LOOKING AHEAD:

WHAT’S
NEW IN
THE 1940
CENSUS
A Grandson’s Account
Of Ike’s Final Years

Brad Meltzer Weaves

An Archives Mystery

Manifest Destiny:
Where It Stopped

Prologue Winter 2010

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 Prologue Winter 2010 Vol. 42 No.4

Q U A R T E R LY o f t h e N AT I O N A L A R C H I V E S a n d R E C O R D S A D M I N I S T R AT I O N

Editorial Policy. Prologue is published quarterly by the National Archives

and Records Administration (NARA). Its primary purpose is to bring
EDITOR’S NOTE
to public attention the resources and programs of NARA, the regional
Fifty years ago, Dwight D. Eisenhower closed his career
archives, and the presidential libraries. Accordingly, Prologue in the
as a public servant and, with his wife, Mamie, moved into
main publishes material based, in whole or in part, on the holdings
and programs of these institutions. In keeping with the nonpartisan
his home in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It was mainly there
ARCHIVIST of the
character of NARA, Prologue will not accept articles that are politically that he would spend the last eight years of his life.
UNITED STATES
David S. Ferriero partisan or that deal with contemporary political issues. His grandson, David Eisenhower, was there for much of
Articles are selected for publication by the editor in consultation Ike’s final years and talks about what it was like in General
DIRECTOR of with experts. The editor reserves the right to make changes in articles Eisenhower’s home in an excerpt from Going Home to
PUBLIC AFFAIRS and accepted for publication and will consult the author should substantive Glory: A Memoir of Life with Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1961–
COMMUNICATIONS questions arise. Published articles do not necessarily represent the views
Susan Cooper
1969, written with his wife, Julie Nixon Eisenhower.
of NARA or of any other agency of the U.S. Gov­­ernment.
Most of what we write about in Prologue is history, but
Prospective authors are encouraged to discuss their work with the editor
EDITOR of best-selling author Brad Meltzer has written a new suspense
prior to submission. Articles may be submitted as either an e-mail attach-
PUBLICATIONS
ment or as hard copy. The Prologue office uses MS Word but can accept any novel, The Inner Circle, with the National Archives as the
James Worsham
common word-processing format. Correspondence regarding contribu- setting. He talks about it, and how he researched it at the
MANAGING tions and all other editorial matters should be sent to the Editor, Prologue, Archives in “Authors on the Record”
EDITOR National Archives and Records Administration, 700 Pennsylvania Avenue on page 54.
Mary C. Ryan NW, Washington, DC 20408-0001; prologue@nara.gov.
Keith Donohue provides the
Subscriptions and Reprints. U.S. subscription rates are $24 for one
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details on a major project in which
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Maureen MacDonald sues of the current volume are available for $6 each (add $3 shipping for
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Rob Crotty
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CONTRIBUTING 20740-6001. Notice of nonreceipt of an issue must be sent within six Adams, Franklin, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison, and
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Then we reveal how Confederate agents tried to get
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ART DIRECTORS
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Brian Barth talk peace terms in 1864, a year before the Civil War
Rania Hassan Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives and Records Administration ended. And Lorraine McConaghy recalls how an inept
(ISSN 0033-1031) is published quarterly by the National Archives diplomat made a foray into Central America in the 1850s
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Prologue 1
from the archivist
transforming
the archives
by david s. ferriero
W hen I came to the National Archives and Records
Administration as Archivist a year ago, I was
somewhat awed, appropriately so, by its holdings.
There were 10 billion pages of records, millions of
photographs and images, miles of film and video and audio
tape and countless historic artifacts. And famous documents
with famous signatures. And researchers of
all kinds working on legal briefs, articles,
and books that might someday win a
Pulitzer Prize. And ordinary folks coming
in to trace their family history.
This was all impressive. But some things
weren’t impressive.
The use of electronic records in government
was exploding at the same time that rapidly
changing technology was allowing people to
communicate and interact with each other
virtually via Web 2.0. The Archives was way
behind in adapting to these new technologies;
we needed to catch up.
Federal fiscal problems government-wide were putting
constraints on available resources, and customers and
stakeholders were feeling underserved and unheard. The
Archives staff identified strongly with the Archives’ mission,
but there was much discontent in the ranks; in fact, NARA
was recently rated among the worst places to work in the
federal government.
We needed to rethink how we do our jobs and how we
operate as an agency to be able to exist and thrive in the
digital age; something transformative had to be done.
That’s just what we’re doing now within the National
Archives. We’re undergoing a transformation—one that will
have an effect at all our locations—those in the Washington
and St. Louis areas as well as our regional archives, federal
records centers and presidential libraries.
We’re doing it in concert with President Obama’s
Open Government Initiative, which has as its goal the
transformation of the relationship between government and
the people—and within government itself— through more
transparency, participation, and collaboration.
Last summer, I appointed a small task force to come up
with a plan to transform the agency. The draft of the five-year
plan was shared with the staff, and hundreds of comments
Join the Archivist at his own blog at
http://blogs.archives.gov/aotus
and visit NARA’s web site at www.archives.gov.
2 Prologue
were received. In early fall, I approved and shared with the
entire staff the final plan, and now we’re now in the process
of implementing it.
Briefly, here’s what we’re doing.
The Task Force identified six transformational outcomes
that would be the guiding force in developing the
organizational structure necessary to address
key challenges NARA is facing.
• One NARA: An agency with unified
and coordinated services to delivered to
customers efficiently and effectively.
• A Customer-Focused Organization: An
agency with structures and processes so
staff can more effectively meet customer
needs.
• Out in Front: An agency that embraces
the primacy of electronic information in
all its work and positions itself as a leader
and innovator in this area.
• An Agency of Leaders: An agency that
fosters a culture of leadership, not just as a position, but
how each individual works proactively.
• A Great Place to Work: An agency that trusts,
empowers, and listens to all staff, the agency’s most vital
resource.
• An Open NARA: An agency that opens organizational
boundaries to learn from others, inside and outside
NARA.
We are reorganizing NARA, but that will not by itself bring
about the change in outlook that we need. That change will
come from our staff—the best and the brightest, equipped
with the proper tools, located in the right environment, and
motivated by an appreciative audience.
You, our customers, come to the Archives with a variety
of requests—for documents to build a family history or to
verify military service or to do major research on a particular
subject. We believe this transformation will result in a more
productive, enriching, and successful experience at the
National Archives for you. We want you to know that you
will have at your disposal the full resources of the National
Archives, not just one particular unit.
As the plan is implemented over the next few years, you’ll
begin to see positive changes. We hope you like them.
Archivist of the United States
Winter 2010
 contents

Winter Volume 42 Issue No. 4

Features
6 Going Home to Glory
Ike’s grandson, David Eisenhower, and Julie Nixon Eisenhower
give us an insider’s account of how Granddad worked on his
presidential memoirs on the farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania,
after he left the White House in 1961.

12 The Founding Fathers Online

Keith Donohue explains how the National Archives is
supporting the ambitious project to put online all the writings
of our six most prominent Founding Fathers: Adams,
Franklin, Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison, and Washington.

20 The Magna Carta Returns to the Archives

David M. Rubenstein recalls how he went to a New York
City auction on a lark one night—and ended up buying
the last copy of the Magna Carta in American hands. It’s
now back at the Archives.

24 The Nuremberg Laws

Greg Bradsher traces the history (and the half-century
disappearance) of the original documents that Adolf
Hitler’s Third Reich used to legalize the persecution of the
Jews and, eventually, the Holocaust.

30 Manifest Destiny’s Inept Diplomat

Lorraine McConaghy reveals how American diplomats
blundered in attempts in the 1850s to conquer territory in
Central America and have it annexed to the United States.

42 The South Appeals for Peace

Jay Bellamy writes about how Confederate envoys sought a
peace conference in 1864—at a hotel in Canada—to try to
negotiate an early end to the Civil War. They even invited

p.46
Lincoln himself.

Prologue 3
 Winter Volume 42 Issue No. 4

p.42
In every issue
2 From the Archivist
Transforming the Archives

46 Genealogy Notes p.12

New Questions in the 1940 Census

54 Authors on the Record

The Inner Circle: Brad Meltzer talks
about the central role of
the National Archives in his
latest novel.

56 Events/News & Notices/

Publications

62 Foundation for the National

Archives
The Records of Achievement Award
for filmmaker Ken Burns.
P To subscribe or view online
articles, log onto
www.archives.gov/publications/prologue

64 Index
72 Pieces of History
Front and inside cover: The 1940 census (see page 46) asked new questions
about employment, military service, and participation in public emergency
projects. On the cover, a young man works on a trombone in a National Youth
Tales of Escape and Evasion
Administration instrument repair shop.

Back cover: The Magna Carta of 1297, purchased in 2007 by David Rubenstein,
is on display at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C.

4 Prologue Winter 2010

 The Archives Online

History on the go
The National Archives in Washington, D.C., and in
College Park, MD, now have wireless Internet access.

History on the web

Introducing the less-cluttered, more user-friendly
Archives.gov web page.

