Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATER
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN RUGERAMIGOZI
IRRIGATION SCHEME, RWANDA
By
MUREKASHUNGWE Evergiste
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Master of Science
In Water Resources and Environmental Management
December, 2007
ii
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
DEPARTEMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
In collaboration with
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATER
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN RUGERAMIGOZI
IRRIGATION SCHEME, RWANDA
By
MUREKASHUNGWE Evergiste
Supervisors:
Dr Eng Umaru Garba Wali
Dr Eng F.O.K. Anyemedu
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science in Water Resources and Environmental Management
December, 2007
iii
Declaration
I, the under signed, declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been
presented for a degree in any other university, and that all sources of material used
for the thesis have been duly acknowledged.
Signature:
iv
Dedication
To Almighty God,
To my mother Ramberta,
To all my families and friends,
To my beloved Nyinawinyange Thacienne.
v
Abstract
The rational utilization of irrigation water is a fundamental aspect for achieving
sustainable agriculture for food security and poverty alleviation. To achieve the
objective of sustainable agriculture many factors are involved, and irrigation water
delivery is one of the most important. Consequently, its evaluation as well as the
search for feasible solutions to problems detected during the evaluation could be of
special interest. To help farmers in obtaining efficient and rational methods of water
uses and to provide an adequate scientific and technical support to optimize
management, it is important to conduct the evaluation of irrigation system in plots.
This study analyzes the water management performance of small scale irrigation
system in Rwanda. ILRI/IWMI water balance and maintenance indicators were used to
test Rugeramigozi irrigation scheme as a base for the performance evaluation.
Necessary data were collected from ECOTRA (the company that made the feasibility
study and the design of the system) and from Byimana Meteorological Station. In the
field, certain parameters including: type of crop, irrigation water discharge in channel,
and field size were measured and/or observed before, during and after an irrigation
event while farmers were conducting their normal irrigation practice. Survey related to
water availability was also conducted among the farmers. The results showed that the
source is delivering 40.15l.s‐1 while the water requirement is 114l.s‐1. The delivery is
only 35.2% of the water requirement. The insufficiency of irrigation water, the type of
irrigation system in use, the poor maintenance of irrigation structures and the farmer’s
unawareness of irrigation practices were the main problems identified in the
management and operations of the scheme. Some corrective measures have been
recommended to improve the system. Among them are the following: (a) the selection
of crops should be done by taking into account the availability of irrigation water, (b)
tertiary channels need to be constructed in the scheme to avoid conflict related to water
distribution, (c) rainwater harvesting systems need to be established in the scheme to
avoid flooding that are occurring in rainy season and to store water for supplementary
irrigation during the dry season, (d) awareness of irrigation practices needs to be
created among farmers.
Keywords: Biringanya, Irrigation Channel, crop, Water crop requirement, water balance
indicators, maintenance indicators, Water management.
vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my academic supervisors Dr Umaru G.
Wali and Dr Eng F.O.K. Anyemedu for their support, assistance and guidance, for all
their sincere, faithful and immense devotion to help me for the accomplishment of this
thesis work and to bring me here from the start, their unlimited and sweet advice that
smoothened my educational journey, it couldn’t be otherwise, is printed in my heart,
thus, much appreciation is expressed to them.
Acknowledgment is expressed to the staff of WREM Program, especially to Dr Eng
Innocent Nhapi and Dr Eng Aphrodis Karangwa for their valuable support and
advices.
To the ECOTRA staff, Mr. Valère Nzeyimana, Mrs. Adoratha, the Agronomist of
Nyamabuye Sector, Eng Ismael Ndamukunda, they provided me professional,
technical and administrative support. So my appreciation may reach them all. I am
indebted to Biringanya Scheme farmers for their honest information and cooperation
for the accomplishment of this study.
In addition, the generous support and contribution of all my colleagues, friends,
families and relatives are deeply acknowledged and emphasized in all cases of my
future life.
MUREKASHUNGWE Evergiste
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration ............................................................................................................................. iii
Dedication ................................................................................................................................iv
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................x
List of figures...........................................................................................................................xi
List of appendices ................................................................................................................. xii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations................................................................................ xiii
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................1
1.1 Background .........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the problem..................................................................................................2
1.3 Objectives of the study .....................................................................................................3
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................4
2.1 Irrigation .............................................................................................................................4
2.2 Perspectives and objectives of irrigation.......................................................................4
2.3 Water Resources and Irrigation Development in Rwanda .........................................5
2.4 Small scale irrigation........................................................................................................6
2.4.1 The problems of small‐scale irrigation........................................................................ 6
2.4.2 Intervention into small‐scale irrigation ..................................................................... 7
2.4.3 Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) and its importance ............................. 7
2.4.4 Purposes and need for small‐scale irrigation in Rwanda ........................................ 8
2.5 Performance of an irrigation system ..............................................................................9
2.5.1 How to conduct an irrigation system performance assessment? ............................ 9
2.5.2 Performance evaluation of small‐scale irrigation................................................... 11
2.5.3 Indicators for irrigation performance........................................................................ 13
2.5.4 Water balance indicators............................................................................................. 14
2.5.4.1 Field application ratio .................................................................................................................. 15
2.5.4.2 Tertiary unit ratio.......................................................................................................................... 15
2.5.4.3 Overall consumed ratio................................................................................................................ 16
2.5.4.4 Conveyance ratio .......................................................................................................................... 16
viii
2.5.4.5 Distribution ratio........................................................................................................................... 17
2.5.4.6 Dependability ................................................................................................................................ 17
2.6 Methods of irrigation performance ...............................................................................25
2.6.1 Data collection .............................................................................................................. 26
2.6.1.1 The Rapid appraisal approach .................................................................................................... 26
2.6.1.2 Participatory rural appraisal approach...................................................................................... 27
2.6.1.3 Remote sensing techniques.......................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 3. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA .........................................................29
3.1 Location and Topography ..............................................................................................29
3.2 Rugeramigozi Irrigation scheme ............................................................................................ 30
3.3 Climate....................................................................................................................................... 31
3.4 Water sources............................................................................................................................ 31
Chapter 4. MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................33
4.1 Methodology.....................................................................................................................33
4.1.1 Primary data collection ............................................................................................... 33
4.1.1.1 Flow measurement ....................................................................................................................... 34
4.1.1.2 Discharge determination.............................................................................................................. 35
4.2 Data analysis techniques ...............................................................................................38
4.2.1 Water delivery performance ........................................................................................ 38
4.2.2 Performance Indicators................................................................................................ 38
Chapter 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................41
5.1 Analysis of secondary data and visual observations ................................................41
5.3 Water availability...........................................................................................................44
5.4 Water requirement ...........................................................................................................46
5.5 Water measurement.........................................................................................................47
5.5.1 Results ............................................................................................................................ 47
5.5.2 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 50
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5.6 Maintenance .....................................................................................................................52
5.6.1 Results ............................................................................................................................ 52
5.6.2 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 53
Chap 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION ..................................................54
6.1 Conclusions.......................................................................................................................54
6.2 Recommendations............................................................................................................54
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................55
APPENDICES.........................................................................................................................59
x
List of Tables
List of figures
Figure 4. 1 The rectangular sharp-crested weir and its cross section (Bos, 1989). .....................35
Figure 4. 2 Measurement sites .....................................................................................................36
Figure 4. 3 Installation of a weir………………………………………………………………......
Figure 4. 4 Taking measurement…….. .......................................................................................37
List of appendices
A‐ A.1 QUESTIONNAIRE:
Table A.2 Rainfall records
Table A.3 Climatic parameters
Table A.4 Calculated discharge from rainfall
Table A.5 Values of Crop factors Kc
xiii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
CAADP: Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program
CIA: Central Intelligence Agency
CWR: Crop Water requirement
ECOTRA : Entreprise de Construction des Travaux Publiques et
d’Aménagement
EDPRS: Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization
FMIS: Farmer Managed Irrigation System
GDP: Gross Development Product
IABR: Impuzamashyirahamwe y’Abahinzi Borozi ba Rugeramigozi
ICID: International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
ILRI: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement
IWMI: International Water management Institute
IPTRID: International Program for Technology and Research in Irrigation
and Drainage
IRW: Irrigation Water Requirement
MINAGRI: Ministère de l’Agriculture et des Ressources Animales
MINITERE: Ministère des Terres de l’Eau, des Ressources Naturelles et de
l’Environnement
NGOs: Non Governmental Organizations
PRSP: Poverty Reduction Strategy
PSAT: Programme Stratégique pour la Transformation de l’Agriculture
RPIP: Research Program on Irrigation Performance
SSI: Small‐Scale Irrigation
TAW: Total Available Water
UNWWDR: United Nations World Water Development Report
USBR: United States Bureau of Reclamation
USDA: United states Department of Agriculture
USUSC: United States Soil Conservation Service
WREM: Water Resources and Environmental Management
WU: Water Users
1
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
As the world’s inhabitants increase, the water use also increases every where.
Agriculture is the sector that uses most water worldwide. Currently, on a global
basis, 69% of all water withdrawn for human use on an annual basis is consumed
by agriculture (mostly in the form of irrigation); industry accounts for 23% and
domestic use (household, drinking water, sanitation) accounts for about 8%. These
global averages vary with considered regions. In Africa, for example, agriculture
consumes 88% of all water withdrawn for human use, while domestic use
accounts for 7% and industry for 5% (UN WWDR, 2003). The same situation is true
for Rwanda.
Rwanda is a landlocked country with a surface area of 26 338 km2. The population
Rwanda is estimated at about 9.9 million inhabitants and the population density of
about 370 inhabitants/km2 according to CIA World Fact Book in 2007. Thus it is
regarded as one of highest densely populated countries in Africa. Rwanda’s
economy is based on agriculture. To achieve sustainable economic growth and
social development, leading to the increase and diversification of household
incomes and ensuring food security for the entire population, the Government has
adopted Agriculture to remain the driving engine of the economy for the period of
Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRSP) implementation (2020 Vision). Agriculture is
considered to be the tradable sector in Rwanda, ready to expand and make an
impact on poverty reduction through increased incomes for the poor. In order to
achieve the targeted annual per capita growth of 4‐5 percent, the agricultural
sector needed to contribute with 5.3 percent of overall GDP growth. Therefore
investment in marshland development is expected to increase. Rwanda has
generally good rainfalls, surface water (rivers, lakes and other artificial water
reserves), and underground outflows from different aquifer systems. However,
utilization of these water resources to boost agricultural productivity has been a
major challenge (CAADP, 2007).
