Environmental and Vedic Period by P. N. Phadke

CONTENTS
1. Environment and Ice Age

2. Ice Age and Evolution
3. Arctic Melting
4. Saraswati, a Vedic River
5. The Vedic Script
6. Indus Seals and Vedic Mathematics
7. Indus Seals and Vedic Mathematics - II
8. Indus Seals and Vedic Culture
9. Indus Seals and Vedic Culture -II
10. Indus Seals and Vedic Culture -III
11. Indus Seals and Vedic Culture — IV
12. The Hittaite and the Aryans
13. The Celtic Invasion of Europe
14. The Amazons
15. The Phonesians were Indians
16. Shakadweepa and Rajasthan
17. Assaka Janapada
18. Dramatist Bhasa and His Times
19. The Turning Point in History
20. The Shaka Exodus
21. Rewriting History
22. Maharishi Parshurama
23. The Parshurama Puzzle
24. Origin in Indian Cave Art
25. Caves in Maharashtra
26. Caves in Vidarbha
27. Evolution of Cave Architecture
28. The Roopa Kunda Tragedy
29. Daxinapatha
30. Rise of Indian Temple
31. Dating of South Indian Temples
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Environment and Ice Age
It is Proposed to discuss here the historical aspect of our environment. The subject requires
an interdisciplinary approach. The nature around us has taken millions of years to develop into
the present form of mountains, hills, plains, lakes, rivers seas, beaches air above and plants
below with the living world of animals around us. This beautiful inherited wealth has been abused
and spoilt by man. Natural calamities like Earthquakes volcanic eruptions, fault lines have
changed its physical features. Cutting of forests rising industrial wealth, chemical waste, smokes
of sulphur and CO2, Use of fertilisers and pastes all together have increased the pollution around
us. This polluted air is enclosed in the surrounding atmosphere upto 16 K.M.s in the sky.
Beyond this limit the Sun rays convert Oxygen (O2) into Ozone (O3) which forms a thin
protective layer around the earth obstructing passage of harmful rays such as x-rays, ultra violet
rays from the sunlight. Harmful gases from the earth such as chlorine, florin, and Carbon
monoxide (CO) react with Ozone to form compounds like Clo and destroy the protective layer
permitting; ultra-violate rays penetrate to earth raising temperature and causing cancer and other
diseases - such conditions are termed as green house effect.
However science tells us that the temperature on earth has been rising continuously for last
10000 years. There were large heaps of ice covering 1/3 of earth's surface. Ice reflected 95% of
Solar radiation keeping the earth below in-coldest stage thus freezing the whole atmosphere. This
prevented melting of ice for ten thousand years The cold climate was not conducive for human
growth. Man had to hide in caves near the sea beaches. Thereafter the ice melted and
temperature started rising, this rise of temperature can be measured by scientific methods.
With melting of ice surface sweet water from rivers and glaciers started flowing to the sea. It
contained radio active oxygen isotopes 018 in a definite number depending upon the heat created
by solar radiation on the water surface. While comparatively cooler salty sea water produced
oxygen isotope 016 when heated by sun rays in lesser numbers.
Rivers and glaciers flowing into the sea, deposit their pollen, seeds, silt, vegetation
alongwith dissolved CO2 and methane gas on the sea floor. All these deposits are packed in
cores or pockets and completely preserved for several years. Their successive layers can be
drawn out, by boring the sea floor and examined in laboratory.
The radiation emitted by an isotope can be measured in number of disintegrations per
minute for a given weight at a given temperature. This helps in measuring temperature rise which
will cause more number of 018 emission from hot surface of water. Thus temperature at any time
in history can be ascertained and measured.
The quantity of CO2 gas can also be measured to decide the degree of pollution. It is found
that it is correlative to the rise in temperature. Both have risen to the dangerous level during last
200 years. This situation causes the green house effect.
Climate is a result of interaction between several other factors such as solar radiation,
Ocean currents like Humbolt, el-nino, gulf stream, rising sea levels, Floods and streams and
ozone layer depletion. Scientists are trying to contain them but nobody seems to be aware of the
real cause behind present stage.
The fundamental external factor affecting earth on Planetary level is the fluctuation in solar
radiation due to several factors beyond human control. For proper understanding of this
phenomenon let us revise our knowledge from text book about our planetary system and its effect
on our environment.
Our solar system is a part of the Milky way which is one of the 88 star constellations or the
groups of stars in the universe.
The Milky way rotates clockwise whereas all the planets in the solar system rotate in an
anticlockwise direction on an elliptical path. The earth completes its round in 3651/4 days Its
vertical axis makes an angle of 23½ with the vortical of the Milky way. This tilted axis also slowly
rotates around its centre completing one rotation in 26000 years. It Oscillates like a slow moving
play top on this journey. This tilted position creates seasons on the earth and we notice the sun
moving between the tropics. Thus the earth’s speed is affected by several factors disturbing the
amount of heat received from the sun. The earth rotates round the sun in an elliptical orbit
keeping the sun not in the centre but at the focal point of the Ellipse. This also causes variation in
heat received from the sun.

The North pole of the earth does not change its direction. When it is pointing towards sun
and is nearest to it on its pathway we have hottest summer. In contrast there will be coldest winter
when the North pole is away at the farthest point. These positions of the earth can be determined
by selecting 26 stars from the Milky way outside the solar system which are equidistant and
almost steady. Our ancestors called them Nakshastra identifying each by its name. By watching
them rise on the eastern horizon we know the position of the earth on the elliptical orbit. It takes
72 years to cross one degree out of 360 degrees on this road and 25920 (72 x 360) years of
26000 years approximately to complete one round. For Half of this period the earth will be
spending near the farthest point creating coldest winters, causing huge precipitation of Ice on the
main land and causing depletion of sea level by 500 feet - So far The phenomenon has occurred
at least five times with the last Ice Age ending before 12000 years.
These variations are the real cause behind our changing environments, Accumulated ice
reflected 95% of the Solar radiation keeping the earth and sea in the coldest state which resisted
melting of ice and clearance of the blockade. Physicist Dr. Claire Smith has described how this
blockade was broken by Nature in great Britan around 6000 B.C. making way for plants and
vegetation. Early coniferous forests of pine and fur crossed the Alps and occupied, central Europe
permitting 50% radiation heating earth & sea thus clearing the remaining ice.
Pollen analysis gave a detailed report of this progress. Pollens or seeds ‘from the trees mix
with ground soil and remain locked in peat bogs and surrounding soil preserved in layers. Vertical
boring gave datewise account of these pollens which can be subjected to C-14 dating and their
type and age determined.
The conical forests slowly waned giving way to grasslands and shrubs useful for grazing
herds of horses, sheeps, goat Camel and Cow useful for human habitation. This attracted the
neolithic hunter gatherer to settle as herdsmen and farmers creating farming societies. This was
the beginning of Civilization.
The real solution to the environment problem appears to be as follows. Man has no control
over earth’s movement as a part of the solar system. The climate on earth shall definitely pass
through the cycles of Ice Ages of 25 000 years each with a small interval or respite of 12000 years
when vegetation can grow creating an atmosphere conducive ‘for human life. Our effort should be
towards prolonging this period by planting more trees thus locking CO2, reducing temperature
within the earth.
Unfortunately this aspect has not been explored so far.

References :
1. Environmental Physics. Claire Smith. Routledge. New York 2001.
2. Astronomy & Earth Science. J. Michale & T. Thomsan Cambridge, 2001.
3. Archaeology- Kevin Greene, Routledge, London -2004.

- Dr. P. N. Phadke, S-15, Bharatnagar, Nagpur-440033. Mobile : 9960146094.
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Ice Age and Evolution
Earlier It was shown how the cosmic situation was responsible for fluctuation in solar
radiation and our weather- James Croll proposed in 1880 that the earths revolution around the
Sun in an elliptical orbit, inclination of its vertical axis and wobbling and rotation of this axis around
itself resulted in the irregular heat received by the earth. This caused the variation in temperature,
hottest summers and coldest winters introducing Ice Age which had a cycle of 25,000 years.
Another scholar Malenkovich showed from the study of oxygen isotopes a long term distribution of
weather based on a cycle of 96,000 years. He showed that the Earths rotation around the sun
was both circular as well as Ellipticle. Such cycles of glaciations have been repeated at least from
16 to 25 lakh years during which several species have lived and died on earth leaving behind their
fossils now studied by the Anthropology.
Man as homoerectus has been living on this earth for more than 2 lakh years facing
hazardous nature. His near relative the Neanderthal man in Europe has left behind many traces in
the form of Achulean tools which shows progress of his intellect before 30000 years.
Our present cycle of glaciations has started before 18000 yrs. Its peak period lasted for
6000 years. Before 12000 years it started waning. It is proposed to describe here the human
progress thereafter.
Heaps of Ice covered the Northern Hemisphere during this period reaching a height of 3
kms at certain places. Atlantic sea from New York to Spain, was frozen. Even on equator
Venezuela and New Gunea had ice cover. Antarcatica is a huge land mass. It supported ice
cover for several kilometers around. All these ice sheets reflected 95% solar heat keeping the
salt water ice cool for several centuries.
Slowly the earth started having long summers and short winters when nearer to the sun.
The snow started melting near the beaches but the ice on the inner land mass refused to melt and
continued upto 8000 years before present. By this time the equatorial region was completely free
from ice and water started warming and rising up drawing the cold heavy water from the
Antarcatic which flowed at lower level and pushed up the warm water. This movement combined
with earths rotation from west to east induced a warm sea current on equator flowing from east to
west. In the Pacific it flowed from S. America, New Guinea, Java, Ceylone upto Madagaskar.
Similar situation arose on the Atlantic but here the westerly warm current was stopped by the
American land mass. So it turned north as Gulf stream warming Florida, east U.S.A. and Western
Europe melting the ice on the main land.
Around 6000 B. C. the coniferous forest of pine, fur and oak crossed the Alps and spread in
central Europe permitting 80% solar heat to be absorbed by the land below and thus completely
clearing the ice resulting in rise of sea level. A similar process is being followed today in Canada
where the forest is advancing north destroying its Tundra region.
The successor of the Neanderthal man advanced from the sea beaches and occupied the
reclaimed land. He started farming and created civilized societies of Nordic race all over Europe.
During glaciations the sea level had gone down by 500 feet leaving dry all the sea channels
such as Irish, English, Scicily, Bosphorus, Dwarka and Rama’s Setu. The Red Indians walked
through such dry land between Siberia and Alaska alongwith their animals to America. People on
the Bosphorus went north and settled on a high plateau called chatal Huyuk from 8888 ft. A
different drama was being enacted in the central part of Eurasia during this period.
At several places the melted ice formed huge lakes such as Atacama in Argentina Salt lake
in U.S.A. Near the Altai region in Central Asia a huge lake of area 10 lakh sq km. was formed.
Water from this lake flowed through the Sardaria river to Aral sea, the Caspian sea, Black sea and
poured through the Bosphorus channel into the Mediterranean sea.
When the sea level rose it flowed back to the Black sea turning its sweat water salty. The
event is remembered in the puranas and the Bible as floods.
After the retreat of the floods the whole area from the Black sea to the- Altai mountain
developed into grass lands called the steppies supporting several animal species such as cattle
camel, horses, sheep and goat. Man from the Caucasscious progressed towards east chasing
and hunting these animals. Slowly he domesticated them thus making a permanent source of
food for his family. He started moving with his herds in search of better pastures. On his journey
he came across minerals at several places and learnt to smelt and extract metals. Mount Altai
means a mountain of gold. These metals he exchanged with the civilized world. But his pastoral
way of life did not allow him to settle at one place. Men always moved on horseback, with their
families, in horse drawn wagons. Camps were erected in felt tents, made of wooden framework
called yurts. This life style is followed even today in Central Asia.
The Greeks called these nomadic people from the steppies Scythians. Hirodotus has given
a detailed description of their life style.
According to Hirodotus each Scythian warrior had to make one kill each year or face
disgrace. The skulls of the slaughtered enemies were used as drinking cups. Slaves were blinded.
A dead king was buried in huge pits with great pomp and show alongwith all his possessions,
including wives, servants and horses. Several such tombs from south Russia and Central Asia
have been opened and studied. This life style of the Scythians gave them great adaptability.
Whenever they entered a civilized society they adopted their manners, customs and even religion
leaving behind their nomadic style which has continued in Central Asia till today. A section of the
Scythians from the Caucatious mountain settled in North Turkey around 3000 B.C. and became
famous as Hittaites. In 600 B.C. Another section settled in Central Europe and became famous as
Celtic people. Around 300 B.C. a third section settled in South Turkey, adopted Judaism and
became famous as Ashkenazi Jews. Before this in 600 B.C. one more section from Central Asia
came and settled around Taxashila in India and were called shakas who were completely
absorbed in Hindu religion. Still the original Scythians in Central Asia continued their cruel life
style giving rise to invaders such as the Huns like Atilla (450 A.D.) Mughals like chengizkhan
(1350 A.D.) and many others. Modern states like Azarbaizan Kajakistan and Kirgiz appear to have
successfully tamed them. These shall be discussed in my next article.

Reference :
1) Global climate change-Alastair Dawson – o.u.p. 2002

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Arctic Melting
In August 2007 a shocking news appeared in papers stating that the ice in the Arctic Zone
has mostly melted, clearing a passage for shipping from Norway to Alaska either way towards
east or west. The news was received with great fear because nobody knows how this thaw in ice
would affect the world climate in future. For thousands of years the Arctic ice shell, floating on
water faced solar heat and successfully maintained its size. Now its melting shows that the solar
heat has definitely increased beyond tolerable limits. This radiation received by the earth mostly
depends on its role in the universe as a member of the solar system which again is a part of the
Milky way we watch in the sky. A few details necessary to understand the subject as elaborated
by James Croll and MilanKovitch are furnished below.

The Solar System
The earth goes round the sun in an anticlockwise direction prescribing an elliptical path
keeping the sun at one of its focal point. This journey is completed in 365 days. Its polar axis
makes an angle of 23.5° with the vertical of the solar plane which results in the sun shining
alternately from the north and the south hemispheres for six months thus creating the seasons.
The crossing of this polar axis with the vertical is called the Equinox which point decides starting
of a season. The polar axis also rotates around itself wobbling like a Childs top thus shifting the
equinox and the seasons in time and space. This shifting can be observed by a simple method.
Beyond the Milky way in the same plane lie 27 stars called Naxatras which are almost steady and
visible to the naked eye. It can be verified that a particular star rising with the sun for a whole year
lags behind and rises late by 20 minutes at the end of the year. This shows that the earth is late
by 20 minutes in completing its round which computes to 13 days in one thousand years. This
also measures the shifting of the equinox and seasons on earth.
In a cycle of 22000 years the northern hemisphere faces the sun during summer for 11000
years when the earth is passing through a section nearest to the sun receives maximum heat
melting its ice completely as it is happening now in the Arctic region. Vice versa conditions appear
to create coldest winters and Ice Age for another 11000 years, which is the main fear striking the
people in the North. It would be worthwhile to know further details about the climatic arrangement
by nature to understand its changes.

The Gulf Stream
Unlike Arctic the Antarctic has a firm footing in the polar region with 32000 K.M. coastline
and a plataue 2000 Mtr. high with 1 to 3 k.m. high ice mass. It is surrounded by ice-cold water.
With the earths daily rotation from west to east the whole mass spills around pushing cold waters
to the equatorial region. This excess water gets heated and flows in the form of famous Gulf
Stream which carries 30 Million Cu.Mtrs. of hot water per second, warming up Florida and N.W.
Europe raising its temperature by 6° centigrade. With this warm water it had been striking the
Arctic for several centuries and was successful in segregating huge ice bergs one of which sunk
the famous Titanic in 1912. Since then the no. of ice-bergs has been increasing and finally the
Gulf Stream has done the job. The huge amount of energy spent in this attempt can be imagined
from the fact that it requires 80 calories of heat to melt one gram of ice. A glass of water is cooled
by a small cube of ice. The Arctic ocean admeasures 1000 miles in length and breadth. The huge
amount of heat required for its melting has been provided by the Gulf Stream and the same may
continue to warm up its surroundings. The cool, salty, black water 4000 ft. below the Arctic will
now absorb the heat directly received from the sun and will maintain its liquidity permanently.
It is argued that the Gulf Stream has been operating like a conveyer belt system. After
striking the Arctic its water gets salty, cool and heavy which sinks and returns to the equator from
where fresh supply of hot water persues. Now the stream may be absorbed by the Arctic area and
the conveyer belt stopped. However the basic cause for starting the hot stream lies in the strong
cold current from the Antarctic to the equator on the eastern side of South America just like the
famous Humbolt current operating on its western side. Therefore the Gulf Stream will continue in
the new situation.

Solar Radiation
The heat received from the sun does not enter the earth easily. It has a protective cover of
air upto 30 k.m. called stratosphere. The radiation received comprises of rays of different
wavelength such as Infra red, gamma, x-rays and ultra-violet rays. These strike various gases in
the atmosphere to produce radio active atoms of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen and other
elements.
U.V. rays react with a molecule of Oxygen 02 to split it into two atoms each containing 8
protons and 8 Neutrons. They further react with an atom adding 2 Neutrons so as to create a
radio-active isotope. With this mass variation it becomes heavier 018 which segre-gates from the
other lighter atom 016. This normal 016 attaches itself to another molecule of Oxygen 02 so as to
create a new gas 03 called Ozone, having 3 atoms. This gas builds a protective layer in the
stratosphere and obstructs any further progress of radio active rays. Similar reaction takes place
in respect of other gases so as to produce radio active isotopes of other elements.
The solar heat reaches earth and warms up land and sea so as to produce moisture which
rises in the sky gets cooled and precipitates as rain or snow alongwith various isotopes which mix
with the flora and fauna of the earth. Such mixture gets locked up in peats, bogs, ice cores and
water bubbles which flow through glaciers and streams and are deposited on the sea bed. The
process has continued for thousands of years. Now we are able to extract these samples with the
help of boring the sea bed at several places in the world and examine them in laboratories. They
furnish accurate data about presence of O18, O16, CO2 and other elements any time in the past.
Sea Levels
It has now been established that the earth is regularly having Ice Ages of 22000 year cycle
in which Ice slowly accumulates in the North for 11000 years when sea levels go down by 500' ft.
all over the world. Thereafter ice starts melting and sea levels rise. Our present Ice Age started
before 18000 years and ice has been melting and sea levels rising for last 7000 years of which
melting of the Arctic is a part.

During Ice Age man had to live in caves using crude paliolithic stone tools. Such tools have
been recovered from a cave near Dare kasa R.S. near Nagpur. Shanidar caves in N. Iraq and
Neanderthal man in France belong to this period. The lower sea levels permitted land access to
several islands such as England, Sicily & Ceylone. Beharin straight was dry. Siberians walked
through it to Alaska. Thereafter water levels started rising from 7000 years before present. Some
parts still held to Ice sheets. They melted and water level rose to present sea level in 280 BC as
reported by the Greek Writer Erastothenes. This flooding submerged Dwarka, Ramsetu and
several other places, kept in our memory through mythology.

Ram-Setu
Our archaeologists should have enlightened the court on rising sea levels and stated that
there was a time when it was possible to cross the channel by placing coconut and palm trees
across it which has been linked by my-theology to Rama’s time. There was no reason to deny
Rama’s existence and our history.

Ice Age
The Arctic sea has melted because the earth was nearest to the sun on its elliptical path all
these years. Now it will be proceeding to a section where it will be receiving lesser heat. Man in
the north has occupied all strategic places such as U.S.A., Canada, Europe, and Central Asia
where mountains of ice stood before 7000 years. Will he vacate them and return to the caves is a
million doller question. Will it be a doomsday. Let us see the opinions by some optimistic
historians like James Croll.
Earlier the periodicity of Ice Age of 22000 years was not known. It was supposed to last for
a long period of One Lakh years. James Croll started his research by tracing the Geographical
reasons behind the Ice Age. It was argued that the total heat received by both the hemispheres
was equal and therefore Ice Age should have started at either place. It was further argued that
such condition would start if there were a series of cold winters followed by mild summers, heavy
snowfall and ice sheets which would reflect the summer heat keeping land cool Thus low
underground temperature can only affect the climate above through it's cold surface and click an
Ice Age condition. While comparing the climate conditions it was noticed that the 20th March and
22 September having equal day and nights divided the year into two unequal halves and summer
in the North was longer by 7 days but it had excess ice than the South which was an anomaly. So
Croll turned to Astronomy and putforth the theory explained at the beginning, as a reasonable
solution.
Science has now proved the existence of Rhythmatic cycle of 22000 years but the Ice Ages
are not a permanent feature. The Dinosor lived on earth before 65 million years. Thereafter
Mammals took over. Before 3 million years there were tectonic upheavals adjusting continents to
their present positions. Antarctic occupied the South pole detaching itself from Australia and
South America which got attached to the North America closing the Panama gap. In the North the
Arctic sea was segregated from warm waters. This rearrangement appears to have created
conditions conducive for an Ice Age.
Several models have come forward to solve the problem of Arctic warming but non of them
considers the geographic solution suggested by James croll. From school atlas it can be seen that
the distribution of land and water between the two hemispheres is most uneven though they get
almost equal solar heat during the year. The land mass in the North is double in area than the
South which is 50 Million Sq.K.M. The total area of oceans is 70% and land 30%.
This reduces an equal area of ocean water surface to absorbs the solar heat in the North. It
causes excess evaporation, snowfall forming ice sheets on the continent which refuse to melt and
reflect all heat keeping the land below cool for ever. Crolls theory appears to be operating now.
The South has excellent water and heat management. Antarcatica absorbs most of the
solar heat. It is surrounded by cold water which spills around and pushes cold currents to the
equator. Where it is heated giving rise to warm currents like the Gulf Stream. The solar heat
received during a year is thus distributed and there is no snowfall on the southern continents. We
may hope that more warm currents will flow to the North establishing an equilibrium in heat
distribution of nature which may prove to be a turning point in human history.

References
1) Glaciers and Environment, Atle Nesje, O.U.P. 2000.
2) The Ice Age, John & Mary Gribbin, Penguin 2001.

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Saraswati, a Vedic River
From the literary sources, the river Saraswati is known to have flown once from the
Himalayas direct to the sea. Attempts to locate these direct channels have not been successful so
far. In 1975 the American satellite (NASA) conducted full scanning of the Thar desert and
produced maps which showed five different courses of the river Saraswati.
In 1985 the late Dr V.S Wakankar conducted an exploration of first three channels of
Saraswati called Ghaggar-Hakra system, upto Indian border. M R. Mughal had explored its
portion in Pakistan. Through these channels the river Saraswati flowed as a tributary of the river
Indus.
The scientists from Central Arid Zone Research Institute (C.A.R.I.) Jodhpur examined the
alluvium in these channels and on the basis of archaeology decided that they were contemporary
with the Harappan culture. They however expressed their inability io date the earlier two channels
and allotted them to the pleistocene period.
This proposition was not found reasonable as the area covered is full of evidence of human
habitation corroborated by literary proofs. Colating of facts from these sources shows the date of
river Saraswati and the Rigveda to be around 4000 B.C. which form,, the sheet anchor for the
Indian chronology.
It was mainly due to the Aryan invasion theory, that the scholars were inclined to fix the date
of the Rigveda around 1500 B C. It was argued that the Vedas were composed only after the
settlement of the Aryans in India around 1700 B.C. and after the decline of the Harappan
civilization. Now, after setting aside the invasion theory, we can consider the probable date of
authorship of the Rigvedic hymns.
It is well known that the Rigveda is a collection of hymns composed by more than 300
sages over a period of several centuries. The compilation was done by sage Vedavyasa, the first
author of the Mahabharata, around 3100 B.C. The date of the Bharata war has been worked out
by scholars on the basis of internal astronomical evidence to be around 3101 B.C. The authors of
the Rigvedic hymns lived on the banks of the river Saraswati which has now disappeared in the
Thar desert. It is therefore expedient to determine the period during which the river Saraswati had
a live flow.1
According to a survey of the Thar desert by Central Arid Zone Research Institute (C.A.R.I.),
Jodhpur there are extensive deposits of alluvial soil in the region north of Aravali hills which
cannot be attributed to the river Luni and it is tributaries alone. The Luni river system is too small
to account for the huge deposits of alluvium that spread in the Thar desert from North to South.2
The reasons behind such huge deposits can be attributed only to a great river of the past
flowing through the desert. These deposits start from the present mount of the river Luni in the
Rann of Kuchch in North Gujarat, going north towards Pachapadra, i.e., Panchabhadra, a
confluence of five rivers neat Barmer. In Yajurveda (34-11) the river Saraswati has been
described to have five mouths, Panchjanah mentioned in the Rigveda (6-61-12) perhaps relates
this region. Here even today, the dry bed of the river Sarswati is a place of Pilgrimage. While the
water of the river Luni is salty, the underground water from the bed of Sarswati is sweet and
potable.3
At Pachapadra the river Luni coming from East takes a sharp right angle bend towards
south for which no explanation such as a fault or a lithological barrier can be given. The alluvium
heaps continue North-ward dividing into two branches. Both pass through a region west of
Jodhpur, east of Bikaner and west of Hissar where it ultimately meets the modern Ghaggar and
where river Saraswati is stated to have disappeared. Here the region between Saraswati and
Drishadwati (Chautang) has been described in Mahabharata as Vinashantirth and Kurukshetra. It
is therefore reasonable to hold that ancient river Saraswati flowed past Hissar, Bikaner and
Jodhpur, to meet the sea with river Luni as its tributary.4
Subsequently, due to shifting of sand dunes and wind action the flow was obstructed and
the river turned West-ward from Nohar-Sirsa region west of Hissar, flowing past such famous
places as Rangamahal, Suratgarh and Anupgarh to meet the river Indus. It changed its courses
and flowed through three different channels before it came to a final halt. Its dry beds are
traceable today in this region.
Thus the survey of the alluvium in the Thar desert by C.A.R.I., Jodhpur established that the
earlier two courses of the river Saraswati met directly with the sea in the Rann of Kuchch, while
the later three courses met the river Indus. The period during which it flowed directly to the sea
now needs to be decided.5
The authors of the paper of the C.A.R.I. have expressed their inability to determine the
dates of earlier period. For this purpose they have mainly relied upon the archaeological data. It is
argued that the Harppan and pre-Harappan sites are mainly located in the later three beds of the
river Saraswati, when it was a tributary of the river Indus. Therefore, this part of the river has been
allotted to Holocene period, starting from 10,000 B.C. onwards. As a corollary, the earlier- two
branches have been allotted, to the Pleistocene period which persisted in the antiquity for more
than 50,000 years. The issue was thus left undecided. However, archaeological proofs go against
such an early classification. The antiquity of human habitation in the areas around the earliest
courses of the river Saraswati is evident from archaeological excavations.”
Pushkar in Rajasthan located near the source of the river Luni which was a tributary of the
river Saraswati has given a complete sequence of archaeological evidence from the Middle
Palaeolithic to Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods.7
Another site at Bagor in district Bhilwara has disclosed Mesolithic tools and bones of wild
and domestic animals. Carbon-14 dating for the earliest phase is between 5000 B.C. and 2800
B.C.8 These microliths continue at Ganeshwar near Sikar alongwith copper objects. Thus there
appears to be a continuous habitation from Pleistocene period in the Saraswati basin.
Cultures similar to Harappan and Pre-Harappan have been discovered in the doab between
the old Saraswati and Drishadwati (Chautang) at places such as Banavali, Karoti, Sothi,
Rakhiqarh, Siswal, Mithathal and Bhagwanpura.9 A Ghosh has treated them as a separate Sothi
culture.10
At Ganeshwar, ochre-coloured pottery is found in association with a large number of copper
objects and microliths. The site is located in the close vicinity of rich Khetri copper mines. River
Kantli, on the bank of which Ganeshwar is located, seems to have once joined the river Chautang
(Drishadwati). These deposits are dated to a time bracket of 2800- 2200 B.C.
Distinctive Harappan objects such as seals, chert weights, chert ribbon blades, terracotta
bangles, terracotta toy carts, bulls, painted and plain pottery are not found in this region.
These facts show a difference in these two cultures. Ganeshwar was a centre for
preparation of copper objects which were mainly supplied to the Harappans.11 Use of bronze in
Harppan and pure copper in Sothi culture, shows the latter to be earlier than the former.
At Surkotda,12 located 160 km north-west of Bhuj near the mouth of the river Luni, the
Harappan culture has been dated between 2300-1700 D C. which tallies with the mature
Harappan culture and is supposed to have travelled by land. Its earlier phase should have been
present on the banks of older branch of the Sarswati described above.
Thus, there is sufficient evidence to show the existence of a pre-Harappan culture on the
banks of the old Saraswati and therefore its dating should be done on the basis similar to its later
branches. Therefore the same argument should hold good for all the courses of the river
Saraswati which should be dated to the Holocene Period from 8000 B.C. onwards.
The earliest date for pre-Harappan culture at Kalibangan-1 has been found to be 4752 +
130 B.C. uncalibrated and between 5565-5260 B C. calibrated. This pre-Harappan phase is
corresponding to the earliest phase at Banavali on Drishadwati and Surkotada at the mouth of the
Saraswati. Thus the earlier two channels of the river Saraswati appear to be flowing with full force
around 4000 B.C.
The Palaeontological studies show that the climatic conditions in Rajasthan indicate the
following changes.13
1. Upto 8000 B.C. — Moist, Wet and Cool climate.
2. 8000 B.C. To 3000 B.C. — Dry climate but less arid than at present.
Evidence suggests the beginning of agriculture.
3. 3000 B.C. To 1700 B.C. — Period of higher rainfall.
4. 1700 B.C. To 1500 B.C. — Dry conditions. Evidence of fresh water lakes drying up.
It is now known that the dry spell in Rajasthan is the result of a regular dust cloud rising
from the Arabian desert to a height of 5 km and travelling to India. It prevents formation of rain
drops, even though rain clouds regularly visit the Thar desert during July to September. This
peculiar condition has set in the aridity responsible for the formation of the Thar desert. Thus
formation of the Thar desert is a recent phenomenon. It is regularly spreading in the surrounding
region and backward calculation from its rate of spread today shows that its origin does not go
beyond 20M years.14
All these factors lead one to conclude that the conditions in Rajasthan at the beginning of
the Holocene period were conducive to the flow of a large river like Saraswati to the sea and the
aridity that set in around 8000 B.C. had a slow effect on its ecology.
The slow change in the eco system has its reflection in the Rigvedic prayers for rain in
Mandala 10.98 describing famine conditions. Sometime before 3000 B C. the river got exhausted
due to aridity and turned west near Sirsa to become a tributary of the river Indus. It could survive
this change with the help of increased rainfall from 3000 B.C. onwards, till extreme aridity set in
around 1700 B.C., when it dried up completely. The Vedic culture appears to have developed on
the earliest two branches of the river Sarswati flowing directly to sea.
O. P. Bharadwaj15 has tried to locate the confluence of Saraswati and Drishadwati near
Kalibangan. He has however omitted to consider the earlier two courses of the Saraswati. The
aerial photographs show this union of these two rivers near Surlansar north of Ratangarh
Rajasthan.
There is an independent internal evidence in the Rigveda to Show that the Vedic people
thrived on the banks of the river Saraswati during the period between 8000-3000 B.C. Sage
Vasistha is the author of the most of the hymns in the 7th Mandala of the Rigveda. Stanza 7-95-2
describes how amongst all sea going rivers the Saraswati alone has granted prayers of King
Nahusha. The remark is in the present tense and therefore it confirms that the river was flowing
directly to the sea during the reign of King Nahusha. The time of composition of this hymn can be
deduced from the description in the previous stanza by the same sage Vasistha. Stanza 7.95.1
states that the river Saraswati is granting protection as firm as a city protected by ayas. The term
ayas is used here to mean copper and not iron, because the use of iron was not known to the
Vedic people. Later when iron was discovered it was termed as Krishnayas. 16 Fortification of cities
was strengthened with the use of copper arrow heads, swords etc. and the same term is used
here as an adjective for the Saraswati. The term ayas is also similarly used in stanzas 7.15-14, 1-
121-9, 1-122-9, 2-21-8, 2-39-7, 7-85-2, 8-4-16 and 10-142-4.