History on the Ipad

Prologue magazine is now available on the iPad,
iPhone,Droid, and PC through our digital publishing
partner, Zinio.com.
Dwight D. Eisenhower at his home
in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
G oing to
Leaving the White House in
1961, Dwight D. Eisenhower
retired to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania,
to a house built on farmland he
and Mamie had bought in 1950.
Home
In his first year out of office, he was
searching for just the right role he
should play as a former President.
At the same time, he was beginning
Glory
to write his memoirs as President,
with the assistance of his son, John,
and an assistant, William Ewald.
He had already written his memoirs
of World War II, when he led the
invasion of Europe that brought an
end to the Third Reich. But now,
the fall of 1961, the writing of
memoirs as President wasn’t com-
ing as easily as writing those of the
Supreme Allied Commander.
By David Eisenhower
with Julie Nixon Eisenhower
Going Home to Glory
B
A Memoir of Life with Dwight
D. Eisenhower, 1961–1969
y fall, Granddad had turned in earnest to the writing of his presidential memoir. In addition
to my father, who was on extended leave from the Army, his chief assistant was William
Ewald, a former White House speechwriter on loan from IBM. The two assistants were hard at
work on drafts of chapters that Granddad would edit and shape to his satisfaction.
In 1947, working 12-hour days with 30 minutes off for lunch, Eisenhower had completed
Crusade in Europe, a long, lucid account of his wartime service, in less than 10 months. But
he found writing a presidential memoir to be very different. Granddad devoted only several
hours a day to his writing and relied heavily on Dad and Ewald. The comparative lack of
zeal for his presidential memoir is understandable. The wartime experience had meant more
to him. The story recounted in Crusade had been his introduction to the great personalities
of the era—FDR, Winston Churchill, General George Marshall. Granddad’s conduct had
been bathed in acclaim and the war in Europe had been carried on without any significant
questioning of the purposes of the allied leadership. In Crusade in Europe, Granddad focused
on explaining the operational and strategic considerations that had guided his decisions.
An account of the Eisenhower administration confronted him with more difficult prob-
lems. A discussion of the presidency required deeper explanations of actions for which he
was solely responsible. In addition, he felt he had to be relatively circumspect due to his role
as senior statesman. And he knew his presidency lacked the drama that permeated Crusade.
Eisenhower undertook the first volume of his presidential memoir, Mandate for Change, braced
for mixed reviews and a relatively apathetic reading public. At the same time, he determined that he
would not attempt to enhance his account of the presidency in any way to create drama for the sake
of greater readership. His concept of his memoir was to provide a debriefing, an unemotional, practi-
cal, and careful explanation of his presidency. As he observed years later: “A record of personal experi-
ences can have several useful purposes, none of which is basically to amuse or entrance. If the story is
about conflict, the conscientious memoir writer does not seek to contrive such tense situations as are
dreamed up by gifted historical novelists . . . [T]he drama, if any, should be in naked facts.”
Eisenhower’s approach to his memoirs concerned his editors at Doubleday, who hoped
he would unwind and speak freely. He had dealt with many fascinating personalities in the
White House. His presidency had, in fact, encompassed moments of high drama, and with
a few embellishments, Eisenhower could write a suspenseful and colorful account. The edi-
tors wanted a livelier narrative; details about the Korean War settlement, the showdown with
Prologue 7
Senator Joseph McCarthy, the election cam-
paigns, Eisenhower’s dealings with the Sovi-
ets and Khrushchev, his clash with the Brit-
ish and French at Suez; in other words, more
insight into the emotions he experienced in
making the big decisions of his presidency.
Sharp disagreements arose over Eisenhow-
er’s dry treatment of the McCarthy period.
His editors could not comprehend Eisen-
hower’s reluctance to dwell on the personal
battle that had raged between the two men
for almost 18 months; Eisenhower could not
grasp why his editors found the McCarthy
story so interesting. He was not influenced,
as Dad recalls, by “the intensity of feeling
which existed among those groups that Mc-
Carthy had abused, which included the in-
tellectual and publishing world.” Eisenhow-
er’s policy had been one of refusing to argue
with McCarthy, and whatever the damage
to his image of leadership on this vital issue,
in his view his policy of ignoring McCarthy
had worked.
Eisenhower had realized McCarthyism
was a massive distraction that imperiled ev-
erything he had fought for in the 1952 cam-
paign. He had run in 1952 in order to bring
the Republican Party back from oblivion
and restore a two-party system after 20 years
of one-party rule. As President, he had been
8 Prologue
Eisenhower devoted a whole chapter to his
relationship with John Foster Dulles. They had a
complicated relationship, but Eisenhower admired
his courage in the face of adversity.
determined to point a “modern” Republican
Party forward and to induce Republicans to
move beyond old arguments about the war
in Europe, Social Security, and the principle
of government intervention in economic af-
fairs, all policies Eisenhower had regarded
as vital and had supported under Roosevelt
and Truman.
Eisenhower and his editors also discussed
his relationship with John Foster Dulles, to
whom he would devote an entire chapter of
the second volume of his memoirs. Dulles
intrigued the editors, yet despite their urg-
ing, Eisenhower did not feel compelled to
set the record straight about a complex part-
nership that he now chose to insist had been
wholly cooperative and mutually beneficial. to make you stupid and say that other people
His veneration of Dulles had begun at the are leading you around by the nose, there is
secretary’s funeral in May 1959, one of the nothing much you can do about it. History
grandest pageants of the Eisenhower years, will tell the story anyway. . . .”
but only one of the several monuments that As he wrote in his memoirs, Eisenhower
Eisenhower erected to his secretary of state. had marveled at Dulles’s personal courage
In July 1959, Eisenhower had announced and his refusal to accept painkillers after
that Chantilly Airport, under construction
west of Washington in the Virginia suburbs,
would be named “Dulles International Air-
port.” By 1961, Eisenhower likened his part-
nership with Dulles to that between Robert
E. Lee and his trusted and indispensable
lieutenant Stonewall Jackson.
Eisenhower’s chapter on Dulles would be
one of the few he would write without sig-
nificant aid. He would devote long passages
to evaluating Dulles’s great abilities, portraying
his secretary as an effective instrument of his
will and presidency. In discussions with his edi-
tors, Eisenhower tossed aside suggestions that
Dulles had manipulated him and that the two
had not enjoyed a smooth or easy partnership.
“Well,” Eisenhower reflected, “if people want
Left: The editors of Eisenhower’s memoirs wanted
colorful accounts of his time in the White House,
including his interactions with Nikita Khrushchev.

cancer operations in 1956 and 1959, so his
mind would remain clear and he would be
available for consultation with his State De-
partment.
Dulles and Eisenhower had not been
social friends, but Eisenhower fondly re-
called their many sessions in the Oval Of-
fice in which the two had discussed topics
well removed from foreign affairs. Dulles
had feared the effects of affluence and had
often talked about the American quest for
the soft and easy life. Philosophically, Eisen-
hower tended to agree with his secretary that
“battle is the joy of life.” He also agreed with
Dulles that in mid-century America, the
principle of representative government was
“on trial.” Occasionally they commiserated
about the insatiable demands for federal
outlays and spending by Washington pres-
sure groups that would, in time, undermine
the vitality of America’s self-governing soci-
ety. He recalled Dulles’s favorite expression,
“the brotherhood of man under the father-
hood of God,” and his belief that the United
States should take the offensive on moral Portrait of Julie and David Eisenhower taken in April
18, 1971.
and ethical questions.
“Small men made life very tough for Fos-
ter,” Eisenhower recalled, and he himself and tedious account of his experiences dur-
had been guilty of a mistake: “I got so I dis- ing World War I. Pershing’s obsession with
liked Truman’s idea of keeping in his desk a literal accuracy went to fantastic lengths. He
liquor bar. Now with Foster, I have thought wanted to include items like the reproduc-
of it since. If I had only had the sense to give tion of formal engraved invitations to state
him a Scotch and soda—he loved Scotch dinners, menus, calendars, appointment
and soda—he would have just sat and talked logs, and weather reports. Major Eisen-
things over, loosened up more. . . .” hower, solicited for his advice, had strongly
As the writing of the book proceeded, urged that Pershing do more highlighting
Doubleday again asked for more contro- and put less stress on literal descriptions in
versy, divided decisions, agony, regret, and order to make the book more readable.
mistakes. Dad recalled how he, Granddad, But Pershing had also consulted a young
and Bill Ewald huddled for hours to discuss brigadier general in Washington named
ways of accommodating the suggestions. As George C. Marshall. Marshall and Eisenhower
my father recalls, the three of them “couldn’t met for the first time while conferring on the
think of anything.” In reporting to the edi- project. Marshall rather liked the details and
tors, the best Dad could do was to shrug disliked departing from literal accuracy into
contritely. “the realm of speculation.” Eisenhower, out-
Dad later told me that ironically, as a ranked, decided he was not the one to chal-
staff officer in 1929, Eisenhower had been lenge Marshall’s judgment or Pershing’s and so
in the position of recommending to John he dropped his suggestions.
J. Pershing that the latter enliven his long Thirty-three years later, Eisenhower found
that tackling a presidential memoir opened
The situation in Vietnam deteriorated during the
Eisenhower administration as the divided country an entirely new set of issues from those he
moved toward war. Here, President Dwight D. had encountered when advising Pershing
Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles
and Marshall. In a presidency spanning eight
(from left) greet South Vietnam’s President Ngo Dinh
Diem at Washington National Airport, May 8, 1957. years, problems recurred and often defied
Prologue 9