The total country cultivated area cover approximately 46% of the surface of the
country divided into low‐size farms. More than half of Rwanda’s total marshland
area is under cultivation, but the vast majority is being used without any
intensification or sustainable management of infrastructure. The marshes occupy a
surface estimated at 165,000 ha including 112,000 ha of small marshes (less 200ha)
2
and 53,000ha of the large marshes. The exploited total surface is only
approximately 94,000ha, that is to say 57% of the surface of the marshes of the
country. Only appropriately developed marshlands surface is around 11,000 ha in
2006 (MINAGRI, 2004a). In the vision to ensure food security, marshlands
appropriately developed are supposed to increase from around 11,000 ha in 2006
to 20,000 ha in 2011 (CAADP, 2007). This means that high investments will have to
be given in the agricultural sector. Consequently, reliable water use methods have
to be established because without improvement in water management, irrigation
demand will continue to increase but with low productivity, water supplies will
diminish and conflict may come out between different water users, and the effort,
and investments made in this sector would become meaningless. Hence,
monitoring has to be conducted so that problems within the irrigated systems
could get identified before failure occurs and possible solutions to these problems
can get proposed and implemented. Diagnostic assessments also have to be
carried out to identify the origin of different problems identified through routine
monitoring, or when stakeholders are not satisfied with the existing levels of
performance achieved and desire a change. Through systematic observation,
documentation and interpretation of the management of a project with the
objective of ensuring that the input of resources, water delivery schedules,
intended outputs and required actions proceed as planned. Diagnostic assessment
supports both operational performance monitoring and strategic planning because
weaknesses in planning and implementation (P&I) have been identified as one of
the main reasons for the disappointing results of agricultural water development
and management projects (Bos et al., 2005).
To achieve sustainable production from irrigated agriculture it is obvious that the
utilization of the important resources in irrigated agriculture, i.e. water and land,
must be improved. The question of how is irrigated agriculture performing with
limited water and land resources has to be satisfactorily answered. In this optic, a
study on irrigated systems performance was conducted in Rugeramigozi
Marshland with an overall purpose to assess its performance and to propose the
practical ways of improving performance related to planning and implementation
and thereby enhancing the returns on investments in agricultural water.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Rwanda is a mountainous country and 68% of its marshes are classified as small
scale with area of less than 200 ha. In all these marshes there is no reliable data that
may be used for proper management. Access to sufficient and efficient irrigation
3
1.3 Objectives of the study
The overall aim of this study is to evaluate the performance of Rugeramigozi
Marshland irrigation scheme. The specific objectives of this study are:
a) To evaluate the performance of Rugeramigozi irrigation scheme using water
balance indicators (application, conveyance and overall consumed
efficiencies); and
b) To evaluate the performance of Rugeramigozi irrigation scheme using
Maintenance indicators (effectiveness of infrastructures and the discharge
efficiency).
4
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Irrigation
Irrigation is the supply of water to crops by artificial means, designed to permit
farming in arid regions and to offset the effect of drought in semi‐arid regions.
Even in areas where total seasonal rainfall is adequate on average, it may be
poorly distributed during the year and variable from year to year. Where
traditional rain‐fed farming is a high‐risk enterprise, irrigation can help to ensure
stable agricultural production (FAO, 1997). Hence, irrigation is treated as a major
component in an integrated agricultural production scheme in which crop yields
and or profits are maximized by considering the influence of crop variety, planting
density, soil aeration, and other management practices on crop yields (Hargreaves
and Merkley, 1998).
2.2 Perspectives and objectives of irrigation
A reliable and suitable irrigation water supply can result in vast improvements in
agricultural production and assure the economic vitality of the region. Many
civilizations have been dependent on irrigated agriculture to provide the basis of
their society and enhance the security of their people. Some have estimated that as
little as 15‐20 percent of the worldwide total cultivated area is irrigated. Judging
from irrigated and non‐irrigated yields in some areas, this relatively small fraction
of agriculture may be contributing as much as 30‐40% of gross agricultural output
(FAO, 1989). According to Jurriens et al. (2001), many countries depend on surface
irrigation to grow crops for food and fiber. Without surface irrigation their
agricultural production would be drastically lower and problems of unreliable
food supply, insufficient rural income and unemployment would be widespread.
According to Hargreaves and Merkley (1998), estimation of surface irrigation
accounts for 95 percent of the total 260 million hectares of irrigated land
worldwide, mainly in developing countries in the tropics and sub‐tropics, where
hundreds of millions of farmers depend on surface irrigation to grow their crops.
The method, frequency and duration of irrigations have significant effects on crop
yield and farm productivity. For instance, annual crops may not germinate when
the surface is inundated causing a crust over the seedbed. After emergence,
5
inadequate soil moisture can often reduce yields, particularly if the stress occurs
during critical periods. Even though the most important objective of irrigation is to
maintain the soil moisture reservoir, how this is accomplished is an important
consideration. The technology of irrigation is more complex than many appreciate.
It is important that the scope of irrigation science is not limited to diversion and
conveyance systems, nor solely to the irrigated field, or only to the drainage
pathways.
Irrigation is a system extending across many technical and non‐technical
disciplines. It only works efficiently and continually when all the components are
integrated smoothly (FAO, 1989). FAO (1989) outlined the problems irrigated
agriculture may face in the future. One of the major concerns is the generally poor
efficiency with which water resources have been used for irrigation. A relatively
safe estimate is that 40 percent or more of the water diverted for irrigation is
wasted at the farm level through either deep percolation or surface runoff.
Irrigation in arid areas of the world provides two essential agricultural
requirements: (a) a moisture supply for plant growth which also transports
essential nutrients; and (b) a flow of water to leach or dilute salts in the soil.
Irrigation also benefits croplands through cooling the soil and the atmosphere to
create a more favorable environment for plant growth (FAO, 1989).
2.3 Water Resources and Irrigation Development in Rwanda
Rwanda possesses a dense hydrographical network. Lakes occupy of 128,190 ha,
rivers cover an area of 7,260 ha and waters in wetlands and valleys a total of 77,000
ha. The country is divided by water divide line called Congo‐Nile Ridge. To the
West of this line lies the Congo River Basin which covers 33% of the national
territory and which receives 10% of the total national waters. To the East lies the
Nile River Basin, whose area covering 67% of the territory, delivers 90% of the
national waters. The annual rainfall varies from 700 mm to 1400 mm in the East
and in lowlands of the West, from 1200 mm to 1400 mm in central plateau and
from 1300 mm to 2000 mm in the high altitude region with an average of 1200 mm
per year (MINITERE, 2004).
Nowadays the climate of the country is characterized by irregular precipitations
which are in somehow the causes of low production in the zones of rain‐fed
agriculture. To satisfy the food needs for the country’s increasing population,
irrigation is seen as an essential and privileged way of agricultural development
and to increase profits from agriculture. Thus, the Government of Rwanda has
6
adopted to make irrigated agriculture and notably small‐scale irrigation, since
small marshes occupies about 68% of the marshes surfaces area of Rwanda, the
driving engine to eradicate hunger and to promote small farmer income (CAADP,
2007).
2.4 Small scale irrigation
The term small requires some clarification as it means different things to different
people. In fact what is seen as large for some may be seen as small for others.
Irrigation systems can be classified according to size, source of water, management
style, degree of water control, source of innovation, landscape niche or type of
technology. Dessalegn (1999) gives the three‐scale classification adopted during
the Derg in Ethiopia as follows: Large‐scale irrigation schemes are those which
have over 3000 hectares of area. Medium‐ scale schemes cover an area of 200‐3000
hectares while small‐scale irrigation schemes involve those with total area of up to
200 hectares. According to Ian and Rod (1999) small‐scale irrigation can be defined
as irrigation, usually on small plots, in which small farmers have the controlling
influence, using a level of technology which they can operate and maintain
effectively. Small‐scale irrigation is, therefore, farmer‐managed: farmers must be
involved in the design process and, in particular, with decisions about boundaries,
the layout of the canals, and the position of outlets and bridges.
In Rwanda small‐scale irrigation is defined according to the size and is considered
as having a surface area under 200 hectares (MINAGRI, 2004b). Small‐scale can be
defined also according to its management aspects. Here, we can talk of
smallholder irrigation scheme.
2.4.1 The problems of small‐scale irrigation
Although small‐scale irrigation may have several advantages, it is never immune
from problems. The problems have become more critical in drought prone areas
where small‐scale irrigation is expected to solve problems of declining agricultural
productivity. Small‐scale irrigation in drought‐prone areas has two sets of
problems. The first category includes problems that are associated with the
specific environmental characteristics of the agro‐ecosystem. The second category
includes common problems that drought‐prone and degraded areas share with all
other small‐scale irrigation systems, irrespective of their agro‐ecological context.
These are:
7
a) Problems related to the physical nature of the irrigation systems, e.g. loss of
water through seepage;
b) Problems related to the application of irrigation water, e.g. upstream users
abstracting too much water;
c) Problems related to marketing produce, e.g. transportation issues;
d) policy‐related problems, e.g. security of land tenure;
e) engineering‐related problems e.g. lack of experience in planning and
designing irrigation systems;
f) Problems related to the irrigation economy, e.g. competition between rain‐fed
and irrigated agriculture; and
g) Community issues, e.g. levels of farmer participation, (Aberra, 2004).
2.4.2 Intervention into small‐scale irrigation
2.4.3 Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) and its importance
2.4.4 Purposes and need for small‐scale irrigation in Rwanda
Rwanda’s economy is mainly based on agriculture. With a rapidly growing
number of population, rural community is increasing putting unsustainable
pressure on natural resources leading to land and water depletion and
degradation and/or ‘forced’ migrations to urban areas. In addition, the absence of
off‐farm income in rural areas has also contributed to the high population pressure
on arable land, which leads to fast deterioration of natural resources. To avoid the
food crisis the Government of Rwanda adopted to increase investment in
agriculture sector to make it to remain a driving engine of the economy under
some programs such as PSAT, PRSP, EDPRS (CAADP, 2007). Hence, small
marshlands are the one focused the more since they are about 68% of the whole
9
2.5 Performance of an irrigation system
2.5.1 How to conduct an irrigation system performance assessment?
Performance assessment is carried out according to the guidelines given by ICID
as stated by Rien (2000) and presented on Figure 2.1.
10
What are the boundary conditions of the irrigation and drainage schemes?
• Nothing
• Take corrective action (s) to improve performance
output
Figure 2. 1 Framework for a performance assessment program of irrigation and drainage schemes (ICID).
11
2.5.2 Performance evaluation of small‐scale irrigation
Sawa and Karen (2002) defined evaluation as a process of determining
systematically and objectively the relevance, efficiency, effectiveness and impact of
activities in the light of their objectives. It is an organizational process for
improving activities still in progress and for aiding management in future
planning, programming and decision‐making (Casley and Kumar, 1990).
