Agroforestry Systems 14: 149-161, 1991 © 1991 Kluwer Academie Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. Uses of tropical deciduous forest species by the Yucatecan Maya V. RICO-GRAY', A. CHEMAS? and S. MANDUJANO? Centro de Ecologia UNAM, A.P. 70-275, México, D.F. 04510 México 2 Est, Biolégica Chamela UNAM, A.P. 21, Sn Patricio, Jalisco 48980 México Lnstiruto de Ecologia, A.P. 63, Nalapa, Veracruz 91000 México Key words; useful plants, tropical deciduous forest, homegardens, maya, Yucatén, México Abstract, We present the uses that the Maya of Tixcacaltuyub and Tixpeual, Yucatan, México, have for the trees and shrubs of their surrounding tropical dry and deciduous forests; we add the uses for trees and shrubs in their homegardens, because they complement their basic needs. A total of 301 shrubs and tree species were present either in the forest or homegardens sampled; 222 species (73.7%) have at least one reported use. The species with more uses are: Bursera simaruba (10), Gliricidia sepium (10), Cordia dodecandra (9), Plumeria rubra (7), Caesalpinia gaumeri (7), Vitex gaumeri (7), Enterolobium cyclocarpum (7), and Piscidia piscipula (7). More species (152/69.7%) are classified for medicinal purposes, followed by apiculture (87/39.9%), food (66/30.3%), fuel (38/17.4%). building (41/18.8%) and timber 11.5%). Despite the lack of important commercial species (timber, fruit) in this type of forest, we discuss the importance of the tropical dry forest of Yucatan as an area where management could lead to sustainable production of honey, deer and building material for houses Resumen. Presentamos los usos que los mayas de Tixcacaltuyub y Tixpeual, Yucatiin, México, le dan a los arboles y arbustos presentes en los bosques tropicales deciduo y seco que les rodean, Asimismo, agregamos los usos para los arboles y arbustos del huerto familiar, ya que estos complementan sus necesidades basicas. Se encontraron un total de 301 especies de Jirboles y arbustos en el bosque y los huertos; 222 especies (73-7%) tienen al menos un uso reportado, Las especies con mas usos son: Bursera simaruba (10), Gliricidia sepium (10), Cordia dodecandra (9), Plumeria rubra (7), Caesalpinia gaumeri (1), Vitex gaumeri (7), Enterolobiun cyelocarpum (7) y Piscidia piscipula (7). Se clasificaron mas especies (152/69.7%) para uso medicinal que para cualquier otro uso, le siguieron en orden decreciente, apicolas (87/39.9%), alimenticias (66/30.3%). combustibles (38/17.4%), para construccion (41/18.8%) maderables (25/11.5%). A pesar de la ausencia de especies importantes comercialmente (maderables, frutos)en este tipo de bosque, discutimos la importancia del bosque tropical seco de Yucatan como un area en la cual el manejo puede conducir a un aprovechamiento sostenido para apicultura, alimento para venado y material para construir habitaciones. Introduction Modern society has not been able to sustainably exploit tropical forests; commercial value is only given to a small number of timber species, and to150 the short-term profits obtained from the cleared land (agriculture, cattle raising). Large areas of tropical forests have been felled for these purposes, and at the present rate, most of the large forested areas will have disappeared by the year 2000 [1]. Multiple-use exploitation and conservation of tropical forest resources, as long practiced by indigenous societies, have not been adopted or, at least, not carefully looked at as a viable alternative to modern production schemes [5]. This topic has recently been viewed in a different way for an Amazon rainforest. Peters and co-workers [13] established that sustainable exploitation of non-wood resources (fruit, latex) could generate total net revenues two to three times higher than those resulting from forest conversion (logging and clearing), while conserving. Revenues should increase considerably if animal species are included and exploited under a sustainable policy [1]. This scheme should vary from place to place, depending on forest composition, species appreciation by locals, and