resolution. By the fall of 1961, many of the
issues Eisenhower thought he had disposed
of as President were, in fact, unresolved. For
example, one of the key events of Eisenhow-
er’s first term was the end of the French war
in Indochina in 1954, which resulted in a
settlement in Vietnam and partition of the
country into a communist North and pro-
western South. For the rest of the Eisenhow-
er presidency, the partition in Vietnam held,
but the Laotian conflict had erupted in late
1960 and a year later, as Eisenhower began
writing the Indochina section of his memoir,
North Vietnam had resumed a war to unify
North and South under communist rule.
Uncertain of the administration’s likely
course, in the winter of 1961–62, Eisenhower
To learn more about
• The Dwight D. Eisenhower
Presidential Library, go to
www.eisenhower.archives.gov.
• Eisenhower’s approach to the
Cold War in the 1950s, go to www.archives.
gov/publications/prologue and click on “Previ-
ous Issues,” then Winter 2009.
• Eisenhower’s strong support for an interstate
highway system, go to www.archives.gov/
publications/prologue and click on “Previous
Issues,” then Summer 2006.
10 Prologue
would feel compelled to slash by 50 percent
his detailed draft on Indochina lest it constrain
President Kennedy’s freedom of action and
that of the South Vietnamese government of
President Ngo Dinh Diem. In the Preface to
Waging Peace, as volume two of his memoirs
would be titled, he also would carefully note:
“This does not pretend to be, nor shall it be
taken, as an index to the specific current or fu-
ture policies of the United States.”
That America was moving toward direct
intervention in Vietnam had been made plain
to Eisenhower by Bryce Harlow, his White
House congressional liaison and now a lobby-
ist for Procter & Gamble in Washington. In
March 1962, Harlow passed along a memo
given to him by William Sprague, an uniden-
tified Washington insider, about the merits of
calling for a joint resolution in Congress to
acknowledge the developing war in Vietnam.
In detail, the memorandum provided by
Harlow described a “guerilla war of increas-
ing ferocity” that had developed in 1961.
In South Vietnam, Viet Cong insurgents
were “running rampant,” putting the Diem
government in an increasingly “precarious
position.” Quietly, the U.S. troop presence
had been built up from the Geneva treaty
limit of 685 to 4,000. U.S. “training mis-
sion leaders” were in fact leading Vietnam-
ese army platoons in combat, “shooting first
and often.” A special command had been
formed in anticipation of full-scale interven-
tion, and a major Marine force was standing
in readiness to enter the theatre on “a few
hours notice.”
The memorandum summed up the “ben-
eficial effects” of a congressional resolution:
1. Testimony and debate would serve to
inform the public of the true situation
and develop popular support.
2. The Communists would be on notice.
3. Such a resolution would stiffen the
spines of the Administration.
4. It would confirm bi-partisan support. . . .
There is no record of any move by Eisen-
hower to persuade GOP congressmen to
back a joint resolution concerning the situ-
ation in Vietnam, but the memo was a vivid
reminder of how difficult it was to get a
handle on the facts of the growing crisis in
Southeast Asia.
Concern about Vietnam did not escape
even my attention as a 13- and 14-year-old.
One of our closest family friends was Colo-
nel Fred Ladd, lionized in David Halbers-
tam’s The Best and the Brightest as one of the
most effective Special Forces advisers in the
1961–62 period. Back from Vietnam and
now stationed at the Army War College in
Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Ladd—Dad’s high
school classmate at Fort Lewis, Washing-
ton—was an occasional visitor in our Get-
tysburg home. More than once I sat quietly
in our playroom listening while Ladd de-
scribed to Dad the Dantesque inferno de-
veloping in Vietnam. It was a war waged at
night by peasants in black pajamas who were
friends by day. “We just don’t know who the
enemy is in Vietnam,” Ladd said. “I’ve never
seen anything like it.” P
From Going Home to Glory by David Eisen-
hower with Julie Nixon Eisenhower. © 2010
by Juldee Inc. Reprinted by permission of
Simon & Schuster, Inc. The text has been
copyedited to match Prologue’s house style.
Author
David Eisenhower is the
Director of the Institute for
Public Service at the Annen-
berg School of Communi-
cation at the University of Pennsylvania. He is
the author of Eisenhower at War: 1943–1945,
which was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in his-
tory in 1987. He is the son of John and Bar-
bara Eisenhower and the grandson of President
Dwight D. Eisenhower.
Julie Nixon Eisenhower, the younger
daughter of President Richard Nixon, is the
author of two previous books, Special People
and Pat Nixon: The Untold Story.
Winter 2010
The Founding Fathers Online
by keith donohue

S ix weeks after the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia ended, George Washington

received a letter from his fellow delegate Gouverneur Morris dated October 30, 1787.
In it he discusses the prospect of the adoption of the Constitution among the various states, and
he credits Washington for its success, “Indeed I am convinced that if you had not attended the
Convention, and the same Paper had been handed out to the World, it would have met with a colder
Reception, with fewer and weaker Advocates, and with more and more strenuous opponents.”
Morris goes on to argue, in a letter preserved in the Papers of George Washington, that only
Washington is suitable to become President and take the reins of the new and unruly republic.
“And indeed among these thirteen Horses now about to be coupled together there are some of every
Race and Character. They will listen to your Voice, and submit to your Control; you therefore must
I say must mount this Seat.”

Left to right: George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Ben Franklin.
 Washington was not swayed immediately, and indeed, his correspondence over the
next year shows just how assailed he was by uncertainty and his own desire to retire
from public life. At last he was persuaded by his fellow patriots, and in April 1789,
he left Mount Vernon for New York City to assume the office he was to hold for the
next eight years.
The story of George Washington’s reluctant acceptance to stand for election as first
President of the new nation is told with great élan in Ron Chernow’s new biography,
Washington: A Life, and while well known, this Hamlet-like wavering on Washington’s
part comes most fully alive through the actual words of the participants. Captured in
letters to and from Washington, his angst and vacillation over the presidency are often
tinged by a certain underlying pride in being asked so often and so forcefully.
Chernow was able to describe in detail Washington’s dilemma by turning to
Washington’s papers, which have been collected over the years and used by historians
to write biographies. Now, Washington’s papers, along with those of five other of his
contemporary Founding Fathers, will soon be freely accessible via the Internet as a
result of an ongoing project sponsored by the National Historical Publications and
Records Commission (NHPRC), with strong congressional support.
The voluminous letters, diaries, and papers kept by Washington offer a first-hand
account not only of his struggle over the question of the presidency but virtually
every aspect of his life from his youth to his forays in the French and Indian War, the
creation of Mount Vernon, his leadership of
the Continental Army, his presidency of the
Constitutional Convention, and his years as
first President.
Like many 18th-century property owners and
statesmen, Washington maintained meticulous
records of his business, professional, and
personal life, and these historical documents
are the primary source materials for our
understanding of those distant times and
events. Chernow acknowledges, in his book,
his own debt to those primary source materials:
Author Ron Chernow holds a copy of The Papers of George
Washington.

The Founding Fathers Online Prologue 13


James Madison
Any biographer of George Washington
must stand in awe of the scholarly
feat accomplished by the eminent
team of editors at The Papers of George
Washington project, which operates
out of the University of Virginia at
Charlottesville. By gathering 130,000
relevant documents from around the
globe, they have produced a modern
edition of Washington’s papers that
eclipses the far more modest edition
published by John C. Fitzpatrick back
in the 1930s and early 1940s. Whereas
Fitzpatrick, in his thirty-nine volumes,
limited himself to the letters written by
Washington, the new edition—sixty
volumes of letters and diaries and still
counting—includes letters written to
him as well as excerpts of contemporary
letters, diaries, and newspapers. Expert
commentary appears at every step
along the way. Strange as it may seem,
George Washington’s life has now been
so minutely documented that we know
far more about him than did his own
friends, family, and contemporaries.
George Washington is but one of the
Founding Fathers whose life has been so
minutely documented. An editorial team
at the University of Virginia is also working
14 Prologue
on a comprehensive edition of The Papers
of James Madison, although the first 10
volumes were edited at the University
of Chicago. The John Adams Papers are
currently being published by Harvard
University Press with editorial work at
the Massachusetts Historical Society.
Princeton University is the home to
most of The Papers of Thomas Jefferson,
and in 1999, the Thomas Jefferson
Foundation at Monticello took on part
of the job and began The Papers of Thomas
Jefferson: Retirement Series. The Papers of
Benjamin Franklin was established in 1954
under the joint auspices of Yale University
and the American Philosophical Society.
Between 1961 and 1987, Columbia
University Press published the complete
27-volume edition of The Papers of Alexander
Hamilton.
All told, there are 236 volumes of
these documentary editions in print,
and each volume contains hundreds of
documents sent to and from the statesmen,
including letters, diary and journal entries,
publications (such as The Federalist Papers
in the Hamilton edition); editorial essays
introducing the selection of documents and
Barry Faulkner’s mural in the Rotunda for the National Archives features some of the Founding Fathers.
providing historical context; annotations
clarifying the significance and meaning of
particular items; and extensive indexes for
each volume and for entire series.
The papers themselves are drawn from
originals and copies of originals located in the
National Archives, the Library of Congress,
and in literally hundreds of archives, public
and private, across the United States and
around the world.
Once copies had been assembled and
arranged in chronological order, editorial
teams began the task of deciphering,
interpreting, and transcribing handwritten
documents. Every transcription is verified
against the original, in the words of one
editor, “line by line, word by word, letter by
letter.” This attention to accuracy ensures
that final transcriptions reflect the most
verifiable versions of the originals.
The next stage in the process is
annotation—identifying the significant
correspondents, the subjects and events
under discussion, and references to other
people, documents, and publications
within the project and elsewhere.
Annotation is frequently the most time-
consuming part of the process, and it plays
Winter 2010
an essential role in placing the documents
and their contents in context. Specialized
knowledge about the historical period is
necessary to illuminate these details, and
editors provide further context through
introductory materials.
Modern historical documentary editing—
based on the precepts and rigorous standards
of scientific history—began in the 1940s
with work by Julian Boyd of Princeton on
the Thomas Jefferson papers, financed by a
major gift from the New York Times. In 1950,
Boyd presented the first volume to President
Truman, who called for publication of all of
the papers of the Founding Fathers.
“I am convinced that the better we
understand the history of our democracy,
the better we shall appreciate our rights as
free men and the more determined we shall
be to keep our ideals alive,” he said. The
President also asked the National Historical
Publications Commission—which later
became the National Historical Publications
and Records Commission—to plan a
national program for publication of the
papers of other public figures important to
understanding American history.
During the 1950s, the Commission
The Founding Fathers Online
helped the Founders projects with research
into archives and collections, and by
1964, Congress had authorized funds for
the agency to award grants. Over the past
decades, the NHPRC has funded all six
of the projects (with the exception of the
Jefferson Retirement Series) in their ongoing
work, and the print publication resulting
from this massive effort is about two-thirds
complete.
Historians have praised the work of the
editors behind these documentary editions
and relied on the papers to create new and
exciting histories and biographies. David
McCullough told Congress in 2008, “The
value of the Papers of Founding Fathers
goes far beyond their scholarly importance,
immense as that is. These papers are
American scripture. They are our political
faith, the free and open exchange of ideas,
the often brilliant expressions of some of the
most fertile minds, the greatest statesmen,
patriots, and seers in our history.”
McCullough’s own work is testament to
the value of the edited papers. His Pulitzer
Prize–winning biography John Adams relied
heavily upon The Papers of John Adams
documentary edition, and that work, in
turn, became the basis for the Emmy
Award–winning television series on HBO.
Likewise, historian Joseph Ellis’s Founding
Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation,
which received the 2001 Pulitzer Prize
for History, and David Hackett Fischer’s
Washington’s Crossing, which received the
2005 Pulitzer Prize for History, used the
work of the documentary editions, as did
Walter Isaacson’s Benjamin Franklin: An
American Life.
In addition to his new biography on
Washington, Ron Chernow used the
Columbia University project to write
Alexander Hamilton: A Biography (2004).
Dozens of other histories, biographies, and
artistic interpretations have used the original
papers to create fresh versions of the old
story of America’s founding.
Politicians across the
spectrum recognize the
value of the Founders’
papers, and President
Ronald Reagan said
George Washington