According to Bos et al. (2005) performance evaluation of irrigation and drainage, is
the systematic observation, documentation and interpretation of the management
of an irrigation and drainage system, with the objective of ensuring that the input
of resources, operational schedules, intended outputs and required actions
proceed as planned. Rien (2000) defined Performance as the degree to which the
products and services of institution respond to the needs of their customers or
users, and the efficiency with which the institution uses or customers can use the
resources at its disposal. The ultimate purpose of performance evaluation is to
achieve efficient and effective irrigation and drainage performance by providing
relevant feedback to management at all levels. Performance evaluation is an
activity that supports the planning and implementation process (Bos et al., 2005).
As such it may assist management or policy maker in determining whether
performance is satisfactory and, if not, which corrective actions need to be taken in
order to remedy the situation (Rien, 2000).
According to Rien (2000) the wider objectives of performance evaluation are: to
upgrade management capabilities in both public and private sector irrigation and
drainage projects with a view to improving the efficiency with which available
resources are used. In this context resources are not limited to the ‘classical’
resource water, but also to resources which can be influenced by management.
These resources also include land, funds and labor (skills). The principal objective
of evaluating surface irrigation systems is to identify management practices and
systems that can be effectively implemented to improve the irrigation efficiency.
Evaluations are useful in a number of analyses and operations, particularly those
that are essential to improve management and control. Evaluation data can be
collected periodically from the system to refine management practices and identify
the changes in the field that occur over the irrigation season or from year to year
(FAO, 1989). Performance should be assessed from the related disciplines, but the
performance of irrigation and drainage heavily depends on the ‘water
institutions’. Together with the ‘boundary conditions’ of irrigated agriculture these
institutions determine its level of performance. Without a sound knowledge of the
boundary conditions and the water institutions a diagnostic analysis of irrigation
12
and drainage is meaningless (FAO, 2000). Small and Svendsen (1992) identify four
different interrelated purposes of performance evaluation:
a) Operational
b) Accountability
c) Intervention
d) sustainability
Operational performance evaluation relates to the day‐to‐day, season‐to‐season
monitoring and evaluation of system or scheme performance.
Accountability performance evaluation is carried out to assess the performance of
those responsible for managing a system or scheme. Intervention assessment is
carried out to study the performance of the scheme or system and, generally, to
look for ways to enhance that performance. Performance evaluation associated
with sustainability looks at the longer term resource use and scheme or system
impacts. But, so far the four purposes cannot be separated from each other.
The extent of the performance evaluation needs to be identified and the
boundaries defined. The extent/boundaries can be categorized into two key
dimensions:
a) space
b) time
Space relates to the area covered (is it limited to one secondary canal within a
system, to one system, or to several systems), time looks at whether the evaluation
covers one season, or several years. One season may be the time horizon of special
diagnostic study. A common performance programme, however, should be a
routine part of the management process. Defining the extent of the performance
assessment programme in these terms defines the boundaries of the work required
as presented on figure 2.2.
Water institutions
• Water policy
Boundary conditions • Water low
• Political system • Water administration
• Legal system
• Demography
• Economic system
Performance of
• Resources
Irrigation and Drainage
• Environment
• Water balance
• Environment
• Operation & Maintenance
• Economics
Figure 2. 2 The setting of irrigation and drainage
13
The evaluation of surface irrigation at field level is an important aspect of both
management and design of the system. Field measurements are necessary to
characterize the irrigation system in terms of its most important parameters, to
identify problems in its function, and to develop alternative means for improving
the system (FAO, 1989).
2.5.3 Indicators for irrigation performance
It is useful to consider an irrigation system in the context of nested systems to
describe different types and uses of performance indicators (Small and Svendsen,
1992). According to Sawa and Karen (2002), indicators are a way of measuring
progress towards the achievement of the goal, i.e. the targets or standards to be
met at each stage. They provide an objective basis for monitoring progress and
evaluation of final achievements. An irrigation system is nested within an irrigated
agricultural system, which in turn can be considered part of an agricultural
economic system. For each of the systems, process, output, and impact measures
can be considered. Process measures refer to the processes internal to the system
that lead to the ultimate output, whereas output measures describe the quality and
quantity of the outputs where they become available to the next higher system
(Molden et al., 1998).
An irrigation system, consisting of a water delivery and a water use subsystems,
can be conceptualized to have two sets of objectives. One set relates to the outputs
from its irrigated area, and the second set relates to the performance characteristics
of its water delivery system (Oad and Sampath, 1995).
Bos (1997) summarizes the performance indicators currently used in the Research
Program on Irrigation Performance (RPIP). Within this program field data are
measured and collected to quantify and test about 40 multidisciplinary
performance indicators set out by IWMI. These indicators cover water delivery,
water use efficiency, maintenance and sustainability of irrigation, environmental
aspects, socio‐economics and management. He also noted that it is not
recommended to use all described indicators under all circumstances. The number
of indicators you should use depends on the level of detail with which one needs
to quantify (e.g., research, management, information to the public) performance
and on the number of disciplines with which one needs to look at irrigation and
drainage (water balance, economics, environment, management). Thus, FAO
(2000), Bos et al. (2005) defined the four groups of indicators to evaluate irrigation
14
and drainage performance of an irrigation system as drawn by ILRI/IWMI
research program on irrigation performance from the list of 40 indicators for
irrigation performance assessment of IWMI. The four groups resumed below:
a) Water balance, water service and maintenance. The indicators in this group
refer to the primary function of irrigation and drainage; the provision of a
water service to users.
b) Environment. Both irrigation and drainage are man‐made interventions in the
environment to facilitate the growth of crops. The non‐intentional (mostly
negative) effects of this intervention are considered in this group.
c) Economics. This group contains indicators that quantify crop yield and the
related funds (generated) to manage the system.
d) Emerging indicators. This group gives four indicators that contain parameters
which need to be measured by use of satellite remote sensing. This emerging
technology enables very cost‐effective measurement of data.
2.5.4 Water balance indicators
Water balance performance indicators are concerned with the assessment of the
water supply function of the irrigation system. They cover the volumetric
component that is primarily concerned with matching water supplies to irrigation
water demand, as well as the rather more subjective concept of reliability that may
affect the users’ capacity to manage water efficiently, and the socially oriented
aspects of equity. These three aspects all represent facets of the concept of the
Level of Service being provided to water users (WU’s). This focuses on the “core
business” of the organization managing the irrigation system; the diversion and
conveyance of water to the WU’s in the irrigation system; The primary task of the
managers of the ‘Irrigation System’, and of the managers of the sub‐systems is to
deliver water in accordance with a plan (as intended). Indicators in this section are
therefore those that guide managers in respect to water delivery performance. For
such kind of evaluation to take effect, water balance ratios have to be used. In
general, the water balance indicators deal with the volume of water delivered
3
within a set time period (in m /period), rather than the instantaneous flow rate (in
3
m /s). The ratios quantify components of the water balance in a spatial context
over a specific time period. As such, the same data on flow rates are needed as
above.
15
2.5.4.1 Field application ratio
The ICID (1978) standard definition for the field application ratio (efficiency) is:
V
Field application ratio = m (2- 1)
Vf
Vm is the volume of irrigation water needed, and made available, to avoid
undesirable stress in the crops throughout (considered part of) the growing cycle;
Vf is the volume of irrigation water delivered to the fields during the considered
period. The value of Vm is difficult to establish on a real time basis because many
complicated field measurements would be needed. The method which is used to
quantify Vm, however, is not so very important provided that the same (realistic)
method is used for all command areas (lateral or tertiary units) within the irrigated
area.
For practical purposes we may assume that Vm equals the evapo‐transpiration by
the irrigated crop minus the effective part of the precipitation: ETp –Pe. The value
of ETp –Pe can be calculated by use of models like CRIWAR (Bos et al. 1996) and
CROPWAT (Smith et al. 1991).
ET p − Pe
Thus, Field application ratio = (2- 2)
Volume of water deliverd at field (s )
The target water requirement at the field inlet then equals
V f ,t arg et = Ra ,t arg et x (ET p − Pe ). The target value of the field application ratio depends
on the level of technology used to apply water, on the climate, and on whether you
grow dry‐foot crops or ponded rice (Bos et al. 1996).
2.5.4.2 Tertiary unit ratio
The irrigation water requirement at the intake of a tertiary unit depends on the
crop irrigation water requirements (ETp –Pe) in the unit, on the water delivery
performance in the unit, on canal seepage, and on the (average) value of the above
field application ratio (ICID, 1978). Hence, the tertiary unit ratio is:
V + V3
Tertiary unit ratio = m . (2- 3)
Vd
For practical purposes we may replace Vm by ETp –Pe, and assume negligible
non‐irrigation water deliveries from the distribution system (V3 = 0).
16
2.5.4.3 Overall consumed ratio
The overall (or project) consumed ratio, quantifies the fraction of irrigation water
evapo‐transpirated by the crops in the water balance of the irrigated area (Bos and
Nugteren 1974; Willardson et al. 1994). Assuming negligible non‐irrigation water
deliveries, it is defined as (Bos & Nugteren 1974):
ET p − Pe
Overall Consummed Ratio = (2- 4)
Vc + V1
Vc is volume of irrigation water diverted or pumped from the river or reservoir;
V1 is inflow from other sources to the conveyance system. The value of (ETp –Pe)
for the irrigated area is entirely determined by the crop, the climate and the
interval between water applications. Hence, the actual value of the overall
consumed ratio varies with the actual values of Vc and V1 being the volume of
irrigation water delivered to the sub‐command area. Because the inflows Vc and
V1 are among the very first values that should be measured, together with the
cropped area, the cropping pattern and climatological data, the overall consumed
ratio is the first water balance indicator that should be available for each irrigated
area. For water management within an existing irrigated area is recommended to
set a target value, and to measure the actual overall consumed ratio at a monthly
and annual basis.
2.5.4.4 Conveyance ratio
The conveyance ratio quantifies the water balance of the main, lateral and sub‐
lateral canals, including related structures, of the irrigation system. It is defined as:
Vd + V2
Conveyance Ratio = (2- 5)
Vc + V1
Vc is the volume of irrigation water diverted or pumped from the river or reservoir
(source of surface water), Vd is the volume of water actually delivered to the
distribution system, V1 is inflow from other sources to the conveyance system, V2
is non‐irrigation deliveries from the conveyance system. The conveyance ratio
should be calculated over a short (week, month) and a long (season) period. The
rate of change of the ratio is an indicator for e.g. the need of maintenance. For
large irrigation systems it is common to consider the conveyance ratio of parts of
the system. Hence, we consider (a) the conveyance ratio of the upstream part of
the system as managed by the Irrigation Authority and (b) of the WU’s managed
canal.