Stanza 7-85-2 describes the use of swords which were prepared out of copper. Stanza 7
88-R3 describes Vasistha travelling to sea in a boat. Aswinikumar is stated to have used ayas, for
replacing imputed leg of Vishpala, vide stanza 1-119-8. However, these references to copper are
few in number, considering the total number of Rigvedic verses which are more than ten
thousand. Therefore, we may infer that this was the beginning of the use of metal called copper.
All the above references show that sage Vasistha lived in a period when the use of copper
had began, bronze was not known and the river Saraswati was flowing to the sea in full spate.
This period can be pinpointed from our knowledge of archaeology.
It is well-known that tile copper weapons prepared at Ganeshwar had a steady flow to the
Indus region.17 Some of the older dates for copper from this region are as follows.
1) 3000 D.C. — Mundigak shows a bronze shaft hone axe in period III.
2) 3180 B C. — Dantb Sadat in Quetta valley disclosed a copper dagger.
1) 3540 to 3210 B.C. — Amri, fragments of copper and bronze.
M R. Mughal has excavated at Jalilpur in South Punjab in Ghaggar-Hakra basin and
discovered metal objects relating to early Indus period.18 Mughal has found 23 sites of this ‘Hakra
assemblage or complex and dates it to 3500 B.C., warranting a conclusion that ‘The Hakra or
Vedic Saraswati culture would be the earliest in North-Western India.’19 The above view has been
corroborated by Sankalia.20
Mughal's view relates to the later courses of Saraswati meeting the Indus as a tributary. The
earlier two courses flowing to the sea are obviously older and the same reasoning is applicable in
their cases. We can, therefore, conclude that the copper technology at Ganeshwar developed
fully around 3500 B.C. and its origin might have been around 4000 B.C. after allowing a period of
500 years for its development.
The stray references in the Rigveda to ayas show this beginning of the copper technology.
Thus it may be concluded that most of the hymns were composed before 4000 B.C.
In a recent article in the Journal of Indo-European Studies Vol. 12/1990, pp. 425-446 by
Professor H.H. Hicks and Robert N. Anderson there is a discussion regarding the date of the
Rigveda. The authors have concluded that the Vedas are older than 4000 B.C. and the date of
Mahabharata is 3102 B C.21 Similar conclusion has been drawn by S.S. Mishra, Linguist, Linguist,
In his book on ‘Aryan Problem.'22

Reference :
1. S S Chitrao, The Rigveda, Pune, 1969, p. 18.
2. Bimal Ghose, “The Lost Saraswati” in Man and Environment, vol. IV, 1980, pp. 8-11.
3. Wakanhar, Lupta Saraswati, Nagpur, 1992. The main inspiration behind this survey was the
satellite photographs of the Thar desert made available by N A.S.A., America which clearly
showed all the channels of the river Saraswati. (Niap-11)
4. Bimal Ghose, op cit., p. S.
5. Ibid. p. 9.
6. Ibid, p. 9.
7. B.K. Thapar, Recent Archaeological Discoveries in India, Tokyo, 1985, p. 14.
8. Ibid., p. 17.
9. Ibid., p. 76.
10. S.B. Deo, Puratatva Vidya, (Marathi) Pune, 1976, p 208.
11. B.K. Thapar, op cit., p. 102.
12. S.B. Deo, op.cir., p. 208,
13. P.K. Das, The Monsoons, New Delhi. 1988. Pg. 123 and 129.
14. Ibid., p. 129.
15. O.P. Bhardwaj. “Identification of Vinashan” in Soasti Sri., Ed. K.V. Ramesh, Delhi. 1984, pp
205—2).
16. S.P. Gupta, “Palaco-Anthropology and Archaeology of the Vedic Aryans” in The Aryan
Problem, Ed. S B. Deo, Suryanath Kamat, Pune 1993, p. 61.
17. B.K. Thapar, op cit.. p. 143 and 156, Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan 1982.
18. F.R. and B. Allchin, op.cit. p. 143 and 156.
19. O.P. Bharadwai, op cit., p 218.
20. H.D. Sankalia, Indian Archaeology, Today, Delhi, 1979, p.88.
21. H H. Hicks and R.N. Anderson. "Analysis of an Indo-European Vedic Aryan head” in the
Journal of lido-European Studies. Vol. 18, 1990, pp. 425-446.

22. S.S. Mishra, The Aryan Problem, Delhi, 1992.
❖❖❖
THE VEDIC SCRIPT
It is well known that the Rigveda having more than 1017 hymns was committed to memory
and used at sacrifices for several centuries before the art of writing in the Brahmi script which was
invented around 600 B.C. It is proposed to show here that even before the Brahmi, the Sanskrit
language had a script which was used to record all the scriptures authored during the three
Millennium before the discovery of Brahmi.
1. Recent excavations by the Nagpur Branch of the Archaeology department at
Bhirdana near Hissar in Haryana, located in the valley of the ancient river Saraswati has thrown
considerable light on the ancient Indian history and pushed back its date beyond 7000 years from
today. Primitive man in hunter-gatherer state, using stone tools and handmade pottery, settled on
the banks of the river Saraswati. Slowly he took to farming, learnt the use of wheel for turning
pottery and other objects and started settled life in the valley of the Saraswati and other rivers. He
prayed before various forces of nature for his comforts and well being. The surplus crop
supported a class who compiled these verses and committed them to memory. These
compilations called the Rigveda describe the Saraswati and other rivers directly flowing to the sea
(7.95). Now from the study of satellite imagery we know that this period belonged to 4000 B.C.
and beyond, when the river Saraswati flowed through the deserts of Rajasthan. Slowly its flow
declined, it stopped flowing after the Hissar, turned west from 3000 B.C. and flowed for sometime
through the channels now known as the Hakra-Nara. This situation has been accurately described
in the Mahabharata as Vinashantirth, Kamyakvana with a desert and Dwaitavana with the
Saraswati flowing with a full force.
2. By this time, several villages with surplus products were organized into trading,
communities who used seals for recording dispatch and receipt of goods in the Indus-Saraswati
basin as well as the Middle East. Excavations show the presence of several kingdoms such as
the Sumer, Babylon, Mittani, Hittite and Egypt in this area beyond the Indus. All of them used
seals for recording their trade activity, now discovered during excavations. Similar seals were
found at Bhirdana, Still their meaning remains a closed chapter of the Indian history.
3. From 3000 B.C. the Egyptians started building pyramids with the help of slaves
captured from the Shephardine tribes from Arabasthan. Their walls showed pictures called
Hieroglyphs narrating certain events. This was the beginning of writing.
4. The Sumerians also developed an urge for writing and recording their business.
They used different combinations of nails for this purpose, pressing them on wet clay-tablets dried
fired and preserved as records. This nail headed script called Cuneiform introduced many
innovations in the Egyptian script and reduced the number of symbols from 600 to 111. It became
popular everywhere and remained in use for 2000 years. The Babylonians spoke a different
language but still used Cuneiform for official use. Iran in 550 B.C. spoke Avestan which was a
corrupt form of Sanskrit and should have used a script if any from India. But they also preferred
Cuneiform and the Greek script for writing their epigraphs. This bilingual use gave a clue to solve
the riddle of Cuneiform script which was read back upto the Sumerian times of 3000 B.C.
Excavations have delivered thousands of tablets belonging to this long period and their study has
helped to reconstruct the history of the Middle-East.
5. From 3000 B.C. we find a spurt in the Vedic literature in the form of Yajurveda,
Samaveda, the Brahmans commentaries, Upanishadic philosophy and many other books. It is
impossible to memorize such a vast literature in prosaic form without the help of a writing method.
Therefore, the problem arises whether (1) The Sanskrit had its own script and if so, why it was not
used in the Middle-East especially in Iran in 550 B.C. (2) If there was no such script why
Cuneiform was not used on the Indian soil either on the Indus seals or clay tablets or epigraphs.
Sumerians spoke a corrupt form of Sanskrit.
6. Around 1500 B.C. the Egyptians were defeated by the Hittites from Turkey which
had a disastrous effect on their polity. Construction of pyramid was stopped and the slaves were
released from captivity. They returned to their motherland under the able guidance of Moses and
settled in Israel. They wanted to record their sufferings in their Hebrew language for which a script
was necessary. They invented a new way of writing instead of using Cuneiform. They picked up
certain symbols from the Indus seals which had a meaningful expression in Sumerian as well as
in Sanskrit and formed Hebrew alphabets. It’s first letter Alef showing two horns of a bull as V
meant Sanskrit BalivaradaBali-Ali-Aleph. Second letter Beth shown as a square meant Sanskrit
Vastu-Bastu-Beth and meant a residence. Dr. S.R. Rao has shown 22 such symbols picked up
from the Indus seals and used as letters in the Hebrew script which was subsequently used for
writing Arabic. If so, why the same process could not be followed in respect of Sanskrit is the real
problem.
7. A close review tells us that the Sanskrit grammarians had a deeper study of their
language. They introduced separation of vowels and consonants. The later were grouped into five
sets, according to the place of their origin such as Velaras (Ka), Paletals (Cha), Retroflex (Ta),
Dentals (Ta), Labials (Pa), semi-vowels and Fricatives. Each set had four members with a
phonetic symbol selected from the Indus seals and placed as first letter or surd which changed to
the next position by addition of a marker such as — or O. Thus, K, Ko, K-, K-o formed four letters
K, Kh, Ga, Gha. Sixteen such symbols were selected from the Indus seals to form the Sanskrit
script. They were Ka, Cha,/Chha/Ja, Ta, to/da, Na, Pa/Ba, Ma, Ra, La, Va, Sa/Sha. These
symbols were merged in 32 Brhami letters formed around 600 B.C. and identified by Cunningham
and others from epigraphs. B.B. Lal has shown their presence on the Megalithic pottery.
8. The Brahmi script became a model classification for all Indian languages upto
Srilanka in the South, Tibet in the North, and Burma and Laos in the far East—excepting Tamil
which stuck to the original arrangement with 16 symbols. The Tamil grammar Tolkappiam states
how the script was used as Granthic for writing purpose while they lived in the North before 600
B.C. and sage Agastya brought them to the South. The use of markers was dropped during the
process of migration and Tamil script lost this distinction. It is not possible to read it without
knowing the context. All the four phonemes in a set such as— Ka, Kha, Ga, Gha are represented
by one surd Ka, and are not intelligible.
9. How old might be this Vedic Sanskrit script ? The Sumerians started writing in
3000 B.C. and the Indus people could have copied them in absence of their own script. So the
Sanskrit script must have existed around 3000 B.C. when sage Vyasa composed first 8000
verses of the Mahabharatha and other books. It must have prevailed upto the introduction of
Brahmi in 600 B.C. when all texts must have been rewritten with the help of new script. Only Tamil
continued its original form without markers and has lived with this distinctness for the last 2500
years.
10. The omission of markers brought about a sea change in the form of spoke n
Sanskrit which gave birth to its corrupt forms such as Chulika Paisachi Prakrit in the North-West.
One of it’s rule proposed dropping of third and fourth consonants. Thus, Ga, Gha, Ja, Jha were
replaced by Ka, Kha, Cha, Chha. When these people migrated to Malwa a conditional further
change proposed dropping of first letters K, Ga, Cha, Ja, Ta, da, Pa, Ya, Va which gave birth to
Pali language. Similar changes resulted in formation of Tamil. The process was stopped with the
— introduction of Brahmi for all languages.
11. In conclusion, it may stated that the Sanskrit had a script of it’s own since 3000
B.C. which needs a deep study.

References :
1. “Vanished Civilizations”, Readers Digest, 2002.
2. Ancient World, N. Mahalingam, Madras 1983, pp: 261-277.
3. The Satvahanas, V.V. Mirashi, Nagpur, 1981, pp: 208, 282
4. India through the Ages, P.N. Phadke, Nagpur, 2003.

❖❖❖
Indus Seals and Vedic Mathematics
Ever since the excavation of Harappa and Mohenjodaro by -John Marshal in 1922,
decoding of the Indus - Seals has been the knottiest - problem facing historians. More than 170
‘scholars have tried their skills in meaningful interpretation of more than 3000 seals containing
450 different signs and-figures with little success.
One such team of Finnish scholars S. Koskeniami and Asko Parpola have used computers
for arranging the information in seals in various ways to obtain results with the help of Tamil
language. They have interpreted a fish sign with six vertical strokes as Aru (Tamil), fish Mina
(Sanskrit) meaning the krittika Nakshatra. Their tables give useful information for solving the
problem of origin of vedic mathematics.
The theorems in Vedic arithmetic were first expounded by Sankaracharya the late Bharati
Krishna Tirth in 1956 through a lecture series at the Nagpur University. Scholars were impressed
by the shortcut and quick methods of solving various mathematical problems by applying 16
theorems but their practical utility was not examined. Now the computers appear to use them
profitably and hence a need for their deeper study has arisen.
The Acharya had stated that these theorems formed a part of Atharvaveda, the last
compilation of vedic hymns. A study of Atharva prayers shows use of iron tools, foreign
domination over Gandhar, Krittika as the 1st Nakshatra which point to 600 B.C. as the period of
their compilation.
This was the beginning of the Brahmi script and Panini’s grammar, while the Vedic
Mathematics showed a full-grown system of numerals counting upto thousands and lakhs.
Yajurveda compiled in 1500 B.C. showed full use of various numerals in Ch.XIV.
The Indus civilization flourished from 2500 B.C. to 1800 B.C. Thereafter its trade declined
and use of seals disappeared and were forgotten. However, a close study shows that 16 letters in
the Brahmi have their origin in the Indus script and thus their use by scholars continued even after
the decline of the Indus trade.
The Arumina sign appears repeatedly on most of the Indus seals. Group of verticle strokes
definitely show numbers from 1 to 10. The fish sign stands for Brahmi letter ‘sh’ as confirmed from
Kaushambi inscription. It means dasha (10) in Sanskrit. The addition of this fish sign to a group of
verticle strokes gave a desired number which represented the value of goods sealed.
The fish sign appears with short strokes attached to its sides representing multiples of 10
such as Vinshat, Trinshat (20, 30, 40, 50). Their Sanskrit names clearly show this multiplication.
The computer table shows several such combinations of verticle strokes added with fish sign.
Verticle strokes upto seven have been used in large numbers indicating use of octonary system
which was also used in Indus weights and measures and prevailed till before 50 years.
The Indus system is exactly followed in reading Sanskrit and vernacular numerals till today.
The Octonary system was replaced by the decimal system unique in the world and was used in
Sanskrit literature even though the art of writing was not fully developed.
With verticle strokes larger numbers from six to nine presented difficulty in computing. This
was overcome by deducting them from 10 and resultant complimentary minus numbers from four
to one called Runanka were used for addition in place of subtraction and also for preparing
permanent computation tables (Pahada) for any number. All multiplications were reduced to
additions and divisions into deductions.
Cunningham and Princep have shown that modern numericals were invented with the help
of Brahmi letters in Ashokan period. Thereafter vedic maths persued its own course discovering
simple solutions for all complex processes in modern mathematics. By A. D. 500 Varahmihira and
Bhaskaracharya created its full text which is available today for study. The Indus valley culture is
directly linked with our life.

References
1) Indus Script B. B. Chakravarti. Bharatiya Shikshan Mandal, Calcutta 1991.
2) Vedic Ganit, Vidya Bharti Prakashan, Kurukshetra 2004.

❖❖❖
Indus Seals and Vedic Mathematics - II
During the excavation at Mohenjodaro, Harappa and elsewhere in 1922, several stamps or
seals were found. Their language and script have not been decodified so far. A probable answer
to this problem is presented below :
In an earlier article (BJ. 313-05), it was shown how the fish sign along with the vertical
strokes repeatedly appearing on the Indus seals represents vedic numerals. Now we discuss
another alphabet frequently appearing on these seals.

Finnish scholars led by Asko Parpola, tried to analyse the symbols with the help of a
computer and Tamil language. They could not give a meaningful interpretation of the seals. Many
others tried to use Indo-European and other western languages without any success. They
disregarded the fact that the Indus civilization was preceded by the vedic culture and Sanskrit
language. Those who recognised this situation tried to locate the vedic deities carved in the seals
but could not give a convincing solution.
The main reason is ignoring the fact that the Indus seals mainly represent the trade activity
of the region. If some deities appear on the seals it may be a brand name such as Ganesh Laddu.
These seals were used by traders for noting dispatch and receipt of goods. S. R. Rao has shown
that their impressions appear on the cloth tied to the bundles discovered at Lothal.
Similarly, appearance of animals and birds on the seals may indicate a region to which the
seals belonged, such as a peacock to Rajasthan, rhino to Nepal, humpless bull to Babylon and
humped bull or Zebu to the Indus. Thus the meaning of the pictures on the seals must be
searched elsewhere in the trade activity of the region.
Scholars have tried to locate the source of Brahmi script (600 B.C.) from the Indus script
(2600 B.C.). They could derive only eleven letters. This shows that the Indus script was managed
with only a small group of letters which denied any possibility of formation of words. The oral
sounds or phonemes appear to have been arranged in classes and one letter from each class
such as ‘Ka’ stood for all the phonemes ka, kha-ga, gha.
Tamil script Today has similar arrangement of alphabets. It is mainly due to paucity of
letters that their several variants appear on the seals. Presumably, these must have been used to
express an idea or a word as a logo-syllable, such as a fish representing vedic numerals. The
Rigveda uses several numbers in Mandal 2-18 while offering Indra’s prayer.
The symbols on the seals must have represented articles of trade. The Sumerians
produced date, woolen clothes, copper, bronze and silver. These were exchanged with Indian
cotton, honey, sugar, spices and ornaments. Both were using seals impressed on packings with
common symbol understood by each side. Indian seals have been found in excavation in Babylon
which helped in fixing the date of Indus culture.

One such symbol common to both sides is letter U with phonetic value 'ga’ is Sumerian. Its
source has been traced to the horns of a bull in North Semetic nail headed script. The Indian
seals also contain this symbol U pronounced as ‘ga’ most probably representing Vedic Gau as a
cow. Its meaning needs further elaboration.
Use of metal pieces as punch-marked coins started from 600 B.C. Earlier, there was no
coinage and goods were exchanged on barter basis which worked well for small units. However,
for bulk purchase of large consignments a standard valuable article of exchange was necessary.
Technology for extraction of gold, silver and copper was known but cutting them into pieces of
definite weight and authentication mark was not possible. Vedic literature is full of examples of
exchange of a cow in such a situation. The number of cows exchangeable against goods was
recorded on the seals with U sign. The fish symbol provided their numbers.
The Finnish scholars have shown that the symbol U appears on 1200 out of 3000 seals
examined by them. Its variants appear on an equal number of seals. They presumed its phonetic
value to be ‘ka’ and reached nowhere. Indus ka is represented by a symbol †
It is obvious that the symbol U reads ‘ga’ recording value of goods supplied, on each seal
along with number of cows to be exchanged. Actual exchange of animals might be taking place at
the end of a season or a year after a final tally.
Computing all this processes must have been carried out by oral tables from one to thirty
which we memorised in our school days. Vedic mathematics provided a method to construct
these tables with the help of a Rinanka or minus numbers.
The symbol U was subsequently adopted by the Phonecians around 1000 B.C. with horns
projecting downward. It was named alphabet gamel. With similar change letter ‘ga’ was adopted
in Brahmi. The work is incomplete unless other symbols are deciphered and complete text is read.
❖❖❖
Indus Seals and Vedic Culture

In the earlier issues of Bhavan’s Journal (B.J. 31-3 & 3.1-7) it was explained how Indus
seals recorded letters indicating a particular word or idea used in Harappan trade which was
understood by the dealing parties living in distant lands such as India and Iraq.
The size of these seals is generally around 2" x ½" and nearly impossible to write a
sentence thereon. The communication through the seals was possible due to the common Vedic
culture which had spread throughout Middle East before 5000 years. To understand this
phenomenon it is necessary to have a brief review of history of these areas.
It is now well established that the Ice Age prevailed on this earth before 12,000 years when
the northern hemisphere was covered by tons of ice sheets and water level in sea had gone down
by over 500 ft.
Then the ice melted, several glaciers flowed through the river beds leaving behind fertile
lands. Sea levels rose upto the present normal levels, weather became conducive to human
habitation and man who was hiding in the dens and caves came out in the open, to move freely in
the world. For 2000 years he roamed as hunter and then slowly took to farming, creating small
villages and settlements, which developed into a society.
In Europe such societies around Black Sea were disturbed by a major event that took place
7000 years earlier, resulting in sudden melting of ice sheets and rising of sea levels all over the
world. The Mediterranean sea water gushed through the Bosporus Strait towards the Black Sea
which was till then a sweet water lake surrounded by human habitation. All these settlements
were completely destroyed. This event has now been confirmed by under water exploration.
These floods have been described in the Bible and also in the Puranas. Such events took
place all over the world. Dwarka was submerged, Rann of Kacchh which was a sweet water lake
turned salty, Ram’s Setu was submerged.
However, environments all over improved. Big rivers in Egypt, India, Iraq and China became
centers of cultural progress.
A powerful kingdom arose in Egypt around 3000 B.C. It built pyramids using forced labour
of slaves captured from Arabia. Pictures on its walls tried to narrate some events. This was the
beginning of writing.
About the same time the people in South Iraq formed the town of Sumer. Another city
called Susa came up in South Iran. Both these cities came together to form the kingdom of Elam
mentioned in the Bible. The elemites developed their own script using Egyptian pictures and
introduced use of letters for an idea. They strived for improving this script and Were successful in
reducing the number of letters from 600 to 111. The letters were written on soft clay tablets
pressed with nails and hence the script is called cuneiform.
The tablets show recording of accounts using decimal system of numerals. Obviously, the
elemites or Sumerians could trade with India and understand Indian figures noted on the seals
from the Indus valley.
Subsequently the elemites were overpowered by the king of Babylone from central Iraq
around 2000 B.C. who retained their script and language for office use. Thus it spread throughout
the Middle East till. The time of King Darious of Iran in 500 B.C. Therefore according to Dr. S. R.
Rao, Sumerian seals could be followed by the Vedic people around 1000 B.C. even after the
Harappan culture disappeared.
The warm weather in the Middle East was inviting. The desert was yet to appear and the
land was green everywhere. Around 2000 B.C. the nomadic tribes from the Russian steppies
travelled around the Black Sea and settled in Turkey forming small villages. Soon they formed a
kingdom called Hittaite.
The Hittaites had developed skills in smelting metals and preparing various items of copper,
silver, gold and iron, which they exchanged with Babylon and amassed huge wealth. They were
the first to extract iron in pure form and prepare weapons and tools. By 1500 B.C. they clashed
and won the neighboring state of Mittani. In their treaty recorded on clay tablets, both have offered
prayers to Indian gods named Indra, Varuna, Nasatya and Mithra. These facts are known from
excavation at Bogazkoi in Turkey.
Further a book in Sanskrit on horse management is discovered. It states the running rounds
to be completed by a horse during training. Actual words are, Ekvartnam, Ter-Trivartanam Panja-
Pancha Vartanam, Sattasapta vartanam Nava- Vartanam. This use of Sanskrit language confirms
the presence of Vedic culture in the Middle East from 3000 B.C. to 500 B.C. and it is little wonder
that the letters or monographs noted on the Indus seals were understood everywhere.
From the same source in Turkey a tablet noting exchange of 20 pieces of silver is found.
Another excavation at Mari in N. Iraq discloses tablets containing an account of wine jars in a
royal kitchen. The total is shown as follows. 70+17+3 +2 = 92 Jars. These examples show a
thorough knowledge of Vedic mathematics. With this background an attempt is made to decipher
some symbols on the Indus seals.
Around 1000 B.C. the Jews tried to construct Hebrew script with the help of known
Sumerian words describing an object. The peculiar feature of that object became a symbol or
letter with a definite phonetic value. Thus the letter meaning an ox in Sumerian was represented
by his horns forming letter 'U' noted on the Indus seals. An ox was an object of exchange in
trade.
The king of Babylon is shown presenting an ox to the Persian king in the pictures carved in
stone at Persepplis. It was a bull of exchange in trade. Sanskrit Balivarda changed to Bali-Ali
Alef.
Hebrew letter beth has similar history. It is widely used even today to describe a vastu or a
residence such as Bethlehem or Beth Sheba. It is shown as a square symbol on the seals. The
Sumerian word is formed from Sanskrit Vastu – Basthu – Beth.
Letter gamel is shown as sign on Indus seals. In Sumerian it means a camel. Its Sanskrit
version is Kramalaka meaning a path finder. The symbol shows the curved back kramalaka
changed to kamalaka –camel - which is a beast of burden a caravan – obviously the symbol
means a caravan to Sumer.
Hebrew letter Daleth means a door in Sumer shown as a triangle or D on the Indus seals. It
means devadar wood or furniture imported by Sumer from India confirmed by excavations. Here
Sanskrit word dwar is at source forming Dwar-Dar – Dal – Daleth. Dar – Es salam proposes a
salute at the door.
Letter heth has a deceptive appearance. It is shown on the seals as a comb some time
reduced to letter E. Asko Parpola held it to be indicating female gender. Actually Sumer imported
elephant tusks used for ornaments and decorative objects. Here Sanskrit word Hasthi had
changed to Hathi and heth letter E shows his trunk and two rows of legs.
In Sumer the word Samekh meant a corn plant. Its symbol on the Indus seals was shown by
several horizontal lines crossed by a single verticle line, the Sumerians produced ample grains
and reared animal herds. They traded in leather, wool, and grains. In pictures they are shown
wearing leather coats. Therefore, exchange of wool with Indian cotton and sugar was their
essential requirement. The Europeans did not know these products till the time of Alexander.
They are described in Sanskrit rhyme as sasya shamala which changed thus Shamala –
Shama Sama – Samekh. It was a meaningful expression for the Sumerians, as letter S.
Thus the archaeological evidence corroborated by linguistic proofs confirms the meaning of
some Indus seals.
❖❖❖
Indus Seals and Vedic Culture -II
The spread of Vedic culture in the Middle-East before 1400 B.C. was explained in Bhavan’s
Journal issue (December 15, 2005). Now let us see how it continued to prevail in this land and
affected different spheres of its life.
The Hittaites from Turkey and the Mittanies from North Syria honoured the Vedic deities
while concluding a peace treaty in 1400 B.C. Their neighbour Egypt ruled the entire Palestine and
had its naval base at Ugrait, a port in Lebanon. The peace agreement was broken and Egyptian
King Ramses II seized an opportunity to interfere with the two warring nations and joined hands
with the Mittanies. A fierce battle ensued at Kadej near Damascus in which the Hittaites crushed
their opponents with the help of the iron weapons and superior iron- framed chariots.
The Egyptians had to withdraw beyond the Sinai desert. This defeat forced the Egyptian
Kingdom to shift its capital from Cairo to Amarana in the South. Building of Pyramids completely
ceased. All the Arab slaves captured for the purpose were released.
The freed Arab slaves returned to their motherland under the able guidance of Moses who
gave them the Ten Commandments of God. This united all the slaves from twelve different
shephardine tribes from the desert into a single faith called Judaism, probably derived from the
Sanskrit root, Yuj, ‘to unite’.
The Armenians from North Syria also came as traders to Cannon. Their script was adopted
as Kharosti in the Indus region by 600 B.C.
Around 1000 B.C., a section of the Hittaits took to navigation, progressed towards Italy and
settled down in the western province of Tuscany where they mined for different minerals and
formed states called the Etruscans. Their wall paintings reveal Indian dress of the Vedic period.
Another section settled down in the coastal region of Lebanon around port Ugrait. They built
excellent boats and ships out of Cedar wood found in the surrounding forest. They became a
naval power known as Phonecians who had their colonies all around the Mediterranean Sea.
They worshipped God Ball and Goddess Nina.
In Turkey, the Hittaites were succeeded around 1000 B.C. by the Freejeans from Bulgeria
who were expert farmers. Their King Midas, was famous for his golden touch. They worshipped
Goddess Amma and stone deities in temples discovered in excavation of their capital Konya. In
700 B.C., they were overpowered by the Lydeans from the South who worshipped Shivalinga or
fallous stones and placed them on their graves. They were destroyed by Iran around 550 B.C.
In Israel, a Hebrew state was organised around 1000 B.C. by King Saul and David
mentioned in the Bible. It established the Jewish religion on a firm footing. A temple at Jeruslem
became a centre of religious activities. They needed a script for recording their history and religion
and hence an attempt to create a phonetic script was made.
Earlier, it was shown how certain ideas and objects described in Sumerian language were
used to create a symbol for a definite phoneme.
David Diringer in his book, Alephabet and Hans Jenson in Sign, Symbol and Script have
identified the Sumerian and Hebrew words behind the phonetic symbols described below.
The letter ‘K’ for Kaf was formed from the shape of a monkey shown by a cross with a long
tail. It meant strong hands of a “kshatriya” or a royal authority like Kannan or a Kafir meaning
foreigner. In the Indus trade, it might have been used for keshar from Kashmir or female hands
wearing shell or bone bangles. The word Kaf has its origin in Sanskrit word Kapi, meaning a
monkey.
The letter ‘O’ Ayin has a long history. The Phonecians worshipped a male god, Ball and
goddess Naina. Hittait rock paintings at Hattusas and Bogazkoi show Goddess Naina riding a lion,
killing a demon and wearing a garland of human skulls. Her fearful eyes were picked up to denote
the letter ‘0’ Ayin pronounced as omicron in Greek. Ayin was her name in Sumerian most
probably borrowed from Sanskrit (1) Nayan-Nain-Ayan (2) to know –Gyan-Ghan Gh which was
dropped.
Subsequently, the Phonecians settled down in Higlaj/Singhlaj mountain, 200 miles west of
Karachi and their goddess, Ayin, called Hinglamba or Naina Devi, is being worshipped
throughout India. Therefore, symbol ‘0’ on’ the Indus seals must have indicated a homage to this
deity through the term ‘Om’.
The letter M from the word Mem has its origin in the Hebrew word, ‘Malik’, used by Jacobite
Christians to address their Roman landlords. It is formed by two adjoining hills indicated by the
Sanskrit word, Mahalaya, changed to Malaya-MalaqMalik. Asko Parpola treats it as a mountain. In
Indus trade parlance it might be indicating the landlord receiving or sending goods noted on the
seals.
The letter J from the word, Zajin, in Hebrew indicates a shovel or a celt or an axe. It was
derived from the Sanskrit root, Yudh, to fight and later it changed to Zuja-Zajin indicating armed
soldiers probably protecting a caravan from India to Sumer.
The letter N from the word Nun means a snake, a fish or an amphibian. The Sanskrit word
Nahusha also indicates the same meaning. Another word, NeeNayati, means a journey.
Therefore, it might be meaning a sea route instead of a land route.
The letter L from the word, lamed, has a long history. Lions had a permanent habitat in
Lebanon. It was a seat for the Goddess Naina. A pendant belonging to Prince Jerobam,
described in the Bible, has been found in the excavation. It shows a picture of a lion with a raised
tail, which was used to form the letter ‘L’. The word, lamed, means a whip or a goad or an
authority. The Sanskrit word ‘Al’ meaning divine mother with ‘Abhava’/fearlessness formed Leboy-
Lamed.
The letter P from the word 'pe' meaning a mouth is formed after the shape of a mouth or a
face Pe-pesh also means to be present in person. Its form is like U/u with a long arm. This shape
suggests the face of a horse. The best quality horses reared and sold by Iran formed an important
aspect of the Indus trade. So the Sanskrit word Aswa-Aspa-spapa is at the root of its formation.
The letter ‘R’ from the word, Resh, meaning a human head is depicted by drawing its actual
figure or letter ‘q’ in reverse, Dr. S. R. Rao suggests Sanskrit ‘Nru’-Naresh-Reesh as its basis.
The letter T tav presents the sign on life which is well expressed by the Sanskrit suffix tva
such as ‘Devatva’.
The letter W-Wav meaning a tent peg was a conjunction derived from Sanskrit Naro-Wa-
Kunjaro Wa. The letter S shin, meaning teeth is shown by two tusks of an elephant which formed
an important item of the Indus trade with summer. Probably, it is derived from the words Hastin-
stin-shin.
Thus by 1000 B.C. the Jewish scholars devised 22 symbols representing definite phonetic
sounds. They wanted to chronicle their history by using these letters, but could not do so because
all the letters were consonants and no word could be formed without a vowel. The defect is
inherited in modem Arabic specially devised for writing the Quran. Names such as, Babar,
Humayun, Akbar, appear in Arabic as BBR, HMN, and KBR. They can be properly pronounced
only after addition of vowels in the form of dots or Nukta at proper places. Similar difficulty was felt
in writing the Hebrew. However, the idea was picked up by the surrounding nations and they
started experimenting with the new Script.
The Hittaites added three vowels, A.E.U. to their picture script thus reducing their numbers.
The Phoenecian traders had to deal with several dialects for which they devised all the vowels
and by adding them to the new script successfully they used them for writing. They were the first
to make paper from papyrus reeds. Thus the 22 Hebrew letters formed foundation for all the
semetic scripts such as Greek, Latin and other European dialects.
However, in this process the original words and their Sanskrit source forming basis for these
letters were forgotten and their corrupt forms came into use everywhere, creating a problem of
spelling which is totally absent in Sanskrit and other vernaculars.