abundance. The first step needed to assess the value of a forest is an account of the diversity of uses given by locals to forest species, and if produces are locally traded or marketed. Most work has been done in tropical rain forests, paying little or no attention to tropical deciduous or dry forests. Species richness of tropical deciduous forests is considerably lower than that of rain forests, nevertheless, their species are highly used by indigenous cultures. The objectives of this paper are to: (1) present an account of the diversity of uses that the Yucatecan Mayas have for the shrub and tree species composing their surrounding deciduous forests; (2) present an account of the diversity of uses for their homegarden shrub and tree species, because they complement their basic needs; (3) emphasize the value of these forests as a unit, and their importance in honey production, deer feeding, and building: and (4) discuss briefly if forest and homegarden produces are marketed or locally traded. General description of the study site Two localities were selected in the State of Yucatan, México, based upon previous experience and cumulative work. The village of Tixpeual is located 20km east of Mérida, on the road to Tekanté; mean temperature is 26°C; annual precipitation is 800-900 mm; elevation is 9-10 m; vegetation type is low tropical dry forest (canopy at 12-15 m) [19]; the main crop is sisal, Agave fourcroydes Lemaire [6]. The village of Tixcacaltuyub is located 90km southeast of Mérida, 16 km off Sotuta; mean temperature is 27.5°C; annual precipitation is 900-1000 mm; elevation is 18-20 m; vegetation type is tropical deciduous forest (canopy at 20-25m) [15]; the main crop is maize, Zea mays L. [6]Ist Method Field work was accomplished in March, April, July, and September, 1988, and was based on field work and open interviews with different informants Homegarden species information for both sites is based on Rico-Gray et al. [16]. Forest species data for Tixpeual is based on Thien et al. [19]. and for Tixcacaltuyub on Rico-Gray et al. [15] and Rico-Gray & Garcia-Franco (unpubl.). Classification of uses is based on the interviews, complemented with published information [2, 4, 6, 12, 17, 21]. Diversity of uses was computed using the Shannon-Weaver index (H’ = pi log pi), where i = uses (see Table 1), and pi = proportion of species for the ith use. similarity between sites was computed using Sorensen’s index (S.L. = 2a/(Qa + b + )). Results and discussion Diversity of uses of forest and homegarden shrubs and trees A total of 301 species (shrubs and trees) were present either in the forests or homegardens sampled in Tixcacaltuyub and Tixpeual (Table 1); 222 species (73.7%) have at least one reported use. One-hundred and eleven forest species and 163 homegarden species are used for at least one purpose (Table 1). The species with more uses are: Bursera simaruba (10), Gliricidia sepium (10), Cordia dodecandra (9), Plumeria rubra (7), Caesalpinia gaumeri (1), Vitex gaumeri (7), Enterolobium cyclocarpum (7), and Piscidia piscipula (7). More species (152/69.7%) are classified for medicinal purposes, followed by apiculture (87/39.9%), food (66/30.3%), fuel (38/17.4%), building (41/18.8%), and timber (25/11.5%). These figures should be biased for medicinal plants, because many species used for this purpose are herbaceous species, which were not considered in the homegarden and forest studies used as reference. Species similarity between forests and homegarden is relatively low (30%); only 57 species are common to both environments Forest species diversity is 3.8 for Tixpeual and 1.5 Tixcacaltuyub. Home- garden species diversity is relatively low for both sites (1.6). Diversity index for species use is relatively higher, 4.5 for forest species, and 4.9 for home- garden species; indicating multiple use. We did not find much additional information by the use of such indices to that obtained by carefull observation and the interaction with the informants. Our observations indicate that the people in the more isolated village (Tixcacaltuyub) tend to use more forest and homegarden species, and that152 Table 1. List of trees and shrubs present in the forests (F) and homegardens (H) studied. Nomenclature follows Sosa et al. [18]. Uses: 1, Food; 2, medicine: 3, Fodder; 4, Timber: 5, Religious; 6, Handcrafts: 7, Ornamental; 8, Building; 9, Fuel; 10. Apiculture; 11, Fiber; 12. Toxic; 13, Glue: 14, Latex: 15, Toys; 16, Hometool; 17, Worktool; 18, Ink: 19, Spice; 20, Field-tool; 21, Oil; 22, Soap; 23, Embarbascar; 24, Tanning: 25, Shade/Live Fence: 26. Commercial Value; 27, Stimulant Name Presence Type of use Abutilon gaumeri Stand F 310 Acacia anqustissima (Mill,) Blake H 23491018 A. collinsii Safford F A. farnesiana (L.) Willd. F 4. gaumeri Blake FH 2391017 A. macracantha H. & B. F A, milferiana Stand F A. pennatula (Sehiecht. & Cham.) Benth H 391017 A. riparia H.B.K. F A. riparivides (Br. & Rose) Stand) F Acacia sp. PH Acalphya seleriana Greenm. H Acanthocereus pentagonus (L.) Britt, & Rose FH 2 Acrocomia mexicana Karw. ex Wart H 12 Adelia barbinervis Schlecht. & Cham F 389 Agave fourcroydes Lemaire H 21011 26 Agave Sp. H 210 11 Aloe vera U H 210 26 Alvaradoa amorphoides Liebm. FH 2 Ananas comosus LL. H 12 Annona muricata L. H 1210 26 A. purpurea Moe. & Sessé ex Dunal H 1210 A. squamasa L. H 1210 Anoda cristata (L.) Schlecht. F 2 Apocynaceae | H Apoplanesia paniculata Pres FH 89 10 17 Arrabidaca floribunda (HBR) Bur. & K. Schum H 815 16 17 Arundo donax H 228 Bauhinia divaricata L. FH 2381011 B. variegata 1. H 7 Bixa orellana L. H 2 10 18 19 Bonamia brevipediceltata Myint & Ward F 3 10 Borreria verticillata (L.) G. Meyer F Bougainvillaea buttiana Holttun ex Standl H 7 Brachiaria fasciculata (Swartz) Parodi F Bravaisia tubiflora Hemsl F 2616 Bromelia karatas L. FH 12 Brosimum alicastrum Swartz H 123141617 Bunchosia swartziana Griseb. FH 2589 Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg, FH 1235891015 1720 Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) H.B.K. H 1210 Cactaceae 1 HTable 1. (continued ) Name Presence Type of use Cavsalpinia gaumeri Greenm. FH 234891017 C. pulcherrima (L.) Swartz, FH 2371024 C. vesicaria 1 H 210 C. violacea (Mill,) Stand F 3891015 18, C. swcatanensis Greenm. FH 10 Callicarpa acuminata H.B.K. FH 23:10 16 Canna sp. H 710 Capsicum annum L. H 1231219 C. frutescens L H 12319 Carica papaya L. H 12310 Casearia nitida Jacq H 2589 Cassia aromaria H 23917 C. emarginata L. F 78 C. fistula H 210 C. uniflora Mill F 210 Cassia sp. F 3 Cecropia obtusifotia Bertol H 24 Cedrela odorata L. H 24810 Ceiba aesculifolia (H.B.K.) Britt, & Baker FH 1291011 C. pentandra (1..) Gaertn H 245 Celtis tguanaea (Jacq.) Sarg H 1 Centrosema sp. F Cestrum nocturman L. H 27 Chak ni F 8 Chak ts'iisil ché I Chamaecrista glandulosa (L.) Greenm. F Chamaedorea sp. H 37 Chikin chanak F Chiococca alba (L.) Hitche. F 23 Chlorophara tinctoria (L.) Gaud FH 14818 Chooch H Chrysophyttum cainito L H 1210 26 Citrus aurantifolia (Chist.) Swingle H 1219 26 C. aurantiun L H 1219 26 ©. aurantium x reticulata H 1 C. limetoides Tan H 126 C. limetoides x sinensis H 1 C. paradisi Max H 126 ©. reticulata Blanco H 1226 C. sinensis (L.) Osbeck H 126 Clusia flava Jacq, H 121420 Cindoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) Johnston FH 212 ©. chayamansa MeVaugh H 12 Coccoloba acapulcensis Standl F 1389 . spicata Lundell F 2 CC. wifera L. H 12410 Coccoloba sp. F154 Table 1. (continued) Name. Cochlospermum vitifolium Wild. ex Spreng. Cocos mucifera L Codiaeum varieatum (L..) Blume Colubrina greggii S. Watson Colubrina sp. Commelina sp. Compositae 1 Compositae 2 Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pavon) R. & S. C. dodecandra DC. C. gerascanthus 1 C. sebestena L. Crataeva tapia L. Crescentia cujete L Crinum sp. Croton falvens L. C. fragilis H.B.K. C. glabellus L. Croton sp. Cruz ché Cucurbita sp, Cuphea gaumeri Koebne Dahlia sp. Dathergia glabra (Mill.) Standl Dalechampia seandens L Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf, Desmodium sp. Diospyros anisandra Blake D. cuneata Stand D. verae-crucis (Standl.) Standl