17
2.5.4.5 Distribution ratio
The distribution ratio quantifies the water balance of the canal system downstream
from the conveyance system up to the inlet of the fields. It thus, quantifies the
water balance of the canal system at tertiary unit level. The distribution ratio is
defined as:
V f + V3
Distribution Ratio = (2- 6)
Vd
If the distribution ratio is determined for all tertiary units within the considered
irrigated area, the uniformity of water delivery can be expressed by the standard
deviation of the distribution ration values. If all tertiary units receive a (color) code
for a given subdivision of ratio, the values of this uniformity of water supply can
be visualized on a map.
2.5.4.6 Dependability
The pattern in which water is delivered over time, is directly related to the overall
consumed ratio of the delivered water, and hence has a direct impact on crop
production.
The rationale for this is that water users may apply more irrigation water if there is
an unpredictable variation in volume or timing of delivered water, and they may
not use other inputs such as fertilizer in optimal quantities if they are more
concerned with crop survival than crop production.
The primary indicators proposed for use in measuring dependability of water
deliveries are concerned with the duration of water delivery compared to the plan,
and the time between deliveries compared to the plan. They are:
Actual Duration of Water Delivery
Dependability of Duration =
Intended Duration of Water Delivery
and
Intended Duration of Water Delivery
Dependability of Irrigation Interval =
Actual Irrigation Interval
In addition to dependability in terms of timing, it is strongly recommended that
18
the predictability of the flow rate or the (canal) water level be included in this part
of the assessment. For many irrigation activities the flow rate (or water level) must
be near the intended value for water use to be effective (Clemmens & Bos 1990).
The simplest method to assess predictability of flow rate (or flow rate times
duration of flow) is to determine the standard deviation of the water delivery
performance ratio. The period over which observations are compared in this
analysis will vary depending on the type of water delivery pattern adopted. In
most irrigated areas, monthly or bi‐weekly data appear to give a good indication
of whether the discharge is more or less predictable.
2.5.5 Maintenance indicators
2.5.5.1 General
Maintenance is designed to accomplish three main purposes: safety, keeping
canals in sufficiently good condition to minimize seepage and sustain canal water
levels and designed discharge‐head relationship, and keeping water control
infrastructure in working condition. In irrigation systems the conveyance
efficiency provides the best way of assessing whether canal maintenance is
required. By tracking the change in conveyance efficiencies over time it should be
possible to establish criteria that will indicate when canal cleaning or reshaping is
necessary. In many systems this is undertaken subjectively on appearance rather
than using a more analytical approach.
2.5.5.2 Sustainability of water level and head‐discharge relationship
During the design of a canal system, a design discharge and related water level is
determined for each canal reach. The hydraulic performance of a canal system
depends greatly on the degree to which these design values are maintained. For
example, higher water levels increase seepage and the danger of overtopping of
the embankment. Both, lower and higher water levels alter the intended water
division at canal bifurcation structures. The magnitude of this alteration of the
water distribution depends on the hydraulic flexibility of the division structures
(Bos 1976). This change of head (level) over structures in irrigation canals is the
single most important factor disrupting the intended delivery of irrigation water
(Bos 1976; Murray‐Rust & Van der Velde 1994).
An indicator that gives practical information on the sustainability of the intended
19
Change of Level
water level (or head) is: Re lative Change of Water Level =
Intended Level
For closed irrigation and drainage pipes (visual) inspection of heads (pressure
levels) is complicated. The functioning of a conduit, however, should be quantified
by the measured discharge under a measured head‐differential between the
upstream and downstream end of the considered conduit (as used in the original
design), versus the theoretical discharge under the same head differential. Hence,
conduit performance can be quantified by the ratio:
Actually Measured Disch arg e
Disch arg e Ratio =
Design Disch arg e
The same discharge ratio can be used to quantify the effective functioning of
structures in the canal system. Depending on the type of structure, the actual
discharge then must be measured under the same (design) differential head
(submerged gates, culverts, etc.) or under the same upstream sill‐referenced head
(free flowing gates, weirs, flumes, etc.). Generally, a deviation of more than 5%
would signal the need for maintenance or rehabilitation for flow control
structures.
As mentioned above, maintenance is needed to keep the system in operational
conditions. For this to occur, (control) structures must be operational as intended.
Hence, maintenance performance can be quantified by the following ratio:
Number of Functioning Structures
Effectiveness of Infrastructure =
Total Number of Structures
The above three ratios immediately indicate the extent to which the manager is
able to control water. For the analysis to be effective, however, it must divide
structures up into their hierarchical importance (Main, Lateral, Tertiary and
Quarternary) and the analysis completed for each level.
2.5.6 Properties of performance indicators
A true performance indicator includes both an actual value and an intended value
that enables the assessment of the amount of deviation. It further should contain
information that allows the manager to determine if the deviation is acceptable. It
is therefore desirable wherever possible to express indicators in the form of a ratio
of the actually measured versus the intended situation.
Actual Value of Key Aspect
Hence, Performance IndicatorValue =
Intended (or critical ) Value of Key Aspect
(Rien, 2000).
20
A good indicator can be used in two distinct ways. It tells a manager what current
performance is in the system, and, in conjunction with other indicators, may help
him to identify the correct course of action to improve performance within that
system: in this sense the use of the same indicator over time is important because it
assists in identifying trends that may need to be reversed before the remedial
measures become too expensive or too complex (Bos, 1997). Some of the desirable
attributes of performance indicators suggested by Bos (1997) are:
Scientific basis: the indicator should be based on an empirically quantified,
statistically tested causal model of that part of the irrigation process it describes.
The indicators must be quantifiable: the data needed to quantify the indicator
must be available or obtainable (measurable) with available technology. The
measurement must be reproducible.
Reference to a target value: this is, of course, obvious from the definition of a
performance indicator. It implies that relevance and appropriateness of the target
values and tolerances can be established for the indicator. These target values and
their margin of deviation should be related to the level of technology and
management (Bos et al., 1991). Provide information without bias: ideally,
performance indicators should not be formulated from a narrow ethical
perspective. This is, in reality, extremely difficult as even technical measures
contain value judgments. Ease of use and cost effectiveness: particularly for
routine management, performance indicators should be technically feasible, and
easily used by agency staff given their level of skill and motivation. Further, the
cost of using indicators in terms of finances, equipment, and commitment of
human resources, should be well within the agency’s resources. In irrigation
sector, the performance of the agricultural production and marketing processes are
central to the performance evaluation and sustainability of the process. Farmer’s
activities influence the performance of an irrigation system. Most surface irrigation
systems are designed‐in capacity constraints, which mean that they cannot run on
demand. Thus, different parameters need to be evaluated at different levels of the
system to characterise and regulate performance. Among those parameters we can
say:
2.5.6.1 Irrigation water use efficiencies
Irrigation efficiency is the ratio between the volume used by plants throughout the
evapotranspiration process and the volume that reaches the irrigation plots and
indicates how efficiently the available water supply is being used, based on
21
different methods of evaluation (Michael, 1997). According to James (1988), the
performance of a farm irrigation system is determined by the efficiency with
which water is diverted, conveyed, and applied, and by the adequacy and
uniformity of application in each field on the farm. Mishra and Ahmed (1990) also
said that irrigation efficiency indicates how efficiently the available water supply
is being used, based on different methods of evaluation. The objective of these
efficiency concepts is to show where improvements can be made, which will result
in more efficient irrigation. Among the factors used to judge the performance of an
irrigation system or its management, the most common are efficiency and
uniformity (FAO, 1989). The designs of the irrigation system, the degree of land
preparation, and the skill and care of the irrigator are the principal factors
influencing irrigation efficiency. Efficiency in the use of water for irrigation
consists of various components and takes into account losses during storage,
conveyance and application to irrigation plots. Irrigation efficiency can be
measured in many ways and also varies in time and management (Roger et al.,
1997). For instance, where water is very short, efficiency may be measured as crop
yield per cubic meter of water used, or profit per millimeter of irrigation. It
depends on what you want to know. Identifying the various components and
knowing what improvements can be made is essential to making the most
effective use of this vital but scarce resource. There are several publications
describing the methods and procedures for evaluating surface irrigation systems,
but the data analysis depends somewhat on the data collected and the information
to be derived.
2.5.6.2 Application efficiency
According to Jurriens et al (2001), application efficiency is a common measure of
relative irrigation losses and this definition is valid for all situations and all
irrigation methods. Losses from the field occur as deep percolation and as field tail
water or runoff and reduce the application efficiency. To compute the application
efficiency it is necessary to identify at least one of these losses as well as the
amount of water stored in the root zone. This implies that the difference between
the total amount of root zone storage capacity available at the time of irrigation
and the actual water stored due to irrigation be separated, i.e. the amount of
under‐irrigation in the soil profile must be determined as well as the losses (FAO,
1989). According to Roger et al. (1997), methods of determining application
efficiency of a specific irrigation system is generally time consuming and often
22
difficult because it may vary in time due to changing soil, crop and climatic
condition.
Application efficiency does not show if the crop has been under‐irrigated.
However according to Roger et al. (1997), it is possible to have high application
efficiency and 50‐90% can be used for general system type comparison. FAO (1989)
reported that the attainable application efficiency according to the US (SCS) ranges
from 55%‐70% while in ICID/ILRI this value is about 57%. Lesley (2002) suggested
that it could be in the range of 50‐80%. In general, according to Michael (1997)
water application efficiency decreases as the amount of water applied during each
irrigations increase.
2.5.6.3 Storage efficiency
Water stored in the root zone is not 100% effective (FAO, 1992). Evaporation losses
may remain fairly high due to the movement of soil water by capillary action
towards the soil surface. Water lost from the root zone by deep percolation where
groundwater is deep. Deep percolation can still persist after attaining field
capacity. Depending on weather, type of soil and time span considered,
effectiveness of stored soil water might be as high as 90% or as low as 40%.
Theoretically, the adequacy of irrigation depends on how much water is stored
within the crop root zone, losses percolating below the root zone, losses occurring
as surface runoff or tail water the uniformity of the applied water, and the
remaining deficit or under‐irrigation within the soil profile following an irrigation
practice. The requirement efficiency is an indicator of how well the irrigation
meets its objective of refilling the root zone. The value of water requirement
efficiency is important when either the irrigation tend to leave major portions of
the field under‐irrigated or where under‐irrigation is purposely practiced to use
precipitation as it occurs and storage efficiency become important when water
supplies are limited (FAO, 1989). The adequacy of irrigation turn in terms of
storage efficiency and the purpose of an irrigation turn is to meet at least the
required water depth over the entire length of the field (Jurriens et al., 2001). The
water storage efficiency refers how completely the water needed prior to irrigation
has been stored in the root zone during irrigation.