❖❖❖
Indus Seals and Vedic Culture -III

The Indus Seals and the sanskrit language, is the source of all Semitic scripts used by
languages in the western world but those scholars think otherwise.
One Internet file titled, Ancient Hebrew Alphabet, totally ignores the facts mentioned above,
and searches the origin of the Hebrew script in Egyptian Hieroglyphics, ignoring even the first
attempts of the Sumerian to reduce these pictures from 600 to 111, which were used in Cuneiform
script for 2000 years.
A brief review of further history from 600 B.C. would help in following the progress of Vedic
culture in the Middle East and in Europe.
Around 600 B.C., the barbaric nomads from South Russia, now known as Seythians, turned
east and conquered the region between Iran and Altai mountains in Central Asia from where they
obtained gold deposits.
This attack had a violent reaction in Iran which united and drove out the Scythians. After this
defeat, the Scythians were divided into three groups.
One group settled down near Peshawar forming Shakasthan described in the Puranas.
A second group stayed in the Altai mountains.
The third returned home and with additional forces penetrated deep into Europe upto
France and England.
After the Ice Age, Europe had vast empty lands which were occupied by these new settlers
who were called the Celts. The Celtic people established colonies from England to Central
Russia. Their huge cemeteries containing deep and wide graves studded with gold and other
articles of daily use have been excavated and studied.
Around 400 B.C., a section of the Celts turned south and settled down in Turkey on the
banks of the lake Askuza and became famous as Askenazi mentioned in the Bible (Genesis
10.3). They adopted the Greek culture and language along with the Jewish religion.
Earlier, around 600 B.C. Babylon had attacked and destroyed the Jewish state demolishing
its temple at Jerusalem and enslaving its clergies.
The Jews suffered this humiliation for about a century. Thereafter, King Cyrus of Iran
challenged and defeated the Babylonians, restored the Jewish state and temple at Jerusalem. He
used the Avestan language, a corrupt forme of Sanskrit, and Cuneiform script; for official use.
The Askenazi Jews learnt Avestan and wrote books in the Greek language narrating the
history of the Jews from the earliest times.
These books form part of the Old Testament.
After the death of Christ, the Jews clashed with the Roman authorities, had to abandon
Palestine around A.D. 100 and take refuge outside the Roman empire.
The Askenazi Jews returned to their homelands in Central Europe and took a leading part in
developing various countries. Their Yiddish language sourced the forming of modem German and
Russian. Its grammar based on the Avestan influence contained Dvi-wachan, a peculiar Sanskrit
form, used for two persons, appears in modern German and Russian.
This history, mostly from archaeology, was not known earlier and the Jews became a target
of hatred and humiliation all over Europe resulting in the holocaust during the Second World War.
Thereafter, they have shifted and settled down in America.

❖❖❖
Indus Seals and Vedic Culture — IV
The discussion so far has shown how the Sumerians and other nations from the Middle-
East had interacted with the Indians from the Indus Valley. Recent excavations at Bhirdana near
Hissar by Nagpur Branch of Archaeology Department has pushed back the date of the Harappan
culture beyond 5000 B.C. when potters’ wheel was not known and handmade pottery was used.
Subsequent wheel-turned pottery and seals similar to those from Harappa have been dated
to 2800 B.C. Thus, the cultural progress in the Indian subcontinent was co-extensive with Sumer,
Babylon and Egypt.
The Indus cities had well-planned houses, broad straight roads, bylanes, efficient drainage
system and cemeteries. The grave goods disclosed use of copper rings, mirrors, shell bangles,
necklace and several other objects of daily use showing their rich life.
The vast area from Mehergad to Delhi and Kashmir to Dlamabad near Nasik had several
cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Lothal having brick work with mud plaster. At Dholavira
dressed sand stone was used. This shows their knowledge of maths and geometry used for
building technique.
Such infrastructure gave rise to huge trade activity around 3000 B.C. with participation of
various nations in the Middle East where excavations have disclosed the remains of similar
flourishing cities with the knowledge of building science.
This vast trade needed efficient managers and accountants. Excavations at Susa in South
Iran show use of clay balls, bricks and pottery bearing numbers upto 10 formed by cutting lines,
cup marks or notches on wet clay. They used statite and sand stone seals for drawing symbols
which have travelled upto South Russia.
Thus, around 3000 B.C. there was an urge for writing and recording for which Indian script
would have proved useful. Most probably the language difference prohibited such use and the
Sumerians had to turn to Egyptian wall pictures for constructing their nail-headed script called
Cuneiform running into more than 600 forms of letters.
For using this script, they had to create a special class of scribes or clerks learning to write
after a prolonged study and then serve the king or landlord.
The system functioned well for a millennium. One inscription from Mari near Babylon shows
use of a Semetic language different from the Sumerian with Cuneiform script thus proving its
universal application. The symbols represented concept as well as sound and therefore it was
adopted in the Babylon empire after 2000 B.C. for recording important orders such as the code of
Harnmurabi. The script was further refined by reducing the number of letters from 600 to 111.
Around 550 B.C., King Cyrus of Iran extended his empire beyond the river Indus and
spreading upto Turkey and Egypt. They spoke Avestan language which was a corrupt form of
Sanskrit and therefore should have used its script. Still, they also used Cuneiform and Greek for
writing their epigraphs. This bilingual use gave a clue to decipher the Cuneiform and
reconstruction of history backward right upto 3000 B.C.
These facts raise some pertinent questions. (1) Whether the Sanskrit language had a script
before 3000 B.C., (2) If so, why the Sumerians in close contact with the Indus region did not use it
instead of the laborious process of inventing the Cureiform; (3) Was Sanskrit script difficult
enough so as to become unintelligible to foreigners. The Iranian empire lasted for 200 years, but
there is no evidence of use of a Sanskrit script either in India or in the Middle East.
The Brahmi script was formed around 600 B.C. From various inscriptions, it is confirmed
that it contained 11 letters with 16 forms borrowed from the Indus Seals. The Indus trade and use
of seals had stopped as early as 1700 B.C. Thereafter, these letters must have survived because
they were used as part of a script which was in use from 1700 B.C. The word ‘Akshara’ appears
at several places in the Vedas and Geeta.
In this pre-Brahmi script, the letters Ka, Cha/Chha/Ja, Ta, ta/ da, Na, Pa/Ba, Ma, Ra, La,
Va, Sa/Sha are the basic forms used as Surds in the Paninian table of phonetic arrangement of
consonants as Velars (Ka), Paletal (Cha), Retroflex (Ta), dental (ta), labials (Pa) and semivowels.
For each class, one symbol was used as a surd or P, letter changed to next only by adding a
marker such as,- 0. thus, K,Ko, K-, K-0, would mean K, Kh, G, Gh. To this arrangement were
added 12 vowels shown by strokes on the top or bottom of the letter.
With such economy, a full script was prepared for writing Sanskrit with 18 letters, 12 vowels
and three markers. These have been mentioned in the Vedic literature as 33 deities. This process
has been described in the earliest Tamil grammar Tholkappiam which mentions it as Agastyam
meaning the original Grantha script brought to South India by sage Agasthya.
In my published thesis titled ‘India Through the Ages’ I have shown how around 600 B.C.
the North Indians equipped with iron implements penetrated the Dandakaranya and established
colonies in the south upto Tamil Nadu. In spite of several excavations there is no proof for earlier
settlements. Therefore, we have to presume that the ancestors of all Tamilians resided in the
North before 600 B.C. This confirms the Agasthya legend.
The script mentioned in Tholk-appiam must have been used by the Tamilians while in the
North for writing Sanskrit before formation of Brahmi. The original script travelled with them to
South and in the process, the use of markers was lost and only first letter started expressing all
the consonants of a class. This disaster caused a wide gap beteween the written and spoken
word.
Original form of several Sanskrit words cannot be identified. Raja changed to Arasan, Surya
to Arya, Shri to Thiru, and Dharma to Arma. Today Tamil can be read only by those who know the
context. Therefore, abbreviation of a Person’s first name and father’s name cannot be written in
Tamil. They have to use English alphabets for this purpose. Still the script has stood the test of
time for last 2500 years. Therefore, we can conclude that it’s finer original variety must have
served the Sanslait language for an equal period upto the Vedic times.
The Sanskrit script loaded with markers must have been difficult to read and write and
therefore sparingly used. Like modern Tamil, it must have presented difficulty to foreigners who
did not know the language and therefore the Sumerians who easily picked up use of maths had to
turn to Egypt in search of a simpler script. This also explains the purpose behind creation of the
Indus Seals.
During this period, a pupil required 12 years at the teachers feet to study the Vedas. With
increased business activity, the traders required speedy and brief communication to overcome the
language barrier for which Sanskrit was not useful. Therefore they used seals which were
abbreviated forms of messages understood by both the parties. For others, the seals were
meaningless.
Even though, the latest excavation at Bhirdana by Nagpur Branch has disclosed a society
living there from 5000 B.C. it is only in the Harappan time that they have started using seals for
trading purpose. Their use stopped with the stoppage of trade around 1700 B.C. So it is futile to
search a language hidden in these seals though their symbols might haye been used in formation
of some letters. Segregation of script introduced a hiatus between two neighbouring cultures.
Vedic Yadnas could not cross the Indian border. Use of Cuneiform established a common cultural
bond in the Middle East.
The Egyptians had been worshipping several deities before 1500 B.C. These were
represented in zoomorphic form combining different animal and human figures depicted on the
pyramid walls. They believed that these forms would become alive under certain conditions.
Sheppaedine Jews who suffeed as slaves in Egypt had a great aversion towards worship of these
deities and constantly dispised it. Even then, the idol worship spread throughout the Middle East.
Ex cavations show temples for stone deities killing demons. Hittaites and Phoneclans
worshipped goddess Nanna. Babylon prayed before a Shivalinga style tapering stone. on the
Indian soil introduction of Brahmi gave a great fillip to the Sanskrit literature which progressed in
all directions creating great epics like Ramayan and Mahabharata.
Pyramid like Ziggurat were constructed only to be nearer the God even though the Jews
constantly criticised idol worship. Finally, Zartusta declared an all powerful, Omnipotent God
called Ahur Mazda who always guided benevolent deeds and a Saitan responsible for all evils.
The duo became a foundation for preaching of Christianity and Islam but both have been
unsuccessful in stopping the incessant wars in the Middle East.
On the Indian soil introduction of Brahmi gave a great fillip to the Sanskrit literature which
progressed in all directions creating great epics like Ramayan and Mahabharata. Buddha, Jaina
and Charvak freely preached atheism. Still Saitan was never successful in inducing evil deeds
and the land remained peaceful forever.
Thus, the Indus Seals have furnished great assistance in formation of phonetic letters. They
assisted in formation of a mother script in Cannon/Israel called Hebrew from which all Semetic
scripts were developed. They also helped in forming a phonetic classified script for Sanskrit and
later for Brahmi.
Thus, they represent a long span of history from 3000 B.C. to 600 B.C.
❖❖❖
The Hittaite and the Aryans
During the British rule in India the Western scholars came in contact with the Vedic literature
and were impressed by its depth of knowledge and perfect form. Some of them concluded that the
origin of such a fine culture must lie somewhere outside India in an ancient nation where the
original. people resided. They are called Aryans speaking a language called Indo-European and
spread subsequently to India and Europe.
This theory was based on the similarity for certain words for family relations in Sanskrit,
Greek and Latin. Words such as Bhrata Duhitr, Pitra, Matra from Sanskrit had their parallel in
Greek phater thuter, patre arid mater. The reason for this similarity was thought to be a common
Aryan homeland.
In 1906 excavatiorls at Bogazkoi in Turkey disclosed 10000 clay tablets. Letters were
impressed on soft wet clay bricks by pressing hard metal nails and left for drying. This was a nail
headed script called Cuneiform which was used in Babylon and other places from 2000 B.C. The
tablets found in Turkey told the story of a people called Hittaite often mentioned in Bible as
warriors who defeated the mighty Egyptian around 1500 B.C. and ruled the Middle east. Till then
the story from the Bible was supposed to be imaginery. Now the clay tablets confirmed its
contents. They also described a treaty between the Hittnites and its neighbour Mittani from north
Syria which started with a salutation to the Indian deities Indra, Waruna-, Mithra and Nasatya
showing their contact with the Vedic culture.
The western scholars quickly decided that the Hittaites must be the original Indo-European
speaking Aryans. The date of their migration to India was fixed around 1500 B.C. They were
supposed to be pastoral people who spoke Sanskrit and migrated with their cattles to India. The
Vedic scriptures were created only after coming to India after the
crucial date 1500 B.C. fixed as a beginning for all Vedic literature.
The theory collapsed when in 1922 Indus culture was discovered at Harappa, Mohenjodaro
and several other places and dated to 2500 B.C. The proponents for Aryan theory quickly
adjusted their stand by proposing a new theory which stated that the Dravideans were the original
occupants of the Indus valley. They were defeated by the invading Aryans and retired to south
India. Thus the Hittaites continued to hold the honour of original Indo-European Arya.
The fallacy continues till today and is preached through the permanent records like history
books such as Encyciopedia, Americana. Its oriental section edited by prof. Marey Emino states
the following imaginary ideas. “The Indo-Europeans appear to have been living around the
caspian sea. They might have been roaming through different places. Some of them might have
invaded the Indus valley around 2000 B.C. They might have defeated the Harappans and
probably enslaved them. The Harappans must be Dravidians who might have migrated to the
South”. Thus the whole section is based on imaginary tales and false logic. However further
excavations at Hattusas, Ugrait and other places gave a totally different story about these people.
Earlier it was explained how the Ice Age climate slowly changed permitting development of
coniferrous forests all over Europe and grasslands called Steppies around the Caspian sea by
6000 B.C. These grasslands were occupied by a people from the caucascious, mountain who led
a pastoral life moving from place to place in search of green pastures for their cattles. We know
full details of their life from the Greek author Hirodotus who lived around 450 B. C. He states
“These nomads called Scythian were illiterate barbarions, who did not even know farming. Each
warrier had to make atleast one kill in a year to retain his position. The skulls of the enemies were
used as drinking cups and their skins were tanned and used for cups and clothes. Slaves were
blinded before putting on different Jobs. There was no scope for civilized Way”. The Hittaites lived
a millenium before Hirodotus.
Around 2300 B.C. the Hittaites belolging to this barbaric world were attracted towards the
civilized life in Turkey and tried to settle in the North east beyond Taurus mountain arriving in
small batches. They became expert metallurgist and traded in different Metal articles. Slowly they
formed villages developed into towns and organised smaller states. By 1700 B.C. they created a
powerful kingdom equipped with iron wepons, superior chariots and ruled the sorroundings for
300 years. The whole area was developed with places trading centres, Landlords and rulers
assisted by writers keeping records on bricks.
These clerks first used Cuneiform script for writing but from 1600 B.C. their bricks show use
of a different phonetic script, with Harappan as its prototype.
Dr .S.R. Rao has elaborately shown how the Indus symbols were used in various epigraphs
and inscriptions found in the middle east even after the Indus trade stopped due to natural
calamities after 1600 B.C. The Harappans had segregated vowels from consonents which was
unknown till then in the Arabic world. The consonents were arranged phonetically in classes
such as dental, palatal, labial etc. by the ancesters of Panini. Further the Indus script has devised
the method of attaching vowels to the consonents by small strokes. The Hittaite could not follow
the latter provisions and arranged their consonents in phonetic groups for different vowels A
,E,O,U, I Instead of letters they used line drawing such as foot-pada-for to or Da, Zigzag, Sarpa-
R-a verticle line for R, four verticle lines for 'Me' sound of a 4 legged sheep. Nine Vetrticle lines
for Nava Patra-Pot for Pa Excavations at Bogazkoi

diclosod a book with Hittaite alphabates and sanskrit language for a treatise on horse
management. It used sanskrit terms Such as Eka Vartanam, Dwi Vartanam,Tri Vartanam,
prescribing the rounds a horse should run.
Inspite of such close contact with sanskrit the Hittaits never looked towards India or Iran.
They avoided the bitting cold of Europe and settled as farmers in the land of the Bible called
cannan. They were neither Indo-Furopeans nor Aryans. The mystery behind the parallel of
Sanskrit words, in the European languages still remained unsolved. Its probable solution is
Europeans in Gete suggested ahead.
The island of Crete in the Mediterranean sea proved a paradise for the Europeans bitten by
severe cold on the main land after the Ice age. People fron various places from south Europe
settled here from 6000 B.C. as village communities of farmers and hardsmen. The soil was
extremely fertile and in next 3000 years the people made an alround progress inventing weaving,
carpentary, Metal works and architecture. The villages grew into 90 townships with small
kingdoms, huge palatial buildings and naval yards with ships. Their life style is depicted in the
palace. Their ships traded with all ports on the Mediterranean bringing immense prosparity to their
motherland Inspite of this riches they never tried to dominate the surrounding nations and led a
peaceful life developing music, sports, dancing as revealed in the wall painting. They had neither
forts, nor defencive Walls or armour.
By 2000 B.C. the Cretans started writing With line drawings of virious familiar Subjects just
like the Hittaites, but without any classification. Subsequently they adopted the Harappan method
of classification, segregating vowels from consonents, grouping consonents phonetically and
arranging them as per vowels. Both these scripts have been named as linear A and B.
Linear A has not been read so far, linear B, has been decodified and helped in constructing
the story of the Cretans. It shows the use of verticle lines for numbers 1 to 9. A horizontal for No.
10, a circle for 100 and a star for 1000 clearly shows use of decimal system borowwed from the
Indus traders.
Rise of a Greek State.
Around 1500 B.C. the Greek city stale of Mycene south of Athence on a high plateau with
fortified walls and mountain ridges became the strongest nation conquring sorrounding regions.
Soon it reached the southern tip where it established its capital called Pylos which was also
a naval port. With a strong navy it also over powered the peace loving Cretans, established
colonies and took part in their prosperous trade. Their linear B script was adopted by Mycenean
Kings, landlords and traders for keeping their records on clay tablets which today disclose its
history. Use of Sanskrit words is clearly evident from these records one bi-lingual tablet showing
several pots describes a three legged pot as Ti-ri-po-de or Tripada in Sanskrit. Similarly, A for
eke., Do for dwi-, gue for four have been used.
The state Officers at Pylos have sanskrit names such as Wanay, meaning Wanarakshak,
Lavagata means supplier of grass lava as fodder, Talastha-telestai is tax officer, Damos-
Dhamastha is Landlord, hequetai Shakatai - Shakastha is a warrior companion. The most
popular sanskrit word Vrishala adjective of Lord Indra the showerer of rains appears on clay
tablets as guasileou the leader of a small group. Its Greek parallel Basileo appears on their coins
as BasileoBasilean. Thus in 1400 B.C. the earliest words of Greek language were formed with the
help of Sanskrit words borrowed from the Indus traders. Thereafter it took 400 years to grow in its
proper form and 1200 years later the modern art of writing was devised.
The empire created by the Myceneans and Cretens was totally perished in 1300 B.C. by
devastating earthquake in the nearly island of Thera, which threw up in the air its central part
leaving behind only a coastal ring surviving till today. The hot ash and debris fell on Crete and
Mycene crushing all habitatlon. The survivers had to abandon both the islands seeking refuge
with the surrounding nations but were rejected by all. Nobody knew their where abouts and they
became the legendary Sea-people. The Greek had yet to develope the art of writing. Linear B
script was buried deep in the crisis and the events were remembered only through mythical
stories. After 800 B.C. Homer’s Iiliad tells us that the Helen of Troy was the queen of Mycene.
Plato told Story of a great civilization Atlantis lost in the sea. Aristotle gives an example in logic
stating"a Creten says all Cretens are liers is a fallacy”.
However the hot ash covering the palaces on the island of crete and Mycene fired the clay
tablets properly so as to survive natural forces for 3000 years only to be excavated and read
around 1950. Reading them we know the real cause behind the destruction of the cretens and the
Sea people as refugees Recent excavation in Israel by Rhys Davids has confirmed that they
ultimately settled in Palestine before, 1000 B.C. , became famous as Philistines in 800 B.C.,
defeated by the Romans, in 300 B.C. and are ancesers of the modern Palestinean muslims in
Isreal.
In conclusion it may be stated that the Cretens in 1400 B.C. borrowed Sanskrit words and
formed a language now available as linear B in written form. It became the foundation of Greek
and other European languages after 1000 B.C.
The Indo-European language and Aryan invasion is a myth.

References
1) The Decipherment of the Indus ScriptDr S.R. Rao- Asia Pub. House, Bombay, 1981.
2) Vanished Civilizations- Reader Digest - 2002
3) Rhys Davis - B.B.C. Horizon - 1998.
4) Hittaite Hieroglyphs and Cretan linear B.

❖❖❖
The Celtic Invasion of Europe
Earlier it was shown how the Aryan invasion theory has distorted the ancient period of
Indian history. Now it is proposed to show how a section from the Barbarians of Cenoral Asia
became the founders of many nations in Europe.
The Hittaites in Anatolia (Turkey) supposed to be original Aryans were found to have been a
different people who settled in the Middle east around 1500 B.C. professing various occupations.
A section took to farning in Cannan in Isreal. Another group settled in Lebanon, started ship
building and seafaring. They became well known as phonecian traders who visited every port on
the Mediterranean and established colonies on its coast. They were first to develope a modern
phonetic script which was adopted by the Greek and other modern languages. They also
prepared paper from papyrus grass. A third section discovrered fertile land of Tuscany in Central
Italy and became famous as Etruscans having their own script and a peaceful life full of Art,
music, dance and drama disclosed in their wall paintings. They acted as bridge between the
Greek and the Romans. This show the progress of the Civilized World.
The Hittaites had avoided Europe due to its extreme cold climate but their brothers in
Central Asia were anxious for a settled life and chose the vast empty lands north of river Danube
and the Black sea which was a tribal area and forcibly occupied it around 1000 B.C. The Neolithic
hunter gatherer now wanted to settle down and created large estates managed by Slaves.
The new arrivals continued their barbaric traditions. Male were ashamed of tilling the land
and were always at war with neighbours. Polygamy and Polyondry both prevailed giving full
freedom to virgins. A type of cultural nudity prevailed. Men were always away at war leavinig
house care to female which made them aggressive and ferocious. Greek writer called them
Amazons.
The Greek Society in the neighbourhood south of river Danube was in formation Stage.
Small city states like Athens Sparta, Crete, and Mycene were being formed from 1 500 B.C.
Earlier Mycene had grown into an empire which was destroyed by volcanic erruptions. A common
Greek language was being formed with the help of Sanskrit words received through the Creten
traders.
The new settlers on the Danube used long rapier swords with cross handles and pointed
blades for which the Greek used Sanskrit word shool. Therefore the user of the weapon was
called shool-asth changed to CeIt. Thus celt a proper noun for the Celtic people on the Danube
became well known throughout Europe.
Around 800 B.C. another Wave of the Barbarians from Central Asia came and occupied the
open land in South Russia and Cremea . The Greek called these new People ‘Shakai' (strongmen
in skt.) or Scythians who became famous warriors. In 600 B.C. they conquerred northern Iran and
the surrounding region and ruled there for 50 years. This barbaric rule created a violent reaction
from the Persians who defeated them established famous Achamenian empire, which spread
from the Indus upto Egypt and Turkey. Their second King Darious recorded his achievements on
rock in Greek and old Cuineiform script used in the Middle East which helped in deciphering the
later script.
Darious became over ambitious and around 500 B.C. crossed the Basphorus and entered
the Greek terraine. The Greeks realised the imminent danger to their motherland united into a
single state and opposed the Persian King. Ignoring them he advanced further crossed the
Danube and attacked the Celtic homeland in Thrace (Bulgaria). He was completely beaten,
defeated and had to withdraw beyond the Bosphorus. This victory induced the Greek towards
cultural advancement while the Celts, advanced west to conquer Europe right upto England.
The weather in Central Europe was not conductive for human habitation. The glaciers had
receded leaving behind open land full of marshes which collected forest waste, grass and silt from
large areas so as to form a moss covered with turf in dry areas. These swamp called peat bogs,
spread all over northern hemishere. In Asia, Europe and North America. The celtic people already
used to hazardous climate in central Asia advanced West and established colonies all over
Europe. Their houses were built on hilltops, well fortified defence walls with farms and cattlesheds
on the sorrounding slopes which ended in the peat bogs at the lowest level. They imagined these
marshes as an abode of ghost and evil spirits for whom they regularly sacrificed their animals and
also their enemies. Nearly half of the marsh lands have been excavated during the last century for
burning as coal during which more than 2000 human bodies strangled and sacrificed by the Celtic
people after 600 B.C. have been found all over Europe. Their D.N.A. has been found to be
ruptured due to killer force.
In a parallel case in North America the Red Indians treated their dead in a different way.
They looked to these marshes as final abode of God and placed their dead with care on the floor
with side on position. Several such bodies have been recently recovered from lake windower in
Florida with D.N.A. intact after 8000 years.
The Celtic peopIe buried their dead in high places with great pomp and show. For a chief a
deep grave with two or three compartments were prepared in which aIl his articles of daily use,
horse wagon were inturned. Horses and servant: were ktilled and buried. several such graves
have been found all over Europe. Graves at Hallstant ' Austria' La Tene 'swis' Huen burg
'Germany' have been carefully studied.
The celtic people had mastered iron technology. Iron weapons, tools and equipments and
iron articles of daily use were prepared on a large scale. Those they exchanged with the civilized
world to obtain luxuries and comforts . But their main objective was loot and plunder. They had a
ferocious appearance with grown heirs and beards. They wore protective iron mail or jacket
covered with leather coats and long swords. Thus they would conduct regular raids crossing the
Alpa an plundering the Etruscans and Romans. Their women were equal partners in these raids.
Such conditions prevailed for 200 years. A section of the German celts established a colony in the
valley of river Po in north Italy.
Slowly the Greek nation grew stronger to build an empire of Alexander by 330 B.C. The
Romans also became stronger and by 280 B.C. they defeated a united force of the Etruscans and
gauls and dissolved their states.
The defeat by the Romans had a startling effect on the Celtic people. Their chiefs no longer
dared to loot and plunder and therefore retired to their homeland in Thrace. The remaining
continued their resistance in various ways. A Roman army crossing the Alps and entering
Germany, was distroyed in the marshes. Roman attempt to create a second capital near
Marsellis in France was resisted. In South England the Romans had to build the famous Hadrian
wall as a defence from the celts. However the Celts quickly understood the value of scholership.
There arose amongst them a class of philosophers, teachers, doctors and preachers who were
called The Druids. Origin of this term is Dru-vid which can be explained in Sanskrit as a tree of
knowledge. The Druids worshipped Oak tree and lived in its groves. Thus a warrior barbaric
society was completely transformed into an intellectual society which became the foundation of
many modern European nations.
References -
1) The vanished civilizations, Readers Digest,2002
2) National Geographic, Feb. 1978, March 1987.
3) India through the Ages, P. N. Phadke 2003.

❖❖❖
THE AMAZONS
Aishwarya Rai,* the famous actress is more popular for her blue eyes. Raj Kapoor and his
family are also famous for the same reason. Several artists from Bombay and the dream-girl from
Madras have a bluish tinge in their eyes. A blue eyed girl from Kurnool (Andhra) committed
suicide recently because her classmates teased her for her eye colour. Thus the blue eyes
appear to attract the attention everywhere. Recently a blue-eyed damsel from Afghan refugee
camp photographed by National Geographic was traced and identified after 17 years on the basis
of her eye colour. Human eye has 36 kinds of shades ranging from black to blue which are
inherited and therefore serve as a distinct identity.
In India the basic eye colour is black like a deer which matches well with our brown skin
colour. It is therefore expedient to study when and how red skin and blue eyes were introduced in
our subcontinent. Our history is replete with stories of foreign aggression. The story of the Aryans
invading the Harappans in 1600 B.C. was supposed to introduce people with blue eyes from
Central Asia but the idea has since been proved to he false and imaginery. There is no record of
any foreign intrusion for the next 1000 years.

The Shakas
V.V. Mirashi has shown that it was from 600 B.C., that foreigners called Shakas (Scythians),
Yavanas (Greeks). Palhavas. (Iran) and Huna (China) started invading India. They adopted Hindu
traditions and got absorbed in the local population. Their traces can be located by reference to the
people in their original country. However no such original country belonging to the Shaka tribe
could be identified. They buried their dead with pomp and show and placed within the grave,
several articles used by the dead person including his horse. Several such graves have been
traced in their above settlements and in India from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. The Shakas did not
know the art of writing and it was from the study of their grave goods and report by their
neighbours that their history could be reconstructed.3
Greek historian Herodotus (450 B.C.) reports their settlements in Crimea in South Russia.
Their women were expert horse riders, archers and fierce fighters. They even cut off their right
breast so as to handle the bow easily. So Herodotus called them Amazons. They managed their
fields and estates while the men were engaged in expeditions conquering the far east where they
settled subsequently. Their homes in Crimea were forgotten and the Amazon became a legendary
term used for a female ferocious force such as river Amazon in Brazil.
Tombs in Crimea
From 1990 American Universities opened several tombs in Crimea with a view to get more
information about the Scythians. The graves contained weapons, armours, horse bits most
probably belonging to the warriors. The skeletons were sent to laboratory for examination.
Surprisingly all of them were female which confirmed the legendary story about the warrior
women. The Amazons was a real class living before 2500 years, and Herodotus was right.4
The D.N.A. from the skeletons was compared with the females from the nomadic camps
spread upto Mongolia. It matched with the girls having blue eyes and red hairs like those of tennis
player Anna Karnekova. The whole excavation was reported on Discovery Channel (T.V.) in
episode titled ‘Warrior Women’ at 9 P.M. on 1-12-04. This research gave an important clue to the
identification of the Scythians settled in various countries and in India as early as 600 B.C. The
details of their journey have been narrated in my book titled ‘India through the Ages’.5
Thus a tinge of blue in the eyes of some Indians can now be definitely linked with the
Shakas and there is no scope for teasing anybody anymore. J. Nehru had rightly guessed his
ancesters to be Shakas in Discovery of India. (p. 80).
* Aishwarya Rai is Tulu-speaking, of the bunt caste, from Mangalore, Karnataka-Hon Ed.
References
1. Michel Domino, The Invasion that Never Was, Coimbatore, 2004, p. 11.
2. V.V. Mirashi, The Satavahanas and Western Kshatrapas, Bombay 1981, p. 153.
3. M.I. Artamonov, Treasures from the Scythian Tombs, London 1969, pp. 10-15.
4. Discovery Channel, “Warrior Women”. 1-12-2004.
5. P.N. Phadke, India through the Ages, p. 80.