Alexander Hamilton
in 1986, “I have great hope for the children
of America, that they too will read the works
of Madison, Washington, Jefferson, Adams,
and Hamilton. For in their letters to each
other and in their essays, in their arguments
and in their opinions, all so passionately
stated, the image of an age can be discerned.”
While their print editions reside in
To learn more about
• Founding Fathers who signed
the Declaration of Independence,
go to www.archives.gov/exhibits/
charters and click on “Join the
Signers of the Declaration.”
• Founding Fathers who signed the Constitution,
go to www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters and
click on “Meet America’s Founding Fathers.”
• The National Historical Publications and
Records Commission, its work, and its grants
program, go to www.archives.gov/grants.
16 Prologue
libraries across the nation, the project editors
realized in the late 1980s that one way to
increase access to their work was through
electronic publication and the Internet.
Several of the projects began investigating
ways to translate their materials from print
to electronic publication for the World
Wide Web.
In 2001 the University of Virginia
Press, with help from a major award from
the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and
matched by funding from the President’s
Office of the University of Virginia, founded
Rotunda (http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/),
an electronic imprint of the press. Part of the
early work of Rotunda was to create digital
versions of the documentary editions of the
Founding Era.
The fruit of this vision, the American
Founding Era Collection, is currently
available by institutional license. Now,
through a cooperative agreement with the
National Archives, the University of Virginia
Press will develop a full-featured web site—
hosted by the National Archives—that will
allow free access to the papers of the six
Founders.
The Founders Online will begin with a
prototype public web site to be launched by
October 2011 that will include 154 volumes
drawn from the Washington, Adams,
Madison, and Jefferson print editions.
Approximately 70,000 documents and
almost 125,000 explanatory notes will be
available in this first stage. Within two years,
the web site will have added the published
volumes of Hamilton, and by 2013, it plans
to have all of the existing documents and
notes in the 242 print volumes online in a
single web site where individuals can read,
browse, and search through a new lens to the
Founding Era.
“This award to help the University of
Virginia Press create a new online presence
for the papers of our nation’s founders is
great news for the University and for scholars
everywhere, said University of Virginia
President Teresa Sullivan. “For 10 years, the
press has built on the pioneering vision of
UVA faculty to harness digital technology
in the service of scholarship and education
through the Rotunda imprint. As a public
university, we applaud the leadership of
the National Archives in bringing this
important archive to life. Making these
materials available to the public for free
reflects the core values of the University and
indeed of our nation’s founding generation,
whose words will now be readily available to
teachers, students, and citizens.”
Editors at the projects echo her remarks.
Jim Taylor, director of The Papers of
John Adams project at the Massachusetts
Historical Society, said, “Free access to the
Founders Online will serve a much broader
audience of citizens the way that Rotunda’s
subscription version serves the scholarly
community.”
Barbara Oberg, director of The Papers of
Thomas Jefferson at Princeton University, said,
“Founders Online is a significant step toward
making the nation’s cultural patrimony
freely available to the American citizenry.
‘Knowledge,’ Thomas Jefferson wrote, ’is
the common property of all mankind.’ If a
republic is to survive—let alone thrive—
free access to knowledge is basic, and what
better place to begin than with the words of
America’s founders? But to make Founders
Online possible at all, it has taken the
expertise, hard work, and dedication of the
editorial teams behind the effort.”
The new web site will be built on a
half-century of work by documentary
editors—the tireless scholars who collected,
transcribed, annotated, indexed, and
published the original papers.
The possibilities for new discoveries
are endless. Teachers will be able to call
up primary source material in the history
classroom in the blink of an eye. Students
and scholars will have the ability to home
in on key concepts and search across all six
collections, not only by simple word searches
but by terms assigned in the indexing process
and through editorial annotations.
Winter 2010
 For example, the Founders’ views on
slavery might be assembled in a single
set of search results in which many of the
original documents do not use the word
at all.
Or one might collect all the correspondence
between Adams and Jefferson along with
their contemporaries’ views on each man
and create a richer portrait on their fraught
relationship.
Or one might trace the Founders’ letters
and diaries and debates leading up to the
Constitutional Convention, their thoughts
during the meetings in Philadelphia, the
ratification of the Constitution by the states,
and how the Washington administration,
first Congress, and first Supreme Court
implemented the grand experiment.
The Founders Online continues that
experiment in democracy by making freely
available in one place the original words of
the original statesmen. Although it holds
only a small portion of the primary source
material, the National Archives is an ideal
home for this collection.
In the same Act of Congress creating
the National Archives in 1934, there was
language establishing a National Historical
Publications Commission designed to
publish the most important documents of
our history, whether or not those papers
were in the stewardship of the government.
The Commission augments the work of
the National Archives and creates a way for
partnerships to be created with other archives
John Adams
in the nation to help tell the American story.
In announcing the creation of the “As scholars and statesmen debate and Madison—rarely agreed together on
Founders Online, David S. Ferriero, the meaning of documents such as the public policy for the new nation, though they
Archivist of the United States, said that Constitution and Bill of Rights, they can were unanimous in support of the principles
having these papers online will better inform turn to the originals and the wit and wisdom and underlying idea of America. Now today’s
current-day debates over the meaning of our of the Founders’ own debates. And we can best minds will have the chance to contrast
founding documents. only express our gratitude for the effort of and compare the Founders’ words and ideas
“This new archive of the Founding Era dedicated editors and scholars to create this through a communications medium that none
will revolutionize our understanding by work, a national monument to the founding could foresee, though all would acknowledge
creating for the first time a free and fully of our nation.” it as a democratizing force. The words of the
searchable collection of the Founders’ The great minds who fiercely debated Founders belong online, where people across
own words in the context of their time,” the founding of our country—Franklin, the country and around the world can freely
he said. Washington, Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson, read and wonder at their wisdom. P

The Founding Fathers Online Prologue 17

 Historian Cites Value
O f P residential P apers
O n January 20, 1777, some two weeks
after the Battle of Princeton, George
Washington sent a note to the 22-year-
old Alexander Hamilton, inviting him to
become his aide-de-camp.
Thus began a relationship that would
last a lifetime, with Hamilton serving as
Washington’s trusted adviser through the
Revolutionary War, at the Constitutional
Convention, as a leader in the Federalist
Party, and as secretary of the treasury for six
years during Washington’s presidency.
During the months when The Federalist
began to appear under the pen name
Publius, Washington wrote his friend
Hamilton, telling him that “when the
transient circumstances and fugitive
performances which attended this crisis shall
have disappeared, that work will merit the
notice of Posterity; because in it are candidly
discussed the principles of freedom & the
topics of government, which will be always
interesting to mankind so long as they shall
be connected in Civil Society.” He was, as so
often, percipient and wise in his assessment.
Hamilton was to draft the famous
Farewell Address by Washington, and in their
last correspondence, Washington sent a letter
to Hamilton full of admiration for his plan to
establish an American military academy.
It is small wonder then that after writing his
critically acclaimed biography of Alexander
Hamilton, historian Ron Chernow would
turn his attention from protégé to master.
Washington: A Life appeared in October
2010 to critical acclaim, and as with his
Hamilton biography, Chernow credits the
work of the editors on The Papers of George
Washington. “I would have never been
emboldened without the edition of the
papers,” Chernow said. “It would have taken
me a century to write without them. And in
a sense, I am standing on the shoulders of a
team of editors.”
The modern edition, The Papers of
George Washington, an NHPRC grant-
funded project, was established in 1968 at
the University of Virginia, under the joint
18 Prologue
auspices of the University and the Mount
Vernon Ladies’ Association of the Union.
Letters written to Washington as well as
letters and documents written by him are
being published in the complete edition that
will consist of approximately 90 volumes,
and the edition is now more than two-thirds
complete.
It builds on the 39-volume edition
by John C. Fitzpatrick published in the
1930s and early 1940s. “There are two
major differences,” Chernow says. “The
earlier edition only contains the letters from
Washington, but not to him. Reading it is
sort of like eavesdropping on one end of a
telephone conversation. The new edition not
only follows both sides of the correspondence,
but each document is lavishly annotated so
that one gets extracts from contemporaries.
I try to use eyewitness accounts, and those
were often discovered through the footnotes.”
The result is another tour-de-force of
synthesis and imagination. The New York
Times calls it, “Tenaciously researched. . . .
This new portrait offers a fresh sense of what
a groundbreaking role Washington played,
not only in physically embodying his new
nation’s leadership but also in interpreting
how its newly articulated constitutional
principles would be applied . . . deeply
rewarding.”
Building on recent thematic biographies
by David McCullough, David Hackett
Fischer, and Joseph Ellis, Chernow set out
to write a cradle-to-grave biography that
captured the essence not only of Washington,
the political leader but Washington, the man.
Washington, he felt, is often compared to
the other founders and is rarely scrutinized
against contemporary leaders.
“He’s not given sufficient credit for his
intelligence,” Chernow said. “Whereas
Washington was not an original thinker
unlike Hamilton, who was an original as a
political theorist and government leader,
Washington had the ability to latch on to the
ideas of others and activate them.”
Only through a close reading of the
primary source materials can readers see how
on the surface Washington appeared self-
effacing in public, but in reality, he is highly
self-aware of his place in history and took
extraordinary pains to protect his reputation,
including his great effort to preserve his
papers during and after the Revolutionary
War. He personally supervised the transport
of his papers back to Mount Vernon.
“Washington’s mental world is richer than
today’s,” Chernow said “The Founders were
arguing brilliantly over the same issues we
argue over today, but with brilliance, honesty,
and integrity. You have to go through the
papers to see how fiery and forceful they
were, because they were always conscious of
their public persona.”
“It’s a simply fabulous idea,” Chernow
responded to the news of a cooperative
agreement between the National Archives
and the University of Virginia Press to bring
the Founders Online. “Unfortunately, the
Founders have become remote and abstract,
when in fact they are rich, full-blooded, and
fiery characters. This new site will not only
help students learn more deeply and develop a
visceral love and respect for this era, but it will
stimulate interest in history for teachers, too,
and will reconnect them to primary sources.”
Such innovative approaches lead to a
“democratization of historical research,”
he says. “Archives used to be restricted
to those historians able to come visit and
examine the documents first-hand, but
now an inquisitive five-year-old with a
computer will be able to look at what the
Founders thought.”
Author
Keith Donohue joined the National
Archives in 2004 as communications
director for the National Historical
Publications and Records Commission.
He was a speechwriter and director of publications at the
National Endowment for the Arts and is the author of
the novels The Stolen Child, Angels of Destruction, and the
forthcoming Centuries of June. He has a Ph.D. in English
from The Catholic University of America.
Winter 2010
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Winter 2010
 The Magna Carta
ret u rn s to th e ar c h ive s