23
2.5.6.4 Distribution efficiency
According to Jurriens et al. (2001) distribution uniformity can be defined as the
average infiltrated depth in the low quarter of the field divided by the average
infiltrated depth over the whole field. When a field with a uniform slope, soil and
crop density receives steady flow at its upper end, a waterfront will advance at a
monotonically decreasing rate until it reaches the end of the field (FAO, 1989).
Irrigation water lost to percolation below the root zone due to non‐uniform
application or over‐application water run off from the field all reduces irrigation
efficiency. To get a complete picture of an irrigation performance you need to
know more indicators than just discussed above, because these are averages taken
over the entire length of the field or furrows (Roger et al., 1997).
Although different cases might produce the same results for application and
storage efficiencies, their distribution patterns could be different. One indicator
used to represent the pattern of the infiltrated depths along the field length is the
distribution uniformity.
2.5.6.5 Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is the process of determining when to irrigate and how much
water to apply per irrigation. Proper scheduling is essential for the efficient use of
water, energy and other production inputs, such as fertilizer. It allows irrigations
to be coordinated with other farming activities including cultivation and chemical
applications. Among the benefits of proper irrigation scheduling are: improved
crop yield and/or quality, water and energy conservation, and lower production
costs (James, 1988). The purpose of irrigation scheduling is to determine the exact
amount of water to apply to the field and the exact timing for application. There
are several methods for deciding when to irrigate and how much water to apply.
Many farmers use an irrigation frequency based on experience, and usually
somewhat more water is applied than that required to bring the soil water content
to the field capacity.
If water is available by turns or rotation, the frequency of water availability may
determine the schedule. When water is available on demand, some form of soil
water status monitoring can be used to determine when to irrigate. The amount of
water depleted from the crop root zone provides a guide for the depth of irrigation
to applied (Hargreaves and Merkley, 1998). When surface irrigation methods are
used, however, it is not very practical to vary the irrigation depth and frequency
24
too much. In surface irrigation, variations in irrigation depth are only possible
within limits. It is also very confusing for the farmers to change the schedule all
the time. Therefore, it is often sufficient to estimate or roughly calculate the
irrigation schedule and to fix the most suitable depth and interval: to keep the
irrigation depth and the interval constant over the growing season (FAO, 1989).
Water budget method is more commonly applied these days to determine
irrigation scheduling. According to Hargreaves and Merkley (1998) this method
requires estimates of the daily crop evapotranspiration or for other suitable time
periods. This approach requires knowledge of or an estimation of the amount of
water available from rainfall and or shallow water tables. In some situations some
of the supply can be contributed by fog or dew. The required amount not supplied
by these sources must be applied by irrigation. Irrigation are scheduled from
estimates of the following: (a) crop evapotranspiration; (b) field capacity of the
soil; (c) the allowable soil water depletion; (d) the effective crop root depth; (e)
requirement for reaching; and (f) allowances that need to be made for uniformity
and efficiency of irrigation application. How much water to apply is depending on
the irrigator’s strategy.
A critical element is accurate measurement of the volume of water applied or the
depth of application. A farmer cannot manage water to maximum efficiency
without knowing how much water applied. Also, uniform water distribution
across the field is important to derive the maximum benefits from irrigation
scheduling and management. Accurate water application prevents over‐or under‐
irrigation. According to FAO (1989), the total available water (TAW), for plant use
in the root zone is commonly defined as the range of soil moisture held at a
negative apparent pressure of 0.1 to 0.33 bar (a soil moisture level called ʹfield
capacityʹ) and 15 bars (called the ʹpermanent wilting pointʹ). The TAW will vary
from 25 cm/m for silty loams to as low as 6 cm/m for sandy soils. The net quantity
of water to be applied depends on magnitude of moisture deficit in the soil,
leaching requirement and expectancy of rainfall. When no rainfall is likely to be
received and soil is not saline, net quantity of water to be applied is equal to the
moisture deficit in the soil, i.e. the quantity required to fill the root zone to field
capacity.
The moisture deficit in the effective root zone is found out by determining the field
capacity moisture contents and bulk densities of each layers of the soil (Mishra and
Ahmed, 1990). According to Jurriens et al. (2001), the required depth is not usually
the same as the applied depth, which is equal to the applied volume divided by
the area. If the applied depth infiltrates the field area entirely, the applied depth
equals the average infiltrated depth. Jurriens et al. (2001) further discussed on that,
25
the average depth of water that is actually stored in the target root zone is the
storage depth. When the target zone is entirely filled, the storage depth will equal
the target root zone depth. If the storage root zone depth is less that the target root
zone depth, then there is under‐irrigation and if the storage root zone depth is
greater than the target root zone depth, then there is deep‐percolation.
2.6 Methods of irrigation performance
Two key factors affecting irrigation and drainage service delivery are the
configuration of the physical infrastructure and the management processes, both
of which effect control over the processes involved. Control needs to be exerted in
some areas such us infrastructures, water delivery and management, maintenance,
and income generation, to provide a reliable, adequate and timely irrigation water
supply and effective drainage, and the potential benefits of such control. The
management of the physical infrastructure leads to the provision of water for
irrigation and drainage of excess water; this in turn leads to improved agricultural
crop production and farmer income, some of which can then be used to pay for the
service provided or contribute to maintenance services. Within the internal
processes of the service provider, financial, operation and maintenance control
systems are required to support the delivery of the service (Bos et al., 2005).
The level of physical control and measurement built into the irrigation and
drainage system design has a fundamental impact on the level and type of
operational performance evaluation that is: (i) required and (ii) possible. In
general, the need for operational performance monitoring increases as the level of
control and measurement increases. Monitoring and evaluation of scheme
performance is carried out during the cropping season or year, and can be of a
strategic (‘Am I doing the right thing?’) or an operational (‘Am I doing things
right?’) nature. Strategic performance evaluation is typically done at longer
intervals and looks at criteria of productivity, profitability, sustainability and
environmental impact. It may also be required in response to changes in the
external environment, such as is the case with governments reducing the funding
available for supporting irrigated agriculture and transferring responsibility for
management, operation and maintenance to water users. Operational performance
assessment carried out during the season supports a pre‐season plan which in
general is drawn up in the commencement of the irrigation season and that is
covering key aspects of the management, operation or maintenance of the system.
It of course depends on the type of irrigation and drainage scheme, this planning
and adjustment process. The flows in the canal network are regulated in
26
accordance with the implementation schedule and the discharges (and for some
schemes, the crop areas) monitored as the season progresses. The performance of
the system in relation to the seasonal plan is monitored during the season, and
evaluated at the end of the season. The evaluation measures the performance
against the seasonal plan, but may also measure the performance against the
strategic objectives.
2.6.1 Data collection
There are two common approaches to understand system performance and
diagnose problems. The first approach is to collect as much information as possible
about the system and explain the functioning of the system through analysis. The
second approach is to focus on and trace key cause–effect relationships. While the
first approach can yield a broad understanding of irrigated agriculture, it is often
expensive to collect measure and handle data on performance, and that is one
reason why irrigation managers do not routinely do performance assessment (Bos
et al., 2005). A specific methodology for assessing and understanding the
performance of an irrigated agricultural system has evolved since the 1980s and
has been applied to many irrigated areas (Lowdermilk et al., 1983; Clyma and
Lowdermilk, 1988; Dedrick et al., 2000). The performance evaluation is taken from
a variety of viewpoints, including the farmer’s, the irrigation manager’s and
society’s. The experience and examples of performance evaluation have yielded a
variety of specific methodologies crossing disciplines that are quite useful within
and outside the context of this evaluation such as Rapid appraisal, participatory
rural appraisal and remote sensing techniques (Oad and McCornick, 1989; Bos et
al., 2005).
2.6.1.1 The Rapid appraisal approach
This method is used to give a quick overview of system performance. This is
typically used in the initial steps of performing diagnostic analysis. As a result of a
rapid appraisal, an initial hypothesis can be developed. At times, an overview
based on a rapid appraisal can shed sufficient light on an irrigated area for
decisions to be made. Rapid appraisal techniques rely on field observations plus
the collection and review of available data and information. The following sources
of information are useful: review of secondary data, interviews with individuals
27
and groups, and observations of various parts of the system. A rapid appraisal
should provide key information to form a profile of the system, information on a
few key indicators and other explanatory information to form the basis for key
hypotheses. Rapid appraisals can sometimes quickly trace the origin of
malfunction, allowing for application of corrective actions and sometimes
eliminating the need for a detailed diagnostic analysis. The advantages of rapid
appraisal lie in the ability to quickly form an idea about the system’s functioning.
Rapid appraisal can point swiftly to the origin of the malfunction, allowing for
rapid corrective action, and minimizing the time and effort for detailed
diagnostics. The disadvantages are that it relies on the skills of the assessor.
2.6.1.2 Participatory rural appraisal approach
This approach relies on the information delivered by people in the vicinity of an
irrigated scheme. Locally, irrigation communities possess tremendous knowledge
about the operation and performance of irrigation. This is an extremely valuable
source of information, even for irrigation management agencies, in assessing
irrigation performance. Participatory rural appraisal relies on local knowledge to
identify problems and develop interventions. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA)
is a family of approaches and methods to enable local people to share, enhance
and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions, and to plan and act
(Chambers, 1994). PRA is related to and evolved from the rapid rural appraisal
techniques (Chambers and Carruthers, 1985; Yoder and Martin, 1985; Pradhan et
al., 1988; Grosselink and Thompson, 1997).
The local community participates in the research by developing sketches and
maps, transects showing resource use patterns, seasonal calendars, trend analysis
and daily activity profiles. Through PRA, information that would have otherwise
gone unnoticed is tapped. By involving stakeholders in research and development,
there is more likelihood of better acceptance of interventions.
A disadvantage is that the quantitative base of information may be weak. For
example, this would not be used to generate data on water resources, although it
could be helpful in developing a feel for the magnitude of flows when data are
missing. While it is an excellent tool for deriving local knowledge, placing this
knowledge in the context of broader issues such as basin‐wide water use may be
missing. Similar to the rapid appraisal techniques, this technique also relies
heavily on the skills of the assessor. PRA can be an excellent complement to other
28
tools when assessing performance. PRA techniques are ideally suited for
developing and improving service arrangements between the providers and users.
For diagnosis, PRA can be used both in initial screening and for a more detailed
data collection (Bos et al, 2005).
2.6.1.3 Remote sensing techniques
These techniques are increasingly being utilized in performance evaluation and
are in many situations quite useful for diagnostic assessments. The use of remote
sensing has several distinct advantages over traditional ground data collection.