❖❖❖
The Phonesians were Indians

Around one thousand B.C. there appeared on the coast of the Mediterranean sea a people
called phonecians who inhabited the fairest shores of Asia and Africa and moved freely visiting far
off places. They had settled in South Lebanon where cities like Tyre, Sedon and Byblos grew into
famous trade centres. Another colony named Carthage was founded by them in North Africa on
the northern tip of modern Tunisia. Besides these they had control over ports in Sicily, Sardinia,
Spain and Morocco. Carthage was the capital city of this empire. According to the Greek historian
Hirodotus these people were handsome, industrious hardworking and versatile in war and peace.
They had the most advanced knowledge in Astronomy, Navigation, Science and Arithmetic and
were first to invent the art of writing. They were expert arthitects and builders. Around 1000 B.C.
King Soloman of Israel had invited artisans from phonesia to build his capital at Jeruslem. The
phonesian cities had six storied mansions. They constructed several temples in Grece
Rome, and elsewhere with columns and statues covered with gold. The forest in Lebanon had
cedar trees. Its fine wood was exchanged with reed and papyrus which grew on the marshy banks
of river Nile. Paper was made from papyrus while the reed creeper was straightened and used for
constructing boats shaped like the crescent moon.
In the ancient world navigation was restricted to the sea shores and nobody dared to face
the high seas with their fragile boats made from wooden planks. Use of iron was still unknown.
The Phonesians were the first People to ride the high seas with their special reed boats. They
could even cross the straight of Gibralter and enter the unexplored region of the Atlantic ocean.
They had established colonies in the Canary island and the western coast of Africa. Such an
adventure was possible only with the assistance of boats made of reed creepers. On heating the
twigs it became straight oozing out an oily substance which spread over its surface as a
protecting layer. The straightened material was tied in bundles to form a cresent shaped boat.
This shape sustained all attacks from high tides, waves and riders allowing water to splash inside
through its rifts thus breaking its force in the process. They were in use before the Christian era
and were replaced by wooden boats only when use of iron nails became common.
The Faroh dynasty ruled Egypt from 3000 B.C. to 600 B.C. They constructed several
pyramids which depicted use of reed boats. Around 1500 B.C. during the reign of queen Hath-
Shape-Suit a canal was dug connecting river Nile with the Red Sea. It was repaired by the last
Faroh king who entrus- ted a Phonesian fleet with the job of exploring the African continent. They
went around its southern tip and arrived in Morroco after three years. This venture put to test the
Phonesion skill in navigation which was appriciated by the Iranian King Darius who conquered
Egypt in 520 B.C. In 500 B.C. the Phonesians again launched an expedition under the leadership
of Hanno with 30 ships and 30000 civilians to settle in new colonies. They started from Gibralter
and established colonies on the Atlantic coast of western Africa. These areas still carry a mixture
of black and white population in such places as Canary Island, Mogador bay, Saki and river
Lukas. There are remains of pyramids, sun temples and Naval docks for which huge stones have
been properly cut in right angles, dressed and used in construction showing high skill of the
Phonesion artisons, and masons. During this journey they established a close contact with the
African tribes from whom they acquired trade articles such as tusks of Hippo and elephants,
animal skins and birds of different types. Thus they lived peacefully till the rise of Alexander. After
Phonesions nobody dared to go round Africa for 2000 years until Wasco-Da-gama in 1498 A.D.
They lived peacefully under Babyloanian, Egyptian and Persian empires. Alexander’s ambition
was to conquer the Persians and as his first step he chose their ally as his first pray. The city of
Tyre located in a sea-fort, was encircled and seized. Phonecian fleet was defeated. Persian and
Egyptian empires were destroyed and the Phonecians were left friendless on the Mediterranean.
Their trade interests constantly clashed with the Greeks and Romans and as a result there were
several wars called Punic Wars from 330 B.C. to 150 B.C.
In 270 B.C. the Roman general Regulas tried to land in Tunisia and attack Carthage but he
was miserably defeated. In 215 B.C. the Carthegian general Hannibal proved more than a match
for the Romans. He landed in Spain, crossed the Alps mountain and invaded Rome which was an
easy pray. However the Romans chose general fabious who played different tactics. He induced a
rising in Spain affecting supply line of Hannibal but avoided a direct battle. After 10 years
Hannibal was exhausted and he retired to Carthage. In 150 B.C. the Romans became much
more powerful on land and sea. They attacked and destroyed Carthage completely thus ending
an empire ruling on the Mediterranean sea for a Millenium. It is a matter of great surprise that the
original home and source of such an enterprising people as Phonesians is not yet known to the
history. Here an attempt is made to show that they belonged to the Indian Sub-continent.
The term Phonesian and Punic wars has its root’s in the Latin word Punic which is
Phonetically similar to the Sanskrit word Pani. Panini, the famous grarmarian explains this word
as ‘Panic Vanibhyah’ meaning thereby that it refers a people engaged in trade. The name Panini
itself appears to suggest such Punic origin.
The Egyptians, Harappans and Babyloanians had developed, Pictographic, ideographic and
Hieroglyphic methods of writing which fell into disuse by 1000 B.C. Thereafter the Phonesians
were the first to develop a written script. It consisted of 22 consonants and no vowels. At the
same time Brahmi was developed in India which contained consonants as well as vowels. A.H
Dani has shown that eleven letters from these two scripts match each other which shows a close
contact betwwen their users.
The Greek authors have left behind a detailed report of Alexander’s invasion of lndia.
Arrian states that after his battle with Porus, he decided to return by ship through river Indus for
which he chose the Phonesian sailors. Anothers writer Aristobulus informs about the presence of
Phonesian traders in Sindha engaged in collecting articles for trade such as Myrrah, Nard and
other spices.
From Sindha the Greek army started for Babyloan but were lost in the desert. Arrian states
that the Phonesians found out the proper direction after locating the star combination called Ursa
Minor. This information discloses an astronomical factor used in ancient navigation when use of
compass was not known.
In ancient times the direction on high seas or in deserts was decided by observing star.
Now it is well known that the earths North-South axis makes an angle of 23 ½ 0 with the real north
direction of the solar system. This tittted axis rotates around the real North in a circle completing
one rotation in a span of 26000 years. During the process if any star falls on the direct line of N.S.
axis it is termed as a pole star. From 3000 B.C. a star called Thuban occupied such a position and
it was called pole star by the Egyptians and Dhruva by the Vedic people. It remained in this
position till 1300 B.C. and then shifted away. Thereafter the Indians continued to locate the North
by observing Ursa minor or lesser bear which was a star combination around the original pole star
Thuban and therefore gave approximately correct direction. Use of this method by Phonesians
shows that they belonged to the Indian tradition. Arrian informs that the other nations used
another star combination called Ursa Major or the great bear or Saptarishi which he complains
was not visible while going to Ceylone.
Strabo has described the trade route used by the Phonesians. They picked up articles from
the Indian ports and travelled through the Red Sea upto the port Luse-come near Mecca and from
there reached by land to a trade Junction Petra and thence to Phonesia. The canal connecting
river Nile and Red Sea carried these goods to Alexandria and Europe.
Use of crescent shaped reed boats was a Phonesian speciality. Such boats were used in
ancient times by the Egyptians on river Nile. They have been depicted on the Pyramids. Similar
pictures have been carved on stone at Nineveh in Babylone. The fact that these boats have been
in use in India has been noted by the famous Greek author Erastothenes who was a librarian at
Alexandria around 270 B.C. He states that the reed boats in India required twenty days to travel
from the mouth of the Ganges upto the ports in Ceylone. Even today reed is amply available in
Assam and other parts of the country but use of reed boats has not been mentioned anywhere in
the Indian literature. Therefore it is possible that Erastothenes was referring to the Phonesian
traders on the Ganges. Pictures of similar boats have been carved on the Buddhist stupa at
Borobodur in Indonesia and in South India which suggests that the Phonesian traders might have
been leaders in exploring the south-east Asian region upto the Polynasian Islands.
Dr. Barry fell has produced more evidence about the Phonesian presence in S.E. Asia. He
has elaborated the similarity between several plants and animals in the Polynasian islands and
the Indian sub-continent. The Dingo dog in Australia is an Indian specie. He has further
discovered writings and symbols carved on several rocks and caves in these islands with letters
similar to the Punic script written on tombs in Tunisia and other places. All these facts show that
the Phonesians belonged to the Indian Sub-continent. K.R. Malkani holds them to be ancestors of
modern Sindhi people. Their goddess Hinglaj, a synonym for Sanskrit Singhala meaning rider on
a lion, is being worshipped at several places in Western India such as Kuda near Chiplun,
Saptasringi near Nasik, Gadhinglaj near Kolhapur, Hingoli near Nanded and Hinglajgad in M. P.
The carving at Mahabalipuram also shows a goddess riding a lion. These facts show presence of
Phonesian traders in Satavahana regime, and they belonged to this land.

References
1) Thor Heyerdahl, The RA Expeditions, Unwin Ltd. London 1971.
2) R.C. Mujumdar The classical accounts of India,Firma KLM Calcutta 1981
3) William Smith History of Rome, London 1868.
4) J. B. Bury History of Greece Macmillion and Co. London 1905
5) Niranjan Ghate .Article, Tarun Bharat Dt.1.11.2000

❖❖❖
SHAKADWEEPA AND RAJASTHAN
The Puranas constitute an important part of the Indian mythology. The art of writing was
discovered around 500 B.C. and various stories prevailing in oral tradition were reduced to writing.
The 18 Puranas with more than 4 lakh stanzas were compiled between A.D. 200 to 500 with the
main purpose of spreading religion and virtue amongst the masses. A chapter was always
reserved for describing history and geography of the concerned period. Historians like F.E.
Pargitter have used this information for constructing contemporary history. Mother earth was
always considered to be divided into seven regions called dveepas. Historians like Rajwade and
Wilford have tried to locate these regions outside India but the description of Chaturvarnya therein
precludes such a possibility and they have to be searched in the Indian sub-continent.
One such region called Jambudveepa described in Barhmanda Purana can be related to
Jammu Kashmir and the Himalyan ranges. Another region Pushkaradveepa must have been
located around Ajmer. Akshar-Samudra is stated to be seperating Pushkar from the
Shakadveepa. This information befits modern Sambar lake forming southern boundary of
Shakadveepa. It is clarified by Greek author Diodorus that Shaka is synonymous with Scythia.
Rajasthan is a recent term and the region was known in ancient times by different names such as
Matsyadesh around Alwar, Souwirdesh beyond Jaisalmir and Pushkar near Ajmer.
There is an independent archaeological proof of the presence of Scythians in the central
part of Rajasthan. There are Megalithic stone circles at Dausa near Jaipur and Khera near
Fatehpur Sikri dated around 600 B.C. It was the Scythian practice to bury their dead in graves
alongwith their articles of daily use and cover it with huge stone circles. Several such circles have
been located in Nagpur region of Maharashtra. Their study shows that these settlers were
Scythians most probably from Rajasthan progressing south from 600 B.C. to 300 B.C. Thereafter
they proceeded torwards south upto Kerala.
Puranas further state that the people in Shakadveepa were divided into four classes called
Magas, Mashaakas, Manasas and Mandakas which are synonyms for Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras respectively. Therefore it can be presumed that the Scythians were
completely absorbed in the Hindu tradition. The Magas were Sun worshippers. Their Sun temples
are being worshipped even today at Jaisalmir, Kumbhalgarh, Osiyan and Bairat. Therefore it can
be concluded that central Rajasthan from Jaisalmir to Fatehpur Sikri was occupied by the
Scythians around 300 B.C. The fourth class among them allotted to Shudra Varna called
Mandaka changed to MindaMina-Meena form, an important member of modern Scheduled Tribes
in Rajasthan. The term Meena with suffix Nagara was used by the Greek authors to mention a city
called Minnagara ie. the city of the Meenas which was an important metropolis in ancient Scythia.
Scholars tried to search such a city along the Indus river, but have failed to locate it so far.
However it was over-looked that the trade from Dwarka in ancient times was carried via Jaisalmir
and Bikaner to the North-West India. Modern Nagaur an ancient city in this region belonging to
the Meena tribe was mentioned by the Greek authors as Minnagara.
Greek authors Periplus (A.D. 80) and Ptolemy (AD 130) have mentioned Minnagara as an
important trade centre of Scythia. Periplus in his report on the Erithrean sea mentions in para. 38
that the Scythia was ruled by the Parthian (Iran) princess who constantly fought amongst
themselves. In para 41, he states that Barygaza (Bharuch) was controlled by welknown king
Nahapanha who was a Shaka ruler with the capital Minnagara. Its hinterland was called Abhiria
(Gujarath) which borders Scythia i.e. Rajasthan with Minnagara (Nagaur) as its capital city. Next
in para. 48 Periplus states that the trade route from Kabul-Peshawar in the North west passes to
Ujjain via adjacent Scythia. From Ujjain the goods were carried to Bharuch through the river
Narmada.
The account by Peripuls is corroborated by Ptolemy in his report of Indian cities and rivers.
In para. 17 of his Geography, Minnagara is mentioned after river Dasarena near Ujjain. Both
these cities appear to represent the region under their control. Thus it is clear that the
Shakadveepa of the puranas was Scythia described by the Greek authors with Minnagara or
modern Nagaur as its capital city.
The Maga brahmins shifted to Gujarath where they created Sun temples at Vadodara and
Modhera. The Nagar Brahmins amongst modern Gujarath appear to have a link with Minnagara.
The Meenas, though Shudras improved their living conditions and aquired princely status. They
were rulers at Pushkar Nagaur, Amber, Dausa and other places till A.D. 1000. The Mashakas or
Mahashakas / Kshatriyas / Kshatrapas became well known as Shaktawat / Shekhawat and ruled
around Shakara / Sikkar.
The Meenas were overpowered by the Kachhawaha Rajputs who occupied the fertile
eastern parts of Rajasthan. The arid conditions around Nagaur reduced them to beggary. Some
took to robbery. Others lived on petty jobs like watchmen, guards and caretakers. Slowly they
settled as farmers in the eastern part and have been declared as Scheduled Tribe. Many have
acquried higher posts in government due to reservations. The Meenas have a beautiful red
complexion, straight nose and blue eyes. Similar tribes called Laman, Rajput, Kanzar, Pardhis
and many others have travelled south and settled in Maharashtra and other places. They present
an useful material for social study.

Reference
1. Our Vedas & Puranas (Marathi), Parasad Prakashan, Pune 1984.
2. The Classical Accounts of India, R.C. Mujumdar, Firma KLM, Calcutta 1981.
3. The Satavahanas and the Western Kshatrapas, V.V. Mirashi, Maharashtra State Board,
Bombay 1981.
4. India and the Roman Empire, H.G. Rawlinson.
5. India Through the Ages. An Archaeo Probe. P. N. Phadke, Nagpur 2003.

❖❖❖
ASSAKA JANAPADA
The Indian Archaeology department conducted a series of excavations from 1988 to 1992 in
a fort called Adam situated on the banks of river Wainaganga in Nagpur district of Maharashtra.
This river originates in a branch of Satpura range (Mahadeo hills) near Lakhanadaun city in
Madhya Pradesh just south of the river Narmada. It flows straight in a southernly direction through
the districts of Balaghat, Nagpur, Bhandara. Chanda and meets river Godavari near
Ramagundam in Andhra Pradesh. In ancient times it provided the main highway linking north
India with its southern parts.

The excavation has disclosed large number of artifacts containing rich information about the
pre-Ashokan period which is under scrutiny. One of the important finds in this discovery is a
sealing carrying a legend ‘Assaka Janapada’ which shows that Adam was either a seat or part or
a neighbour of a Janapada named Assaka (Ashmaka). It is proposed to discuss here the impact
of this new information on the history of the Deccan as a whole and Vidarbha in particular.
The name Asmaka goes back to the pre-Budha period when it was mentioned in a list of 16
Janapadas which existed in India around 700 B.C. It was the only state to be so mentioned from
south India. Next it is mentioned in a story from Suttanipata, in which a brahmin named Bawari
from Asmaka country on the banks of Godavari met Buddha for clarification of certain doubts and
was impressed by his personality so much that he embraced the new sect. This event might have
taken place around, 500 B.C. Asmaka is also mentioned in ‘Aranyaparva’ of Mahabharat along
with other Janapadas existing in western India. These are Goparastra, Mallarastra, Pandurastra,
Rupavahita, Asmaka, Vidharbha and Asika. The last two are stated to be contiguous with Anupa
(Malwa) on the river Narmada in the north.
Around 200 B.C. the Satavahanas overpowered all these states and created their empire in
southern India. Their deeds have been noted in their inscriptions in the caves at Junnar and Nasik
in Western India. Relying on the above information, historians had placed Asika in Jalgaon
(Khandesh) district and Asmaka in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra.
Around 150 B.C. there arose in Orissa (Kalinga) a king named Kharawela who was bold
enough to challenge the Satavahanas. His achievements have been recorded in Hathigumpha
inscriptions. It states that he sent his armies towards west in total disregard of the Satavahana
power. When it reached Kanha-bena it struck terror in the hearts of the people of Asiknagar. For a
long time Kanhabena was presumed to be river Krishna and attempts were made to interpret the
statement accordingly. Mirashi however rejected this reading and declared it to be the confluence
of river Kanhan and Wainaganga near Bhandara with valid support. The similarity in their names
shows that Asikanagara should have been a part of Asika (Rishika) Janapada. Therefore most
probably this Janapada must have been located on river Wainaganga. This fact further
necessitates a rethinking of location of Asmaka Janapada which was neighbour of Asika. Since
both these territories were contiguous with Vidarbha, fixing its position is of utmost importance for
our purpose.
Writers have generally adopted a view that the state of Vidarbha belongs to the Vedic Age,
mainly because the conversation between sage Agasti and his wife Lopamudra as recorded in
Rigveda (1-179-4), and Mahabharata in ‘Aranyaparva’ which states that Lopamudra was a
princess from Vidarbha. It is however necessary to examine the latter comment with reference the
origin and expansion of the Epic. It is well known that eventhough the great Bharata war took
place as early as 3101 B.C. the Epic depicting its story grew till 200 B.C. when it assumed its final
form. Several stories were added at the time of its finalisation. Lopamudra belongs to one such
narration. It has no link with the Vedic Age mainly because no such territory from the south has
been mentioned in the Vedic text. The name Vidarbha does not even occur in the list of 16
Janapadas around 700 B.C. Whereas its neighbour Asmaka is mentioned there in. In one of the
Jatakas it is stated to be a part of Chedi Janapada located on the southern bank of river Ganga.
Therefore it appears that Vidarbha was formed subsequently by these people.
According to another story in Mahabharata, Rukmini was the princess of Vidarbha, whose
capital was Kundinipur. Excavations have confirmed the antiquity of this place now called
Kaudinyapur. River Payosni (Purna) and a city Bhojakat have also been mentioned therein. From
these facts it may be concluded that the Vidarbha janapada coinciding .with present Amaravati
district of Maharastra existed around 200 B.C. These facts are further corroborated by Kalidasa’s
famous drama named Malavikagnimitra. This drama depicts events that happened around 150
B.C. There happens to be a dispute between Yadnasena and Madhavasena about the succession
to the throne of Vidarbha. Agnimitra, King of Vidisha interfears on behalf of Madhavasena and
divides the territory, treating river Wardha as the main line of partition. Yadnasena is addressed
as Vaidarbha in the very first act of the drama. Naturally his territory becomes known as Vidarbha
with river Wardha as its eastern border around 150 B. C.
A further clue for the placement of Asmaka Janapada is available in Panini’s Astadhyayi
while describing the Geographical position of various Janapadas it states the following couplet. (4-
1-148/173). Dantapuram kalinganam, Assakanam cha Potanam.
Use of plural form of ‘Assaka’ shows that it relates to the Assaka / Asmaka people. The term
Potanam is a synonym of the Prakrit term Petenikas used in Ashokas rock edict no.5 at Girnar. Its
original Sanskrit form is Pratisthana mentioned in Kathasaritsagara containing the story of Prakrit
grammarian and poet Wararuchi alias Gundadhya. Therein Gunadhya’s birthplace is stated to be
a city named Supratisthita which was a district headquarter (Ahara) in a larger territorial division
called Pratisthana. The place Supratisthitha has been mentioned in a copper plate grant of
Prabhavati Gupta a ruling queen of the Wakataka Dynasty around A.D.400. Mirashi has shown its
place to be in Hinganghat Tehasil of Wardha district. Thus it is clear that the Potanam country of
the Asmaka people lay to the south of Nagpur along the river Wainganga and extended upto the
banks of river Godavari.
Having thus fixed the position of Vidarbha it is easy to locate Asmaka in this new alignment.
Kharavela struck again after a lapse of two years, when he was confronted by the Bhojakas from
Vidarbha and Rathikas from Asmaka Janapada. It was natural for the people of Vidarbha to resist
the attack on their eastern border. However if it is presumed that the Asmakas belonged to the
district of Ahmednagar, then it is unimaginable that they would have travelled a distance of 400
miles in those days towards east only to be destroyed by a strong army. The only reason is their
love for motherland which must have been lying on the banks of Wainaganga.
The discussion so far clearly shows that the position of Asik and Asmaka Janapadas on the
western frontiers of Vidarbha as imagined by historians so far is untenable. The discrepency
should have been discovered by Mirashi when he proved that Kanhabena was Wainaganga. Now
with the discovery of a sealing of ‘Asmaka Janapada’ there is a conclusive proof that the state
existed on the eastern frontiers of Vidarbha. Asika Janapada contiguous with Anupdesh and
linked with Kanhabena can be placed only in Nagpur district. Therefore Asmaka Janapada must
have spread through the districts of Bhandara and Chanda upto the banks of river Godavari. It
also explains the story of Bawari in Suttanipata. Thus a small sealing has thrown a search light to
locate some facts of history.

References
I. Amarendra Nath, ‘Adam’, New Trends in Indian art and Archaeology, Editor -
B.U.Nayak and N.C. Ghosh, Delhi 1992, p.69-79.
2. V.V. Mirashi, The Satvahanas and the Western Kshatrapas, Maharashtra State
Board, Mumbai 1981.
3. Shobhana Gokhale, Purahhilekhavidya, (Marathi), Continental Prakashan Pune,
1975.
4. C.V. Vaidya, Mahabharat, Part - B (Marathi) Warada Books, Pune, 1982.

❖❖❖
DRAMATIST BHASA AND HIS TIMES
Bhasa, the great Sanskrit poet and dramatist, was a contemporary of Buddha and
Mahavira. His works contain a representative depiction of the surrounding social customs,
manners, and original stories which subsequently developed into great epics and puranas. Here it
is proposed to discuss how Bhasa narrates through his dramas the conditions of various social
stratas.
Chronology
The date of Bhasa has much been debated. Poet Kalidasa a contemporary of King
Agnimitra of Vidisha lived around 150 B.C. and he praises Bhasa as a great poet who lived long-
long ago. One of Bhasa’s poem has been quoted in Kautalya’s Arthashastra dated around 300
B.C. Bhasa’s original drama Charudatta was subsequently copied and expanded by Shodraka
into his famous drama Mrcchhakatika. The political situation in the expanded portion of this drama
narrates how King Palaka of Ujjaini was forcibly removed by the people and replaced by a cowboy
named King Aryaka. This event took place around 450 B.C. These facts confirm that Bhasa must
have lived before 450 B.C. Further, in one of his dramas he mentions King Mahasena, father of
King Palaka, who ruled around 500 B.C. Therefore, it can be concluded that the great poet was a
contemporary of great Sanskrit scholar Panini. Perhaps this is the reason behind his use of
archaic Sanskrit not confirming to the Paninian grammar. His ridicule of Jaina and Bauddha
monks shows a period of beginning of these sects on the Indian scene.

A Great Discovery
With the exception of a single drama titled Swapnavasavadatta all dramas by Bhasa had
completely disappeared from the Indian literary scene till 1913 when handwritten copies of 13
plays were found by T. Ganapati Shastri in the palace library at Thiruvanantapuram. Swapna
Vasavadatta was one of these 13 dramas. It was praised as Bhasa’s masterpiece by several
authors from all over India before A.D. 1000. Thereafter, they disappeared totally from the literary
scene due to discouraging political situation. This great discovery of the century placed Bhasa
amongst the great authors of the Sanskrit world. Of these 13 plays, 6 relate to Mahabharata, 2 to
Ramayana, 2 for Prince Udayana, one Lord Krsna, and 2 are based on folklore.
The Art of Writing
Scholars have discussed at length how Bhasa has changed the original stories from the
epics to suit his purpose. Here, one must understand the chronology of creation of these
masterpieces. The art of writing was invented around 500 B.C. simultaneously in several
countries. The Phonecians, the Armenians, the Greek and Latin developed independent scripts
alongwith other nations. In India, Panini supplied a phonetic base to the Brahmi and Kharosti
scripts in which Asoka’s epigraphs arc written around 250 B.C. Thereafter, actual writing down of
various epics and puranas based on stories already in circulation started. This material was not
available to Bhasa. His dramas are based on stories prevailing in his time. Therefore, it is futile to
discuss how much Bhasa has deviated from the original script. It should be vice versa.
Idol Worship
By 500 B.C. Visnu as the supreme God was well established together with his various
incarnations such as Rama and Krsna, and other forms of divinity such as Siva, Skanda, Devi
Katyayani, Ganesa, and even Ardhanari Nateswara form of Siva Parvati. Though a devout
worshiper of Visnu, Bhasa also praised Siva and Skanda. The existence of temple worship,
installing idols and their daily routine worship is also revealed from Bhasa's works. In addition,
people believed supernatural powers of Vidyadharas, Gandharvas, and Yaksas. Performance of
sraddha and offering tarpana was in vogue. These divine powers are fully reflected in Bhasa’s
plays such as Balacharita describing Lord Krsna’s life from his birth till the death of Kaunsa, and
Ramayana depicted in two dramas Pratima and Abhiseka telling the story from Rama’s
coronation. They are full of miracles performed by the heroes. These facts confirm that idol
worship started much earlier from the days of Buddha and not after Mahayana sect started
worshipping his images in 100 A.D.

Temples
In Pratima Nataka Dasaratha proposes Rama’s coronation. The proposal is resisted by
Kaikai, and Rama, Laksmana and Sita proceed to forest for vanavasa. Dasharatha dies and
thereafter, Bharata returns from his uncle’s place. While halting outside Ayodhya he comes
across a temple like structure containing four stone statues. Presuming it to be a temple he
proceeds to offer his worship when the guard tells him that it is a memorial for the dead and the
4th statue is of Dasaratha. This shocking event establishes that carving of stone statues and
temple worship prevailed in Buddha’s life time. Recently, a golden image of Kartikeya belonging
to this period has been discovered in an excavation near Lucknow. (May, 2000). Such statues in
stone have been carved in caves in Western Maharashtra by the founders of Satavahana dynasty
around 200 B.C.

Ramayana Revised
While in exile Ramacandra desired to perform the first sraddha of his father for which he
seeks advice. Laksamana is already out of place. The drama Pratima states that Ravana
appeared on the scence disguised as a priest and suggested that the flesh of a Himalayan golden
dear would be the best offer at the shraddha ceremony. When Rama went out for the hunt,
Ravana abducted Sita and went to Lanka. This story shows that the famous Laksmanarekha and
Sita expressing doubt over his character are totally absent. The exile period abruptly ended after
one year. The sraddha ceremony introduced by Baudhayana around 700 B.C. was cleverly used
by Bhasa to fabricate his story.

The story of Ramayana as it stands today tells us that Rama spent 13 years of his exile in
the region from Citrakuta to Gaya and thereafter, they proceeded to ‘Agastya Ashram’ at
Pancavati near Nashik, from where Sita’s abduction took place. Bhasa does not appear to know
this part of the story. His dramas do not show any knowledge about the Deccan. In fact, his world
is restricted to the North of the Vindhya mountain for which he uses a beautiful phrase ‘Himavat
Vindhya kundalam’.
Class and Clans
It is from the dramas based on the folk-tales which show, contemporary religious and social
conditions. In Carudatta, the hero a brahmin by birth, a caravan leader by profession endears
Vasantsena engaged in flesh trade with the approval of his wife. It shows that a minimum social
differential prevailed in those days and even ‘sex workers’ could attain respectable position in the
Hindu society. Vasantasena’s maid servant is also shown to have attained social status through
marriage with her lover.
Another play titled Avimaraka shows that King Kuntibhoja from Chambal valley is searching
a suitable match for his daughter Kurangi for which he has approached King of Kasi and King of
Sindhu-Sauvira with Rauruk as its capital. He comes across Avimaraka a princely young boy
apparently a suitable match for his daughter. But he learns that the boy belongs to Candala clan
and therefore, sets aside this thought. However, his daughter Kurangi falls in love and invites him
secretly to her palace, and a Romeo-Juliet type drama evolves. This invitation by Kurangi shows
that the taboo of untouchability was not so severe in Bhasa’s time and Candalas who were
managers of cemeteries could freely mix in the society. Another play Balacarita shows a group of
Candala dancing girls on the stage which in fact confirms this conclusion. Apastambha
Dharmasutra had permitted all castes along with pious sudra’s to dine together.
Communal Harmony
Subsequently, the people from the Sindhu-Sauvira and the Magadha were declared as
outside the Aryan fold, most probably because the Sindh region was conquered by the Iranian
empire and Buddhism spread in Magadha. In Mahabarata edition of 200 B.C., Karna from
Magadha and Salya from Sindhu freely abuse each other’s people and their customs, but in
Bhdsa’a plays marriages were freely arranged amongst people from these regions. This shows
that communal harmony prevailed throughout North India in the days of Buddha and Mahavira
around 500 B.C.
The legendary story of Vastraja Udayan popularised by Hitopadesa, a Prakrit compilation of
stories, forms the basis of two dramas titled Pratigyna Yougandharayana and Swapna
-Vasavadatta. The opening couplet of the former play praises Kartikeya which shows the antiquity
of his worship. This drama narrates how minister Yougandharayana successfully arranged the
marriage of Udayan, the King of Kaushambi, with Vasavadatta, a princess from Ujjaini. Her father
King Mahasena ruled around 500 B.C. Subsequently, Udayana is overpowered by his neighbour
and with a view to regain his lost territory the minister proposes a second union with Padmavati, a
princess form Magadha. This enables Udayana to reconquer his lost kingdom. Mention of
Nagavana, Venuvana, Rajgrha, and Sramanakas suggest a period around 500 B.C.
The Bharata War
The maximum deviation in stories appears in Bhasa’s dramas based on Bharata War. The
war took place around 3 101 B.C. Vyasa narrated its story in 8000 verses which was expanded by
Vaisampayana to 25,000 verses. As the art of writing was not known the whole material was
committed to memory by several bards called Sauties who expanded it to one lack stanzas and
reduced it to writing around 200 B.C. Therefore, Bhasa’s plays give a glimpse of the original form
of stories from which Mahabharata was subsequently created. In Dutavakya, Lord Krsna makes a
last attempt to avoid the Bharata War by personally appearing in Kaurava’s camp. He is insulted
by Duryodhana who calls the Yadavas an inferior race. A scene on the wall shows Draupadi’s
insult by Dussasan. Duryodhana rejects the offer and tries to arrest Krsna when he discloses his
omnipotent power called Viswarupa. His weapons also appear in human form. No such event
occurs in the Mahabharata.
The drama Madhyama Vyayoga is designed to show the surprise meeting of Bhima with
Ghatotkaca, his son by demon Hidimba. Ghatotkaca captures a brahmin family as a feast for his
mother when their middle son offers himself to be sacrificed. Before that event, he takes a bath
and performs his own Sraddha. Such a ceremony was not in common practice and was
subsequently performed only by sanyasins. Bhima appears on the scene, resists the sacrifice and
ultimately reconciles when he knows that Ghatotkaca was his son and accompanies him to meet
Hidimba after a long break.

Pancaratra - A Deviation :
The story of another drama Pancharatra creates a doubt whether Bharata war took place at
all. Here Duryodhana after performance of several Yagnnas offers Drona a gift or daksina as per
his wishes. Drona only asks for a reconciliation with the Pandavas who were in exile. Thereupon
Duryodhana puts a condition that the Pandavas must be traced within five nights and hence the
title Pancaratra. Drona accepts the challenge and wages a war against the Matsya kingdom
where he suspects the Pandavas to be in hiding. The war discloses their presence to whom
Duryodhana offers half his kingdom and all lived happily. Bhasa’s other dramas clearly show how
the great war was fought.

Pancharatra - A New From of Worship
The term Pancharatra has been subsequently used in Mahabharata to define a
philosophical school which preaches worship of five deities such as Narayana, Vasudeva,
Sankarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha. It was generally followed by the Yadavas who
worshipped Visnu as the supreme deity. This philosophy appears to be absent in Bhasa’s time
and as such he uses the term as a title for his drama. The drama shows Duryodhana as an
amicable, generous king who protects Abhimanyu during Pandavas’ exile. Perhaps Bhasa wanted
to create a character which is a mixture of good and evil in man. His remaining three dramas
leave no doubt that events took place as generally described in Mahabharata.
Abhimanyu was killed mercilessly during the great war. The drama Duta-Ghatotkaca
describes how he marched in anguish to the Kaurava camp to warn them of the consequences
and tells them about Arjuna’s vow to kill Jayadratha at which his wife Dussala shivers with terror,
Dhrtarastra advices for a conciliation, but nobody listened to them. Duryodhana rebuked
Ghatotkaca for his demon ancestory for which he gives a befitting retort and disappears.
Two Tragedies
Karnabhara and Urubhanga are the only tragedies existing in the Sanskrit literature. This is
against the tradition subsequently laid down by Bharata that a drama should avoid tragedies. In
both cases the author has tried to expose the mental agony and repentance of the dying hero.
In Karnabhara the author catches the last moments in Karna’s life while he is on the
battleground ready to face Arjuna. His dialogue with his driver Shalya reveals his nervous
approach. He remembers the Parsurama’s curse, the secret of his own birth, his relation with the
Pandavas and other discouraging events in his life. Indra appears disguised as a brahmin and
asks for a befitting donation and refuses everything else until Karna offers his protective armour,
his kavacakundala from birth as offering. With such pessimistic attitude he faces Arjuna and is
ultimately destroyed. In Urubhanga the stage shows Duryodhana lying on the battlefield after he
received the crushing blows from Bhimasena on his thighs. Balarama is aggrieved to see that the
rules of the game were broken. All the surviving Kauravas encircle Duryodhana who repents for
his obstinacy causing total disaster, and advises his son and others to reconcile with the
Pandavas. The dying scene has brought out the brighter side of Duryodhana.
Funerary Practices
Both these plays open with a scene of the battleground where several human bodies are
lying dead to be consumed by vultures and other beasts. In another drama Mrchhakatika written
around 450 B.C., the magistrate orders for spot examination of Vasantasena’s dead body
supposed to be lying in the cemetry. It shows that no funeral or burial was arranged even in case
of well known people. In Mahabarata edited around 200 B.C., the battleground is shown to be full
of dead bodies left to the vultures. Even Salya leaves Karna’s dead body on the warfield and
retires with his chariot. Rigveda had prescribed funeral as well as burial ceremony. It appears that
the practice was given up subsequently and excepting the megalithic people who carefully buried
their dead, there existed total anarchy in the funeral practices till Manusmrti insisted on sradda
and ash immersion ceremony.
Thus, all the 13 dramas of Bhasa reflect the customs and manners prevailing in India
around 500 B.C. Their detailed analysis will throw more light on contemporary social structure.
Reference
1. T. Ganapati Shastri, Bhasa’s Plays, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, Delhi, 1985.
2. V. Venkatachalam, Bhasa, Sahitya Akademi, Delhi, 1986.
3. G.K. Bhat, Bhasa-Studies, Maharashtra. Grantha Bhandar, Kolhapur, 1968

❖❖❖
The Turning Point in History
Earlier it was shown how the invasion by the Persian emporer induced the Greek people to
unite and form a nation replacing city states. His defeat encouraged the Celtic people to advance
towards west and settle in Europe.
All historians agree that the 6th Century Before Christ was a turning point in human history.
During this period intellectual upheaval and rising, was taking place in different parts of the world.
Revolutionary changes occured in social, political, religious and economical life of the people.
So far nobody has tried to analyse the basic reasons behind these chages. Now we know
from Archaeology that, it is the discovery of iron metallurgy, ample use of cheap iron tools and
weapon that increased the striking power of man upsetting the social balance between the
civilized world and the barbariance.
This disturbed situation gave rise to religious thinkers all over the world such as
Confuscious and lao–Tse in China, Zoraster in Persia, Pythagorus in Greece, Buddha and
Mahavira in India. All of them suggested ways and means to establish peace and contain
violence.
Earlier from 600 B.C. the barbaric Scythians from south Russia had ruled Iran for 50 years.
They were repulsed and retired to their homeland in Central Asia. One branch however was
permitted by the emporer to settle in India around Taxashila in 500 B.C. Soon they responded to
the changed religious atmosphere and got absorbed in the Hindu fold. Bhavishya Puran
describes them as Shakas having four classes called the Magas, Mashakas, Mana and Meena
which can he identified even today.
The Mages are famous as wordshiping brahamins known as Bhojakas in Gujrath shakadvipi
at gaya and Acharya in Bengal. Sun temples are found at Konark, Vadodhara and severkl other
Places. The Mashakas-Maha-Shakas-Shaktawat-Shekhawat belong to North Rajasthan.

