable of driving 500mA of current. At an approximate duty cycle,
depending on ambient temperature and number of drivers turned on, simultaneously typical
power loads totaling over 230w can be controlled.
The device has base resistors, allowing direct connection to any common logic family.
All the emitters are tied together and brought out to a separate terminal. Output protection
diodes are included; hence the device can drive inductive loads with minimum extra
components. Typical loads include relays, solenoids, stepper motors, magnetic print
hammers, multiplexed LED, incandescent displays and heaters.

Fig 3.11 Driving a Stepper Motor using ULN 2003

31
Note that the first pin (identified in the procedure shown above) is connected to D0 of the
parallel port (through the ULN2003, of course). Each successive pin of the stepper motor is
connected to successive data lines on the parallel port. If this order is not correct, the motor
will not rotate, but will wiggle around from side to side. The clamp circuit shown does not
connect the clamp directly to the supply voltage. Instead, it uses a zener diode. This ensures
that the decaying current in the coils are not abruptly cut off, which produces a lot of heat.
It is simple, it involves setting the bits on the port on and off in a specific sequence. The step
sequence is given below for full step and half steps. At any time only one pin is active in the
full step.

Full Step Half Step


Step No. D0 D1 D2 D3 Step No. D0 D1 D2 D3
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 0 2 1 1 0 0
3 0 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 0
4 0 0 0 1 4 0 1 1 0
5 0 0 1 0
6 0 0 1 1

Table:3.1:Full step 7 0 0 0 1
8 1 0 0 1

Table:3.2:Half step

The difference between half step and full step is that for the same step rate, half-step
gives you half the speed, twice the resolution, and roughly twice the power consumption. It

32
also gives you twice the torque. To reverse the direction of the motor, send the sequence in
reverse order.

3.9.1 Features of ULN 2003

• Seven Darlington per package.


• Output current 500ma per driver (600ma peak).
• Output voltage 50v.
• Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads.
• Outputs can be paralleled for high current TTL/CMOS/DTL compatible inputs.
• Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify layout.
• Transient protected outputs.
• Dual In-Line plastic package or small-Outline IC package.

3.10 Source Coding

#include<reg51.h>
//port0 for (load)::port1 for ldrs(sensors)::port2 for stepper motor::port3 for serial

sbit ldr1=P2^0;
sbit ldr2=P2^1; //sensors for light

delay(unsigned int);
clock();
anticlock();

main() //LDR : WHEN LIGHT FALLS IT ACTS AS


CONDUCTOR && WHEN LIGHT DOESENT FALLI IT ACTS AS RESISTOR
{
// WHEN NO LIGHT OUTPUT IS =1;

33
// WHEN LIGHT OUTPUT IS =0;
while(1)
{
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

if(ldr1==1&&ldr2==0)
{ //MAKING THE LOAD ON BY
SOLAR
clock();
}

//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
if(ldr1==0&&ldr2==1)
{
anticlock();
}

} //WHILE1
}//MAIN

clock()
{
P0=0X11;
delay(75);
P0=0X22;
delay(75);
P0=0X44;
delay(75);
P0=0X88;
delay(75);
}

34
anticlock()
{
P0=0X88;
delay(75);
P0=0X44;
delay(75);
P0=0x22;
delay(75);
P0=0X11;
delay(75);
}
delay(unsigned int time)
{
unsigned int i,j;
for(i=0;i<time;i++)
for(j=0;j<1275;j++);
}

35
3.11 Power supply
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage
AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs
a particular function.
For example a 5V regulated supply can be shown as below

Fig 3.12 Block Diagram of a Regulated Power Supply System

Similarly, 12v regulated supply can also be produced by suitable selection of the
individual elements. Each of the blocks is described in detail below and the power supplies
made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and a graph of their
output:

3.11.1 Transformer

A transformer steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC. Here we are
using a center-tap transformer whose output will be sinusoidal with 36volts peak to peak
value.

Fig: 3.13 Output Waveform of transformer

36
The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is
not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.
The transformer output is given to the rectifier circuit.

3.11.2 Rectifier
A rectifier converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. There are several types
of rectifiers; here we use a bridge rectifier.
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using
both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure.
The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other
two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For the negative half cycle of
the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The
conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance R L and hence the
current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-
directional wave is converted into unidirectional.

Fig 3.14 The output waveform of the rectifier is shown as below

37
The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

3.11.3 Smoothing
The smoothing block smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
The ripple voltage is defined as the deviation of the load voltage from its DC value.
Smoothing is also named as filtering.
Filtering is frequently effected by shunting the load with a capacitor. The action of
this system depends on the fact that the capacitor stores energy during the conduction period
and delivers this energy to the loads during the no conducting period. In this way, the time
during which the current passes through the load is prolongated, and the ripple is
considerably decreased. The action of the capacitor is shown with the help of waveform.

Fig 3.15The waveform of the rectified output after smoothing is given below:

38
3.11.4 Regulator

Regulator eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.Voltage regulator ICs are
available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. Negative voltage
regulators are also available
Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads (input, output and high impedance).
They include a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary. Zener diode is an example of fixed
regulator which is shown here.