Remote sensing can be used to gather information over an entire area, while
ground data collection relies on sample areas. Data collection by remote sensing
does not intrude into the day‐to‐day life of those in the irrigation community.
Often, the presence of observers changes the behaviour of those being observed, so
the information collected does not reflect normal operating conditions. Data can be
disaggregated to the resolution of the image, or aggregated up to useful units such
as various service areas within an irrigation system. Because satellite images have
been available since 1982, development trends can be established looking 20 years
back. The cost of obtaining remotely sensed data is often cited as a constraint to its
use. Prices are decreasing rapidly, and the quality and resolution of images are
improving. For certain types of data like irrigated area, or land‐use cover, the cost
of data collection is less than 25% of conventional data collection programmes.
Nevertheless, remote sensing cannot substitute for local field‐level knowledge and
experience and is applicable to a limited set of problems that may occur (Bos et al.,
2005).
29
Chapter 3. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
3.1 Location and Topography
Rugeramigozi marshland complex presented on figure 3.2 with its sub‐marshes is
situated the southern province of Rwanda precisely in Muhanga District as shown
on figure 3.1.
3.2 Rugeramigozi Irrigation scheme
Prior to the development of the Rugeramigozi irrigation project, farmers in the
vicinity depended on rain fed agriculture. The agricultural production was poor
due to insufficient rainfall during dry seasons and occurrence flooding in the rainy
seasons. In 2001, NGO, GERMANY AGRO ACTION established an irrigation
project that cover an area of about 250ha with the aim of improving food security
and poverty reduction in the area of Muhanga District. The project comprises of
three sub‐marshes which are: Rugeramigozi I, 67.72ha, Rugeramigozi II, 121.65ha,
and Biringanya 63.53ha. This study was conducted in Biringanya marshland
Figure 3.3 which has about 950 farmers. At the beginning of the project every
farmer managed his own plot separately. This created disputes among farmers. To
settle the dispute, Rugeramigozi farmer’s association was established.
3.3 Climate
Like everywhere else in Rwanda, the climatic conditions of the area comprises of
four seasons which are two rainy seasons (March to June and October to
December) and two dry seasons (July to September and January to February). This
study was carried out in the dry season especially between June and August.
According to the record of the nearest weather station (Byimana weather station)
the mean annual rainfall in the area ranges from 1200 mm to 1300 mm, with the
highest amount falling between March and June. The potential evapotranspiration
of the area is about 1250 mm per year. The mean annual temperature ranges from
17ºC to 20ºC.
3.4 Water sources
Rugeramigozi stream is the main source of irrigation water to this project. The
stream is also used for domestic water supply for the area. This stream passes
under the dyke of the Kigali‐Butare road through two culverts to Biringanya
scheme on the right hand of the road as shown by figure 3.4. Figure 3.5 shows a
diversion head work in the form of head regulators for diversion of water to the
off‐taking channels for irrigation purpose, constructed in 40 meters downstream
the dyke.
Figure 3. 4 Rugeramigozi stream under the dyke
32
33
Chapter 4. MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.1 Methodology
For this study a rapid appraisal approach has been used to evaluate the scheme’s
internal performance, temporal and spatial information at on‐farm level have been
collected. Data gathering was conducted in June, July and August 2007. These are
the dry months in which farmers were expected to be irrigating their crops after
the harvesting of rain‐fed crops was over. The field research used the following
data collection instruments:
a) Field observation and photography: the newly introduced irrigation system
was visited. Notes were taken from the conversations held with the farmers at
the irrigation sites. Photographs of various characteristics of the physical
systems of irrigation were taken.
b) Interviews with key informants: detailed interviews were conducted with
officials (The Sector Agronomist, The farmers’ Association representative and
The Company that designed the irrigation system).
c) Archives: information was obtained from the files of ECOTRA. The contents of
key correspondence and reports pertaining to irrigation in the study area were
examined.
4.1.1 Primary data collection
Primary field data collection activities included:
a) Frequent field observations that were conducted to observe and investigate
the method of water applications, and practices related to water management
techniques, the water delivery structures status and channels status in the
whole scheme. Here we visited every structure constructed in the scheme and
we noted its status to see the number of ones that are functioning adequately
and the ones which are not functioning adequately.
b) Measurements of water flow at the main source. Based on this average
discharge coupled with the total flow time, the total volume of water diverted
by the irrigation scheme was estimated.
c) Household survey, interview with both irrigation scheme managers and
farmers to get their different point of views on how irrigation activities are
34
conducted and how the practices are understood. For the survey, a
questionnaire was administrated to a randomly composed sample of 63
farmers. It took place in on‐farm level where questions were asked to farmers
during their daily activities in the marshland. The questionnaire
administrated to the farmers is presented in the appendix A‐A.1. Note that
only questions that may have a direct influence on the performance of the
irrigation system were analysed in this work.
d) Wooden weirs were constructed and installed at the entrance of the selected
secondary canal to measure the water flow entering the field and the
discharge in the primary canal. Water level was forced to rise so that it could
flow over the weir. When water got stabilized we took three successive
readings to make sure that the head recorded is correct and when we found
difference between readings we made an average. The weir reading activity
was conducted twice a day, in the morning between 8h00’ and 10h00’ and in
the afternoon between 15h00’ and 17h00’ during irrigation event.
4.1.1.1 Flow measurement
Without knowledge of flow rates it is usually difficult to quantify deliveries to
water users, which significantly impedes the ability to evaluate water
management practices. Hence, Irrigation Water management does not exist in the
absence of flow measurement.
In this study we used Rectangular Sharp‐crested Weirs for Water flow
measurement due to their advantages that are presented below:
a) are capable of accurately measuring a wide range of flow rates;
b) tend to provide more accurate discharge ratings than flumes and orifices;
c) are relatively easy to construct; and
d) allow floating debris to pass over the structure during measurement event.
(Hargreaves and Merkley, 1998).
The model of a rectangular sharp‐crested weir used in this study is shown on
figure 4.1.
35
Figure 4. 1 The rectangular sharp-crested weir and its cross section (Bos, 1989).
4.1.1.2 Discharge determination
The figure 4.2 shows locations at which weirs were installed in the channels and
the respective sites in which measurements were taken, MS being the site of
measurement in the main source which is Rugeramigozi stream, and S1, S2, S3, S4,
S5 the different sites in which measurements were taken through the irrigation
primary canals. To determine the discharge of water flowing in the channel, a
rectangular weir as shown by figure 4.3 was installed at the entrance of each
second channel and frequent readings were taken. During measurement, the
average irrigation water depth passing over the weir to the field were recorded by
reading on the graduated staff placed in the upstream side of the weir as shown on
figure 4.4.
36
S3
S2
S1
Direction of
flow
MS
S4
S5
The discharges of water flowing into the channels were calculated using equation
(4‐1) as formulated by Kindsvater and Carter (1957). The formula uses the
principle of head‐discharge over a rectangular sharp‐crested weir.
2 3
Q = Ce 2 g be h1 2 (4- 1)
3
Q: the discharge in (m3/s)
Ce: the effective coefficient of discharge
g: the gravity acceleration (9.81m/s2)
be: effective length of the weir crest (m)
h1: head on the weir (m)
L
be = b + k b kb is a correction factor to obtain a weir effective length, k b = . (4- 2)
B
he = h + k h with h the measured head over the weir.
Practically, for Suppressed rectangular sharp‐crested weirs:
h1
he = h + 0.001 m and C e = 0.602 + 0.075 (4- 3)
p
where p1 is the height of the weir from the bottom of the channel, and P the head
of water on the upstream side of the weir measured from the bottom of the
channel (Bos, 1989).
37
4.1.2 Secondary data collection
Secondary data collection was carried out by visiting organizations related to the
agriculture sector to gather further information through documents that they keep.
This information include the marshland surface area, yields, irrigated area,
irrigable area, and design discharge, volume of water designed, meteorological
data and agronomic documents on different crops. Organizations visited are
GERMAN AGRO ACTION (GAA) Which is the NGO that financed the
development of this marshland, ECOTRA the Company that design the
development plan of the scheme, BYIMANA Meteorological Station the nearest to
the study area, NYAMABUYE SECTOR as representative of Local Authority and
IABR as the main Association for the farmers in the entire marshland. Many
secondary data from the above mentioned organization were collected. Interviews
were conducted using questionnaire in order to get the perception of the farmers
about the water distribution within the project. Much effort was given to review of
different documents at different places to check the reliability and consistency of
these data collected.
4.1.2.1 Crop water requirements
To estimate the crop water requirements (CWR), irrigation scheduling and
irrigation water requirement (IWR) of the irrigated crops at field levels and the
irrigation project as a whole the CropWat for windows (CropWat 4 Windows
Version 4.2) was used. This program uses the FAO (1992) Penman‐Monteith
equation for calculating reference crop evapotranspiration. The determination of
the CWR by this model depends on the determination of the reference
38
evapotranspiration values using the available climatic data. The determination of
IWR was carried out after estimation of effective rainfall using USDA soil
conservation service method. The water requirements were estimated according
the FAO method which consists of comparing rainfall with the crop’s evapo‐
transpiration. Sets of monthly rainfall data were used to establish these water
requirements. The maximum crop evapo‐transpiration (ETM) was expressed in
millimeters per month (mm/month) and then converted into continuous fictitious
flow in liters per second per hectare (l.s‐1/ha) and this equals the part which can be
used for irrigating the crops.
4.2 Data analysis techniques
4.2.1 Water delivery performance
The simplest, and yet probably the most important, hydraulic performance
indicator is (Clemmens & Bos 1990; Bos et al. 1991):
4.2.2 Performance Indicators
The performance indicators’ testing depends on the availability of data. Getting
complete data required to calculate all the internal (the nine indicators) for each
small‐scale irrigation project was very difficult. The types of data recorded in this
irrigation project have different natures and limited the application of all the nine
parameters used in the performance indicators developed by IWMI for the same
cropping season of an irrigation project. Hence, the analysis of performance of an
irrigation project, minimum sets of internal indicators were applied with the
available information gathered and analysis was made within and across the
irrigation project. Based on the minimum set of performance indicators, the
39
scheme performance evaluation and its trend were studied. The water balance
indicators and maintenance indicators were used to evaluate the performance of
Rugeramigozi irrigation scheme.