Around Taxashila the shakas produced Scholars Iike Panini and Chankya, Sages like Atri,
Angirus, Bhrugu and Atharv who are the editors of the Atharvaveda precribing a ritual for
conversion of the foreigners to the Hindu Path. Bhargavas have been mentioned therein as
belonging to the Vidarbha. A memorial of Jamadagni is still worshipped at Mahur in Vidarbha
alongwith goddess Rekuka. So, if we consider Lord parashurama as an Avatar like Rama and
Krishna and not a Chiranjeevi like Narada he must have been born around 500 B.C. at Mahur. He
encourages his followers to settle in several virgin lands from Kerala to Arunachal Pradesh. The
Chitpavans are one such branch settled in Konkan.
The other faction of the Scythians who retired to their home in Central Asia chose to Settle
on the slopes of mount Altai mainly due to the attraction of gold ore. Altai means a golden land.
They were expert metallurgist and soon added golden ornaments to their inventory as revealed
from their graves in Altai. These were exchanged with civilized world for luxuries and comforts.
They were expert horsemen following the nomadic lifestyle moving their herds with seasons and
creating a culture wherever they pitched their tents called yurts made of felt. This nomadic life
Included regular raids in China for loot and plunder revealed from their graves, which show rich
Chinase tapestery, luxurious animals furs, rich saddle cloth, leather cushions and several items
used by the Chinese court ladies probably given as presentes and dowries to pacify the raiders.
This Union with the Chinese Princess and commoners continued for more than two centuries
gave birth to a mixed race called the Huns containing the evil genes from the European and
Mangolean ancesters. They settled in the Chinese border around modern kirgizia. Their cruelty is
evident from the history of Attila, Toramana, Mihirgula, Chengizkhan, Taimurlung and Mughals.
The nomadic attacks presented a permanent problem before the Chinses rulers. The raids
were sudden and cruel. A pitched battle was always avoided. They had no base or centre for
counter attack and would simply vanish in the Gobi desert. There were several states on the
Chinese border who tried to pacify them by giving presents. Many built small defences walls on
the border. In such chaos a state called quin took the lead. Around 350 B.C, their minister Lord
Shang started conquerring surrounding states putting strict control, well defined laws and
Punitive measures as per advice of confuscious, Officers were selected by examinations and not
by favours. Serfdom was abolished and farmers paid taxes direct to the State. A well defined
system of rewards and punishment was introduced. All these experiments were successful
making quin he leading state. After 250 B.C. its ruler shri. Huang Di persued the reforms
vigourously. A single scripe and coinage, standard weights and messures were introduced. Even
the axle of a cart wheel had a fixed length. 6000 K. M. of new roads were constructed. 150 K. M.
long canal irrigated 3600 Sq. K.M. of land. There was affleuence and wealth which was used for
constructing 4000 K.M. long wall on the border. The 5000 K.M. long famous silk route was
constructed with well guarded halting places and walls. This boosted the Chinese trade with the
Roman empire and stopped the nomadic attakcs for ever, forcing them to look west within a span
of 50 years created a strong nation which tasted for two thousand years. The name guin-chinh-
china is remembered for ever. Its ruler belived in the life after life and created a huge grave with
an army of 3000 terracota images of his soldiers to accomoany him to the other world. It has been
discovered recently. His worldly achievemtns can only be compared with Mao's creation of
modern china.
Around 300 B.C. after Alexander the middle east came under Greek control. They built a
huge city called Hatra in north Syria where the silk route terminated. The city had double
fortification wall 8 k.mo in length with well guarded doors. It had a Sun temple and market yard
under the Greek control. The nomads from Altai sought refuge here as traders of Chinese goods.
They were expert horsemen. They had invented stirrups or foot rests which relieved both hands
of a rider for handling a bow or a sword and shield. They would attack enemy suddenly and
pretending to retreat would turn around and attack with a volley of arrows thus surprising and
disturbing the enemy formations. With these methods they defeated the Roman army twice with
Greek support. Then turning against the Greek acquired control of Hatra and whole of MiddIe—
east around 250 B.C. where they ruled as Parthians for 400 years.
Hatra which was completely submerged in sand was discovered recently.
The Parthian method of sudden attack and withdrawal became famous as a Parthian shot,
depicted in relief in rock paintings. They stood firmly before the Mauryas.
The Mauryan army organised in 300 B.C. had four wings. The civii administration had 30
departments as mentioned in Arthashastra. They were managed by carefully selected Officers. It

included public works such as creation of tanks irrigation, roads, education, famine relief etc.
Leaving behind a steel frame for’ King Ashoka.
Historians have two opinions about Ashoka. Some hold him high as a benevolent King, but
according to the Buddhist legends he was a cruel person who acquired throne after killing his four
brothers. He had worked as a governer at Taxashila and should have known the fluid political
situation on the north-West border in 250 B.C. The mighty parthians were ruling beyond Kabul.
The Huns from the Chinese had settled in the valley of river Amudariya mentioned by Kalidasa.
Any other King faced with such a situation would have re-organised his army constructed defence
walls and forts on the border. Instead Ashoka opened the gateway of India for the Buddhist
bhiksus going to and fro and preaching sermons to the warring classes. He ordered the State
Officers for their comforts. The Huns called Kushans had experienced the tough Chinese
resistance. They wisely adopted Budhism and Panchasheel so as to overcome Indian resistance
if any and entered India as victors immediately after the death of Ashoka in 232 B.C. His empire
was shattered to pieces and the Kushan acquired control of the region from Kabul to Ujjaini and
ruled for 400 years thereafter. It was left, to the Shakadvipi brahmins to lead the nation in such a
calamity. They produced dynasties like the Satvahanas 230 B.C. The Shungas 187 B.C.) and
many others.
The only paralled in history is our present situation. We inherited a steel frame of
govenance from the British after partition, preached non-violence in the face of arson, loot And
massacre. Imposed socialistic pattern on our officers instead of maintaining law & order. As a
result there is complete breakdown of administration permitting terrorism & violence.
History ropeats itself because Man refuses to learn from the past.
References :
1) The Vanished civilizations - Readers digest-2002
2) The Soythian tombs. M. I. Artamonou, London, 1969
3) India through the Ages. P.N. Phadke, 2003.

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The Shaka Exodus
The above title has only one parallel in history. It is the exit of the Jews en-bloc from the
Roman empire after the fall of Jeruslem in A.D. 70. In India after the death of Buddha in 483 B.C.
the Neo-buddist kshatriya attack on his Shaka Janapada in 475 B.C. was so severe that they had
to leave entirely their belongings and search for a new land afresh. The episode is described in
‘Buddhist India’ by Rhys Devis in 1911, is presented in briff hereafter.
The Harappans declined after 2000 B.C.due to climate change and natural calamities and
shifted east towards the Gangiatic basin starting afresh after cutting forest and introducing
farming. By 1000 B.C. they grew up into 16 Janapadas with organised communication. The
Shakyas in the Swat valley near Taxasheela also accompanyed them and settled on the
Himalayan slopes beyond river Sharayu in the Nepal border with Kapilavastu as their capital.
They brought a new variety of rice called ‘Sastika' which matured in 60 days. The system of
transplantation of rice was also introduced which increased its yield 10 times. With such
prosperous background the Shakyas a self centred peace loving class accepting protection of
nearby kosala kingdom lived happily.
By 600 B.C. iron tools implements and weapons were brought into use all over the world,
which increased the striking capacity and ambition in man. The oligorchies in Janapadas grew
into kingdom with kshatriya rulers treating it, their birthrite to rule, collect taxes and revenue,
maintain large army and continue oppression. Perhaps they were inspired by the success of the
Achaemenian Empire beyond the Indus. Buddha's preachings had an adverse effect on their
behaviour. They accepted the new path only to treat themselves free from Hindu religious control
and used evil ways to acquire power.
Magadha’s king Ajatshatru starved to death his father Bimbisar and became a ruler in 493
B.C. In Kosala prince Viddabha dethroned his father Prasanjit in 485 B.C. and attacked Shakyas
when they opposed him. After Buddha's death in 483 B.C. Ajatshatru used the first Buddhist
council in 479 B.C. to convert all kshatriya kings to his new path and thus paved his way to
expand the Magadha empire and completely destroy the Shakya Janapada which was covered
subsequently by Mahavana.
The Kshatriya kings had completely occupied the Gangiatic basin and the Shakya refugees
had to go south in search of new land. They crossed the Gangees near Allahabad and erected
their first camp near Chitrakut consisting of bamboo huts and thatched roofs. Even after adopting
the Hindu religion and staying on the Ganges for over 500 years the Shakyas had continued their
old habit of burning and burying the dead and erecting a monument using large stones pillars or
caves. These monuments called Megaliths help us in tracing their southern journey through
Dandakaranya. They travelled in batches and used caves as halting places where they depicted
their life style on cave walls. From these cave paintings and memorials we know they had started
from Mirzapur district and Progressed towards Banda and Gwalior. From here they turned south
to Eran near Sagar, Vidisha, Bhopal, Betul to Salbardi caves near river Tapi on the Vidarbha
border.
From their base camp they settled around Rewa where the brahmin farmers are still known
as Sharayupar. The Shakyas from Malwa flocked to Salbardi fearing attack by King of Maheshwar
Sahsraarjuna. The brahmins on river Tapi nearby are still known as Malawas. A section from
Salbardi travelled west along river Tapi and settled in Aparanta in Thane district. Here they settled
as Maga brahmins noted by Greek author Ptolemy. Further south from Salbardi they arrived at
Mahur to meet sage Jamadagni for further advice. Angered by their success, king Sahasrarjuna
attacked Mahur and killed Jamdagni around 465 B.C. This massacre gave rise to a warrior leader
in the form of Parashuram who organised the Shakyas and the Asmaka Janapada for a final
action against the northern states.
The cave paintings showed caparisened horses fully equipped with bridals, saddle, bits and
stirrups for footrest, which gave full freedom to the rider for operating bow and arrow using both
hands. Attack by such cavalery has always proved disastrous for the foot soldiers. With such
assistance Parashurama could easily defeat the Kshatriyas in 21 battles at various places, ousted
the Magadha ruler replacing with his followers the Nanda Kings around 450 B.C.
The cave pictures give much more information about these warriours. An elephant with a
rider meant it was domesticated and used for forest clearance. A man with hoe and sickle meant
farming. A farmer with an umbrella over his head by a servant showed his status. A person having
rays projected through his headwear meant a special status like a Rajah.
People dressed in Kushan style, using boot, long coats, felt hat, table and chairs are often
seen with weapons and proceeding to the next stop. Use of Brahmi had already started. Tikkala
cave near Gwalior carries a remark ‘Dabuken Karitam’. At Bhimbetka there is note 'Simhakasa
Lenam'. Another cave mentions only pischakha meaning Vishakha or Kartikeya.
Accordingly to F.R. Allchin, the Shakyas had already attained expertise in handling stone
and cutting caves. A domicle vaulted roof was already created over Sudama cave with glossary
finish but Lomas Rishi cave was left unfinished most probably because the artists had to free for
life. Most probably the caves were ordered by King Bimbisar. The first Such roof is seen over a
small cave called son Bhandar at Rajgir where the first Bhuddist council was held in 479 B.C. All
other caves and monastries at Rajgir have an elliptic plan developed into a domical vaulted roof
which plan has no parallel in the world. The cave cutting is started through a door. Opening
through a Chaitya window was a subsequent achievement in Western Maharashtra. Similar
elliptical plan is seen copied at the Bhagwata temple at vidisha and Kondivate Cave Andheri
Bombay. The idea was copied by the Greek for tombs after Alexander.
The Principle of domicle roof was continued when Shakyas settled around Nagpur and cut
small caves as memorials which practice grew with trade in western Maharashtra. Here rock
contains an alternate strata of hard and soft layer which was successfully done as seen from the
caves standing unscathed for over two thousand year.
The Pro-Hindu Nanda kings rules for over a century when the shakas found time to
continue. Their adventure through the Dandakaranya in M.P. It was repeated in Karnataka around
Hampi, Hire-benkal, Aihole and Badami. Here the final plan for a temple with corbelled arch for its
tower was prepared and followed all over Scuth India, which again is a unique style in temple
Architecture.
Remains of these Megalithic people around 400 B.C. are found at Amravati, Banavasi,
Arikamedu and Madura in South India and at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. There was some
addition during Ashoka regime around 250 B.C. in Western Maharashtra. Here the oldest cave
No. 19 with vaulted roof at Bhaje Dtd. 400 B.C. carries a statue in relief of Lord Parashurama.
My heartiest salutations to him.

References -
1. Buddhist, India Rhys Davids. London 1911.
2. Early Historic South Asia. F.R. Allchin. c.u.p. - 1995.
3. Virtual Archaeology. Colin Renfrew. London 1997.
4. India through the Ages. P.N. Phadke. Nagpur - 2003.
5. Pandey, S.K. Indian Rock Art. New Delhi - 1993.
6. Pant, P.C. and P.K. Behera. 1991-92 "Evidence of Megalithism in South Uttar
Pradesh." Pragdhara No. 2 Lucknow.
7. Rajan, K. 1990. "New Light on Megalithic Culture of Kongu Region Near Coimbaur,
Tamil Nadu." Man and Environment Vol. XV No.1
8. Rao, K.P. 1988. Deccan Magaliths, Delhi.
9. Sundara, A. 1975 Early Chamber Tombs of South India. New Delhi.
10. Wakankar,V.S. and R.R. Briggs. 1976 Stone Age Paintings in India. Bombay.
❖❖❖
Rewriting History
A report in April 2008 said that the scientists examining human genes said the Indian
population is heterogeneous and consists of a mixture of Indo-European, Dravidian, Australoid
and locals.
Mention of Indo-European and Dravidian culture shows that these so-called scientists are
not posted, with the latest developments in ancient history, and continue to stick to the worm out
theories of Aryan invasion and Dravidian migration to South India. It is nearly 20 years that the
Aryan invasion theory has been refuted and linguistic arguments based on it rejected by historians
the world over.
The date of Rigveda has been shifted to the earliest days of human evolution after
completion of the last Ice-Age before ten thousand years and man’s settlement in the various
parts of the world started. Discovery of dry bed of the river Saraswati in Rajasthan by Satellite in
1980 has confirmed its live period around 3000 B.C. The Rigvedic hymns mentioning its flow
direct to the sea shows a still earlier period.
Now recent excavations by Archaeo Department, Nagpur at Bhirdana near Hissar in its bed
has disclosed a culture exactly similar to the Harappan, but earlier by 2000 years. It pushes back
the date to 4500 B.C.
Sage Devapi mentioned in the Rigveda is Rama’s ancestor and this helps in fixing his time
around 3500 B. C. The Mahabharata war took place when the river Saraswati flowing through the
Kamyakvana had partially dried up. It turned west near Vinashana Tirtha and flowed through a
channel called Hakra - Nara on the Indo-Pak border which event took place around 3000 B. C.
Thereafter the Rajasthan desert spread and the Indians had to shift to the Indus Valley
where they founded the Harappan civilisation around 2500 B.C. This whole region experienced
drought conditions for over a millennium from 2000 B.C. and the Indus people had again to
migrate to the Gangetic basin where they spread upto Anga and Wanga by 1000 B.C.
This is in short a wellestablished history of the subcontinent and there is no place for
intrusion of any Indo-European as suggested in the media. The report is based on our history
constructed by scholars with certain presumptions during the last 200 years of Western influence.
In 1880 Max-Muellar first declared that the Rigveda must be belonging to a foreign tribe whom he
called Aryans. When in 1905 they came across a people called Hittaite, known from the
excavations at Bogazkoi and Hattus-as in Turkey dated to 1500 B.C., they were christened
Aryans who authored the Rigveda around that date.
In 1922 after discovery of the Indus culture with a fixed date of 2500 B.C. the Aryan story
was revised to include Dravidian as original residents who fled to South India. Western scholars
are not prepared to change the date of Rigveda even after knowing full facts about river Saraswati
and Aryan invasion theory continues. However, there is one way to reconcile these divergent
views by knowing full details about the Hittaites.
After the Ice Age, man came out of his hiding places in mountain caves and started
exploring his surroundings. In Central Asia he found huge grasslands around the Caspian. Sea,
with various animals useful for his livelihood. He domesticated them, formed herds and led them
to green pastures from place to place, thus giving rise to a nomadic way of lite. They were called
Scythians or Shakas. Their descendents are still seen in T.V. serials on people from Kirgiz, Kosak
and AzerBaizan. Europeans never entered this Scythian territory or their harsh Neolithic life. They
had settled at better places around the Mediterranean Sea, took to farming and led a settled life
forming villages and towns. So the nomads from Central Asia always felt attracted towards this
civilised world and took chances to join them.
Around 2000 B.C. a section of the Scythians from the Caspian Sea entered east Turkey and
formed settlements which developed into city states and further into the Hittaite empire with
Hattusas as its capital in 1500 B.C. It had a clash with the neighbouring state of Mlittani and in
their treaty both mentioned salutation to the Indian gods, Indra, Varun, Mithra and Nasatya which
showed their link with India. The Scythians around the Caspian Sea have been described by
Hirodotus and other Greek authors as a strong people with tall sturdy build up, red colour, blue
eyes and blonde features. Their Neolithic Nomadic style was extremely primitive. Men had long
beards, often in fighting killed their enemies and proudly used their skulls as drinking cups. They
used long leather coats and were expert horse riders.
Their women were equally ferocious and were called Amazons. However, their urge for a
settled life helped them to overcome these defects and mix with the civilised world. It was their
habit to worship the dead ancestors, and build memorials containing articles useful for his journey
to the other world. It is the study of these artifacts spread all over the ancient world that gives an
idea of their lifestyle.
The Hittaite soon learnt to write with Sumerian scripts on clay bricks fired and preserved.
Thousands of such bricks are found in excavations which have been read and understood. They
ruled the Middle East for four centuries after which the empire split into small states. A section
took to forming Israel and another settled in Lebanon, cut down the cedar trees and prepared
huge ships which they carried on to the Mediterranean sea and became famous as Phonecian
traders.
A third section settled in Tuscony province, north of Rome in Italy, became famous as
Etrusians whose art and architecture became the foundation of Greek and Latin culture.
The fourth section travelled east and settled in the valley of river Swat, north of Peshawar.
They have been mentioned subsequently by the Iranian Emperor in 550 B.C. Excavation in a
cave in this area in 1969 revealed single and mixed burials with or without funeral along with
several tombs on surrounding hill slopes. It confirms megalithic practice of cave burial which was
carried to other parts of India. It is known as Gandhar grave culture.
Due to adverse climate the people from the Indus Valley had been travelling east and
settling in the Gangetic plains from 1000 B.C. The Scythians also shifted to a region beyond the
river Sharayu, cut down Mahavana on Nepal border and established a Shakya Japapada, 16 such
states becoming famous by 600 B.C.
Excavation at Kapilavastu and the surrounding region have disclosed Megalithic B and R
ware and iron bits showing presence of Shakyas. They travelled south, crossed the mighty
Dandakaranya forest and established Asmaka Janapada on the banks of river Wainaganga where
their megalithic graves are located today.
This journey with horses and elephants marching in procession has been depicted on the
walls of various caves in Madhya Pradesh. It has been described in detail in my book.
The 600 B.C. was a revolutionary period. Methods for extracting iron were perfected after
attempts for several centuries. Iron implements, tools and weapons were available everywhere. It
increased the striking power of man increasing wars and aggressions. Religious preachers such
as Zaratusta, the Buddha, Mahaveera and Confucious were trying to pacify the people by
introducing new laws for social behaviour. So also, the Hindu thinkers at Takshasheela laid down
rules in Brahmanas and Aranyakas for social well-being. Especially they formed the Atharvaveda
Which incorporated all primitive beliefs, worships and practices of the local tribes like the
Shakyas.
Internal evidence shows that the book was authored around 600 B.C. It prescribes the use
of plants and herbs for treatment of several diseases, remedies against sorcerers, ghosts and evil
forces. It adopted local dress for the newly formed images.
Sun wore long boots, Shankara with tied hair used dear skin and snake to tie around.
Ganesha had an elephant mask.
By 600 B.C. the Hittaite lordship over the Middle East came to an end when the Iranians
rose in arms and established an empire under king Xirus. It extended from Egypt in the west to
the Indus on the east. Scythians in the Swat Valley were naturally shaken by this defeat and had
to shift to safer places. They travelled through Rajasthan, Mlalwa and Vidarbha to the Nagpur
region where they already had a colony.
Their Megalitic circles are found at Dausa, Alwar and caves near Shamgarh and Salbardi on
this journey. The tradition of burial in stone circles and caves was carried to the Nagpur region.
The Scythians on the Nepal border prospered to grow into a population of 60,000 families
as mentioned by Buddha Ghosha. They had friendly states of Kosala on the west with king
Prasenadi educated at Takshasheela and Magadha with king Bimbisar who spread his empire
upto Anga on the east. Both were related to each other and also to other kings at Ujjain, Mathura,
Kashi and Kaushambi. All of them belonged to the Kshatriya class ...separate from the Shakyas.
Both followed the Hindu religion.
On such a peaceful background arrived prince Gautama preaching a totally different
thought. Existence of God doubtful, Yagnas were useless; human soul did not exist; family ties
and belief in rebirth was meaningless; therefore adopt Sanyas, preach Ahimsa to achieve
Nirvana that is the final escape from this painful world full of sorrow. Even though the Buddha
preached a new way he had not prescribed any duties. One had simply to leave old ties and
embrace freedom which, those loaded with duties and social responsibilities found attractive.
People ran away leaving their families destitute. Princes killed relatives to acquire power. Nobody
questioned them.
When the Buddha was alive, Ajatshatru, son of Bimbisara captured his throne and starved
him to death while in captivity in 493 B.C. He also destroyed the Shakyas when they opposed. He
was shameless enough to approach the Buddha and beg his pardon and excuse for his deeds.
Thereafter in 485 B.C. Viddabha. son of Prasenadi dismissed him and massacred Shakyas
enmasse when they opposed. Thus the Buddha died a brokenhearted person with only one
disciple Ananda on his last journey.
Taking advantage of the new situation, Ajatshatru called for the first Buddhist conference
where all Kshatriya kings adopted Buddhism, and naturally neglected their defence. Thereafter
Ajatshatru attacked them separately and established the Magadha Empire in 475 B.C. The
Shakyas could not find any safety in the new regime and shifted en masse to their brothers in
Asmaka Janapada in South and further travelled upto Kerala leaving behind Kapilavastu where
Mahavana grew forever.
King Sahasrarjuna of Maheshwara on Narmada became bold enough to march south to
Mahur and destroy the Ashrams of Sage Jamadagni and kill him. This gave birth to a warrior who
taught a lesson to all the Kshatriya converts in the North. He was lord Parashurama.
Parashurama’s character is misunderstood most in our mythology. His real story has been
narrated in Mahabharata. His deeds placed him among the ten incarnations of Vishnu and stories
created to glorify him. They are included in the puranas edited after 200 A.D. Renuka was
daughter of King Prasenjit, thus a Kshatriya by birth. Jamadagni, one of the authors of
Atharvaveda, has been a Mega Brahmin from Takshasheela. They must have migrated to south
with others and settled at Mahur where Parashurama’s birth took place around 500 B.C.
Around 475 B.C. the king of Maheshwar, with neo-Buddhist enthusiasm attacked and killed
Jamadagni, which might have upset the fresh refugees in Asmaka. Parashurama was a young
leader at the time. His Scythian followers were expert horse riders. They used stirrups which have
been found during excavations at Junapani and other places. It permitted a rider to use both his
hands free while using the sword, bow and other weapons as this was a great advantage for a
cavalry attack.
The Puranas edited after 200 A.D. changed the whole story. Earlier numerals and figures
wre expressed by alphabets. A Yuga in Mahabharata comprised of a thousand years only.
Puranas changed it to lakhs of years. Jamadagni’s story was changed.
With such attack, 21 Kshatriya kings in north India were overpowered swiftly by
Parashurama who encouraged his followers to settle in various places of their choice.
Successors of Ajatshatru were dismissed by the people and a pro-Hindu Nanda dynasty ruled
Magadha for the next century.
The first ruler Mahapadmananda was described as powerful as Ram Jamadgnya which
shows he was considered as an incarnation from around 450 B.C.
A Yuga in Mahabharata comprised of a thousand years only. Puranas changed it to lakhs of
years. Jamadagni's story was changed. He doubted chastity of his wife, cursed his children,
blessed Parashurama to be a Chirangeevi, placed him in Dwaparayuga, declared him to be
annihilator of Kshatriyas 21 times, made him appear in Ramayana and Mahabharata.
This is, in short, the real story behind the Aryan invasion. It is slow immigration in known
history by shaka, Yavana, Pallava and China, noted in Manusmriti and other ancient records.
Parashurama not only settled these people as per thier choice in more than 100 places but also
provided them with rules through Atharvaveda, and Grihyasutras which regulated a person's life
from birth to death, used even today. This finished the anarchy introduced by the Buddhist
thoughts and Hindu ideas prospered. No European blood was introduced in this land. Our blue
eyes and blonde features belong to Central Asia.
❖❖❖
Maharishi Parshurama
Lord Parashurama occupies a special position in the Hindu mythology. He represents a
class which always resists suppression of the downtrodden, cares for their rehabilitation and
welfare and does not have a private life. Such a character like Rama and Krishna have always
been giving an inspiring message to their followers. However in case of Rama and Krishna the
narrator gives full details of their birthplace, family and even star positions which help us in
calculating their time. No such details are available in case of Parshurama which raises problems
in determining his time and achievements. The confusion is confounded by the stories which
declare him to be a chiranjevee moving at will through various times and places. It becomes
doubtful whether such a character ever lived in historical times. An attempt is made here to collect
historical facts so as to complete the life story of Shri. Parshurama or Ramajamadagnya as he
was known in Mahabharata.
Unlike Ram and Krishna the worship of Parshurama is not uniformly spread all over India
but there are several pockets and communities belonging to various castes which consider him as
their guide and philosopher who helped them settle in the present region. Such migrating people
are found in more than 100 places from Kabul to Dacca and Asam to kerala where his temples or
some memories are found.
The name Parshurama is of recent origin used after the story of Shankara blessing him with
bow and an axe called parashu was narrated in Brahmanda Purana compiled around A.D.300
Earlier he was known as Ramajamadagnya an epithet meaning an incarnation of Vishnu and son
of Rishi Jamadagni, Who was one of the authors of Atharva Veda

Date of Atharva
Atharva the last amongst the four Vedas had a totally different approach to the human
problems. The other three Vedas praised and prayed various natural forces such as the Sun,
Moon, Rain, Wind, and fire by performing yadnas and offerings through fire to the deities in
heaven while Atharvans believed that such offerings should be made to deities and powers
residing in various worldly objects around us through regular pujas and reciting mantras. Even
diseases such as fevers cough and cold or T.B. were supposed to have been caused by
displeasures of certain deities who were worshipped along with herbal treatment. More than 177
such herbs have been mentioned for treating more than 80 diseases. These prescriptions have
formed a basis for Ayurveda. The Vedic people disagreed with this worldly view and Atharva was
given a status lower than the three Vedas. Western scholars like Bloomfield thought them to have
been composed in the earliest stages of our civilization when man was in semi-nomadic stage.
The Atharva does reflect such a stage of a nomadic people known as Scythians from Central Asia
who came to India during recent past around 1000 B.C. and got absorbed in the Hindu Society as
Shakas at a time when Buddha and Jaina were preaching Ahimsa around 600 B.C. Buddha was
called Shakya Muni. A careful study of Atharvan hymns shows many events described therein
belong to 600 B.C. as below.
1) The Art of Writing was discovered around 600 B.C. when various scripts such as
Armenian Phonecian, Greek and Arabic came into use. In India Brahmi and kharosti were used
for writing. Atharva ch.19.72 states its use in a book form.
2) Chapter 19.7.2 ibid gives a list of 27 Naxatras and their position in the sky. Today
we count the beginning of summer season from Ashiwini. However in Atharva counting starts
from Krittika and seasons are counted from grisma Ritu as stated in Ch. 1.2.1.36. This star
position prevailed around 600 B.C.
3) This was also a period when use of iron tools and weapons was started by several
people Atharva mentions such use of an axe in 12.3.31 and 10.4.14 and Parashu in 7.47.2.
4) Punch marked coins first came to be used in India around 600 B.C. The same
have been advised as daxina in Ch 9.5.
5) Kenopnishad describes a gods image in a Yaksha form which was worshipped all
over north India from 600 B.C. to 300 B.C. Several such images have been discovered and
preserved in museums. Atharva Ch.X prescribes this worship. The idea of a Gotra is also
elaborated in the same chapter.
6) From 550 B.C. the regions beyond Indus were captured by Iran. Bahlik and
Gandhar have been mentioned as foreign lands in Atharva 5.22.11. In Iran the dead were thrown
before vultures. The practice is suggested in Ch. 11. 10.
7) Ch. 15 forms the most important part of the Atharva. It describes a detailed
procedure for conversion of foreigners called Vratyas to the Hindu fold. The story of migration of
these foreigners is very interesting.

The Scythians in India
Bhagawan Buddha was called Shakyamuni because he belonged to a Scythian tribe who
had been entering and settling in India since 1000 B.C. these Scythians lived a nomadic life in
Central Asia. When Ice Age ended before 12000 years mountains of Ice melted and flowed to the
adjoining oceans causing a rise in sea levels all over the world by 500 ft. clearing new regions for
human settlement. Man from the Caucasious settled in the green lands of Central Asia
domesticating animals and leading a hard nomadic life while others took to agriculture and settled
around the Mediterranean sea. The nomads invented methods of extracting metals from ores,
prepared superior weapons and invaded from time to time the civilized world. They successfuly
adopted new culture and became its leaders. Thus they entered Turkey around 1500 B.C. settled
as Hittaites, who defeated the mighty Egyptians and became masters of the Middle East.
However such contact with the civilized world did not have any impact on their original home
where people continued with their barbaric style.

Greek author Hirodotus gives a vivid description of their barbarism in 400 B.C. Most of them
were maneaters who used enemies skulls as drinking cups. They feared ghosts and witches to
whom they offered human sacrifice. They were expert horse riders, carried their families in horse
wagons and pitched their tents called yurts in suitable pastures. Their women were equally
ferocious and took part in wars.
In 700 B.C. the Scythians invaded Iran and became its masters. This however had a violent
reaction from the Persians who united under king Cyrus drove out the Scythians and established
their empire in the middle east. The defeated Scythians were divided into three parts. One section
settled peacefully in India around Peshawar. Another section travelled north and settled in the
Altai mountain from where they carried regular raids towards China. The third part entered Central
Europe from where the ice had retreated leaving behind green lands inviting settlers. The
Scythians Grabbed this opportunity and became famous as Celtic people who ruled various
nations from England to Russia in their cruel way till they were driven out by the Romans and
Greek in 300 B.C.
The Indian branch had an opportunity to study Hindu culture and religion around Taxashila.
Their leaders learnt Sanskrit and not only adopted the new religion but also developed several
innovations such as chaturvarnya with provision for upgradation, gotra system to organize families
on patriarchal basis, and classify them into four varnas, rules for thread ceremony, marriage, birth
and death all these embodied together in the Atharvaveda. It also included threats to ghosts,
witches, and remedies against evil spirits. Around 600 B.C. Sage Bhrigu and Angirasa edited
most of it’s hymns giving it second title Bhruguangirus.
Sage Jamadagni, great grandson of sage Bhrigu should have lived around 550 B.C.
Atharva text mentions him Jamadagni Vaidarbhi meaning thereby that he had his Ashram some
where in Vidarbha which was adjoining to the Asmaka state mentioned in the list of 17 states in
700 B.C. Thus Jamadagnis Ashram must have been located at Mahur which is a place of
piligrimage for goddess Renuka at the southern tip of Vidarbha since 2000 years.
The antiquity of Mahur is proved by two huge caves with megalithic circles at the top. These
are the burial monuments of the megalithic people from nearby Asmaka Janapada where the
Scythians ruled from 600 B.C. Two huge Yaksha’s statues in the cave also suggest the same
date. Mahur is located on the banks of river Painaganga which is a tributary of river Wainaganga.
Parshurama must have born here around 500 B.C.
Parshurama’s story starts with his Childhood and training at the ashram. It depicts how sage
Jamadagnya once became furious because his wife Renuka was late to return from the river,
doubted her chastity and asked his four sons to kill her and on their disobeying him he cursed
them with instant death. Only Parshuram obeyed him and killed his mother. Thereon satiated
sage Jamadagni revived to life all his sons and wife and blessed Parshuram a to be chiranjevee
free from fear of death.
In the north king Kartivirya Sahasrarjuna ruled from Maheshwara on river Narmada. He
once visited Jamadagni’s ashram and admired its prosperity and asked for its causes. Jamadagni
mentioned it as a blessing by his cow Kamadhenu which provided everything. Thereon the king
demanded the cow and on being denied it forcibly took away the animal. After knowing this
episode parshurama invaded Maheshwar and braught back the cow. The enmity increased and
resulted in the murder of sage Jamadagnya by the royalty and wife Renuka performing Sati. This
established a permanent rivalry between the Kskatriyas and Parashurama’s followers which
spread throughout India.
Both these stories first appear in Mahabharata Dron parva Ch.51 to 70 where Vyasa
consols Yudhisthira aggrieved over the death of Abhimanyu, by narrating stories of 16 Vedic
Kings who achieved great success but ultimately had to surrender to death. They include famous
kings such as Bharata, Dilip, Yayati and others. The last story is about Jamadagani.
The Mahabharata was edited and reduced to writing around 250 B.C. It is stated there in
that the original text of Vyasa consisted of 8000 Verses expanded to 25000 by Vaishampayana
and further extended to one lac by Sauti in Ashokan time. It was translated and spread all over his
empire.
The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Pune devised a project in 1950 for thorough
examination of the Mahabharata so as to prepare a final authorized copy. They have examined
the above story of Jamdagnya along with 16 Kings and decided both the events as subsequent
interpolation. The decision of B.O.R.I. raises doubts over Parshurama being a Chiranjevee, his
appearance in the Rigveda as author of Apri Sukta (10. 110) his presence in Ramayana after
Rama breaks Shankar’s bow and his asking Bhisma to many Amba and Ambalika whom he had
abducted and his curse to Karna. Removing these events from his life story nothing remains
except his inclusion in Dashavatara like Vamana and Buddha.
The idea of Avatars / incarnation first appears in Gita which is a part of the Mahabharata. It
over shadowed Parshurama’s worldly achievements by describing his past deeds. Mahabharata
Shanti parva Ch.39 to 41 confirm that he settled his followers at Shurparaka in Thane district
which event must have taken place around 450 B.C. These settlers created caves at Karle carbon
dated to 300 B.C. and earlier at Bhaje 400 B.C. as a memorial carrying his statue.
From 600 B.C. the Scythians had settled on the banks of river wainaganaga and
established Asmaka Janapada. They were surrounded by Andhaka’s / Andhras in the South on
the Godavari, Vrishnis/Vidarbha on the west and Kosalas on the east and Malavas from Punjab in
the north . All these Kshatriyas had natural clashes with these new settlers on the wainaganga. It
was Parshurama who led them up to Kerala, opened new settlements and eased the tension. His
clashes with Kshatrias in this process have been exaggerated in Puranas.
In the north people from Shakya Janapada often clashed with Kosalas, Ayodhya on the
West and Magadhas on the east. Gandhar was under Persian domination. Parshurama led these
people to new settlements up to Assam by overcoming resistance from the local Kshatriyas at 21
places, hence his killing them 21 times as per puranas.
It is this settlement of disputes that endeared Parshurama to the Hindu masses declaring
him as avatar of Vishnu and including his stories in the Mahabharata then under compilation by
the Sauties. Most of the Kshatrias were under the influence of Buddha and Jain path preaching
non-violence whereas Parshuram - a pleaded use of arms even by Brahmins for defence of the
society. As a result in 325 B.C. Alexander had to face stiff resistance from all states located on the
Indus.
Today he is worshipped by various communities such as Saraswat (Bengal), Bhumihar
(Bihar), Galav (Rajasthan), Anavil (Gujarath), Mohayal (Punjab), Tyagi (U.P.) , Laman
(Maharashtra) shetty in Karnataka and at several places in the south from Gokarna to
Kanyakumad. May his blessings carry with the reader.