3.10.1 REGULATOR

39
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator:

3.12 FLOW CHART

start

Check
the ldr
states

TRACKING
TOWARDS(0-90)
MOTOR ROTATES
IF LDR1=1 IF LDR1=0
&LDR2=0 &LDR2=1

TRACKING TRACKING
TOWARDS(0-90) TOWARDS(0-90)

V
MOTOR ROTATES MOTOR ROTATES

DISPLAYING
THE STATES ON
PC

40
CHAPTER -4
RESULTS AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

4.1 Advantages
• Simple
• Low cost
• Eco-Friendly
• We can monitor directly using PC
• Tracking accuracy is more
• Reduce the usage of power from power grid

4.2 Applications
Day lighting:
The oldest solar application is day lighting, the use of windows and other means
allowing indirect sunlight to provide effective internal illumination inside buildings.
Thermal Applications:
Solar thermal, when used for space heating is needed mostly in the winter in cold
and temperate climates.
For process heat, which includes solar domestic hot water, as well as heat for
industrial processes, the active solar thermal systems shine because year round usage
can make these still relatively inexpensive systems easily economic.
Solar parabolic trough systems are also sometimes used in large scale, high
temperature industrial applications

41
4.3 Result

42
Fig: 4.1 Implementation of Intelligent solar tracking system.
The result of our implementation is, power supply is given to 40-pin micro
controller, since micro controller having 40 pins. In that input and output pins are 32. LDR
outputs are given to the interrupt pins a as, mentioned above in the topics. 12 and 13 are the
interrupt pins and port 2 is given to ULN driver. It is maximizing the power because for the
rotation of the stepper motor. The stepper motor operates at 12v. As mentioned stepper
motor operates at 12v. Since, stepper motor having 6 windings, in that 4 windings are given
to the ULN driver and the remaining (2) rest of windings are given to the solar panel. LDR
positive are given to the solar panel positive. LDR negative to the micro controller. The
power supply given to the micro controller is 5v. Totally we use 4 LEDs. All this 4 LEDs
will glow in 16 combinations with the control of the PC. Here, LDRs are used as sensors.
Which sensor gets maximum intensity that correspondence interrupts becomes zero.
According to the program it rotates the stepper motor. Then, the panel absorbs the maximum
power. This power is stored in battery. This power can be utilized in various applications.

43
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary

The present invention resides in a solar tracking system having, a first set of solar
heat gain transducers that produce respective first output signals to drive a reversible first
motor for changing a vertical angle of a solar collector, and a second set of solar heat gain
transducers that produce respective second output signals to drive a reversible second motor
for changing a horizontal angle of the solar collector. Advantageously, the solar tracking
system is self-powered, by generating all of its power requirements to compensate for
changes in sun position, and to move the solar collector in a sun tracking mode. Further, the
solar tracking system has a solar collector with solar cells supplying output voltage to a
communications apparatus having input voltage requirements.

A further advantage of the present invention is that the solar heat gain transducers are
unaffected by ambient light conditions caused by artificial lights or lightning flashes.
Further, the transducers operate under a wide range of ambient temperatures, and they
operate to zero sum rapid changes in ambient temperature. Further, the solar tracking system
compensates for any location relative to the sun's directional rays.

According to an embodiment of the invention, each of the solar heat gain transducers
is a thermistor in thermal contact with a solar heated thermal mass.

According to a further embodiment of the invention, each of the first motor and
second motor are controlled by a reversible motor control circuit. Each said motor control
circuit has a corresponding set of thermistors supplying their output signals to a summing

44
amplifier and an inverter, respectively. The inverter output is supplied to the summing
amplifier. The amplifier output signal drives a corresponding first motor or second motor.

Other embodiments and modifications thereof are apparent by way of example with
reference to the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying
drawings.

5.2 Conclusion
A solar tracking system, comprising: a first set of solar heat gain transducers that
produce respective first electrical output signals to drive a reversible first motor for changing
a vertical angle of a solar collector; a second set of solar heat gain transducers that produce
respective second electrical output signals to drive a reversible second motor for changing a
horizontal angle of the solar collector; each of the transducers having a thermistor in thermal
contact with a thermal mass, wherein the thermal mass comprises a mass of conducting
material to elevate in temperature while illuminated by the sun, and wherein the thermistor
senses the temperature of the thermal mass and produces a corresponding one of the
electrical output signals proportional to the temperature; and each of the transducers having
the thermistor and the thermal mass contained in a solar energy collecting and heat
insulating enclosure that is solar energy transparent.

5.3 Future Expansion


By using real time clock we can adjust the panel directions according to the sun angle
without using sensors.

45
REFERENCES
• The 8052 Micro Controller
Author-Kenneth Ayyala
• The Micro Controller Idea Book
Author-Jan Axelson
• Optimizing solar tracking system for solar cells
Zoltan KVasznicza
University of pecs
Boszokany v,2-h.7624 pecs, Hungary.
• Automation of minimum torque- Based accurate solar tracking systems using micro
processors.
Anand M.Sharma & Manish Prateek
Memorial university of New Foundland,
Canada.

46

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