Water balance indicators:
Field application ratio : ET p − Pe
Vf
Overall consummed ratio : ETp − Pe
Vc + V1
Vd + V2
Conveyance ratio :
Vc + V1
Maintenance indicators:
Discharge ratio:
Actually Measured Disch arg e
Design Disch arg e
Effectiveness of infrastructures: Number of Functioning Structures
Total Number of Structures
With:
ETp: the evapo‐transpiration by the irrigated crop;
Pe: the effective part of the precipitation;
V1: the inflow from other sources to the conveyance system;
V2: the non‐irrigation deliveries from the conveyance system;
V3: the non‐irrigation water deliveries from the distribution system;
Vc: the volume of irrigation water diverted or pumped from the river or reservoir;
40
Vd : the volume of water actually delivered to the distribution system;
Vf : the volume of irrigation water delivered to the fields during the considered
Vm : period;
the volume of irrigation water needed, and made available, to avoid
undesirable stress in the crops throughout (considered part of) the growing
cycle;
For practical reasons Vm = ETp – Pe and V3 is negligible and hence was taken equal to
zero.
41
Chapter 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Analysis of secondary data and visual observations
Originally the project was designed by ECOTRA under the sponsor of German
Agro Action. The structures during the study were clearly poorly maintained, but
still existing. Both primary and secondary canals are unlined earthen canals. There
are a number of division boxes “intakes” and in some areas “intakes combined
with chutes” along the primary canals that are used to divert the water into the
secondary canals. All farmers were using border cascaded irrigation system under
small plots having an average length of 16 meters to 25 meters width.
Prefabricated metal gates are the equipments used to open and close the intakes
while they are irrigating their crops, whereas weeds and clay are used to close the
water way from one plot to another. During the reallocation of the farm fields to
the members, each farmer on average has got 0.04 hectares of land. In general the
scheme developed area is 63.53 hectares, but the irrigable land is 58.38 hectares.
The main crops grown in the irrigation project area are rice, cabbage, tomato,
maize, and sorghum. Among the mentioned crops, rice was the dominant crop
grown covering around 66.8% of the irrigable land. During the study “dry
season”, the dominant crops were Cabbage and Tomato which were covering
about 33.2% of the irrigable land. Rice, maize and sorghum were grown in rainy
season and Vegetables are grown in dry season. Rainfall is not sufficient for crops
to grown in rainy season and irrigation is therefore required for supplemental
water. The farmers themselves, including their family, do all the farming practices
including maintenance of the irrigation system. According to the responses given
by the farmers, 87.3% of the sixty three farmers interviewed confirm that they are
attached to the works concerning the maintenance of the irrigation system and
structures, whereas only 12.3% said that they never participate in these
maintenance works as shown of figure 5.1. The reasons that a number of farmers
are not participating may due to the fact that most of them did not get training on
good cultivating practices and irrigation practices. As it is shown on figure 5.2,
77.8% of interviewed farmers said that they have never had training as farmers.
42
100 60
50
80
Percentage of farmers
Percentage of farmers
40
60
30
40
20
20
10
0 0
Yes No yes non don't know
Do you prticipate in maintanance works? have you ever had any training ?
5.2 Crop cultivated and water availability
The dominant crop of the area grown under irrigation is rice, but other crops are
cultivated according to land conditions. In not adequately dominated land, maize
and sorghum are cultivated. During the three consecutive agricultural seasons,
rice’s farmers confirmed that they did not get required harvest. Some of them said
that the situation is due to the water shortage and other said that it may be due to
the crop types. According to the responses given by interviewed farmers, 44.4% of
them confirmed that irrigation water is sometimes sufficient whereas 55.6%
confirmed that irrigation water is not at all sufficient as illustrated by figure 5.3.
The observation made on field made us to say that the ones that confirm this
sufficiency of water are the ones whose plots are situated in the head part of
irrigation system. Among interviewed farmers, 76.2% have cultivated rice and
23.8% had cultivated other crops such as maize and sorghum the last rainy season
as shown by figure 5.4.
43
60 80
50
60
Percentage of farmers
Percentage of farmers
40
30 40
20
20
10
0 0
sometimes Not at all Rice Others
Is available irrigation water sufficient? What type of crops have you been croping?
The analysis of the questionnaire that was administrated to farmers, showed that
3.2% of them confirmed that harvest was a bit sufficient, 20.6% confirmed that
harvest was sufficient anywhere, so far 76.2% confirmed that harvest was not at all
sufficient, figure 5.5. The analysis showed that all of rice crop farmers confirmed
that harvest was not at all sufficient whereas other crops’ farmers confirmed that
harvest was sufficient anyhow.
100
60
80 50
Percentage of farmers
Percentage of farmers
40
60
30
40
20
20
10
0 0
Sufficient Abit Not at all sometimes Never
Is there any increase in harvest with this project? Do you get floding problems in this scheme?
5.3 Water availability
As more farmers confirmed that the lack of productivity is due to the shortage of
water, we have done the rainfall analysis. As shown on figure 5.9, the highest
rainfall occurs in April (206.4mm per month) whereas the minimum is in July
(21.8mm). In rainfall season we have full flow in channels, Figure 5.7 whereas in
dry season some of the irrigation channels are dry (no water is flowing in the
canal) Figure 5.8. Among the farmers interviewed, 55.6% confirmed that they have
sometimes flooding problems (mainly in April) whereas 44.4% said that they
never have such problems as shown by figure 5.6.
225
210
195
Precipitation & Runoff (mm)
180
165
150
135
120
105
90
75
60
45
30
15
0
Jul
Jan
Feb
Jun
Oct
Mar
May
Nov
Dec
Sept
Aug
Apr
Precipitation
Month Runoff
Figure 5. 9 Rain water availability in the study area (Byimana Weather station)
45
Using this rainfall information which was available in Byimana weather station for
about 31 years we have calculated the volume of the reservoir required to supply
the irrigation requirement in water shortage periods. From the curve of the
precipitation versus the evapo‐transpiration as represented on figure 5.11 we have
estimated the volume of the reservoir to be 3.1 x 106 m3. We have also estimated
the water requirement for crops that can be cultivated in the dry season since it is
the one in which the situation is seriously uncomfortable. As we were interested in
runoff, after calculations the figure 5.4 shows the monthly precipitation and its
resultant runoff in millimeters, whereas figure 5.10 shows the runoff resultant
discharge (Qr) in liters per second.
180.0
165.0
150.0
135.0
120.0
105.0
Qr (l/s)
90.0
75.0
60.0
45.0
30.0
15.0
0.0
Jul
Jan
Feb
Jun
Oct
Mar
May
Nov
Dec
Sept
Aug
Apr
Month
Evapotranspiration Precipitation
1400.0
Precipitation and Evapotranspiration
1200.0
1000.0
800.0
(mm)
600.0
400.0
200.0
0.0
Month Jan Feb Marc Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Figure 5. 11 Water demand and supply in the study area (Byimana weather station)
5.4 Water requirement
Using rainfall data and the crop factor for cabbage which was grown in the dry
season, we have calculated the water requirement for these crops. The results
obtained shows that in the third stage of its development which is the one in
which more water is required, the cabbage needs 26 liters per second and is less
than the available water due to the precipitations (34.9 liters per second). This
shows that vegetables may be cultivated in the scheme without any stress problem
in the crops. Table 5.1 shows the computation made for cabbage water
requirement in the dray season, using available rainfall records available at
Byimana weather station.
With:
P: the precipitation (in millimeters);
R: the runoff (in millimeters);
ETP:
the evapotranspiration given by the meteorogical data (in millimeters);
Kc:
ETM: the crop factor used to determine ETM;
the crop evapotranspiration (in millimeters).
With the same procedure we have determined the bean dry water requirement
since this crop is the one that have been chosen to be cultivated during the first
agricultural season. Computations made shows that in the third development
stage in which it requires more water to avoid stress, the crop will need 26.5 l.s‐1,
whereas the available water from precipitation is estimated to be about 90.8 l.s‐1.
This shows that we will use less than what is available and this made us to suggest
the construction of reservoirs to collect this excess of rain water to be used in the
water shortage period. Table 5.2 below shows the computation made for
determination of water requirement for the bean dry crop.
These data made us to conclude that available water sufficient for bean dry crop to
be grown in good conditions during the first agricultural season.
5.5 Water measurement
5.5.1 Results
The discharge in the canals is controlled by manually operated gates. The
discharge of the main canals varies from time to time, along with the main source,
Rugeramigozi stream that is also being controlled by a diversion weir. On the
primary canals are constructed different structures such as chute, intake and
48
intake combined with chutes. The following tables contain records for water
measurement made in Biringanya scheme respectively on 22, 24 and 29 of August
in 2007, with weirs installed in the primary canals.
Table 5. 3 Flow measurement records for day 1
August 22, 2007
Site Time p (cm) P (cm) h (cm) he (cm) l=be (cm) h/p ce Q (l/s)
S1 a.m 32,0 36,7 4,7
p.m 32,0 37,1 5,1
4,9 4,90 88 0,1531 0,6135 17,30
S2 a.m 56,5 60,5 4,0
p.m 56,5 60,8 4,3
4,2 4,15 88 0,0735 0,6075 13,59
S3 a.m 46,5 50,0 3,5
p.m 46,5 50,6 4,1
3,8 3,80 88 0,0817 0,6081 11,71
S4 a.m 46,5 50,8 4,3
p.m 46,5 50,7 4,2
4,3 4,25 88 0,0914 0,6089 14,11
S5 a.m 32,0 35,6 3,6
p.m 32,0 35,8 3,8
3,7 3,70 88 0,1156 0,6107 11,30
MS a.m 12,0 19,4 7,4
p.m 12,0 19,6 7,6
7,5 7,50 102 0,6250 0,6489 40,15
49
Table5. 4 Flow measurement records for day 2
Site Time p (cm) P (cm) h (cm) he (cm) l=be (cm) h/p ce Q (l/s)
S1 a.m 32,0 36,4 4,4
p.m 32,0 37,0 5,0
4,7 4,70 88 0,1469 102,0952 16,24
S2 a.m 56,5 60,8 4,3
p.m 56,5 61,4 4,9
4,6 4,20 88 0,0814 102,0528 13,72
S3 a.m 46,5 50,4 3,9
p.m 46,5 51,2 4,7
4,3 3,80 88 0,0925 102,0599 11,71
S4 a.m 46,5 51,0 4,5
p.m 46,5 50,7 4,2
4,4 4,30 88 0,0935 102,0606 14,11
S5 a.m 32,0 36,0 4,0
p.m 32,0 36,3 4,3
4,2 3,70 88 0,1297 102,0840 11,30
MS a.m 12,0 19,5 7,5
p.m 12,0 19,9 7,9
7,7 7,50 102 0,6417 102,4157 40,14
Table5. 5 Flow measurement records for day 3
Site Time p (cm) P (cm) h (cm) he (cm) l=be (cm) h/p ce Q (l/s)
S1 a.m 32,0 36,5 4,5
p.m 32,0 37,7 5,7
5,1 5,10 88 0,1594 102,0996 18,35
S2 a.m 56,5 60,1 3,6
p.m 56,5 61,2 4,7
4,2 4,17 88 0,0738 102,0461 13,46
S3 a.m 46,5 50,1 3,6
p.m 46,5 50,5 4,0
3,8 3,80 88 0,0817 102,0511 11,72
S4 a.m 46,5 48,5 2,0
p.m 46,5 53,8 7,3
avg 4,7 4,66 88 0,1002 102,0626 15,89
S5 a.m 32,0 35,3 3,3
p.m 32,0 36,1 4,1
3,7 3,70 88 0,1156 102,0723 11,30
MS a.m 12,0 19,0 7,0
p.m 12,0 20,6 8,6
7,8 7,78 102 0,6479 102,4049 43,16
50
p: height of the weir
P: head of water upstream side of the weir measured from the bottom of the canal
h: head of water above the weir
he: effective head
l: width of the weir
be: effective width of the weir
ce: effective coefficient of discharge
Q: the discharge
The measurement made in this stream during the dry season in August have
shown that the discharge within the stream lies in the range of 36 and 44.3 liters
per second with an average discharge of 40.15 liters per second whereas it was
designed to be 114liters per second for rice cultivation to be grown in the normal
conditions. The stream is used not only for irrigation, but it is also a source for a
Drinking water pumping station. The pumping station in dry season is taking
about 23.5 l.s‐1 according to the report delivered by the Gihuma Electrogaz
pumping station. In primary canal was supposed to be circulating about 57 l.s‐1
and now measurements show that in the left canal there is about 17.40 l.s‐1 which is
30.35% of its capacity and in the right one there is 14.11 l.s‐1 that are about 24.75%
of its capacity. The difference is due to the linkages in the gates and the situation
implies that the pumping station cannot get the volume it needs.