Donor Buys Historic Document at Auction

to Keep It in the United States
by david m. rubenstein

S erendipity can play an important role in our lives.

One of the more serendipitous occurrences in my own life occurred in De-
cember of 2007. On a return flight from overseas, I happened to see in my mail
file an invitation to a pre-auction reception for a 1297 copy of the Magna Car-
ta. The reception happened to be that night in New York City, and I happened
to be landing in New York just in time to get to the reception. So I quickly
decided to go, to see this most famous of all documents.
When I arrived at the reception, I met the curator in charge of shepherd-
ing the Magna Carta to a successful sale. She informed me that the copy be-
ing auctioned belonged to former presidential candidate Ross Perot, who
was selling the document to enable his foundation to fund Iraqi war veter-
ans’ medical expenses. He had owned the document since 1984, when he
purchased it from a British family who had owned it for more than 500 years;
he had subsequently lent it to the National Archives, where it had been gener-
ally on display since the early 1980s.
I was also informed by the curator that Mr. Perot had not placed any constraints
on the document’s sale. It was thus widely believed—and feared—that a wealthy in-
dividual from another country would likely purchase the document and remove it
from the United States. It turned out that, of the 17 copies of the historic document
still in existence, this was the only one owned by a private citizen and the only

David Rubenstein talks to the press about his purchase of the Magna Carta on March 3, 2008.

Title 21
one in the United States. Fifteen copies dation of our own democracy. For that rea- returning the night of the auction, the cu-
reside in British institutions, and the oth-
er one is displayed in the Australian parlia-
ment. None of these copies, I was told, is
likely to ever be sold.
These facts struck me as particularly unfor-
tunate, for the Magna Carta—while a prod-
uct of the 13th century in England—actual-
ly had a significant impact on our government
and on our basic rights.
A Last-Minute Decision
To Attend an Auction
The Magna Carta’s principles of due pro-
cess, trial by jury, habeas corpus, and no
representation without taxation, among
others, were central to British common
law. And that common law was the foun-
The press surrounded the Magna Carta during a photo opportunity when the historic document returned to the National Archives.
22 Prologue
son, each of the colonies embodied most
of these principles in their governing struc-
tures, and the Founding Fathers also placed
them in the heart of the Declaration of In-
dependence and the Constitution (and,
later, the Bill of Rights).
So I thought it would be appropriate
to try to keep this copy of the Magna Car-
ta in the country—to ensure that Americans
could continue to see it, and to thereby be
continuously reminded of its importance to
our country. I resolved that evening to return
to New York from Washington, D.C. (my
home), the next night and to win the auction.
Having never been to a major auction in
my life, I was not sure exactly how best to
proceed. Imagine my surprise when, upon
rator ushered me into a small unoccupied
room and instructed me pick up a tele-
phone to hear the auction and to commu-
nicate any bids to her. This was a far cry
from the bustling auction floor so often de-
picted in movies and on television. But I
gathered that many of the bidders on par-
ticularly valuable or newsworthy objects do
not want to be seen bidding (or winning),
and these private rooms are a solution.
The bidding soon commenced, and after
several rounds of competitive bidding, I was
delighted—and surprised—to hear that my
final bid won the auction.
I was then told by the auction house’s of-
ficials that I could slip out a side door and
keep the new owner and the new where-
Winter 2010
abouts of the Magna Carta a secret (presum-
ably forever).
I decided, though, that I wanted the public
to know right then that I intended to place the
document on long-term loan to the National
Archives as a gift to the country and as modest
repayment of my debt to this country for my
good fortune in being an American. I said this
in front of scores of reporters gathered at the
auction and shortly thereafter called the Archi-
vist of the United States to let him know of my
plans. The Archivist at that time, Allen Wein-
stein, was quite pleased.
Principles in Magna Carta Provide
Roots of American Democracy
Despite the Magna Carta’s historical signif-
icance, not many people are aware of the
document’s complicated history.
In brief, in the early 13th century, Eng-
land and parts of France were essentially one
country ruled by a monarch, King John.
During this period, John orchestrated sever-
al wars in mainland Europe to recover land
that he had inherited but which was no lon-
ger under his control.
To finance these wars, and to rebuild the
official coffers, John demanded scutage (a fee
paid in lieu of military service) from the bar-
ons who had refused to join the war effort. The
barons in question began a series of protests,
eventually capturing the city of London. It was
at this point that King John agreed to meet
with the barons to settle their grievances.
That occurred on June 15, 1215. John
met with approximately 100 barons on the
plains of Runnymede, not far from present-
day Windsor Castle in London. They col-
lectively agreed to a peace settlement under
which the king would grant the barons cer-
tain rights. The original document—writ-
ten in Latin—included 63 key provisions,
among which were guarantees of the writ of
habeas corpus, the right to a trial by a jury
of peers, punishment proportionate to the
crime, and no taxation without representa-
tion. These provisions satisfied the barons’
demands, and peace was restored for a time,
The Magna Carta Returns to the Archives
though, it turned out, only for a short time.
The problem with the agreed-upon Magna
Carta was that it was soon refuted by Pope In-
nocent III, who reacted negatively to a provi-
sion that established a committee of 25 barons
who could at any time meet and overrule the
will of the king. Viewing this as an affront to
the authority of the Crown and the Church (to
which the Crown was essentially subordinate),
the pope objected to the agreement (effective-
ly forcing the king to annul it), sparking a civ-
il war in England that would last until John’s
death in October 1216.
John’s nine-year-old son Henry was then
crowned Henry III. Henry’s regent, William
Marshall, reissued the Magna Carta in No-
vember 1216, minus the principal offending
clause mentioned above. This version would
stay in effect until 1225, when Henry III,
The 1297 final version of the
Magna Carta is on display
in the National Archives
Building in Washington, D.C.
To learn more about
• The Magna Carta itself, go to
www.archives.gov/exhibits and
click on “Featured Documents,”
then “Magna Carta.”
• The legacy for Americans of the Magna
Carta, go to www.archives.gov/exhibits,
then click on “Featured Documents,” then
“Magna Carta,” then click on “Magna
Carta and Its American Legacy.”
• Plans to re-encase the Magna Carta, go to
www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2010
and click on the second item under June.
upon official assumption of the throne at
age 18, issued a shorter version of the Mag-
na Carta.
When King Henry III’s son Edward I be-
came king, he found himself in the same
situation as his grandfa-
ther—in need of mon-
ey to reclaim lands in
France. To secure that
money from his subjects,
the new king was forced,
while at war out of Eng-
land, to issue a new ver-
sion of the Magna Carta.
This 1297 version of
the document is the fi-
nal version of the Mag-
na Carta. It was, though,
the first Magna Carta that
was placed on the offi-
cial legal registry of Eng-
land. And the Magna
Carta thereby finally be-
came the official law of
the country. It is still on
that legal registry and still
the law of England. P
Author
David M. Rubenstein is co-founder
and managing director of The Carlyle
Group, a global private equity firm,
and chairman of the board of the John
F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.
Prologue 23
 The
Nuremberg Laws
Archives Receives Original Nazi Documents That “Legalized” Persecution of Jews
by greg bradsher

I t was in Nuremberg, officially designated as the “City of the Reich Party Ral-
lies,” in the province of Bavaria, where Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party in
1935 changed the status of German Jews to that of Jews in Germany, thus “le-
gally” establishing the framework that eventually led to the Holocaust.
Ten years later, it would also be in Nuremberg, now nearly destroyed by Brit-
ish and American heavy bombing, where surviving prominent Nazi leaders were
put on trial for war crimes and crimes against humanity.
The war in Europe ended in May 1945, and soon the attention of the Allies
turned to prosecuting those Third Reich leaders who had been responsible for,