❖❖❖
The Parshurama Puzzle
Here an attempt is made to trace the historical facts behind the above problem for which the
basic presumptions are 1) Ice Age ended before 10000 yrs. 2) The Vedas 6000 B.C. 3) Iron Age
1000 B.C.
The following arguments are tendered for discussion.
1) From 600 B.C. Megalithic people crossed Narmada established Ashmaka
Janapada in Wainaganga Valley in which Sage Jamadagni had his Ashram at Mahur where
Parashurama was born around 500 B. C.
2) From here he led the Megalithic people to settle in various parts from Asam to
kerala also leading the Chitpavanas to Konkan. Puranas declared him to be an incarnation of
Vishnu
In Konkan Caves like Carle (C14-300 B.C.) Gharapuri, Jogeshwari, Mandapeshwar and
Andheri were created for placing relics.
4) Cave at Bhaje carries an image of Parashurama.
5) Greek author Ptolemy Cites Maga Brahmins around Shurparaka.
6) Periplus describes Barbaricum, Minnagara, Bharuch and Shurparaka.
7) Puranas describe Vindhya shakti the founder of Vakataka dynasti belonging to
Gharapuri.
8) In A.D. 150 Satvahanas destroyed the bandits on the Western Coast and opened
new ports like Dabhol Goa and Karwar.
9) The action had disastrous effect on trade in Maharashtra. Capital shifted from
Paithan to Andhra.
10) People from Thane shifted to Ratnagiri and Barbaricum to Goa.
11) The Chalukyas Captured Gharapuri around 650 A.D.
12) All these pople worship Parashurama today.

❖❖❖
Origin of Indian Cave Art
There are hundreds of natural caves in the Indian sub-continent occupied by man from time
immemorial. Construction of houses started after he took to farming and developed metal tools
reducing use of caves to minimum.
After 600 B.C. use of iron tools made it possible to cut in hardest rocks creating caves with
a definite purpose such as placing the relics of the dead after cremation and worship them. This
practice was followed by the shakya community of Gautam Buddha. They had settled around
Ayodhya forming a separate Janapada. First such caves were created at Rajgir in Bihar. The first
Buddhist conference after Buddha’s death was held in 480 B.C. in the premises of these caves.
This event fixes their date of creation. Thereafter Kshatrias in the Gangiatic, basin led by
Ajatshatru attacked the shakyas forcing them to migrate as refugees to South India. They crossed
the Danda forest in Madhya Pradesh and took shelter in the Asmaka Janapada on river
Wainaganga The Kshatriyas advanced further South upto Mahur where sage Jamadagni had his
ashram and killed him around 450 B. C. His son Parshurama organized the skakyas and
retaliated with a force which settled the dispute for ever.
Subsequently the Shakyas spread and settled at various places in Maharashtra along the
trade route leading towards Kalyan, and created chaityas for worship. The process continued till
300 B.C. when Manusmriti prescribed sharadha rituals requiring immersion of ashes in rivers and
seas. This stopped the use of caves which remained abandened till Ashok’s regime vvhen
several Buddhist Bhikshus appeared in Maharashtra as preachers and occupied empty Chaitya
Caves. With kings support several viharas were created around the chaityas.
The above story would appear imaginary but for a recent discovery by Fredrick Allechin
from Oxford in the cave Architecture Before describing it let us have a brief resume of the
scholarly attempts towards dating of Indian caves. Compilation and report of these caves was
first prepared in 1880 by Ferguson and Guy Burges. Out of total 1200 man made caves 900
belonged to Maharashtra.
Mirashi studied the inscriptions in these caves and fixed their creation between 200 B. C.
and A. D. 200. Dr. Dhavlikar further analysed their use for worship and decided that the caves
belonging to Hinayana sect alone were created before A. D. 200 and the remaining belonged to a
subsequent period. Dr. Walter spink made a detailed study of the caves at Ajantha, Relying on the
epigraphs of Wakataka kings he has concluded that almost all the caves at Ajantha were created
from A. D. 450 to 500, each cave requiring only 5 to 10 years for cutting. He has decided their
chronology after study of ground plan of each cave.
The reliance on the Wakataka kings for creation of the whole complex appears to be
exaggerated. The founder, of the dynasty Vindhyshakti ruled around 250 A. D. According to the
Puranas his ancesters belonged to Vaideshik or vidisha where Agnimitra Shunga ruled around
150 B. C. Vishunupurana states them to be Yavanas alias Shakyas uprooted from Ayodhya. They
shifted to Shurparaka at the foot of the Satpuda mountain and established Purika or Gharapuri
near Bombay as capital. Vindhyshakti was a devout Brahmin of Vishnuvriddha gotra which
prevails today only amongst the Chitpavan Brahmins from Shurparka. He performed several
yadnas. This background of the Wakataka is totally at variance with the scenes drawn on the
walls of Ajantha caves.
All scenes in cave 16 depict events in the life of Buddha. One panel shows king Ajatshatru
who led the Kshatriyas against the shakyas, meeting Buddha after he allowed his father Bimbisar
to die of starvation. Cave 17 shows Jatak stories of Buddha’s previous births. It is difficult to
believe that a devout Brahmin and powerful king would take lead in depicting such pictures. As
patron of the cave complex he must have used cave walls for noting his achievements.
Further the evolution, of caves, is fixed on the basis of site plans. This ignores one
important process in cutting caves which starts from the top progressing downward so that the
site plan is the last item to be finished. How it can be a basis for classification, or variation in
structural design. Pillars are not supporting the roof but hanging from it.
Allchin has drawn attention to the vaulted roof and elliptical site plan of caves of Rajgir.
Walls are inclined inward merging with the vaulted roof. According to Allchin this arrangement is
exclusive and there is no parallel in the world. The longer axis of the cave runs along the rock
surface which avoid deep penetration inside. This style appears in the cave complex at Andheri.
Bombay which also confirms Shakya migration to the South after Buddhas death.
After reaching Nagpur they introduced small caves with domical roof as a substitute for
megalithic graves. More tran 100 such caves have been noticed till date. While traveling west they
came across the Deccan trap which presented an excellent hard material for cutting chaityas It
has alternate layers of hard and soft material and skill lies in locating the soft iayer and cutting
cave with hard layer over its roof which have remained unscathed for 2000 years.
There are thirty such cave complexes in Maharashtra each containing one or two chaityas
surrounded by viharas for residence. The Bhaja cave cut around 400 B.C. holds a panel showing
a warrior nnost probably Parashurama with Surya and Indra in the back ground which appears to
have been depicted after his death. The Carle cave has wooden beams dated to 300 B.C. using
C14 method as reported by Nagaraju. Thus the charge in architecture of the cave and not its
Inscriptions provide a parameter for fixing evolution of the cave Art.

References
1) Buddhist India, T. W. Rhys Davids. o.u.p. 1911
2) Archaeology of South Asia, F. R. Allchin, o.u.p. 1999
3) Satavahan V. V Mirashi, Bombay 1981
4) Hinayana Caves M. K. Dhavalikar, Pune1984
5) Ajantha Walter Stink, A.R.S. Orientalis 1966.

❖❖❖
CAVES IN MAHARASHTRA
At a particular stage in the Indian History, after the rise of Gautam Buddha, hectic activity of
creating rock—cut shrines is noticed. There are more than one thousand manmade caves in
Maharashtra concentrated mostly in the Western parts. Their large scale planning, majestic
conception and accurate workmanship has attracted visitors from all over the world. However,
attempts made so far to trace the origin of this cave art have not been proved successful.
The creation of these caves has been generally attributed to the influence of Buddhism,
which reached Maharashtra during the reign of king Ashoka around 250 B.C. The earlier Buddhist
monks belonged to the Hinayana sect, which worshipped Lord Buddha through such symbols as
a tree, a footprint, a lotus etc. Around 130 A.D., during the reign of king Kanishka idol worship was
started by a new sect called Mahayan. The cave complex in Western Maharashtra has been
divided accordingly. Caves having idols, icons, sculp -tures etc. are allotted to the Mahayana
period. While caves without such idols are classified to the earlier period from 550 B.C. to 100
A.D. Famous caves such as Karla, Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Nasik, Junnar, Ajanta IX, fall in this category
of earlier rock-cut caves.
However, the workmanship of these so-called earlier caves is so mature and perfect that it
suggests a long tradition of experimenting over this rock art. The face of Ajanta Cave IX supposed
to be earliest is simply superb. There is nothing in this cave complex to suggest earlier
experiments in this field and all these caves appear as finished products of excellent craftsmen.
In fact there are more than 30 cave groups for which no clear evidence of Buddhist
association is available. Another disturbing factor is the chronology of these caves determined by
Radio-Carbon method. Karle cave which has been dated around 100 A.D. on the basis of its style
and structure conta-ins original wooden ceiling which was subjected twice to carbon dating. First
time, it gave a date of 350 B.C.+100 1 which was discussed by S. Nagraju and after some valid
arguments brought down to around 150 B.C.2 However, a second testing by the same method
gave its date between 200 B.C. to 400 B.C. which shows that this monument is difinitely pre-
Ashokan.3 Since the Karle Cave is the latest among Hinayana cave complex, the date of creation
of all other caves in this category shifts to the pre-Ashokan period, which presents a paradoxical
situation to be solved by adopting some other method.
It is rather curious that these Hinayana caves should have little evidence to prove that they
belonged to this particular sect. Thus excepting a lotus motif at Nasik cave III and Gaja Laxmi on
the face of Bhutaleni cave XL at Junnar none of these caves show the motifs and symbols that
are peculiar to the Hinayana Sect.
On the contrary, there are several motifs carved on these caves which show a foreign
connection. Thus several sphinx carved at Karle, Kanheri, Junnar and Pitalkhora, a Centaur like
sculpture in Nasik cave 24, and at Bhaja, cave No. 22 (vihara) and triskellion design in isolated
chaitya hall at Junnar show a Greek origin.4 Zoomorphic figures on the caves at Nasik and other
places show Scythian influence.5 Therefore, it becomes necessary to search elsewhere for the
source of this cave art.
The pre-Ashokan period in Maharashtra has been influenced by a people called Megalithic
who had their source in the three districts of Nagpur, Bhandara and Chanda. This region contains
several hundred tombs of a people who had peculiar burial practices. After burning their dead
they collected the remains and buried them in graves along with all his wordly belongings such as
tools, weapons, ornaments, horse, horse-bits, and other items of pleasure. Most of these items
were placed in a special pottery having black and red colour. The grave was covered with soil
raised above ground level and huge boulder stones were placed on top to form a circle Several
such circles called cairns have been detected in the Nagpur region. From carbon dating it is
known that these Megalithic people established themselves in Nagpur region around 605 B.C.
They were experts in iron and steel making and produced almost all the implements and tools
such as we use even in modern times.6
Archaeologists have discovered several Megalithic graves in South India and from radio-
carbon dates of grave artefacts it is established that these people progressed to the South during
6th Century B.C., clearing forests, establishing settlements, building tanks, and irrigation. From
the study of their grave goods it has been established that they were a ranked society consisting
of various classes of rulers, traders, warriors and artisans.7
These people with steel chisel and hammer experimented several designs in the
construction of their graves. In Karnataka, they cut fine slates and had chamber tombs with a
small circular port-hole in the side wall probably for the use of the soul of the dead person. In
Andhra pradesh, huge stones were cut to form anthromorphic figures which stood over their
graves. In Tamilnadu, they arranged huge stones on their graves with a hatlike stone covering.
Finally in Kerala in Cochin and Malabar region they created rock-cut caves which are the main
object of our enquiry.8
Radio-carbon dates show that the Megalithic people arrived in Kerala around 500 B.C. Their
cave tombs generally had a stepped rectangular open court in the verticle rock surface in which a
small rectangular hole was made to scoop out rock from the inner chambers. These were small
single cells about six feet around. Their floor was one or two feet below the level of the open
court. The inner chamber was circular or paraboloid with raised stone benches and a central pillar
which was square, rectangle or round. The roofs of the chamber are generally domical or domed
vaults culminating in an opening at the top to admit light and air. There are stumps of stone pillars
rising from the floor of the cell with a circular depression on their top to place a pot. Majority of
these caves have a single cell, but there are caves with two, three or four chambers also, which
are interlinked. The grave goods were placed inside black and red ware pots which were placed
on the pillar stumps. The corpse or its remains were placed on the branches. The cave opening at
the top and the front side was closed with huge boulders to check robbers. Thus the Megalithic
rock-cut cave tomb architecture was designed to suit a burial monument.
The Nagpur region comprises of more than 70 man made caves which have been studied in
detail by Mr. S.K. Chitale, a famous historian from Nagpur. Most of these caves are single room
small-siz- tombs with front opening and grooves for fiting doors. It is proposed to compare their
physical features with those in Kerala Cave tombs.9

Domical Vault : The cave cutters in Kerala feared that a flat roof might collapse. They also
wanted an opening to admit light and air. Thus a dome was created out of necessity. In Nagpur
region such domical or gable shaped roof is noticed at Gayadongri and Delwada.
Kakshasana or a raised platform is found in Nagpur region in caves at Shirpur, Gayadongri,
Ramtek, Warud, Mana (Chandrapur) and Gawakala (Bhandak).
Decorative pillars are found in caves at Salbardi, Korambi and Mana in Nagpur region. This
correspondence in cave architecture in regions located 1000 km apart shows presence of a
common Megalithic tradition in South India during pre-Ashokan period. The Megalithic people in
Nagpur region were at sources of inventing steel chisel and hammer. Therefore, most probably
the caves in this region were created by their skill, workmanship and initiative. With this
background we may now proceed to consider the creation of caves in Western Maharashtra.
Archaeological excavations show that around 800 B.C. this western part of India had to
suffer extremely dry climate creating severe drought conditions for several decades. The aridity
lasted for more than a century. All the settlements astablished earlier with copper and bronze
tools had to be abandoned. It was only after 600 B.C. that these arid conditions changed,
normalcy restored and people returned to establish new colonies and townships. Now they were
equipped with iron tools.10
Bharuch and Sopara ports started functioning from 500 B.C. Maheshwar, Nasik, Junnar,
Thane and Kalyan show beginning of a new culture which thrived on trade of various items such
as spices, pearls, shells, salt, cloth, gold etc. People from all over the country flocked to this
region.
The Megalithic burials at Arni in Yeotmal district and Bhosari near Pune shows that people
from Nagpur region also travelled towards West. Caves at Patur near Akola aresimilar to those at
Nasik which shows that artists also proceeded to work in the new region. It is proposed to assess
their work in new environment.
The initial dome is now developed into an elongated domical vault as seen at Ajanta IX,
Aurangabad IV, Bhutleni, and Ganesh Leni VI at Junnar. The artist is not sure of the distribution of
load from the top. So he introduced wooden or stone ribs in the vaulted roof and pillars for
support. The roof on the side lanes or aisles is however, flat. Subsequently, he has become bold
enough to have a vaulted roof without pillars at Pitalkhora X. XII, and isolated chaitya at Junnar.
However, the side walls are cut inclining to support the load. Finally at Bhimashankar cave 11 at
Junnar the artist has evolved the final form with a quandriangular, Hall having flat roof without
pillars.
The ground plan of the cave also has its origin in megalithic cave tomb which was circular or
parabolic in shape. A circular cave was cut at Tulajaleni at Junnar. The parabola assumed an egg
shaped apsidal form which lasted for several centuries till early temples were constructed. This
form appears at Ajanta IX, Pitalkhora, X and XII, Nasik XVIII and several other Hinayana caves.
Wherever Plan could not be apsidal the pillars were arranged in that form around the stupa.
The term chaitya has been much misunderstood to mean a Buddhist prayer hall containing
an object of worship called a Stupa. In fact the term is derived from Sanskrit word. ‘Chita’ meaning
a funeral platform in the present context. Thus chaitya means a hall containing a platform for
placing funerary goods whose decorative form is a stupa. The word chaitya has been used in
inscriptions only in this sense and nothing more. Therefore, even Hindu Brahmins are mentioned
as donors of Chaityas in some inscriptions such as Kondivate IX and Kuda IX.
The stupa appears to have been evolved from circular stone stubs in the megalithic cave
tombs intended for placing relics together with other grave goods meant for all worldly pleasures.
A mithuna(couple)carved on the harmika in cave XI I at Pitalkhora and in cave XXV a & b at Kuda
serve this purpose. The stupa at Pitalkhora had crystal casket containing bones and ashes.11
These facts show that the stupa was not an object of worship but a decorative platform for
placing relics of important persons such as Kshatrapas, kings and warriors. This is the reason
why they have been carved not only in chaityas but also in Viharas with special rooms for the
donor and his family members. This explains excavation of several cubicles with platforms for
placing grave goods. All these caves have arrangement for fitting doors which must have been
kept closed.
The Megalithic chamber tombs had a circular port hole which appears in the form of a
chaitya window in the rock cut caves.
The Brahmi script was invented around 300 B.C. There after inscriptions have been
recorded in these caves noting donation of a cave or its part in memory of some ancestor. By
doing so they had only reduced to writing their long tradition of erecting memorial tombs. In fact
only 70 out of 500 early caves carry such inscriptions. So many of the remaining 430 caves might
be belonging to a period earlier than 300 B.C.
The Inscriptions specifically note names of father and sons. This region was ruled by Shaka
Kshatrapas upto A.D. 300 and from their coins it is known that noting names of father and son
was a Shaka tradition. Inscription in caves in Nagpur region also follow it. Consistant following of
this Shaka tradition by Megalithic builders appears to confirm their Shaka origin.
In conclusion it may be stated that the Caves in Maharashtra having Chaityas, Viharas and
Mandapas14 are not Buddhist or Hindu temples but burial tombs of the Shaka Kshatrapas and
their people who ruled Maharashtra upto A.D. 300. The stupas inside these caves are not objects
of worship but decorative platforms for placing relics of important personalities. The Kakshasana
or benches in small cubicles are not intended for sleeping but for placing grave goods and the
chaitya window is an opening for the soul of the dead.

REFERENCES
1. M K. Dhavalikar, Late Hinayana Cares of Western India. Pune 1984.
2. S. Nagaraju, Buddhist Architecture of Western India, Delhi 1981. pp. 28, 37, 350
3. S.L. Posshel, Radio Carbon Dating, Man and Environment, Vol. XV III, 1988, p. 169
4. Suresh Vasant, Yavana in Western India. D.C P.R I Bulletin 88-89, Vol. 47-48.
5. M. I. Artamonov, Tresures from the Scythian Tomb, London 1969.
6. S.B. Deo. Problems of South Indian Megaliths, Dharwar 1973
7. S Udai Ravi Moorthi, Article, Puratatva No. 20, 1989-90. pp. 1- 10
8. B.K. Gururaj Rao, Megalithic Culture in South India. Prasaranga, Mysore-1972
9 S.K. Chitale, Article, Maharashtra Itihas. Ani Sanskriti. (Marathi). pp. 30-40.
10. M. K. Dhavalikar, Chalcolithic Cultures, Puratatva, 13, 14, 1985, p. 64.
11. S Nagaraju, ibid, pp. 28, 37, 340

❖❖❖
CAVES IN VIDARBHA
The language of the inscriptions in the caves in Vidarbha helps us in dating the beginning of
art of writing in India as around 500 B.C. Panini provided the phonetic basis for writing Brahmi and
Kharosti. They were standardised during the Mauryan Empire which is evident from the Ashokan
inscriptions throughout the sub-continent. This early script uses circular shapes for its alphabets.
Subsequently from 100 B.C. the Indo-Greek Kings used Kharoshti and Brahmi for their coin
legends. While doing so they introduced angular shapes in place of circular forms of letters.
These changes appear in the following alphabets in Brahmi.
Ha, Sa, Pa, Va, La, Ma
The introduction of angular form was due to the Greek influence.

Subsequently the Kushana emperors around 100 A.D. used these changed shapes in their
inscriptions. Verticle lines in letters Ha, Sa, Pa and La, were extended upward. Shapes of the
following alphabates were also changed. Gha, Ja, Pha, Kha, Ga, Cha.
Thus the shape of the letters helps in determining the time bracket of the monument
carrying an inscription even though it might have been disfigured and rendered illegible.
Another tradition left behind by the Indo-Scythians or the Shakas was mentioning fathers
name in inscriptions. This practice is strictly followed in the Scythian coin legends. The Shakas
had a patriarchal form of family while the Indians followed Matriarchal form which is evident from
the Satavahana Kings mentioning their mothers name in their epigraphs.
Other inscriptions recording donations by common persons also mention mother’s name.
Keeping in mind the above observations we shall proceed to examine the cave complexes in
Vidarbha. Ashoka’s rock edict at Deotek in Chandrapur district shows that the Vidarbha region
was a part of the Mauryan Empire. A brief report of our survey is presented hereafter :
Nagpur Dist
1) Chandala : This is a small man-made cave located about 4 km from the taluka place
Kuhi discovered by the Late Dr. S.B. Dco, in 1970. The cave admeasuring 10’x1O’x5', is in a
dilapidated condition. However a small stone slab of size 3’x4' lying in its front carries an epigraph
in Ashokan Brahmi with Prakrit language. It reads’Wandalaka’s putas Apalakas Kamam’ meaning
thereby that the work has been done by Apilaka S/o. Wandalaka. The style is Ashokan Brahmi
with letters 4" long fixing the date of the Cave around 200 B.C. The slab carries a second line
which mentions a name ‘Okiyas’. These letters are 3" long. This is one of the earliest cave located
at a distance of 30 km South-East of Nagpur. At a further distance of 30 km in the same direction
lies the famous historic town of Pawani on the river Wainganga. A stupa built in Mauryan bricks
around 300 B.C. is located near this town.

2) Jagan-Cope : It is located in the Chadala forest near the village Pullar, about 10 km
south of Mandhal. The place is located at the top of a hillock with steps leading to a court yard
neatly cut out of red sandstone. The cubicle shaped cave measuring 10’x9’x5' stands at one end
of the yard.
A lintel is cut over the entry door. The walls carry chisel marks. At present the cave is used
for housing idols. A cement plaster on the floor covers an epigraph in Brahmi as per local
memories. The exterior of the cave also carry some letters in Brahmi which are illegible but their
shape show them to be belonging to the Ashokan period.

3) Satbhoki : The Satbhoki caves are included in the annual report of the Nagpur University
for the year 1971-72. Located in Kuhi taluka at a distance of 8 km from Pullar they are seven
small cubicles of 5' dimensions each with an entry hole of 2 ½' size. There is a small pot cut on
the floor inside. They resemble the megalithic caves in Kerala used for placing relics. They are cut
on a hill slope covering an area 50’x50'.

4) Ramtek : The famous cave at Ramtek and its adjoining hillock near Mansal carry some
man made caves. While climbing from Shambuka temple at Ramtek a Shiva temple appears
located in an old man made cave. At Mansal recent excavations of a stupa disclosed two man
made caves with door properly shaped in Mauryan bricks.

5) Gadpayali : Ambhora is a famous religious centre with the confluence of five rivers
meeting at Wainganga located at a distance of 65 km east of Nagpur. Here a high mountain
called Kolasur contains four large caverns resembling a tunnel. At the outset they appear to be
natural but their facade is carved by skilled hands. There is also a small tank carved out near the
entrance. These caves need a further study.

6) Pimperdole : These hills are situated at a distance of 10 km from Umred on the road
leading to Makar- dhokda. They are covered with lush green forest and abode of wild animals. So
it is dangerous to enter the forest alone or unarmed. A place called Matya’s hill has five man-
made caves on its top. The stone is hard granite in which five caves stand excavated, on the hill
slope on a raised platform of 5' each. Two caves measuring 6 x 10’ x 5' have a domical roof. The
third cave has a flat roof with a verandah and an antechamber both measuring 10’ x 8’ x 5'. The
fourth cave is smaller in size 8’x6’x5' with an epigraph rendered illegible. The shape of the letters
indicates it to be of the Ashokan period. The last cave is a natural depression on the mountain
side.
7) Gayadongri : This hill is located about 10 km south of Umred in Bhiwapur Taluka near
villages Pahani, Chinchala, Jawali and Wasi. Wasi is nearest to the two caves, cut in red
sandstone. Their domical roof and other features are an exact copy of caves at Pimperdole and
hence belong to the same period. There is an attempt to cut a platform in one of the caves.
8) Bhivkund : Bhivsen is a tribal god occupying at present the topmost cave in the complex
located on the slopes of the Bhivkund mountain just near the bus stop at Choti Deori which is 20
km north of Kuhi. The metal road is well maintained and a bus plies regularly from Nagpur. The
caves nearest to the road at the bottom of the complex tender rich evidence. Two adjoining caves
here are identical in shape and size each having a verandah and an anteroom. One cave contains
a chase board pattern design carved on the floor of the Verandah which embodies a human figure
most probably a dead person in whose memory the cave was excavated. Nearby lies a carved
outline of a headless horse which definitely suggests an Aswamedha offering to the dead person.
This was the Scythian practice clearly evident from their Megalithic circles found in large numbers
in Nagpur region, and this suggest a date earlier than 300 B.C. for this cave complex.
The caves are about 100 sq. ft. in size with a lintel, pillar, and a courtyard. A lane cut in the
side rock leads to its back with steps suggesting a way to an underground chamber which is
completely filled with debris. Some stones carrying Brahmi letters are lying in a small rivulet in
front. Climbing a little further towards the back portion are seen two more caves with a courtyard
neatly cut in stone. It measures about 1600 sq.ft. One of the cave carries on its top 8 letters in
Brahmi which read ‘Waiwaswat’. There is a door on the backside suggesting a way to an
underground chamber totally filled with debris. These chambers call for careful excavation so as
to throw more light on the history of these caves. The whole complex has been white-washed by
the local people thus disturbing valuable evidence.
At the top of the hill lies a small depression which has been converted into a circular
chamber tomb, 5 ft. in diametre, by arranging well cut stone slabs along its walls. A small hole of
the size 2’x2' at the top permits entry into the chamber. At present it accomodates the tribal Lord
Bhivsen. The river Wainganga flowing nearby is having one more cave complex on its bank which
is still unexplored.
9) Bhuyari : This single cave may prove a landmark in the evolution of cave art in Nagpur
region. The place is near village Bhuyari, 5 krn north of Vedadhamana located at 30 km from
Nagpur on Amraoti road. The cave is excavated at a small hillock near the village and is about 10'
below the ground level. The entry steps lead to a small courtyard with a verandah and a small
door for the antechamber 100 sq. ft. in size with a platform 3’x3' attached to its backwall. The
inner floor is two feet below the outer and there is no outlet for the rain water. Remains of lintel
are visible on the outer surface. There is evidence of some paintings on the inner walls. On the
left wall seven letters carved in Brahmi are seen and can be read as samaya danam meaning a
donation in memorium which proves the antiquity of Bhuyari. A small river the Vena flows nearby
on whose banks arc located Megalithic circles.

10) Ramgad : The cave stands in a mountain overlooking the village Masod 10 km from
Kondhali which is 45 km away from Nagpur on Amraoti road. This cave is an exclusive example of
excavating a tunnel for the creation of a Chaitya. The Ashokan artist could not cut such a tunnel at
Rajgir in Bihar due to fear of collapse of the roof. Therefore they cut seven caves parallel to the
mountain surface. Similar caves are noticed at Kondivate near Andheri in Bombay and at Junnar.
Therefore a proper Chaitya with a stupa could not be created during Ashokan times. The
Ramgad cave shows that the artists had overcome the difficulty in cutting a tunnel. The feat was
repeated at Vijaysen cave complex at Bhadravati.
The Ramgad cave is 60’x15’xl0' in size with a”domical roof. Excavation has been done from
the ground level upwards as seen from the chisel marks. There is no Chaitya window and the
whole facade has been cut open just like the cave at Bhaje. The cave definitely belongs to the
early experimental stage bafore Ashokan period.

Dist. Wardha
1) Excavation at Pawanar, near Wardha has disclosed several images relating to
Ramayana. The lowest strata relates to 1000 B.C.
2) Dhaga lies at 40 km between Wardha and Kondhali. Here an attempt is made to
convert a big rift in the mountain side into a cave by enclosing the frontage with stone and brick.
Dist. Amraoti
1) Archaeological excavation at Kundinpur on the river Wardha has shown the lowest
strata related to 1000 B.C.
2) Nagzira : These caves are located in the southern range of the Satpura near the
town Warud. The hills are crescent shaped with water falls. Two caves of approx. size 500 sq. ft.
have been cut in the hill side 4' above ground level. A Court yard is cut and levelled in front. One
cave contains a platform of size 6’x3' with a niche in the wall for placing a lamp or a pot. There is
a line cut above the entry door suggesting use of lintel. The next cave has the image of a Yaksha.
Yaksha worship was very much popular in North India around 300 B.C. which also appears to he
the date of these caves.
3) Devi Lene-Chikhaldara : This famous hill station, 100 km north of Amaravati
contains a natural cavern on its western ridge converted into a cave measuring 15’ x 10’ x 5'.
The roof and the floor are neatly dressed with a platform and a niche.
4) Salbardi : While the caves at Ajantha and Ellora are world famous few people know
about an earlier attempt in Satpura range, for creating similar caves. The place is located on the
bank of the river Maru on the northern border of Amaravati district. Cave No. 11 at Ajanta is an
exact replica of Cave No. II at Salbardi. It consists of a verandah, a central hall and an anteroom.
The central hall contains a square shaped platform embodied by four pillars on its corners. In the
centre it contains a coffin like depression. Such a coffin is prescribed in Hindu scriptures for a
brahmin observing regular fire worship. (Agnihotra)
Cave No. I is abandoned due to bad quality of the rock. The third cave has been later
converted into a temple of Mahanubhav Sect. The rocky land surrounding these caves contain
several mortices of standard size 6"x6" most probably for placing relics of the dead. Similar pot
holes also appear on the rocky bank of the river below, dating 400 B.C.
Dist. Akola
Patur : The only cave complex at Patur, 27 km south of Akola has been widely studied. Its
deisgn is similar to the caves at Salbardi. The hill containing these four caves is made of red
sandstone with veins of chalcedony. The frontage consists of a well cut courtyard of the size of
80’x40'. Two caves have a verandah each with pillars, a central chamber and an anteroom. Two L
shaped rooms are cut on both sides. One cave contains a platform with a Shivalinga having
square base instead of circular base introduced later which shows its antiquity. The floor which
lies 2' lower, is full of mortices and cupmarks arranged in chase board design. There is no image
or figure anywhere in these caves.