Diphysu carthagenensis Jacq. Dracaena americana Donn, Smith Duranta repens L. Ehretia tinifolia DC Ek ché Elstrania imbricata (Vahl) Pers. Enriquebelerania crenatifolia (Miranda) Redowski Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Sacg.) Griseb. Ervthrina standlevana Krakoft Erythroxylum rotundifolium Lunan Eugenia mayana Stand Eupatorium hemipteropodum Robinson Euphorbia schlechtendali Boiss Exostema caribaeum (Jacq.) Roem, & Schultes Ficus continifolia H.B.K. Forchhummeria trifoliata Radlk. Galactia striata (acg.) Urban samt aan aatat aattt == H mrx mmm rrr EErrr Type of use 389101117 210 317 468910 16 17 810 410 616 10 10 89 6il 10 310 u 910 591015 391015 16 712 10 19 0 9 10:17 6 10 13 14Table 1. (continued ) Name Presence Type of use Gilivicidia sepium (Sacq.) Steud F 123489 10 12 17 20 Gossypium hirsutum L. H a1 Gramineae 1 F Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. FH 12891017 Guettarda elliptica Swartz F Gymnopodium floribundum Rolfe FH 38910 Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq FH 210 Haematoxylon campechianum L F 24 10 18:19 Hamelia patens Jaca, PH 1210 Hampea trilobata Stand! F n Hedychium coronarium H 7 Helicteris baruensis Jacq, F 2389 Helicocarpus sp F Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. H 2710 Hippeastrum equestris Herbert H 7 Hyhanthus yucatanensis Millsp. H 2 Hylocereus undatus (Haworth) Britt. & Ross H 12 Ipomoea batatas (1..) Poir H 3 Ixora coccinea L H 7 Jacaratia mexicana DC. FH 1239 Jacquemontia tamnifolia (L..) Griseb F J. pentantha (Jacq.) G. Don F 3 Jacquinia sp. F 2 Japach H Jasminum officinalis L. H 27 Jatropha curcas L. H 1219 20 J. gaumeri Greenm, FH 26122 Kalis ak F Kanlol kax F Karwinskia calderoni Stand F 389 Lantana camara L. H 23 L. urticifolia Mill FH 219 Lawsonia inermis L H 10 Leguminosae | F Leguminosae 2 H Leguminosae 3 H Lens culinaria Medikus H 1 Leucaena leucocephata (Lam.) DeWitt FH 3 Limon ché F Lipia H 10 Lonchnera rosea (L.) Reichenb. H 27 Lonchocarpus yucatanensis Pittier FH 510 Lool chom F Lool kab H Luehea speciosa Willd. F 24891017 Lysiloma latisiliquum (L.) Benth F 2.9 10 25 26 Machaonia lindeniana Baill F 289156 Table 1. (continued) Name Presence Type of use Malmea depressa (Baill.) RE, Fries F 128 Malpighia punicifolia L. F 1210 Mammea americana L, H 2 Mangifera indica L. H 1210 Manihot esculenta Krantz FH 1212 Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg H 1248 14 26 Mastichodendron foetidissimum (Jacq) Cronquist —H. Melicoveus hijugatus Jacq H 1 Melochia pyramidata L F 2 Melothria pendula L. F 2 Merremia aegyptia (L.) Urban F a Metopium brownei (Jacq.) Urban FH 23412 Mimosa bahamensis Benth. FH 291617 Montanoa atriplicifolia (Pers.) Schultz. Blp. FH 727 Morinda yucatanensis Greenm. FH 210 18 Murraya paniculata (L.) Jacq, H a Musa paradisiaca 1 H 110 Neca psychotrivides Donn. Smith F 18 Neomillspaughia emarginata (Gross.) Blake FH 3.89 10.16 17 Nerium oleander L. H 2710 Nicotiana tabacum L. H 251027 Nissolia fruticosa Jacq F 210 Nopalea gaumeri Orcutt PH Ocimum micranthum Willd F 1210 Opuntia sp. FH 12 Pachyrrhizus erosus (1..) Urban F 123 Paramentiera aculeata (H.B.K.) Seeman FH 24610 P. edulis DC. H 1210 Passiffora ciliata Dryad F 2 Persea americana Mill H 12 Phaseolus lunatus L. F 12310 Phyllanthus acidus (1L.) Skeels H 12 P. glaucescens H.B.K. H 26 Phyltostylon brasiliensis Capenema F 8 Piscidia piscipula (L.) Sarg, FH 24689 102 Pisonia aculeata L. FH 210 Pithecellobium albicans (Kunth.) Benth FH 238 1024 P. dulce (Roxb,) Benth. H 123910 P. leucospermum Brandeg, F P. mangense Jacq.) Macbride H P. unguis-cati (L.) Mart, iy Platymiscium yucatanum Standl F 248 Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass. FH 210 Plumeria rubra U. FH 12345714 Podopterus mexicanus H. & K. F Porophyllum punctatum (Mill.) Blake F 210 Pouseria mammosa (L.) Cronquist H 126Table 1. (continued) = Name Presence Type of use Pseudobombax ellipticum (H.B.K.) Dugand H 247 Psidium quajava L. H 1210 P. sartorianum (Berg.) Niedenzu F 289 Punica granatum H i Quamoetit coccinea (L.) Moench IF 3 Randia