The field application ratio was 0.54. Rien (2000) stated that for surface irrigation
this ratio should be between 0.60 and 0.92 according to the irrigation system used
whereas Jurriens et al. (2001) said that it should be 0.70 for surface border strip
51
irrigation system which is the one which was applied in this scheme. In Adada
scheme this ratio was found varying between 0.43 and 0.86 with mean value of 0.6
which falls within the acceptable range (Zerihun and Ketema, 2006). The value
obtained for the application ratio is far below the recommended one, this shows
that irrigation water is not adequately applied in the field.
Table5. 7 Common maximum attainable values of the field application ratio (efficiency)
(Jurriens et al., 2001).
Irrigation water application method Maximum attainable ratio (efficiency)
Surface irrigation
Furrows, laser leveling 0.70
other quality levelling methods 0.60
Border strip, laser leveling 0.70
other quality levelling methods 0.60
Level basins, laser leveling 0.92
other quality levelling methods 0.80
Tertiary ratio was not determined since in our system there are no tertiary
channels available and therefore we cannot determine how water is distributed in
the field from the tertiary channels.
The Overall consumed ratio was determined to be 0.47, which is so far from the
half of the ideal ratio, which is one. This shows that the available fraction of water
even if not sufficient is not also used to irrigate crop. The situation is clear because
we know that apart from the irrigation practices, the water made available in the
scheme is also used to supply the drinking water pumping station.
The ratio of 0.70 for the conveyance indicates a value near to one, which indicates
the capacity of the main canal to meet peak crop demand. In general this shows
that if water is available the channel is able to convey it from the source to the
fields.
52
Note that all of the indicators were not tested since it was the dry season and
farmers were using buckets to water the cropped vegetables. Therefore we cannot
know exactly all of the field water delivery related ratios.
5.6 Maintenance
5.6.1 Results
The observation conducted in the scheme showed that even if farmers confirmed
that they participate in maintenance works, the maintenance of the irrigation
structures was still very poor. Figure 5.12 shows problems related to poor
maintenance.
Figure 5. 12 Problems related to poor maintenance
The irrigation structures also were not in good status as shown by the number
contained in table 5.8 which shows each type of structure and the number of
structures that are functioning properly.
53
Table5. 8 Observed structures status
Type Nr of Struct Part. Funct F. funct (%) funct
Intake 11 8 3 27,3
Chute 5 0 5 100,0
Intake & chute 5 4 1 20,0
Diversion weir 2 0 2 100,0
Offtake 2 1 1 50,0
Culvert 3 1 2 66,7
Inlet 2 0 2 100,0
Siphon 2 0 2 100,0
Total 32 14 18 56,3
5.6.2 Discussion
Canal capacity can indicate problems related to sediment deposits, erosion,
vegetation, or possibly inadequate capacity of some structures. The discharge ratio
quantifies the effective functioning of structures in the canal system.
Measurements made have shown that the discharge ratio was 0.3. The discharge
ratio is the actual capacity for the selected canal, divided by its designed capacity
and the ideal one would be 1. This ratio varies between 0.47 and 0.99 in Adada
scheme with mean value of 0.75. The value of 0.3 confirms that the canal is
carrying less than half of its design capacity, which confirms that irrigation water
is not sufficient.
The effectiveness of infrastructure is the number of structures in good condition,
divided by the total number of structures. Poor can be defined as not functioning
adequately, or at risk of failing. Ideally, this ratio should be one. Surveys made in
the scheme from June to August showed that this ratio was 0.56, which shows that
structures were still existing but not functioning adequately or poorly maintained.
54
Chap 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusions
The ability of the irrigation system to supply water according to the intended
supply has been evaluated using the delivery performance ratios. The results
obtained for the Biringanya Irrigation System reveal both the inability of the
system to supply the water with respect to the amount of intended water and the
inability of the system to deliver according to the crop water requirement. The
values of the indicators reveal that the overall performance of the irrigation
scheme is poor.
a) The evaluation using water balance indicators shows that, the conveyance
efficiency is good with a conveyance ratio of 0.7, however, the overall
consume ratio and application efficiency ratio are poor with value of 0.47
and 0.54 respectively.
b) The maintenance indicators are all poor with the value of 0.56 and 0.3 for
effectiveness of the infrastructure and discharge ratio respectively.
6.2 Recommendations
a) It is recommended that a reservoir be constructed to store excess runoff for
use during water shortage periods.
b) It is also recommended that awareness be created among the farmers within
the water users association to facilitate their participation in the
maintenance of the scheme.
55
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drought proofing in the Mekele Plateau of northern Ethiopia. The Geographical Journal,
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Bos M. G., 1989. Discharge measurement structures. Publication 20. International
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59
APPENDICES
A‐A.1 QUESTIONNAIRE
Date:
Sector:
1. What types of crops were you used to cultivate before this project?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
2. How many times were you cropping a year?.........................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Is there increase in cultivable land after the construction of this irrigation project?
Yes No
4. Is the increase in the harvest?
Yes No
a) If Yes what according to you is the main reason?................
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
b) If No what is the main reasons?.................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
5. How many times are you cultivate per year after the construction of this irrigation
project?
One Two times Three times
a) If One why?....................................................................................................
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
b) If Two why?......................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
c) If three why?.....................................................
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
6. What types of crop do you cultivate each season?
a) Season A…………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….
b) Season B………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………….
c) Season C ………………………………………………………………….
60
………………………………………………………………….
19. Apart from irrigation water, which other purposes is this water source used for?
a) Drinking water
b) Usage in earthenware (e.g brick making)
c) Washing
d) Uncontrolled livestock feeding on irrigated crops
61
Yes No
33. What are you benefiting from these terraces made in the hilly side of this
marshland?................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
34. What are canals related problems that your crops are facing?
a) Water exceeds in rainy season and causes flooding
b) Some of them are destroyed
c) Some of them do not conduct water to the crops
35. Does water flow reach your plot sufficiently when it is available?
Yes No
36. If No what do you think should be done?.................................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………
37. Do you have any particular wish related to water use and distribution in this
marshland?
Yes No
38. If yes say it…………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
39. Have you ever had any training on irrigation as farmers in the marshland?
Yes No
40. If yes who trains you?
The government institution
The association
The Donors
63
Table A.2 Rainfall records
Table A.3 Climatic parameters
Month Temp. Relative Wind Sunshine ETP Precip. P. effic. P.eff - ETP
(°C) Moisture Speed Km/h hr/d mens. (mm) (K=0.81) (mm)
(mm)
%
January 19 77 5.6 107.3 105 85 -22.3
February 19.2 78 5.6 92.5 119.9 97.1 4.6
March 19.1 79 5.5 111.2 131.6 106.6 -4.6
April 18.8 82 3.8 96.1 206.4 167.2 71.7
May 18.5 80 5 86.5 145.6 117.9 31.4
June 17.9 68 7.2 91 35.6 28.8 -62.2
July 17.8 61 7 94.7 21.8 17.6 -77.1
August 18.7 59 6.8 111.9 42.3 34.3 -77.6
September 19.1 66 6.4 114.8 88.6 71.8 -43
October 18.9 72 6.1 108.8 101.1 81.9 -26.9
November 18.5 81 5.2 103.4 142.3 115.3 11.9
December 18.5 79 5.5 102 111 89.9 -12.1
65
Table A.4 Calculated discharge from rainfall
66
Table A.5 Values of the Crop factor (Kc) for various crops and growth stages
Crop Initial Crop dev. Mid-season Late season
stage stage stage stage
Barley/Oats/Wheat 0.35 0.75 1.15 0.45
Bean, green 0.35 0.70 1.10 0.90
Bean, dry 0.35 0.70 1.10 0.30
Cabbage/Carrot 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.90
Cotton/Flax 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Cucumber/Squash 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Eggplant/Tomato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80
Grain/small 0.35 0.75 1.10 0.65
Lentil/Pulses 0.45 0.75 1.10 0.50
Lettuce/Spinach 0.45 0.60 1.00 0.90
Maize, sweet 0.40 0.80 1.15 1.00
Maize, grain 0.40 0.80 1.15 0.70
Melon 0.45 0.75 1.00 0.75
Millet 0.35 0.70 1.10 0.65
Onion, green 0.50 0.70 1.00 1.00
Onion, dry 0.50 0.75 1.05 0.85
Peanut/Groundnut 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.70
Pea, fresh 0.45 0.80 1.15 1.05
Pepper, fresh 0.35 0.70 1.05 0.90
Potato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.85
Radish 0.45 0.60 0.90 0.90
Sorghum 0.35 0.75 1.10 0.65
Soybean 0.35 0.75 1.10 0.60
Sugar beet 0.45 0.80 1.15 0.80
Sunflower 0.35 0.75 1.15 0.55
Tobacco 0.35 0.75 1.10 0.90