The most important evidence lies in the form of an epigraph written in Ashokan Brahmi at
the top of the front door. It has been disfigured but a few words at the beginning read chetiya
thala meaning a grave yard. Therefore the caves at Salbardi and Patur appear to have been
created for placing relics before regular chaityas were cut at Pitalkhora, Bhaja or Nasik and
therefore may be dated to the Ashokan period.

Dist. Bhandara
The District lying on both sides of the river Wainganga occupies the eastern most part of
Vidarbha. Pawani is one of the oldest towns mentioned as Kushawati in the famous drama
Mricchkatika dated around 300 B.C. Dr. S.B. Deo has shown that the stupa at this place is older
than 300 B.C. Surrounding region is full of man-made caves at Korambi, Bijali, Gaimukh,
Kacharagad, Amgaon and Koka.
The megalithic burial in the form of a dolmen is available at Pimpalgaon, Tilota Khairy and
Brombi, 40 km south of Bhandara.
Korambi : These caves lie 10 km north of Pawani in a lush green mountain range full of wild
animals.
A twin set of caves larger than normal size appear behind the neatly cut court yard. The first
cave measures 15’ x 10’ 6' while the 2nd T shaped cave is of size 20’x10’x6'. Both the caves have
a small entrance 2’x3' reminding similar megalithic caves in Kerala. The floor is 2' below ground
level. So that rain water seeps inside rendering the caves useless for human habitation. Both
caves have a neatly cut pillar in the middle supporting the domical roof. The purpose behind
cutting such odd monuments is not clear.
Other caves in Bhandara district have not yet been explored.

Dist. Yeotmal
Cutting underground Chambers is a megalithic activity. The Scythians/Shakas were famous
for cutting large size stepped wells in rock. Famous Sanskrit grammarian Panini describes the
Shakas as Warkas and their wells as Shakandhu. Caves have been cut in the side walls of these
tanks.
In Yeotmal district such underground chambers are noticed in the Ganesh temple at
Kalamb, 30 km on Wardha road and Nimbdanava, 50 km on Pusad road. Similar chambers exist
at Devi Pimpalgaon 20 km from Malakapur, Nagziri near Shegaon and Devi temple Chandrapur.
Kawadasa : Eight km away on Sirpur Ghuggus road in Wani Taluq lie two caves measuring
about 100 sq. ft., cut at a height of 30' above ground level. Both have a small entrance of 2’ x 3'.
At Mahur River Painganga flows on the southern border between Yeotmal and Nanded
districts. Just beyond the river on a hill lies the famous religious abode of goddess Renuka. Two
huge caves have been cut in a mountain cliff lying 3 km away. At the end of a neatly cut court
yard in a crescent shaped cliff stand these stately monuments of huge sizes beyond imagination.
Cave No. 1 has a front verandah with 10 arches spanning 15' each interspaced with pillars of
irregular shape. This cave has been abandoned due to faulty rock. The second cave similar to the
first has 10 chambers behind the verandah. One chamber has an image about 6' tall with curly
hairs and a loin cloth with proper folds. From the back rises a cobra suggesting presence of
Nagaraja. Two Yaksha images 12' tall guard the door. Yaksha worship prevailed in North India
around 300 B.C. The floors are rough and have several pot-holes or mortices all over. The edges
of the doors have slanting holes serving as hold-fast, suggesting a date when iron brackets and
hold-fasts were not used.
The pillars have a square base with cushion capital. There are remains of a decoration with
human figures. The upper portion depicts flying Gandharvas while the lower half shows
surrounding world. One figure shows a ram called Naigamesh. Figures of Shankara and his family
call be identified. A sage with axe appears to be Lord Parshurama. In another chamber stands a
Shivalinga without the supporting circular base suggesting a date earlier than Guddimallam in the
south dated around 100 B.C.
All the above factors establish the antiquity of these caves. At the top of this hill are lying
megalithic circles. This close association suggests a possibility of authorship of these caves to the
Megalithic people around 400 B.C.
Nimbadarava : Dr. Dixit has recorded existence of a man-made cave at this place 50 km
from Yeotmal. The caves are on a hill near village Daheli. A medieval superstructure is
constructed over an underground chamber cut in stone. It consists of eight chambers having a
common roof and appear like a godown. The bricks are of Mauryan size. There is a water cistern
5' tall with mouth 2' wide cut in stone. Such cisterns were used during Satavahana period when
copper and Bronze vessels were rare.

Dist. Chandrapur
This southernmost region of Vidarbha now stands divided into two districts Chandrapur and
Gadchiroli. Both contain thick teakwood jungle habitated by several tribes for more than 5000
years.
There are several places having megalithic circles. Besides these other megalithic burial
types are also available. Menhirs are noticed at Nagbheed while dolmens can be seen at Hirapur
near Chimur, and Kelzar near Chamorshi.
Bhadravati : Indian cave art is a music in stone. Its first notes have been strung in Vidarbha.
The Vijaysen caves, 5 km from Bhandak show successful cutting of three tunnels starting from a
single point, having a wide courtyard. The larger central cave is 64' deep while the caves on its
both sides are 38' and 32' in length. Thus after the Ramgad cave this in the first successful
attempt in cave digging. The tunnels have a domical roof and slanting side walls having Mauryan
polish. Earlier the caves belonged to the Hinayana sect. A dado line starting from the door shows
the end of early work. A stupa carved on the entrance wall shows that its creating inside the cave
was not yet visualised. This is of the Ashokan period. Thereafter the backwalls in each cave were
further cut to create an image of Lord Buddha. There is an illegible inscription in Ashokan Brahmi
on the left wall of the central cave. General Cunningham suggested a date around 100 A.D. for
this complex.
1) Bhandak : There is a cave complex in the public health centre at Bhandak. A
stepped well has been cut into an area of 50’x50'. Caves are cut near the bottom in the verticle
sides of this tank. Caves in two walls are completely filled with debris. Only one wall has an open
cave with Verandah measuring 37’ x 17’ x 10'. The back wall contains three chambers of size 150
sq. ft. each, housing images of various deities of later dates.
2) Another complex containing a stepped well adjoining an underground chamber is
located about 100 mtr. ahead. There is a Nagaraja temple covering the underground chamber
whose door opens in the well. The top surface is completely rocky and it is surprising how search
for water was made in a rocky bed.
1) Deolwada : 11 km southwest of Bhandak lies this old town with ancient monuments
spread all over. While entering the town an upright pillar of the height 10' with a base 5’ x 5' is
seen alongwith several broken images. The pillar is a Menhir of megalithic period. At the further
end of the town on a small hillock are carved six dwarfish caves. Their facade is a 6' semi-circular
arch containing a small door of the size 3’x2' with a still smaller side window. The caves have a
pillar, a platform and domical roof. They are definitely not for human habitation, but early
Megalithic burrials of 400 B.C.
4) Ghugus : This small village lying 30 km northwest of Chandrapur has three small
caves just by the roadside. Two are broken and one is in good condition and is 6' round in size.
There is a pillar and platform inside the cave with the floor being 2'. below ground level. Another
pillar 5' tall stands nearby depicting a woman’s hand worshipping a Shivalinga and Sun and Moon
in the sky. It is a war memorial.
5) Mana : This hill outside Chandrapur town can be reached by the road leading to
the Engg. college at Bhiwapur. Four caves here have pillars carved in the corner arched doors
and lotus design on the wall. There is an inscription in Ashokan Brahmi which decides its date.
6) Bhatala : This small village 12 km east of Warora is full of antiquities comprising
images of Yaksha, pillars, old temple and caves. Two small caves of three feet size are carved
near the entry to the town. Two more caves stand on the bank of a tank. They are similar in size
to the caves at Deolwada. There are cupmarks arranged in chase board design just outside the
door which shows their link with the megalithic people.
7) Ramdighi Cave : This natural cavern stands in a thick forest 10 km from village
Chandai in Chimur Taluka. It size is 35’x30’x7' which has been cut and dressed for proper use.
The floor contains several pot holes probably used as morticles for placing relics.
8) Mohali : This cave complex is located near the village Kunghada near the town
Mohali on the Nagpur-Brahmapuri road. There are five caves of 6' height cut in a single huge rock
at the ground level. Entry door is 3’x3' and roof is domical. One cave contains an epigraph in
Ashokan Brahmi, reading ‘Shivaswami puttas game Pamae’ meaning that the cave has been cut
by son of Shivaswami belonging to village Pamae. The practice of mentioning father’s name is
known only from the Shaka coins. Again the term ‘Swami’ is a transliteration of Shaka word
‘Murunda’. Therefore these small caves appear to have been cut by the Scythian megalithic
authors in 400 B.C. The presence of menhirs in nearby Nagbhir town confirms this proposition.
9) Sasti : These caves near town Sasti 15 km south of Chandrapur are cut in the
rocky bank of the river Wardha. Six caves along with several water cisterns, mortices and
cupmarks prove that it was an old cemetry used by the Megalithic people. Even today the river
bank is used as a cremation ground.
Two large caves near the water level are of 6' height, inner floor 2' lower, domical roof, a
platform and several images are carved in deep relief in stone on the walls of the caves. There is
a Shivalinga cut in stone with its mouth towards left which is the wrong direction and it indicates
that it belongs to the period of the beginning of its worship. The images most probably are of the
Yakshas. The whole complex is submerged under water during the rainy season. Thereafter the
caves are cleaned, figures painted to give them different forms of gods and worshipped by the
local people.
The lower cave tenders valuable proof of the presence of the megalithic people in this area,
on the left wall has a horse depicted and its rider is holding weapons. The painted horse is fully
caparisoned. It does not form part of any deity worshipped there. Its antiquity indicates a link with
the megalithic people who sacrified a horse and buried it together a dead person. The horse rider
depicts this tradition. A memorial pillar standing outside the cave also shows picture of a warrior.
Thus the cave complex can definitely be attributed to the megalithic tradition around Chandrapur
in 400 B.C.
10) Kothari : Two more caves have been cut in the high rock cliff on the bank of river
Wardha near this town, 30 km south of Chandrapur. They contain cup-marks arranged in chase
board pattern alongwith mortices proving megalithic presence.
This brief survey shows that the cave art started in Nagpur region before Ashokan period.
The experience gained from cutting small structures in rock could easily be transferred to other
regions for creating larger caves.

❖❖❖
EVOLUTION OF CAVE ARCHITECTURE
Cave Architecture means the study of that human activity by which man created habitation
sites in rocks using his own tools. It excludes caves created by natural forces. In the present
context it refers to those caves created in India as religious centres after 600 B.C.E.
The Cave architecture in India is closely linked with religion. Of about 1200 odd rock-cut
caves, 900 are Buddhist, 200 Jain, and 100 belong Vedic tradition. Nearly 75 percent of these
caves are concentrated in the western part of the country. About seven caves are located in the
Nagarjuni and the Barabar hills of Bihar, 34 Jain caves are located in the Udaigiri and the
Khandagiri hills of Orissa, 140 caves arc located in the Kathiawad region of Gujarath, and the rest
are distributed all over South India. A close scrutiny shows that almost all these caves are finished
products of master craftsmen. They have been created after 600 B.C.E. when iron technology
was completely mastered. A brief account of its progress is given below before studying the
evolution of the Cave Art.
Eventhough the iron ore and the extraction of the iron metal was known in India as early as
1500 B.C.E., the technology for its large scale preparation for making articles of’ daily use could
be achieved only around 600 B.C.E. This technique was successfully developed by a people
known as belonging to the Megalithic age who migrated from the northern parts of India around
600 B.C.E. and settled in central India in Nagpur region on the banks of river Wainganga. These
people were known for their peculiar burial practices. They buried a dead person along with his
articles of daily use. A warrior was buried with his horse or horse trappings. Ladies were provided
with their utensils and ornaments in the graves. These graves were covered with large stone
boulders arranged in circles of 40 to 50 feet diameters. Because of such use of huge stones they
are called Megalithic. The stone circles are called cairns. Hundreds of such cairns have been
discovered in the three districts of Nagpur, Bhandara and Chandrapur in the eastern part of
Maharashtra. At Naikund 40 k.m. north of Nagpur, a small iron furnace belonging to the Megalithic
period was discovered.

Kerala Coast
By 500 B.C.E., these people reached the coast of Kerala where their cave tombs are still
available for study. These are the earliest man-made rockcut caves in India.
A study of the grave goods of these people by the Deccan College Pune, has established
that they were an organised community comprising of various classes such as rulers, priests,
warriors, traders, farmers and artisans. While progressing towards the Kerala coast, on the way
they made several experiments all over South India with their burial monuments, such as, open
rock-cut caves, underground chambers with passage, pits covered with slab cists, upright
memorial pillars called Menhirs, box-like stone graves called dolmens and stone cairns. All these
varieties are available for study in Nagpur region. For further study of evolution of the cave art
they are grouped into 7 categories.
1. Early Vedic, 2. Early Buddhist, 3. Early Jaina, 4. Other early caves, 5. Later Buddhist
caves, 6. Later Vedic caves, and 7. Later Jain caves.

Early Brahminical Caves
At the outset the caves in Nagpur region bear a striking resemblance with their counter
parts in Kerala with the following common features.
1. Small size, 2. A small circular hole at the top for entry, 3. Domical or circular roof, 4. Floor
below ground level, 5. A small platform inside the cave for placing pots containing relics, 6. A
central supporting pillar, 7. Benches for placing the dead body or relics.
Further, the caves in Nagpur region show a slow process of development, tests and trials in
cave art. Some of them carry an inscription in Ashokan Brahmi which shows their antiquity. These
caves can be classified into six groups based on their development pattern.
1. Small circular holes of about 3 feet diameter were made in the beginning in the
hillside cliffs which could be closed with a boulder. Such arrangement is noticed in caves at
Mansar Korambi, Bhivsen, Satbhoki, Adasa, Gaydongri and Ambakhori in Dist. Nagpur and
Deolwada and Ghuggus in Dist. Chandrapur.

2. Next the cave size is increased. They have a facade with grooves for fitting lintel,
doors, or mats as seen at Bhivsen, Ramgad, Jagankupi and Tarana in Nagpur Dist.
3. Further, the artist has paid more attention to the finishing of a cave. The interior is
neatly dressed creating a platform or a bench and a pillar with a square cut room. A small
verandah is created in some cases. Such caves are located at Pauni and Bhuyari Dist. Nagpur,
Muktagiri Dist. Amaravati, Kawadasa Dist. Yeotmal and Ramdighi, Mana, and Deolwada Dist.
Chandrapur.
4. To avoid any possibility of collapse, a rocky surface on plain ground was selected
in which vertical shafts were cut to a depth of 20 to 30 feet. Thereafter large underground
chambers with sufficient dimension were cut in rocks leaving a thin roof. Such chambers are
found at the Bhavani temple and the Nagnath temple at Bhadravati, Dist. Chandrapur, the Devi
temple at Chandrapur, the Ganesh temple at Kalamba Dist. Yeotmal.
5. A further, progress was achieved in cutting a large size cave dug at the foot hills.
Here the roof is domical, walls inclined and span of the cave narrow so as to avoid any possibility
of the collapse of the structure. The caves are cut like a tunnel, 40 to 50 feet deep, and 10 feet
wide. Such caves are found at Ramgad and Saimandir cave, Dist. Nagpur and three caves at
Vijaysen near Bhadravati, Dist. Chandrapur.
6. Finally after gaining sufficient confidence and experience, the artists created a cell
with a verandah at Salbardi, Dist. Betul, Patur, Dist. Akola, and Mahur, Dist. Nanded.
This evolution of the cave art in Nagpur region is at the source of the perfect technique
exhibited in the western Indian caves. Sudden death of an art form can sometimes be explained
but not a sudden birth which must have an evolutionary background.
The inscriptions on some of these monuments mentioned the word chaitya which shows
their purpose. They were an attempt to create in stone replicas of burial monuments called
chaityas built of wood and bricks in North India. This chaitya worship is prescribed in a Hindu
scripture titled Ashwalayan Grihyasutra. These rules prescribe rituals from birth to death to be
performed by a householder. Bhagwan Buddha had advised the Licchhavi people to continue
their chaitya worship. The Megalithic people stayed in Nagpur region from 600 B.C.E. to 300
B.C.E. during which period this development of cave art took place. Subsequently they spread
throughout South India where they created similar monuments. These caves of the Vedic tradition
provided the basic structures that provided models for early Buddhist caves created during
Ashoka’s regime. All these early structures invariably contain mortices or pots for placing relics.
Early Buddhist Caves
The earliest experiments in creation of caves for the use of Buddhist monks were made
during the reign of king Ashoka Maurya around 250 B.C.E. His empire spread from Afghanistan to
Bengal in the North and upto Karnataka in the South in the Indian sub-continent. It facilitated free
movement of skilled artisans. The first attempt to create a Buddhist chaitya in stone is noticed at
the Nagarjuna and the Barabar caves in Bihar. These seven caves are similar in design and
layout. They comprise of a rectangular hall and measuring approximately 35 x 20 feet whose
longitudinal axis is parallel to the rock surface.
Thus the risk of excavating deep in the rock is avoided. The height of the side walls is about
six feet. They are slanting and designed to support the domical roof above, which is four feet in
height at the centre. There is a raised platform at one end and the whole structure has a smooth
Mauryan polish from inside. All the seven caves have been carved out on these lines. The cave
called the ‘Sudama’ has two chambers of which the inner chamber has circular base and
hemispherical domed roof. Its outer chamber has inclined walls with vaulted roof which extends
beyond the outer walls so as to create an cave.
Another cave named after Rishi Lomas is similar to the cave ‘Sudama’ but left unfinished
because of a flaw in the rock, However, its door in a completed state shows an earliest example
of the facade of a chaitya hall. Its longitudinal rafters are supported by massive pillars which are
slightly inclined. The door jambs are also inclined. Over the rafters is a carved roof which appears
to be triple plated consisting of longitudinal planks. The ‘Sudama’ cave carried an inscription
which confirms its date around 250 B.C. Another inscription in the ‘Milkmaid’ cave shows that the
construction was completed within 50 years. It is really surprising that a ‘stupa’ the principle object
of worship of the Buddhist is prominently missing from this cave complex created under Ashoka’s
supervision, most probably because they were initially created for the Ajivikas and subsequently
occupied by the Buddhist monks.

Early Jaina Caves
The next group of early caves is found in the East in the Udaigiri and Khandagiri hills near
Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa. Ashoka’s famous rock edict is carved in a nearby village called Dhauli.
Here an attempt is made to avoid an undue weight over the cave roof by selecting the rocky
slopes of the hills in which single cells with open court or a group of cells with front verandah have
been carved leaving a thin roof at the top. Their door jambs are inclined. Some of these caves are
double storeyed. The cells have been highly embellished with sculptures similar to those at the
Bharhut stupa and therefore datable around 200 B.C.E. Paleographic study of the inscriptions in
these caves also suggests a similar date. Another inscription by king Kharavela in the
Hathigumpha cave also supports their antiquity. In Kondagiri hills in the ‘Ananta’ cave there is an
image of goddess Lakshmi standing on lotus with two elephants worshiping her precisely similar
to the images at Sanchi and Bharahut. All these factors show that these caves were created
during the Mauryan rule. However none of these caves contain a stupa or its carving in relief to
suggest their link with Buddhism. On the contrary there are some scenes in Udaigiri caves which
show an abduction scene and sculptured figures of warriors contrary to the Buddhist or Jaina
preaching. Similar scenes have been carved in cave no. III at Nasik and the Chaitya cave at
Bhaja. Therefore it appears to be a work of Megalithic artists from Nagpur Region centrally
located between these two places. Subsequently these caves were occupied by Jain monks.
Other Early Caves
Another group of early caves is located in the Kathiawad peninsula of the Gujrath State.
The main groups are found at Junagad, Sana and Talaja. Mount Girnar near Junagad city, had
been a sacred place from the earliest times, where king Ashoka had his rock edict carved at the
foot of the hill. His governor Tushaspa had created a lake named Sudarshana nearby. Here an
attempt was also made to create a cave complex at three different places in small rocky hills.
The Kaprakodia palace located in the northern part of Junagad city was created by cutting
four square shafts in a rocky hill to a depth of thirty feet. Around these shafts were cut passages,
verandahs, and corridors having antechambers whose walls were aligned with benches. A two
storeyed building with a thin roof was cut out and the exterior rock completely removed so as to
present the appearance of a palatial building cut out of a single rock. A fifth shaft on the western
side contains a staircase which leads to the roof. No Buddhist symbol whatsoever is seen
anywhere in this cave.
In another cave in the fort situated in the heart of the city, the same method of cutting
vertical shafts has been adopted. Here the rocky bottom of the descent of a hill is chosen for
digging two square vertical shafts sunk to a depth of nearly 30 feet. Galleries and chambers have
been cut in the surrounding areas to create a two storeyed structure with a large hall,
admeasuring 30 x 40 feet in the basement along with bathrooms. The walls all over are
surrounded by bench recesses over which chaitya windows appear as an ornamentation. Barring
this, there is no sign to show that this structure was a chaitya or a monastery. It resembles more
like a garden house for pleasures.
A third experiment in the eastern side of the fort has been attempted by cutting the rounded
spur of a hill to form a colony of caves now called Baba Pyare Math. All rock surrounding the
caves has been cleared for cross lanes. One of the cell has an apsidal end and a facade with
chaitya window decoration. Attempt to create a chaitya hall with a stupa is also visible at two other
cave complexes of Sana and Talaja. Excepting these primitive attempts, there is no sign of
Buddhist presence in this region, subsequently these caves were also occupied by the Jain
monks.
With this background of an early attempt of creation of caves in Bihar, Orissa and Gujarath
a further study of evolution of the cave art in western Maharashtra can be persued. Buddhism
spread in Maharashtra only during the Ashokan regime when the earliest chaityas were
excavated. The circular plan which was adopted at Rajgir in Bihar was tried in Maharashtra at
Tulja leni, cave No. III at Junnar, Kanheri No. XXXVI, Andheri near Mumbai and Bedsa, Dist.
Pune.
The arrival of the Megalithic people at Nasik is supported by sufficient archaeological
evidence. The excavation at Nasik shows that the earlier chalcolithic settlement had to be closed
around 800 B.C.E. due to adverse ecological factors. All other ancient settlements in Western
Maharashtra such as Prakashe, Daimabad, Inamgaon, Jorwe were similarly disturbed.
A fresh settlement was established at Nasik and other places around 400 B.C.E. by a
people using Northern Black polish ware, a pottery which was in use in North India since 600
B.C.E. They also used black and red ware pottery which was used by the Megalithic people for
placing relics and other articles in their graves. Further a Megalithic cairn circle was discovered at
the foot of the hill situated at a distance of 10 k.m. from Nasik. This hill called Tri-Rashmi which
carries on its top a group of 24 caves was created by the local people. This evidence shows an
active participation of the Megalithic people in creation of caves. While in Nagpur region they had
successfully created a cell with a verandah, a well with underground chambers and three deep
tunnels at Bhadravati in Chandrapur Dist. With this experience they proceeded to work on the
chaitya cave at Bhaja Dist. Pune.

Later Buddhist Caves
The Deccan trap which overlies the country and forms the hill side every where in Western
India is exceptionally well suited for cutting caves. Every where it lies in uniform horizontal layers
and have alternate horizontal stratas of hard and soft rock which permit interpolation of caves
between two hard layers. These rocks are impervious to moisture. Their vertical cliffs are natural
and most suited for creating a decorated front elevation of the caves.
The circular or apsidal form of plan was most natural to the art of cave digging. It covered
maximum space with minimum labour. The vaulted roof permitted digging from the top thus
reducing the risk of physical injury to the labour. This form was first used by the Megalithic people
in Kerala.
The chaitya cave at Bhaja and Kondane, exactly alike in plan are the earliest caves in this
region excavated before the Ashokan regime around 400 B.C.E. The Kondane cave collapsed
due to faulty rock but Bhaja is standing without a scratch for more than 2000 years. It is nearly 27
feet wide and 60 feet long with semicircular apse at the back and having an aisle of 3.5 feet wide
separated from the nave by 27 plain octagonal pillars, 12 feet high. These are slanting inward,
about 5 inches on each side as in the earlier caves. The stupa has a diameter of 11 feet and
height of 10 feet. There is a hole in the dome for placing relics and fixing an umbrella. On the
eighth pillar on the right there is a niche carved for placing relics. The roof is domical with stone
ribs and is also having arrangement for fixing wooden ribs. The 30 feet high facade is totally open
from ground to the roof which must have been closed with wooden decorative panels. This
arrangement facilitated excacvation from the front side.

By now the practice of cutting a stupa in stone was well established. At a little distance from
the Bhaja cave a large excavation exists in rock containing a group of fourteen stupas of various
sizes. They carry mortises on the top for placing relics.
The Bhaja cave thus shows a land mark in the cave architecture. The design of the chaitya
confirm to the standard Brahminical form in brick and wood that existed in North India. It slowly
grew with several modifications combining into it a prayer hall and a monastery.
A century later, the chaitya cave at Karle was created at a distance of just 10 miles from
Bhaja. Here all the defects in the architectural design of the earlier models are removed. The
pillars of the central hall are perpendicular. The wooden partition in the front side is now replaced
by a stone wall with a door. A porch is introduced with sculptured panels. From entrance to the
backwall the depth is 124 feet, total width 45 feet, which shows that the artists had overcome their
fear of cutting deep in the rock and were free to exercise several new designs which are
discussed hereafter.
Changes’ in Design
A close scrutiny of the changes in design of chaitya caves of various places is presented
below to understand the progress in cave art. They are as follows :-
The Ajantha Cave No. IX and X (A. IX.X), Ellora 1 to 34 (El to 34), Pitalkhora X, XI, XII (PX,
XI, XII), Aurangabad IV (Au. IV) all in Aurangabad District, Nasik 1 to 24 (N1 to 24) Dist. Nasik,
Junnar isolated chaitya (J. is), Junnar Ganesh Leni VI (J.G.VI), Junnar Bhutaleni XL, (J. BL.XL),
Junnar Amba Ambika XVI (J.A.A.XVI), Shivaneri (J.S.) and Junnar Shivneri South (J.S.S.), Bhaja,
all Dist. Pune, Karad VI, Yerphal and Wai, Dist. Satara (S.K.Y.W), Pohale, Dist. Kolhapur (K.P.),
Kuda and Nadsur, Dist. Ratnagiri, (R.K.N.) Cheul and Nenavali, Dist. Raigad (R.Ch.N.), Kanheri,
Dist. Thane, Mahad, Dist. Raigad and Kondivate at Anderi in Mumbai (M.A.K.). The abbreviations
in brackets are used hereafter.
It was convenient to dig a cave from the top. A horse shoe shaped window was introduced
for this purpose above the prospective door and under the ceiling line. This window became
famous as chaitya window and used in all subsequent works as a decorative motif. Excepting a
few cases of an oblong window at PX, JBLXL, and KVI the chaitya window design was universally
accepted.
A problem arose while cutting a chaitya window at J.G.L. VI and J.B.S. II due to faulty rock.
The artists immediately switched over to the base portion and worked upward through the door of
the facade. Signs of using rafters and scaffolding during this work are still visible. This shows the
adaptability of the workers in different situations. The chaitya window was kept blind to respect the
tradition.
In the beginning the stone rafters were considered necessary as seen at P. XII, Au. IV,
J.G.L. VI and A.X. Soon they were replaced by wooden beams of A IX and X J. Is., J.B.L. XL.,
J.G.L. VI, J.A.A. XVI, K. VI, S.Y. and R.N.
Pillars were considered necessary in the beginning to support the load. They generally
consited of octagonal shafts with inverted stepped pyramids so as to support the maximum load.
The domical roof was supposed to rest on them. Soon it was realized that their presence was not
essential. Thereafter several astyler chaitya halls were cut without pillar such as P. XII, J. Is.,
J.A.A. XXVI, J.B.S. II. J.S.S. LIX, S.K. VI, S.Y. K.P. S.W. and R.N.
Cave walls were also cut inclined so as to increase the support to the roof in early caves at
Bhaja, P.X., J.A.A., X.X. VII. This style was soon abandoned.’
For a long time domical roof was considered essential. Thus even in those cases where the
work was started from the ground level due to a fault in the rock in chaitya window such as I.G.L.
VI, the roof was cut domical. Subsequently the artists understood its futility and under similar
conditions had a flat roof at J.B.L. II.
In cave digging the floor was the last element to be finished. After cutting a domical roof it
was natural to have a semi-circular back wall and floor with an apse to place the shrine. This
apsidal plan was followed in earlier caves at A.X., P.X. XII, N. XVII, J.B.L.X.L., J.Is., J.G.L. VI.,
J.A.A. XVI., S.K. VI & L.V., S.Y., K.P., and R.N. The plan however did not permit any deviation
such as having a cell door in the side walls or having benches because the circumambulatory
passage went through the aisle and around the apse. Therefore, it was replaced by the
rectangular hall from the early period as noticed at A. IX., N.X. VII, J.S.S. LIX, and several other
places. Subsequently it permitted expansion of a prayer hall into a monastery.
Benches and platforms were cut in the caves right from their beginning in Kerala. They are
evident in Nagpur region. The caves in Western Maharashtra did not have them in the beginning
but slowly they were introduced in the residential halls and monasteries as seen at N. III., X, XVII,
JBSII, J.S.S.LIX, S.W., R.K. and almost all caves at Kanheri. Kanheri has a large dining hall with
central rock cut bench running through its longitudinal axis.
Thus major elements that restricted the growth of a chaitya hall were found non-essential
and therefore eliminated. The architects were now free to plan a quadrangular, flat roofed, astyler
hall, surrounded by cells and plant a stupa in the central cell in the backwall. It could serve as a
monastery cum prayer hall like J.B.S. II, J.S., R.K., R.M. and other places.
The next and most important stage in evolution is found at the chaitya of Kuda, Dist.
Raigad. Here for the first time the main hall is having an antechamber just in front of the shrine
cell. This chamber is a fore-runner of the future antarala which had a prominent place in temple
architecture. Earlier such a chamber was tried at Nasik in cave no XVII which unfortunately
remained incomplete. This cave also had designed side rooms for a chaitya hall which was an
innovation.
This was a period of intense trade activity and these cave complexes grew near cities
flourishing with the expanding trade. People from various parts of India were settling in this region.
Greek author ‘Periplus’ has noted that the people from the North-Western part of India had settled
around Bharuch and Surat on the western coast. They brought with them several foreign symbols
and motifs which are found carved in these caves. An owl considered inauspicious in Hindu
mythology appears carved in cave no. 24 of Nasik. It is an emblem of Greek goddess Athena. A
centaur, also from Greek mythology appears in the same cave 24, and also at the cave no. 22 at
Bhaja. Hybrid form of a lion with a parrot’s beak and long ears appears on the capitals in cave No.
3, 10, 17 and 24 at Nasik and several early caves at Karle, Bhaja, Kanheri, Pitalkhora and
Aurangabad. Such zoomorphic form of art was followed by the Scythians. A triscelion geometric
design in the Nasik cave no. xviii and J.Is. belongs to the Greek mythology.
The Mahayan School
Buddhism spread in South India around 250 B.C.E. during the reign of king Ashoka. During
the 3rd council, difference amongst the Mahasanghikas became more explicit resulting in
formation of eight different schools of thought. These subsects have been mentioned in the
inscriptions in the caves. One such sect the Bhadvaniya settled at Pauni near Nagpur shifted to
Nasik and Kanheri. These monks received several grants from the Satavahana kings. They had
administrative control over the monks residing in the caves. They had carved a stupa in relief on
the backwalls of cave no. III and X at Nasik converting them for the first time in a prayer cum
residence halls. Another sect called Chetiyas insisted on chaitya worship. Ultimately it was
Nagarjun from Berar (Vidarbha) who founded a new school called Mahayan. This change over
almost coinsided with the conversion of the prayer halls into a combined form.
The Mahayan sect introduced image worship along with several analogous rituals. For this
purpose they borrowed several ideas from the Vedic pantheon. Combined prayer halls with stupa
shrine were already created at several places such as J.A.A. XXV., J.B.S. II, J.G.L. XIV., P.XI.,
R.N. VII., J.S. II., J.S.S. IX., K.P, R.M. VIII and Bhaja II. Buddha’s images were now added to
these and other halls.
As the size of the halls increased, it was considered necessary to have pillars at regular
intervals to support the load. The embellishment and ornamentation of these pillars were given
symbolic meanings by borrowing from Hindu Mythology. The square shaft denoting Brahma the
creator now represented the Buddha. Vishnu’s octagonal shaft denoted Buddhist brotherhood or
the Sangha. Rudra’s sixteen sided pillar was the Dharma stambha. The circular pillar depicted the
moon and the lotus as the sun.
Four new symbols were brought into use to suggest four events in Buddha’s life. A jewel in
the lotus (Manipadma) meant the seed of life. Goddess Lakshmi rising from the cosmic ocean
standing on lotus with two elephants suggested birth of a Buddha. The Bodhi tree suggested his
enligtenment. The wheel represented the religion and the stupa the death.
Buddha’s image was carved in three popular styles. First, he sat on a lion-seat with lotus
under his feet and two hands together in preaching style known as Dhammachakra Mudra. In
second style he was shown sitting with his right hand touching mother earth. These images were
carved independently or added to the existing stupas as seen in Ajanta 19 and 26.
With these adoptions the Monasteries became the decorative centres of pilgrimage with
walls containing images and events from the Jatakas.
The art of painting was introduced alongwith the earliest chaityas such as Ajantha IX and X.
It was now used for depicting Jataka stories. The idea of acquiring merit by donation was popular
during this period. Several such donations have been found recorded in the halls at Nasik,
Kanheri, Junnar and other places. The size of the sculptures also went on increasing. At Kanheri,
near the chaitya hall stand two images of Buddha which are 22 feet high. These sculptures
impressed the subsequent artists working on Brahminical caves such as Elephanta.