Law for the Safeguard of German Blood of German Honor (top) and the signature page (left).
among other things, the persecution of the Jews and the
Holocaust.
The trials began November 20, 1945, in Nuremberg’s
Palace of Justice, which had somehow survived the in-
tense Allied bombings of 1944 and 1945.
The next day, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Robert H. Jack-
son, named by President Harry S. Truman as the U.S. chief
counsel for the prosecution of Axis criminality, made his
opening statement to the International Military Tribunal.
“The most serious actions against Jews were outside of any
law, but the law itself was employed to some extent. They
were the infamous Nuremberg decrees of September 15,
1935,” Jackson said.
The so-called “Nuremberg Laws”— a crucial step in
Nazi racial laws that led to the marginalization of German
Jews and ultimately to their segregation, confinement, and
extermination—were key pieces of evidence in the trials,
which resulted in 12 death sentences and life or long sen-
tences for other Third Reich leaders.
But the prosecution was forced to use images of the laws
from the official printed version, for the original copies
were nowhere to be found.
However, they had been found earlier, by U.S. counter-in-
telligence troops, who passed them up the line until they came
to the Third Army’s commander, Gen. George S. Patton, Jr.
The general took them home to California. There, they re-
mained for decades, their existence not revealed until 1999.
Finally, this past summer, the original copies of the laws,
signed by Hitler and other Nazi leaders, were transferred to the
National Archives.
In 1933 Jews were denied the right to hold public office
or civil service positions; Jewish immigrants were denatural-
ized; Jews were denied employment by the press and radio;
and Jews were excluded from farming. The following year,
Jews were excluded from stock exchanges and stock brokerage.
During these years, when the Nazi regime was still rather
shaky and the Nazis feared opposition from within and resis-
tance from without, they did nothing drastic, and the first mea-
sures appeared, in relative terms, rather mild.
After Germany publicly announced in May 1935 its re-
armament in violation of the Versailles Treaty, Nazi party radi-
cals began more forcibly demanding that Hitler, the party, and
the government take more drastic measures against the Jews.
They wanted to completely segregate them from the social,
political, and economic life of Germany. These demands in-
creased as the summer progressed.
On August 20, 1935, the U.S. embassy in Berlin report-
ed to the secretary of state:
To sum up the Jewish situation at the moment, it may be said
that the whole movement of the Party is one of preparing itself
and the people for general drastic and so-called legal action to
be announced in the near future probably following the Par-

Third Reich Began Persecutions

Years Before Laws Enacted in 1935
The Nuremberg Laws made official the Nazi persecution of
the Jews, but the “legal” attack on the Jews actually began two
years earlier.
After the Nazis took power in Germany in 1933, they
became increasingly engaged in activities involving the
persecution of the Jewish and other minority populations.
They did it under the color of law, using official decrees as
a weapon against the Jews.

The Reich’s Citizen

Law (far right) and the
signature page (right).
 ty Congress to be held in Nuremberg begin-
ning on September 10th. One has only to re-
view the statements made by important lead-
ers since the end of the Party’s summer solstice
to realize the trend of affairs.

James G. McDonald, high commission-

er for refugees under the League of Nations,
then in Berlin, wrote in his diary August 22
that “New legislation is imminent, but it is
difficult to tell exactly what the provisions
will be. Certainly, they will tend further to
differentiate the Jews from the mass of Ger-
mans and to disadvantage them in new ways.”
William E. Dodd, the American ambassa-
dor to Germany, on September 7 sent a long
dispatch to the secretary of state regarding
current development in the “Jewish Situa-
tion.” He reported “it appears that even now
discussions are still continuing in the highest
circles respecting the policy to be evolved at
the Nuremberg party Congress.” He added:

It is believed that a declaration respecting the

Jews will be made at Nuremberg which will
be followed by the announcement at the Con-
gress itself, or shortly thereafter, or a body of
legislation whose ultimate character will de-
pend upon the result of the discussions now
in progress. Either one or the other will proba-
bly contain drastic features to appease the rad-
icals but may be offset by certain appearances
of moderation to be emphasized later to facili-
tate such dealing abroad. . . . An idea that may
influence policy at Nuremberg, and in any
case now seems to be uppermost in the minds
of Party extremists, is that, however drastic the
measures adopted, they will be formally root-
ed in law, and that the sanctity with which law
is regarded, and the discipline with which it
is observed in Germany, may impress foreign
opinion favorably.

On September 9, McDonald wrote Felix

Warburg, a major American Jewish leader,
that he was unable to get a clear picture what
Gen. George S. Patton presented the Nuremberg Laws
to Huntington trustee Robert Millikan on June 11, 1945.

Winter 2010

The Reich’s Flag Law with signatures.
may be expected in the threatened new leg-
islation, but “One can only be certain that
the result will be to penalize the Jews in vari-
ous ways and on the basis of pseudo-legality,
which causes grim forebodings.”
Nazi Rally in Nuremberg
Hailed Passage of the Laws
At their annual rally held in Nuremberg on
September 15, Nazi party leaders announced,
after the Reichstag had adopted them, new
laws that institutionalized many of the racial
theories underpinning Nazi ideology.
The so-called Nuremberg Laws, signed
by Hitler and several other Nazi officials,
were the cornerstone of the legalized perse-
The Nuremberg Laws
cution of Jews in Germany. They stripped
German Jews of their German citizenship,
barred marriage and “extramarital sexual
intercourse” between Jews and other Ger-
mans, and barred Jews from flying the Ger-
man flag, which would now be the swastika.
On September 16, Ambassador Dodd
sent a cable to the secretary of state about
the Nuremberg Laws. He wrote:
So far it is only possible to say that main
trend of Nuremberg congress was to cater
to radical sentiment within the Party. The
laws passed last night concerning citizen-
ship, the swastika as national flag and for
protection of German blood and honor
(by means of preventing marriage and sex-
ual intercourse between Aryan and Jews
and flying of the German flag by the lat-
ter) obviously need further definition and
Foreign Office advised waiting for execu-
tive supplementary regulations. [These, is-
sued on November 14, provided specific
definitions of who a Jew was.]
Dodd followed up the next day with a dis-
patch to the secretary of state regarding the
Nuremberg Party Congress: “Race propa-
ganda and psychology ran through practical-
ly all the speeches like a scarlet thread, obvi-
ously in preparation for the laws that were to
be adopted by the Reichstag.”
He added: “The new laws against the Jews de-
ceive very few people that the last word has been
said on that question or that new discriminatory
measures will not eventually follow within the
limit of what is possible without bringing about
too great a disturbance in business.”
On September 19, Dodd sent the secre-
tary of state two copies of the Reichsgestz-
blatt [Reich Law Gazette] of September 16,
which contained the Nuremberg Laws and
also included translations of them.
In transmitting them, Dodd wrote: “The an-
ti-Jewish legislation should be sufficiently se-
vere to please Party extremists for some time.”
They were not. More persecutions followed
in the years before World War II began in 1939.
The extermination of the Jews and others
followed, not only in Germany, but through
most of Europe.
Original Nuremberg Documents
Are Found, But Then Disappear
The Moscow Declaration of 1943, by Pres-
ident Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister
Winston Churchill, and Marshal Josef Stalin,
took note of the atrocities perpetrated by the
Germans and laid down the policy that the ma-
jor criminals would “be punished by the joint
decision of the Governments of the Allies.”
But first the war had to be concluded before
the Moscow Declaration could be implemented.
As the Allied forces overran Germany in April
Prologue 27