aculeata L. F R. gaumeri Greenm. & Thomp F R. standleyana L. Wms. H 710 Randia sp. 1 FH Randia sp. 2 F Rawvolfia terraphylla V F 2 Rhus radicans L. F 210 12 Ricinus communis L. H 221 Rosa sp. H 7 Rosaceae H 12 Ruta chalapensis L. H 2 Sabal yapa Wright ex Beccari H 268910 Saccharum officinarum L H 1 Sajuisiché F Sal Che H Salvia coccinea Juss. ex Murr. H 2310 Samvdia yucatanensis Stand) F Sanseviera hyavinthoides (L.) Druce H 7 Sapindus saponaria L. H 6 Sehastiana adenophora Pax & Hofim F Senecio confusus Britt H Senna racemosa (Mill.) 1. & B. FH Solanaceae 1 H Solanum hirtum Vahl F 23 S. rudepannum Dunal H S. trydinamum Dunal H 3 Solanum sp. FH 2 Spondias sp FH 1231013 Sprekelia sp. H 7 Stillingia sp. F Swictenia macrophylla King H 248 10 26 Tahebuia rosea (Bertol.) De. FH 2471017 Tabernacmontana aniyqdatifolia Jacq, H 21014 T. coronaria (Sacq.) Willd. H 10 Talisia olivacformis (H.B.K.) Radlk FH 1234910 Tamarindus indica L. H 123019 Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex H.B.K. H 2710 Terminatia easappa L H 17 Thevetia gaumeri Hemst. FH 21014 Thouinia paucidentata Redlk F 2810 Thuja orientalis L H 7 Tragia sp. F158 Table 1. (continued ) Name Presence ‘Type of use Trickilia arborea C. DC F T. minutiftora Stand F 89 Urera caracasana (Jacq.) Griseb. H 2 Verbenaceae 1 Viguiera dentara (Cav.) Spreng. F 2371019 Vitex gaumeri Greenm. F 23891017 26 Ximenia americana L. F 12 Yucca sp. H 1 Zacate Taiwan H 3 Zanthoxylum fagara (L..) Sarg F Ziziphus yucatanensis Standfl F Zeulania guidonia (Swartz) Britt, & Millsp. F 2489 Plus nine forest and three homegarden unidentified species surplus produces are locally sold or traded. In contrast, the people in the better communicated village (Tixpeual), can buy and sell their goods in an organized public market, whether in the village or the state capital (Mérida). One factor that showed to have a two-way effect on the use of forest and homegarden produces is the condition of communications (roads and public transport); their lack affects the possibility of commerce, their presence always conveys development and forest transformation. Economic importance of shrubs and trees of the Yucatecan forests In contrast to the type and quantity of resources reported for an Amazonian rainforest [13], the tropical dry forests studied lack important timber species (Cedrela odorata, Enterolobium cyclocarpum, Manilkara achras, Swietenia macrophylla), latex producers (Brosimum alicastrum, M. achras), and fruit species (Annona spp., Chrysophyllum cainito, M. archas, Melicoccus bijugatus, Persea americana, Pouteria mamosa), all of these are found, sometimes in great number, in the homegarden. It would seem that these forests have no value. but a closer look may prove differently Melliferous and polliniferous flora Yucatan is México’s main honey producer and exporter. Most honey is produced by beekeepers in small villages, where their bees forage in the natural vegetation (40% of the plant species reported here) [for a detail description of honey production and associated flora, see 4]. Present deforestation rates highly affect honey yields [9]; bees are also affected by excessive use of insecticides to protect monospecific crops and fumigation of cities for mosquito control.ve] Yucatecan forest and the diet of deer Venison is the meat source most appreciated by Mayas and Yucatecans in general. Deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Hays)) is a natural forest inhabitant in the Yucatan Peninsula, but habitat destruction, excessive hunting, and lack of management, are responsible for present low population numbers. The plant species used for food by deer in Tixca- caltuyub can. be divided into: (a) Those cultivated in the corn fields, like the leaves of Cucurbita spp., Ipomoea batatas, Capsicum spp... Phaseolus spp., and Pachyrrhizus erosus, as well as the young fruits of Cucurbita and Capsicum; (b) Those cultivated in homegardens, like Brosimum alicastrum; and (c) Native species in the forest, like Abutilon gaumeri, Bursera simaruba, Caesalpinia_ violacea, Chochlospermum _vitifolium, Colubrina greggii, Eugenia axillaris, Gymnopodium floribundum (resprouts), Jacquemontia pentantha (in dry season), Merremia aegyptia, Metopium brownei (fruit), Neomillspaughia emarginata (resprouts), Quamoclit coccinea, Salvia coccinea, and Viguiera dentata. Yucatecan forests as suppliers of building materials All the materials needed to build the traditional Mayan house come from the forest [21]. Traditional house construction is being replaced in many areas of Yucatan with houses built using modern materials, mainly because: (a) natural materials are lacking (forests are not old enough to have the tall stems needed as house support); (b) materials are so scarce now that it is excessively time consuming to find them; and (c) people in villages want to have the same living standards as city inhabitants. Instead of substituting a house with a design that is the result of many years of experience, and that is probably the best climatic alternative for the region, its value should be emphasized, modern ideas and materials could be used to improve the kitchen and bathroom, chemicals developed to prevent wood decay could help to have longer turnover rates of natural materials, and different designs could be used for different purposes (house, school). Homegarden producers Homegardens provide a variety of produces; in particular, vegetables, fruits, and ornamentals (16, 20], which are sold or traded locally. These goods could have a considerable commercial value if production of the different villages were coordinated, and produces shipped to Canciin (large touristic center), or Mérida (state capital), where thousands of millions of pesos are spent each year to provide the city with vegetables and fruit [8]; farmers in the small villages would benefit with an increasing income160 Conclusions The above examples should be enough to assess the economic importance that the tropical forests of Yucatan have as a unit. Nevertheless, the vegetation of Yucatan has been cleared by man for a variety of purposes (logging, cattle raising, sisal, orchards), strongly modifying the natural habitat. If the Yucatecan forests were under a management system that would allow us to exploit while conserving, with the establishment and maintenance of areas with both young and old vegetation, then there should be a relative abundance of melliferous flora, deer, and building materials, as well as other goods. Forest management should highly increase yields, and programs such as the deforestation of the Uxpanapa river valley in Veracruz (thousands of hectares were denudated in the 1970's to convert them to agriculture and cattle raising [2], after the failure, a part of the area is being planted with rubber trees [7]), or the deforestation of the Yohaltin valley in Campeche (over 40000 hectares were cleared for rice fields in the early 1980’s at present the fields are abandoned, due to bad construction of the drainage system, as well as the roads and infrastructure [10}). will have no sense in México. Over the years, the Maya have developed and used a variety of agrosilvicultural techniques [14]. which have formed the basis of their vegetation management system. The careful study and adaption of these techniques to modern needs should be attempted [5], so as to make a better use of our natural resources, and maybe development and nature can be compatible (3, 11] Acknowledgements We would like to thank the members of the Sima family of Tixcacaltuyb and the Puch family of Tixpeul for their assistance and patience during the interviews and field work. This research was partially supported by the World Wildlife Fund-U.S References L. Bucher EH (1989) Conservacion y desarrollo en el neotrépico: en busqueda de alternativas. Vida Silvestre Neotropical 2: 3-6 2. Caballero J, Toledo VM. Argueta A. Aguirre E, Rojas P and Viccon J (1978) Estudio botinico y ecologico de la region del rio Uxpanapa, Veracruz, No. 8. Flora itil o el uso tradicional de las plantas. Biotica 3: 103-144 3. 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