Later Vedic Caves
The Buddhist cave art soon faded with the decline of Buddhism and the focus of these
religious places turned towards Vedic shrines, already existing in these places. Naturally large
number of Brahminical caves came up in continuation of the earlier works. Some of these caves
such as Nasik X were converted to new sect by depicting an image, of Shiva-bhairava. The
excavations at Ellora near Aurangabad and Elephanta, Jogeswari and Mandapeshwar near
Mumbai had new shrines.
The Dashavtara cave No. 14 of Ellora, the only two storied Hindu excavation here has a
special cell for Shiva’s bull (nandi mandapa) in front courtyard, large pillared halls in both floors
and a two pillared vestibule in the rear wall leading to a square cells enshrining a Linga. The walls
of the upper storey are carved with Shaiva and Vaishnava sculptures. All these elements are fore-
runners of a Hindu temple. This cave was started as a Buddhist monastery but abandoned after
the ground floor was completed. Subsequently it was converted into a Hindu cave temple. The
arrangement from the front cell to the shrine in the back yard has been repeated in two othe
caves called the Rameshwara (21) and the Ravan Ki Khai with the introduction of a
circumambulating path around the shrine cell which is a new feature. Cave no. 29 called the
Dumar cave is exactly similar to the Trimuti cave at Elephanta, Bombay. The beautiful bracket
figure of the pillars, the exquisite panels of sculptures illustrating the birth of Kartikeya, Natraja
and the Ravana shaking the Kailas, Ganga and Yamuna, all new elements in cave decoration.
The cave no. 29 of Ellora and the caves of Elephanta and Jogeshwari have got one more
innovation in having three door ways, which was necessary for admitting more light adequate with
the large size of these caves. The decoration by sculptured panels, pillar capitals is similar to
Ellora. They include Shiva receiving Ganga, Shiva-Parvati sharing a single human form
(Ardhanari), Shiva killing a demon (Andhakasura vadha) and other events. The cave at
Jogeshwari, completely undergound, and measuring 200 feet carries an image of Shiva
Lukulisha.
The Hindu (vedic) cave temples at Badami and other places in Karnataka are modest in
size. They are famous for their pillars and panels of sculptures. The caves in Tamilnadu are
simple pillar mandapas with one or more cells in the walls.
The urge for having a superstructure for the shrine cell prompted the cave artists to cut
large monolithic stones into a single temple-like structure. Such a structure has been tried near
the Tawa cave at Udaigiri, Orissa but the cave temples at Mahabalipuran and Ellora are the
perfect examples of this class.
The nine rock cut structures at Mahabalipuram in Tamilnadu called the rathas are hewn out
of free standing boulders of hard granite rocks. They are miniature shrines cut from top to bottom.
The Draupadi ratha is a simple cubicle shrine with a hut like top on a square plan. The Arjuna
ratha is also on a square plan, double storied with an octagonal pinnacle which is an innovation.
The Dharmaraja ratha is three storeyed and each storey contains a cell with image for
worship. The shrine on the ground floor is surrounded by a pillared hall. The single storeyed
Bhima and Ganesha ratha are noteworthy for their oblong plan and wagon type roof. The Nakula-
Sahadeva ratha has apsidal plan and domical roof. Thus all designs in cave art have been tried
here in the open to create a temple like structure.
The Kailasnath temple at Ellora is the most magnificent of this class, produced by cutting
vertically into the hillside and on all sides of a central rectangle admeasuring 60 x 30 meters. It
consists of a cell shrine, antechamber, main chamber, a portico, two standing pillars in front, a
passage for circumambulation and a double storied entrance door which is connected with the
main hall by a rock- cut. bridge. The whole structure stands on a plinth, 25 feet in height. It carries
friezes of boldly carved elephants, lions, and other zoomorphic figures. The pinnacle on the main
hall is octagonal in shape. The peripheral part of the hill consists of caves having shrines
mortices, life size relief sculptures representing scenes from the epics and the puranas.
There are a few examples of monolithic temples at Dhammar in Mandasor Dist. of Madhya
Pradesh, Massur in Kangra Dist. of Himachal Pradesh and Colgong in Bhagalpur Dist. of Bihar,
but the Kailas remains unmatched.

Later Jaina Caves
A stupa was the main religious structure of the Buddhists as well as well the Jainas.
Remains of Jain stupas have been discovered at Mathura and such stupas have also been shown
in their religious scenes. However they did not show much interest either in constructing stupas or
cutting caves. Perhaps they had a better social organisation for supporting their monks. The
community appears to have occupied some caves after the decline of Buddhism. In western
Maharashtra, Nasik cave No. XI, Aurangabad V, J.M.M. Hill, Mhasrul and Akai in Nasik Dist. and
Dharashiv in Usmanabad Dist. show signs of Jain’s occupation. The only alteration would be to
introduce image of Mahavira or his predecessor along with their peculiar symbol (Ianchhan). At
Ellora they had their own creation of caves no. 29 to 34 of which no. 30 called smaller Kailas is a
replica in stone of the original Kailas temple. Another cave no. 32 called lndrasabha has a 27 feet
tall standing pillar copied after the Karle cave. All these structures have been decorated with
sculptures and friezes from the Jaina scriptures.

Bibliography
1. Wauchope R.S., 1933, Buddhist Cave Temples of India, Calcutta.
2.- Joshi M.S., 1962. Encyclopaedia, (Sanskriti Kosha) (Marathi) Pune.
3. Gururaj Rao BK, 1972, The Megalithic Culture in South India, Mysore.
4. Deo S.B., 1973, Problems of South India Megaliths, Dharwar.
5. Dhavalikar M.K., 1984, Late Hinayana Caves of Western India, Pune.
6. Chitale S.K., 1995, Article, “Archaeology of Vidarbha” (Marathi) Paryalochan,
Pune.
7. Phadke P.N., 1995, Article, “Who Created Caves in Maharashtra," QJMS, LXXXVI,
Bangalore.
❖❖❖
THE ROOPA KUNDA TRAGEDY

Roopakunda, a beautiful natural lake at the foot of the famous Nandadevi Peak in the
Himalayas is located near Badrinath in the Kumauon district of Uttaranchal. The area 15000'
above sea level is approachable only by a foot road. Famous Pindari glaciar flows nearby.
The lake became famous in 1942 when a forest ranger discovered hundreds of human
skeletons lying scattered on its bank. The remains were examined in 1950 and their time was
fixed around 1200 to 1500 A.D. Curious tourists all over the world undertook the hazardous
journey to examine such old remains. A bus takes travellers upto village Gwaldam via
Karnaprayag. Thereafter a 100 km foot road is covered in 7 days. Beyond Roopakunda lies the
famous temple of Godess Nandadevi alias Jogeshwari/Jorai.
Varahapuran describes Nandadevi as the abode of godess Parvati in her harsh/angry mood
(rudra). She is riding a lion and carries various weapons in her eight hands by which she killed
demon Mahishasur.1 Her devotees all over India undertake the hazardous journey via
Roopakunda for her blessings. They start their journey from village Kurur where pictures of
devotees sacrificing themselves before the Godess have been depicted. Was it the cause behind
the skeletons? Local people offer special pooja at the temple on the penultimate day of Dusserah.
This lion-riding Godess had an interesting journey through Western India in distant past.
Around 600 B.C. the Shaka/Seythians from south Russia entered India via Iran and settled
around Pesahwar in the valley of the river Swat which region was described as Shakasthan in the
Bhavishyapuran. They subsequently migrated to Baluchistan and erected a temple of Sinhavahini
in the Hinglaj mountain west of Karachi. She was addressed as Hingalamba.3 Thereafter they
entered Maharashtra from the western coast where we find several temples of Hingalamba such
as Jogeshwari (Mumbai), Chiplun, Saptasringi (Nasik), Gandhinglaj, Ambejogai, Hingoli and the
cave temple of Mahabalipuram. According to the puranas Nandadevi is her synonym. Erection of
her temple as Jogeshwari / Jiwari at the foot of Nandadevi shows that the surrounding population
had a Scythian connection for which supporting evidence is available at town Devidhura, 30 km
south of Almora in Kumaon.
The Devidhura temple is surrounded by flat rock surface, 3 to 4 feet above ground level.
The rocks have peculiar circular pits or basins of 9" diameter and 1' depth arranged in several
groups. Nearby a Megalithic cairn circle of big stones and has at one end a flight of 15 steps
leading down to a small cave. The pattern is totally megalithic followed throughout Maharashtra
and shows that a branch of the Scythians from Peshawar directly approached and setteled in this
region.4
A further evidence from Buddha’s biography confirms this stipulation. He was Shakyamuni.
His father Shuddhodhan ruled Shaka tribe. Their capital Kapilvastu was nearabout Kumauon.
Thus the people of Kumauon carried the memory of their past, while they prayed and sang songs
of godess Nandadevi.
Prof. William Sax from Hydelberg University (Germany) teaches Anthropology and is
studying Indian aboriginals for the last 20 years. He knows Hindi well and learnt from the folk
songs in Kumauon, the story of godess Jorai describing her wrath over the piligrimes who
included dancing girls and other immoral elements and threw a shower of hail storm killing and
burying several members. His curiosity led him to the Roopakunda tragedy for solving which he
led an expedition of members drawn from different disciplines in 2003.5
Various solutions to the tragedy were suggested. Its date was reviewed and correctly fixed
with radio carbon method around 9th Century i.e. after 800 A.D. The idea of self sacrifice was
found to have been abandoned since long. It was thought that the deed might belong to a party of
traders or soldiers going to Tibet. But geologists showed that no such route existed in this region.
Besides, the skeletons included ladies and children which pointed to a different cause. The time
of the tragedy suggested a different reason behind formation of this piligrimage. From A.D. 800 a
period of renaissence was started throughout India under the leadership of Shankaracharya of
Sringeri Math. He travelled to all corners of the land and established branches at Joshimath,
Dwarka and Puri. He made a rule that the temples in North India should have a priest from the
South. As a result several families are found to have settled in Kumaoun and other places even
today.
Thus the piligrims from the South might be visiting Badrinath and Nandadevi in the North
regularly and they might have met with the tragedy. More investigation was necessary.
A research team headed by Dr. Joglekar and Dr. Walimbe of the Deccan College, Pune was
formed and rescue work started. Some bodies were preserved in the ice cold water. Those on the
bank were reduced to skeletons. Others were crushed under stones and buried in hill slopes. All
those were exhumed and carried to laboratories. Their DNA was extracted and sent to Oxford and
Hydelberg labs, for examination.
From the study of the bones it was found that some people were shorter in height and
smaller in stature. Their temples showed a depression most probably caused due to carrying a
belt of heavy luggage. They appeared to be coolies. Such skeletons were segregated and others
subjected to further scrutiny.
All the skulls showed a peculiar confusing factor. They carried a zigzag design on the top-
most part under shikha or choti. This design has appeared due to mutation of a gene. It showed
that the dead were related to each other. The D.N.A. analysis confirmed this finding.8
The skeletons did not show any signs of injury except the skulls which carried a mark of
depression caused by the direct hit of a missile. Therefore it was concluded that while these
piligrims were passing by the lake a violent hailstorm broke, showering big pellets of the size of a
cricket ball. No trees grow in this land nor any other shelter was available. As a result there were
instantaneous deaths of almost all the piligrims.
The identification of these piligrims still remained a mystery. Their DNA did not match with
the local population. So a massive hunt for collecting D.N.A. samples and comparing with the data
from the dead pilgrims was taken up by the Genetic lab, Hyderabad. Surprisingly it was found that
the DNA matched with the samples from the Chitpawan or Kokanastha brahmins of Maharashtra.
The problem became still more difficult. The Chitpawan brahmins did have a glorious past starting
with the Peshwas and ending with Tilak and Sawarkar. They threw up leaders in every field of life
but there was no trace of their activity in the days of Adi-Shankaracharya. Their names were
absent from the donees lists by famous kings such as the Vakatakas or the Shilahras. Here V.V.
Mirashi’s discovery tenders a useful solution. He has shown that earlier these brahmins resided
on the bank of river Kaveri around Sringeri in Karnataka where their descendents are still living.
Marathi language is foreign to them. The piligrims to Roopakunda might have emenated from
these people having D.N.A. identical to the Chitpawans of Maharashtra.

References
1. P.N. Joshi. Varahapuran. Prasad Prakashan. Pune, p. 85.
2. National Geography F.I.R. 9-11-04,

3. Itihas Darpan, 11-99, Hinglaj, p. 3.
4. A.K. Ghose, Encyclopaedia of Ind. Archaeology, p. 118.
5. National Geography, FI.R., 9-11-04.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Outlook, weekly dt. 8-1 I -04, p. 70
10. V.V. Mirashi, V.S. Mandal, 1974. p 90

❖❖❖
Daxinapatha
Earlier it was shown how the Buddhist Kshatriyas like Ajatashatru the king of Magadha
forced the Shakyas to abandon their motherland located around Kapilvastu beyond river Sharayu
and travel as refugees to the South Timely action by lord Parashurama helped them to settle at
various places of their choice in south India. Their journey through Madhya Pradesh has been
depicted on the cave walls in the forest, now it is proposed to examine literary evidence in support
of their migration story.
Bhagwan Buddha died at Kapilvastu in 483 B.C. Thereafter a Buddhist congress was held
at Rajagir in 479. B. C. where Ajatshatru gave a call to unite all kshatriy and spread new
Dhamma. The monks created new stories/akhyanas as containing Buddha's advice and spread
them orally. Till then the art of writing was not known. It was first attempted around 450 B.C. and
stories in Pali language which is a corrupt form of Sanskrit were collected in a book form called
Suttanta. Similar other oral verses in Pali had titles such as “Ariya vachani, Anagata bhayani,
Muni gatha Moneya sutta and Upattissa pasina. ’These were collected in a book form called
Nikaya. These oral verses with same titles were found to have been recorded in the Sinhalese
books contemporary in Ceylon. The mystery behind their journey from Bihar to Ceylon at such an
early date with same titles and headings is not yet solved Buddhist scholars presume that their
religion was introduced in Lanka, in Ashoken time around 250 B.C. While the Sinhalese
chronicles claim that the preachers cane immediately after Buddha’s death. The latter argument
appears to be true, if we include the the Buddhist monks also amongst the Shakaya refugees,
who settled in Ceylon in 465 B.C. and Maharashtra.
Another story from Maha Govind Sutta tells how king Renu of Kashi decided to divide his
vast kingdoms amongst his nobles. He was assisted by Buddha in his task. These places give the
latest geography of the subcontinent. They are Dantapura in Kalinga, Potanam/Pauny in Asmaka’
Mahissatti in Malwa, and Rauraka / Surat in Souvir / Gujarat which were developed around 600
B.C. King Renu was maternal grand father of Rama-Jamadagnya alias Parashurama. There was
no settlement south of these places.
Next the monks selected the age old story of king Dasharatha for creating an akhyana. His
two wives, three sons, one daughter Sita all have been described in Dasharatha Jataka. A glaring
mistake occurs stating Sita as Rama’s sister. However further on rebirth she is stated to be
Rahul's mother. So daughter should mean daughter in law. The story further informs how
Bharata’s mother insisted for his share and vanavasa for Rama. Dasharatha dies due to grief and
Bharata invites Rama to return and occupy the throne which he denies and completes twelve
years in Vanavas.
Another Jatakka titled Maha Janaka of Mithila narrates story of a king whose two sons
quarrelled after his death. The younger son killed his elder brother whose son escaped and grew
in a mango grove, as a saintly person called Maha Janaka who was Buddha in his previous birth.
After ruling for sometime the younger brother died and his daughter became the queen. She
selected Maha Janaka to be her husband. He did not show any interest in married life and went to
forest for penance. His wife also followed him leaving behind her riches. This is a case of cousin
marriage perhaps following the Iranian custom.
Maha Kapi jataka shows how as a leader of monkeys helped his followers to cross the
Ganges by spreading his body across the river. This appears to be a source material for
Hanuman. Sutta Nipata 976 describes a remote settlement in the South as located on
Daxinapatha. According to Rhys Devids all this material was used by sage Valmiky in the
Ramayana. The Epic story is written after 450 B.C. primarily, to narrate the ideal behaviour of
Buddha. Its Chinese version addresses Rama as Bodhisatva.
While adopting Jatakas Valmiky introduced sage Parashurama in the first chapter opposing
Rama. He challenges Dasharatha returning to Ayodhya along with his sons after their
marriages .Rama had broken Shankara’s bow kept as a bet for Sita’s hand in marriage. Both had
all argument and duel in which Rama won. Scholars are confused how these two Avatars of lord
Vishnu separated by time and space have been introduced at one place. Therefore the first
chapter / Balkanda must be a later interpolation. The inference is incorrect because the idea of
Avatar originated around 300 BC, while the heroes of Valmiky actually lived around 450 B. C.
when writing the Epic .
Several changes have been made while adopting the Jataka stories Sita is transferred to
Mithila as daughter of king Janaka. In the Jataka stories hero alone goes to the nearby forest for
penance while in Ramayana they leave Ayodhya for settling at Chitrakuta for twelve years. They
had no reason to go further up to Nasik but the author wanted to bring in the earlier sufferings
undergone by the Shakya refuges on the same route depicted on the cave walls.
Erwin Neumayer could not interpret these painting even after deep study. There are
warriors in groups without battle. Well dressed horses and elephants without riders. Chariots are
empty. Plough and cattle are without farming, people going in procession, without any objective or
God to pursue. Shivalingum has no worshipers. All people are wearing Kushan type western
dresses.
These pictures can be explained only with the presumption that they represent the Shakyas
adopting the caves as temporary residence during rainy season and proceeding to next resort
thereafter. Eve teasing, robbers their capture and hanging described in Ramayana as the deeds
of Asuras have also been painted.
After their resettlement the Shakyas immediately took up the work of rewriting the Vedas.
Their brothers in Takshasheela already had a learning centre where the Aatharva Veda
comprising of all worships of the backward foreigners mystics and sorcerers, was created in a
written form and practised Several verses from the Atharva were introduced in mandal X of the
Rigveda including those of Parashurama (10-110) This gave Atharva a raised status as the 4 th
Veda. The story of Ramayana was also revised to wipe out the Buddhist sources. As per original
story Rama returns to Ayodhya after spending 12 yrs in vanavas.The Shakas sufferings inspired
Valmiki to extend Rama’s Wanwas from Chitrakut to Ceylon & back. Since then septic had been
searching for location of Lanka & Ravana.
F.R.Allchin has shown how recent archaeological evidence has proved arrival of the
megalithic people, in Ceylon around 450 BC. They settled near Anuradhapoor in the rain shadow
area in the north western part where they created irrigation ponds & paddy fields. Their burial
tombs reveal black red ware iron tools, horse bones & other megalithic items found in south India.
It confirms the story of Shakya migration & also king Vijaya’s expedition described in the Ceylon
chronicles. Thus the cave paintings in Madhyapredesh show a great event in the Indian history.
References :
1) T.W. Rhys Davids, Budhist India, New York– 1911
2) F.R.Allchin, Archaeology of South Asia, C.U.P. – 1995
3) Erwin Neumayer, Pre-historic Rock Paintings, O.U.P. – 1983
4) P.N.Phadke, India Through The Ages, Nagpur - 2003
❖❖❖
Rise of Indian Temple
6th century B.C. was an important landmark in human history. Knowledge of extracting iron
from ore, and its use in preparing tools and weapons for daily use became universal and man
progressed in all directions. New settlements of farmers, warriors grew everywhere.
Panini’s grammer enriched Sanskrit. Vastushastra prescribed places /Kshetras for temples.
The people from the Indus valley migrated to the gangiatic basin and established kingdoms
all over north India. A group from Swat valley near Peshawar known as Scythians or shakas
settled on the Himalayan slopes beyond Ayodhya. Gautam Buddha was Shakya muni. Earlier
their brothers had travelled South and settled around Nagpur where their Megalithic circles are
found to day. These people buried their dead and covered the graves with huge stones circles.
The Shakyas in the North however adopted cremation, collected relics and placed them in a stupa
for worship. It was further placed in a cave called Chaitya. First such caves were created at
Rajagir around 500 B.C.
Buddha preached nonviolence and abstaining from worldly pleasures. The Kshatriyas who
were buried deep in it disliked the shakyas and forced them to migrate towards South leaving
behind a deserted motherland as described by Rhys Davids in Buddhist India. Their journey is
depicted on the cave walls in Madhya Pradesh. They gathered at the ashram of sage Jamadagni
at Mahur for protection and future action. King Sahasrarjun of Maheshwar could not tolerate this
approach, attacked Mahur and killed sage Jamadagni. His son Parashuram took the challenge,
organized the Shakyas who were expert horse riders and lead a counter cavallery attack in the
North defeating Kshatriyas in 21 battles as described in Puranas.
The caves at Mahur are guarded by huge figures of Yakshas and carry several Megalithic
circles on their top suggesting a large Shakya population in its surrounding. These people spread
throughout Maharashtra up to its Western Coast where the trade with the Roman Empire had just
started. As a result we find 30 cave complexes with one or two chaityas all over western
Maharashtra. The chaitya worship stopped after 300 B.C. When Manusmrity prescribed shraddha
and immersion of relics in rivers and seas.
By 600 B.C. the Hindu idea of worshipping vedic deities through Yadna also changed to a
prayer before an image preferably a Yaksha. Slowly the famous trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and
Mahesh became popular to be worshipped in a temple. These structures built of bricks and wood
were perishable. Therefore a cave temple carrying portraits of various deities was started. Image
of sage Parashurama with Indra and Surya at the background in the cave at Bhaje dated around
400 B.C. is the first example of such a cave temple. Several such caves were created up to 300
B.C. They were however proved to be unpopular mainly because the Chaityas were an abode of
the dead worshipped by the Buddhists.
Hindu scriptures discarded stone and preferred brick, lime and wood. Vastushastra
prescribed sacred areas for constructing a temple. The walls of the Garbhagrih or Sanctum
should go straight upward meeting at the top called Antaral without support of any pillar. Temples
with such circular domes came up at several places such as Ujjain, Bairat, Vidisha and Gaya.
They however could not last long and cave temples continued.
During Ashoka’s regime around 250 B.C. South India was flooded with Buddhist Bhikkus
who occupied all the cave complexes. With State funding they created large Viharas and halls
raising the total number of caves to 900. The process stopped after Ashoka.
F.R. Allachin in south Asian archaeology pleads for consideration of life style and objectives
of the contemporary society before deciding over the date of an art form. Remarks by future rulers
should not fix the date. Therefore the present allotment of dates such as Rajgir-Ashoka. Ajantha-
Wakataka, Kanchi-Pallava, BadamiChalukya needs revision. The creation of caves almost
stopped with the Mauryan rule and artists turned to the creation of a Hindu Temple.
Walter spink has shown the presence of the image of Shiva-Lakulisha in the cave temples
at Jogeshwari Elephanta and Ellora no 21 and 29 thus proving them to be contemporary. This
form of worship prevailed during the Kushan-shunga period. The dome of the Kailas temple no.
16 is exactly similar to the shore temple at Mahabalipuram mentioned by Greek sailor periplus in
A.D. 70 during the Satvahana rule. Further all these caves show huge Yaksha images guarding
the temple till Ganesha took over the job around A. D. 200. The similarities show that the artist
from Maharashtra progressed towards South, first for creating cave temples and then to
experiment with the monoliths at M.B. puram using their skill acquired at the Kailas temple at
Ellora.
The monoliths could be handled without fear of collapse of the structure and it was safest to
put into practice some preconceived ideas such as a corbelled arch. Encyclopedia tells us that
this type of arch was used in the Megalithic graves, quiet well known to the shaky-as in
Maharashtra.
Actual observation of the monoliths at Mahabalipuram shows that the dome was divided
into several horizontal sections. In the recess each section had a niche or a cupboard with a roof
projecting inward. Thus each storey progressed towards the centre ending at the top with a small
skyhole closed by a capstone. The outer area was decorated with statues and images to counter
balance the inner load. The monoliths were carved out from inside to creat a sanctum and a hall.
In actual practice stones were cut and arranged successively inward to form a pyramid and
covered with a vault at the top. The shore temple at Mahabalipuram was the first temple of this
type in the world. Soon it was copied all over India during the Satvahana rule.
Considering the above factors the present dating of temples based on epigraphs needs
revision.
References :
1) Rhys Davids — Buddhist India- o.u.p. 1911.
2) K.R. Srinivasan- S. Indian Temples- N.Bk.Trust 1972.
3) F.R. Allchin — S. Asian Archaeology o.u.p. 1992.
4) Temples (5) P. N. Phadke Researcher - Dec. 2001.

❖❖❖
Dating of South Indian Temples
The stone temples in South India are a unique creation as an abode of God. Earlier, stone
was not considered sacred enough for a temple mainly because of its association with relics
placed in Chaityas.
Vastushastra required that a sanctum should have a roof without any support or pillars. To
achieve this brick arch creating a circular dome was evolved in North India creating temples at
Gaya Ujjain and Somnath.
In South India experience with cave temples created a special expertise and all the
elements such as a garbhagriha Mandapa, Antaral were created at Ellora and other places. What
remained was a Shikhar for which experiments were made at Mahabalipuram. Before fixing their
date it would be helpful to know a brief history of this region.
During the Mauryan rule, areas around Bombay and Madras prospered due to rising trade
with Rome and S. E. Asia. Ashokan epigraphs mention, Chola, Chera, Pandya as independent
states ruling south of Tirupati as per A. M. Shastri.

After Ashokas death in 232 B. C. his empire dissolved giving rise to the Kushanas and
Shungas in the North, Satavahanas in the South and Meghavahanas in the East in Orissa
(Kalinga). Mirashi has shown how their third rular Kharvela captured Chhattisgarh (Kosala)
around 150 B.C. and advanced towards Wainaganga. Due to stiff resistance from the Satvahanas
he turned south and captured Guntapalli at the mouth of river Krishna. After two years he
advanced further south, clashed with the Tamil states and captured the region upto Pondecherry.
Kharavela recorded these events in his epigraph at Hathigumpha. Greek sailor Periplus also
confirms this event in A. D. 70.
S. K. Pande has shown how after Kharavela, six kings retained their rule over Kosala as
confirmed by their coins found in stratified excavation at Malhar near Bilaspur. They ruled upto the
beginning of our Era. There-after Satvahanas succeeded them in Kosala.
The coins of next six Meghavahana Kings were found at Vaddumadu in Guntur district.
Shastri read their names as Shri Sad, Shivamak Sad, Maha Sad and Ashoka Sad with lion
enblame. The epithets used are Kalingadhipati, Mahishakadhipati and MahaMeghavahana which
confirms them as rulers of the Mahishaka region between Krishna and Cauvery as per V.V.
Mirashi.
Shashtri and Prasad have shown that the Meghavahana shifted their capital from Kalinga-
nagar to Dhenukataka (Dharnikot). King shri sad ruled around 1 A. D. His grandson Shri Ashoka
is mentioned as Dhamma Rano Asoka, in an epigrabh on a stupa at Shalihundam. This confirms
that the Dharmaraj was an honorific used for king Ashoka who ruled around AD 100. A road in
Kalinga was also called Dharma Raj upto A. D. 600.
Around A.D. 130 Satvahanas over powered them and ruled upto A.D. 230 succeeded by
Tamil Kings and finally the Pallavas from A.D. 400. Scholars have attributed all caves, monoliths
and temples at Mahabalipuram to the Pallavas. But the brief history narrated above directs
towards a different conclusion stated below.
The epigraph in the first monolith called Dharmaraj Ratha at Mahabalipuram states “Sri
Megha, Trailokya Vardhana Vidhi”. It was interpreted as an epithet for Pallava king Narasimha
Varman whose image was supposed to be carved nearby.

Shri. N. P. Joshi has shown that the term “Trailokya Vardhana Vidhi” meant an abode of
God. So the first term must refer to the King Ashoka alias Dharmaraj ruling in A. D. 100. The
monolithic temples had no connection whatsoever with the Pandavas.
There is an independent proof of its early creation. Greek author Bardesan describes in A.
D. 200 a temple in India having a statue in relief called Ardhanariswara. Such a statue does exist
in the Dharmaraj Rath. Other four monoliths exibit primary experiments for creating a roof over a
sanctum, for which a corbell arch technique was used.
Images in the nearby caves also show an earlier period, of Satvahanas as per Joshi. Bhu-
varaha in cave no. 1 rescues goddess Earth from sea and holds her in his Lap while Puranas at a
later date in A. D. 200 describe her riding his long teeth.
Cave no. 2 carries an impressive scene of Mahishmardini where the goddess is holding bow
and arrow which show an earlier date, Puranas after A. D. 200 replaced it with a spear or trident.
Cave no. 6 depicts lord Trivikrama with bow and a sword with which he punished demon
Mahabali and hence the place carries his name Ptolemy in A. D. 150 describes it as Malanga the
royal city of Basanagos meaning chella chora, who reconquered this region.
In conclusion it may be stated that the artists created a sanctum with Pyramidle stone roof
with a capstone and a canopy around A. D. 150. The technique spread towards North via
Parashurameshwar temple at Bhubaneshwar, replacement of brick temples at Bodh Gaya Ujjain
and Somnath. Nearby Kanchivaram gave lead to Tamilnadu.
In Maharashtra Ondhya Nagnath being a Jyotirlinga must have started functioning as a
brick temple alongwith Mahankal of Ujjain around 200 B.C. An underground chamber facing west
still persists with the new temple facing east. However there was a period of recession due to
transfer of capital from Paithan and declining trade which delayed creation of temples in
Maharashtra.
References
1. C. Shivram Murthy, Mahabalipuram, A.S.I. 1992.
2. D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, G.O.I. 1998.
3. V. V. Mirashi , Satavahanas G.O. Mah. 1981.
4. R. C. Mujumdar Classical Accounts, Calcutta 1981.

5. A. M. Shastri, Age of Satvahanas Aryan Bks 1997.
6. N. P. Joshi, Iconography , Pune 1979.
7. B. K. Gururaj Rao, S. I. Megaliths, Mysore 1972.

❖❖❖

Environmental and Vedic Period by P. N. Phadke

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CONTENTS

1. Environment and Ice Age

diseases - such conditions are termed as green house effect.

oxygen isotope 016 when heated by sun rays in lesser numbers.

drawn out, by boring the sea floor and examined in laboratory.

The radiation emitted by an isotope can be measured in number of disintegrations per

in history can be ascertained and measured.

200 years. This situation causes the green house effect.

real cause behind present stage.

groups of stars in the universe.

heat received from the sun.

type and age determined.

the beginning of Civilization.

within the earth.

Unfortunately this aspect has not been explored so far.

1. Environmental Physics. Claire Smith. Routledge. New York 2001.

2. Astronomy & Earth Science. J. Michale & T. Thomsan Cambridge, 2001.

3. Archaeology- Kevin Greene, Routledge, London -2004.

Ice Age and Evolution

fossils now studied by the Anthropology.

salt water ice cool for several centuries.

Europe melting the ice on the main land.

where the forest is advancing north destroying its Tundra region.

poured through the Bosphorus channel into the Mediterranean sea.

event is remembered in the puranas and the Bible as floods.

a detailed description of their life style.

successfully tamed them. These shall be discussed in my next article.

1) Global climate change-Alastair Dawson – o.u.p. 2002

by James Croll and MilanKovitch are furnished below.

also measures the shifting of the equinox and seasons on earth.

by nature to understand its changes.

the new situation.

in respect of other gases so as to produce radio active isotopes of other elements.

melting of the Arctic is a part.

several other places, kept in our memory through mythology.

Rama’s existence and our history.

historians like James Croll.

conditions conducive for an Ice Age.

distribution of nature which may prove to be a turning point in human history.

1) Glaciers and Environment, Atle Nesje, O.U.P. 2000.

2) The Ice Age, John & Mary Gribbin, Penguin 2001.

and allotted them to the pleistocene period.

authorship of the Rigvedic hymns.

Drishadwati (Chautang) has been described in Mahabharata as Vinashantirth and Kurukshetra. It

Jodhpur, to meet the sea with river Luni as its tributary.4

traceable today in this region.

now needs to be decided.5

courses of the river Saraswati is evident from archaeological excavations.”

Palaeolithic to Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods.7

appears to be a continuous habitation from Pleistocene period in the Saraswati basin.

At Ganeshwar, ochre-coloured pottery is found in association with a large number of copper

present on the banks of older branch of the Sarswati described above.

around 4000 B.C.

1. Upto 8000 B.C. — Moist, Wet and Cool climate.

Evidence suggests the beginning of agriculture.

3. 3000 B.C. To 1700 B.C. — Period of higher rainfall.

beyond 20M years.14

121-9, 1-122-9, 2-21-8, 2-39-7, 7-85-2, 8-4-16 and 10-142-4.

This period can be pinpointed from our knowledge of archaeology.

2) 3180 B C. — Dantb Sadat in Quetta valley disclosed a copper dagger.

1) 3540 to 3210 B.C. — Amri, fragments of copper and bronze.

M R. Mughal has excavated at Jalilpur in South Punjab in Ghaggar-Hakra basin and

500 years for its development.