To learn more about
• The original Nuremberg Laws
coming to the National Archives
in 2010, see the 28-minute video
on C-SPAN 3 (http://www.c-
spanvideo.org/program/295816-1) and the Archivist
of the United States’s blog (http://blogs.archives.gov/
aotus/?p=1618).
• The work of the Nazi War Crimes and Japanese
Imperial Government Records Interagency
Working Group (IWG) in declassifying 8.5 million
pages of documents pertaining to war crimes, go to
www.archives.gov/publications/prologue, then click
on “Previous Issues,” and on Winter 2007.
• Holocaust Era Assets, go to www.archives.gov/
research/holocaust.
1945, on April 20 (Hitler’s birthday), elements of
the Third and 45th Infantry divisions of the U.S.
Seventh Army entered Nuremberg and after hard
fighting effectively secured the town. A week lat-
er, Hitler committed suicide in Berlin, and the
week after that, the Germans surrendered.
Now the Moscow Declaration could be
put into effect.
Meanwhile, in late April 1945, M.Sgt. Mar-
tin Dannenberg, leading the 203rd U.S. Army
Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC) Detach-
ment, working with the U.S. Third Army, was
roaming through Bavaria with two other men,
carrying out various CIC assignments.
An informant led him and his team to a
bank vault, in the town of Eichstaett, about
45 miles due south of Nuremberg. There,
a German financial official who had a key
opened the vault, then handed over to the
American soldiers some documents in a yel-
low envelope, sealed with red wax swastikas.
Dannenberg slit the top of the envelope and
pulled the documents out. The first thing he
saw was the signature “Adolf Hitler.”
Sgt. Frank Perls, a German-born Jew
(though baptized as a Protestant) who
joined the U.S. Army in 1943 after fleeing
his homeland in 1933, was one of two men
accompanying Dannenberg. Translating the
documents, Perls quickly realized they were
the infamous Nuremberg Laws.
Dannenberg turned them over to his com-
manding officer, who ordered Dannenberg
28 Prologue
and Perls to deliver them to the U.S. Third
Army commander, Gen. George S. Patton, Jr.
War Crimes Trials Begin
—Without Original Copies
On May 2, less than a week after the CIC
special agents found the Nuremberg Laws
and a few days before the war in Europe
ended, Truman appointed Associate Justice
Jackson as chief of counsel for the United
States in its prosecution of the Allied case
against the major Axis war criminals.
During the next three months, Jackson
spent most of the time in London negoti-
ating with the British, French, and Soviet
representatives over an agreement to pros-
ecute the major Nazi war criminals before
an international tribunal. They would reach
agreement on August 8.
Meanwhile, immediately after Jackson’s
appointment, the staff of the Office of the
United States Chief of Counsel, which grew
to more than 600 personnel, started collect-
ing documentary evidence that could be
used by the prosecutors.
Among the evidence gathered were vol-
umes of the Reichsgestzblatt, which con-
tained various German laws, decrees, and
regulations, including those relating to the
persecution of the Jews.
In the September 16, 1935, edition were
the Nuremberg Laws, which had been ad-
opted by the Reichstag the previous day and
At the Huntington Library, Archivist of the United States David S. Ferriero (center) with author Greg
Bradsher (right) and Steven S. Koblik, president of the Huntington Library (left), spoke at the ceremony
transferring the Nuremberg Laws to the National Archives.
promulgated by its president, Herman Go-
ering. Photostats and translations of them
were placed in the U.S. evidence file and
eventually made available to the Interna-
tional Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.
The prosecutors may have wished they had
the original laws themselves, as they would
have made for dramatic evidence since two
of the defendants, Wilhelm Frick and Rudolf
Hess, had signed them. But, unfortunately,
they did not. General Patton had them.
Patton Ignores Orders,Takes
Original Copies To California
Patton, like so many of his soldiers, was a
souvenir hunter.
Rather than ensuring the copies of the
Nuremberg Laws that he received from Dan-
nenberg and Perls were delivered to the ap-
propriate authorities, he took them home to
California after the war in Europe was over.
In doing so, Patton was violating Supreme
Headquarters Allied Expedition Forc-
es (SHAEF) and 12th Army Group direc-
tives of November 9 and 23, 1944, issued by
Generals Dwight D. Eisenhower and Omar
N. Bradley, respectively, regarding seizing
and holding Nazi party and German gov-
ernment records.
Six months after Patton took the Nurem-
berg Laws to California, the trial began. Justice
Jackson, in his opening statement to the court
on November 21, as noted earlier, referenced
Winter 2010

Hermann Goering, Rudolf Hess, Joachim von Ribbentrop, and other defendants sit in the courtroom of the
German war crimes trials in Nuremburg, 1945.
the Nuremberg Laws, citing the version pub-
lished in the Reichsgestzblatt of 1935.
During the tribunal’s December 13 session,
an assistant trial counsel for the United States
addressed the court about the Nazi persecu-
tion of the Jews. In making his presentation, he
said: “When the Nazi Party gained control of
the German State, a new and terrible weapon
against the Jews was placed within their grasp,
the power to apply the force of the state against
them. This was done by the issuance of decrees.”
He then proceeded to list them, includ-
ing the Nuremberg Laws as published in the
1935 Reichsgestzblatt. After discussing them,
he asked the court to take judicial notice of the
published decrees. From a legal perspective, the
Reichsgestzblatt was certainly authoritative and
acceptable to the tribunal under its charter re-
garding rules of evidence, but it certainly would
have been more dramatic and effective to have
confronted the defendants with the originals, as
the prosecutors did with other documents.
The trial would go on another 10 months,
with references often made to the Nurem-
berg Laws. On September 30 and October
1, 1946, the tribunal rendered judgment.
Of the three defendants most closely asso-
ciated with the Nuremberg Laws, Hermann
Goering and Wilhelm Frick were sentenced
to death, and Rudolf Hess was sentenced to
life imprisonment.
The Nuremberg Laws
Missing Documents Reemerge.
Now in the National Archives
A week later, with his work over, Justice
Jackson sent President Truman a final re-
port about his activities and noted that the
war crimes documentation, including cap-
tured records, was the property of the Unit-
ed States and that an agency should take cus-
tody of it on behalf of the United States.
“The matter,” he wrote, “is of such impor-
tance as to warrant calling it to your attention.”
Two months later, the records of the U.S.
Counsel for the Prosecution of Axis Crimi-
nality were offered to the National Archives,
and in 1947 the National Archives acces-
sioned them. Within the records are photo-
static and translated copies of the Nurem-
berg Laws as published in the Reichsgestzblatt
and referred to during the trial.
General Patton had deposited the origi-
nal Nuremberg Laws at the Huntington Li-
brary, near his home in the Los Angeles area
in June 1945; Patton died as a result of inju-
ries received in an auto accident in Germany
in December 1945 and had left no instruc-
tions regarding the laws.
Their existence at the Huntington Library,
Art Collections, and Botanical Gardens was
not revealed until 1999, when they went on
display for 10 years at the Skirball Cultural
Center in Los Angeles until late 2009.
In the summer of 2010, the National Ar-
chives accepted donation from the Hun-
tington Library of the original Nuremberg
Laws—63 years later than they would have
if Patton had turned them over to the appro-
priate authorities. P
Note on Sources
Published in 42 volumes, the Trial of the Major
War Criminals before The International Military
Tribunal, Nuremberg 14 November 1945–1 October
1946 (Nuremberg: International Military Tribunal,
Nuremberg, 1947–1949), contains the day-to-day
proceedings of the tribunal and documents offered in
evidence by the prosecution and defense.
Office of United States Chief of Counsel for
Prosecution of Axis Criminality, Nazi Conspiracy and
Aggression (Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1946), vol. I, Chapter 12, contains information
about documents, including those not introduced as
evidence during the International Military Tribunal,
relating to the persecution of the Jews in Germany.
The State Department’s Central Decimal File, 1930–
1939 (General Records of the Department of State, Record
Group 59), under decimals 862.00 and 862.4016, contains
reports on political developments in Germany and the
persecution of German Jews. Also useful regarding the
persecution of the Jews in Germany beginning in 1935
is Richard Breitman, Barbara McDonald Stewart, and
Severin Hochberg, eds., Refugees and Rescue: The Diaries and
Papers of James G. McDonald 1935–1945 (Bloomington
and Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana University Press, in
association with the United States Holocaust Memorial
Museum, Washington, DC, 2009).
Useful for understanding the adoption of
the Nuremberg Laws, their discovery by the
Counterintelligence Corps team in 1945, General
Patton’s acquisition and disposition of them in 1945,
their custody by the Huntington Library (1945–1999),
and their subsequent exhibition at the Skirball Cultural
Center is Anthony M. Platt with Cecilia E. O’Leary,
Bloodlines: Recovering Hitler’s Nuremberg Laws, From
Patton’s Trophy to Public Memorial (Boulder, CO:
Paradigm Publishers, 2006).
Author
Greg Bradsher, an archivist at the
National Archives and Records
Administration, specializes in World
War II intelligence, looted assets, and
war crimes. His previous contributions to Prologue have
included articles the discovery of Nazi gold in the Merkers
Mine (Spring 1999); the story of Fritz Kolbe, 1900–1943
(Spring 2002); Japan’s secret “Z Plan” in 1944 (Fall 2005);
Founding Father Elbridge Gerry (Spring 2006); the third
Archivist of the United States, Wayne Grover (Winter
2009); and Operation Blissful, a World War II diversionary
attack on an island in the Pacific (Fall 2010).
Prologue 29
 manifest
destiny’s
inept diplomat
How William Carey Jones
“Lost” Central America

B y L orraine M c C onaghy

B y 1854, the United States’ Pacific coast as we know it

had been secured.
Middle-aged Americans had experienced a dynamic
nation that expanded aggressively in their lifetimes as
the United States purchased the huge Louisiana Territory
in 1803 and moved northward and westward to the
Pacific Northwest. Oregon Territory was organized in
1848, and California was admitted to the union as a
state in 1850; three years later, Washington Territory was
separated from Oregon. Expansion moved southward and
westward through Texas, New Mexico, and California in
the Mexican War.

In the expansion of America’s manifest destiny during the mid-1800s, Nicaragua was an appealing
target with its pathway from ocean to ocean across Central America
 Antebellum western boundaries seemed
fluid to many, and the nation’s destiny
seemed manifest to continue its imperialist
momentum, pursuing an ordained mission.
The U.S. Navy, the Pacific Squadron,
William Walker—the “grey-eyed man
of destiny”—and the exceptionally inept
diplomat William Carey Jones all shared in
that undertaking and its ultimate failure.
The Mexican War had trained a generation
of fighting men to fulfill the American mission
by gaining new territory and subduing its
inhabitants under force of arms. They formed
a pool of recruits for a “filibuster”: a private
military expedition to conquer territory
outside U.S. borders, from Cuba to the
Sandwich Islands.
Manifest destiny’s lush rhetoric was
easily borrowed to clothe such freebooting
expeditions as crusading acts of “regeneration”
to “liberate” former European colonies,
disguising conquest as redemption. Aggressive
expansionists in the Young America wing of
the Democratic Party looked west and south
to a variety of targets, including Nicaragua
and its transit, the pathway from ocean to
ocean across Central America.
The Panama transit is familiar to us today,
but in the 1850s, an alternative route across
Nicaragua was equally appealing. Cornelius
Vanderbilt’s Accessory Transit Company
developed a segmented passage from Greytown
on the Atlantic side to San Juan del Sur on the
Pacific, by steamer and stagecoach.
Opened in 1851, the Nicaragua route
cut 700 miles off the Panama route and was
advertised as cooler and healthier. During
the first years of the Nicaragua transit’s
operation, an average of 2,000 Americans
made the crossing each month, mostly
heading westward to golden California.
According to a contemporary journalist in
Putnam’s Magazine, travelers had “ample time
to admire the splendid country through which
they passed, to look with utter contempt on
the natives, and to speculate on what a country
it would be if it were only under the stars and
stripes.” To expansionist Americans, Nicaraguans
were not fit to look out for themselves. Above
all, they could not manage the transit so vital to
American interests in the west.
“Conquering” Nicaragua
In May 1855, William Walker sailed from
San Francisco to Realejo, Nicaragua,
leading 60 filibuster soldiers. Invited by
the representative of a Nicaraguan political
faction, he soon became the “general” of an
army of more than 2,000 fighters in a private
war to conquer Nicaragua.
Under the Neutrality Law, U.S. citizens
were forbidden to mount such private military
expeditions. However, Walker’s successful
invasion initially had national support from
Americans in and out of government.
President Franklin Pierce formally recognized
the Walker administration as Nicaragua’s

Top left: The navigable San Juan River was a vital 120-mile link in the
Nicaragua route between New York and California in the 1850s.
Bottom left: Walker’s troops rest after the successful battle to take
Granada. Bottom right: Gen. William Walker landing troops at Fort
Castillo, Nicaragua.

32 Prologue
legitimate government. Many expansionists
saw the filibuster as the first step to “pave the way
for large scale American settlement and eventual
annexation of these areas to the United States.”
The United States Democratic Review pointed
out that “every sensible man . . . has expressed
a strong desire for the Americanization of
Central America [and its] possession . . . is no
less desirable than was the acquisition of Texas
or Kansas, or even of California.”
For a time, William Walker was celebrated
as Young America’s national agent of
manifest destiny, a pioneer on the “Isthmian
and Caribbean frontier.”
Following an election of dubious legality,
Walker became president of Nicaragua
and authorized a “crash program” of
Americanization. He confidently revoked
the vital transit charter and awarded it to
Vanderbilt’s rivals to cement a new alliance
with them.
And Walker’s message of recruitment
called to a generation of Young Americans
eager to wrap their personal ambition in the
flag, to be both successful and heroic, to be
both an opportunist and a knight.
Stateside newspapers breathlessly reported
Walker’s successes, his lavish entertainments,
his “groaning” table and “elegant” ladies. One
observer noted that the streets of Granada
were soon “thronging with the representatives
of ‘Young America’,” hoping for a crusade,
good pay, and a 250-acre rancho.
William Walker, the “grey-eyed man of destiny,” was
celebrated as Young America’s national agent of
manifest destiny.
Manifest Destiny’s Inept Diplomat
Then, in September 1856, William Walker
reinstituted slavery in Nicaragua, a strategic
bid to tap the resources of the American
South to filibuster the Pacific West. Writing
in his 1860 autobiography, Walker recalled
the proclamation of the slavery decree as
“calculated to bind the Southern States to
Nicaragua, as if she were one of themselves.”
Walker claimed that his goal had always
been to provide slavery with a refuge—a
tropical empire “beyond the limits of the
Union”—and that Nicaragua was just the
beginning. DeBow’s Review praised the
“glorious acquisition” of Nicaragua as “a
new State to be added to the South, in or
out of the Union” which Walker had taken
“possession of in the name of the white race.”
But the filibuster soon faced a series of
disastrous setbacks.
A Hasty Exit
By January 1857, Walker’s romp was over.
British warships blockaded the Atlantic side
to prevent supplies and reinforcements from
reaching Walker. Supported by a vengeful
Vanderbilt, Costa Rican Gen. Joaquin Mora
rallied troops from Costa Rica, Honduras,
El Salvador, and Guatemala into an allied
army, determined to drive out the invaders.
Ridden with desertion, illness, hunger, and
fatigue, Walker’s army was “driven back step
by step into a corner,” according to the New
York Times, and U.S. representatives prepared
to negotiate a settlement, rescue American
citizens among the filibusters, and reopen the
Nicaragua transit, held by the Costa Rican
alliance, initiatives that involved the U.S. Navy.
Pacific Squadron Commodore William
Mervine ordered Commander Charles Henry
Davis to sail the sloop-of-war St. Mary’s north
to meet with senior officers of the Walker
camp and the Costa Rican high command.
Davis found that he was uniquely placed to
negotiate a ceasefire and Walker’s surrender.
The Navy commander and the filibuster
general signed an agreement in which
Walker surrendered to the U.S. Navy rather
than to the Costa Rican alliance.
William Walker was sworn in as president of
Nicaragua at the Church of our Lady of Mercy in
Granada.
Walker and his senior staff sailed to
Panama on board the St. Mary’s on May 2,
1857, then headed across the isthmus and
on to New Orleans, where he was met with
“almost frantic enthusiasm.” He went to
work planning the second filibuster.
Meanwhile, on June 5, 1857, Commodore
Mervine directed Commander Henry
Knox Thatcher to prepare the sloop-of-war
Decatur to receive U.S. State Department
“special agent” William Carey Jones.
Secretary of State Lewis Cass had delegated
Jones to “negotiat[e] between the hostile parties
[in Nicaragua], and assist to end the contest.”
Jones agreed to this difficult and dangerous
assignment, expecting to “enter the camps . .
. of belligerent forces” and to carry “weapons
of defense.” At $8 a day plus expenses, Jones
was to “visit the states of Central America for
the purpose of observing and reporting upon
the condition of affairs in that quarter, and
of preventing, as far as possible, the recent
occurrences there from affecting injuriously
the interests of this country.” At the time Jones
received these orders from Cass, Walker had
not yet surrendered.
Enter Mr. Jones
William Carey Jones was an attorney in his
mid-40s, the son-in-law of Missouri Senator
Thomas Hart Benton and the brother-in-law
of California settler and politician John C.
Frémont. Marrying Benton’s daughter Eliza,
Jones smoothly entered the world of political
patronage, and his appointment depended on
Prologue 33

An American hotel was used as way station at the halfway point of the Nicaragua transit road between Lake
Nicaragua and San Juan del Sur.
the support of President James Buchanan and
the consent of Secretary of State Cass.
Though fluent in Spanish, Jones was
an unlikely diplomat to send to Central
America. In May 1856, a number of
stateside newspapers published his open
letter calling attention to the plight of
“our brave countrymen in Nicaragua” who
must be protected “to the extent of war if
necessary.” Walker had broken no laws,
argued Jones, and had instead shown a
“pacific, statesmanlike and commendable
character” in the betterment of Nicaragua.
In fact, Jones continued, that country had
not in 20 years been “so quiet, order so well
maintained, the laws so well administered,
property so secure and business so safely
conducted.”
Jones argued that Costa Rica had invaded
Nicaragua to attack American citizens and,
in doing so, had in effect declared war against
the United States. In conclusion, Jones
identified himself and Walker as Western
men: he deplored the disregard that the
federal government showed for the interests
of “us settlers on the Pacific,” and called for
war with Costa Rica to protect the filibuster
“settlers” on the Nicaraguan frontier.
34 Prologue
The belligerent diplomat boarded the mail
steamer at New York on May 20, 1857, sailed
to Panama, and crossed the isthmus by train.
Writing to Jones prior to Walker’s surrender,
Secretary of State Cass worried, “Much
must be left to your discretion, because it is
impossible to foresee what precise condition
of affairs may exist” in Nicaragua.
The latest available intelligence indicated to
Cass that many American citizens were stranded
in Central America “who ha[d] participated in
its local controversies and [were] left by the
reverses of war without the means of returning
home.” Cass directed Jones to obtain the release
of “Walker and his friends” if they had been
captured, and to get them to a port, to then be
taken home on a Navy ship.
But Cass carefully instructed Jones that
the evacuation of Walker and his men—
so easily perceived as a rescue—was a
compassionate act in no way intended
to “express an opinion concerning the
Nicaraguan controversy.” Indeed, the official
position of the State Department was that
Walker and his army were in Nicaragua at
the “invitation of one of the native parties.”
Jones was to reassure the Central
Americans he encountered that the United
States had no designs to colonize, annex, or
occupy Nicaragua but instead hoped to help
that republic maintain its independence.
In fact, Cass continued, the alliance was a
cynical Costa Rican scheme to seize the
Nicaragua transit—the great prize—and
argued that the transit must “be reopened
for the travel of the world.”
Finally, Cass ordered Jones to travel as
a private citizen, reasoning that he would
have access to information that would be
unavailable to a “public functionary,” and
provided a special passport:
To all to whom these presents shall
come, Greeting.
Know ye that the bearer hereof,
William Carey Jones, a distinguished
citizen of the United States, is proceeding
to Central America as a Special Agent of
this government.
These are therefore to request all
whom it may concern to permit him
and his suite to pass freely without let or
molestation, and to extend to him such
friendly aid and protection as would in
like cases be extended to similar officers of
foreign governments in this country. . . .
Aboard the Decatur
By the time Jones reached Panama, the war
was over, and he decided to start his mission
in San José, the capital of Costa Rica, master
of the transit. Jones wrote to Cass that he
was confident he would there encounter
“the leading minds of all Central America,”
many of them eager for the region’s
Americanization. Jones also requested that
“any private hostile expeditions” be delayed
until he had gained a foothold in Costa
Rica. His clear implication is that Cass was
aware of pending filibuster ventures and able
to advance or hinder them at will.
As for Jones himself, the envoy reiterated
his sympathy with the filibuster mission of
“General Walker and his brave command,”
as he termed them. Jones got off on the
wrong foot at the very start, encouraging “a
Winter 2010

thousand and one rumors to circulate” about
his mission by brushing off every inquiry
with the facetious claim that he had been
sent to investigate the headwaters of the
Amur River, located in Manchuria. Jones
thrived on theatrical secrecy, on the role of
the “mysterious stranger,” as he came to be
called derisively.
On June 3, 1857, Jones and his baggage
were loaded on board the Decatur. He then
wrote directly to President Buchanan, urging
his patron to take “no important step” with
regard to Central America without receiving
“a statement” from Jones. On June 5,
awaiting “the first favorable wind, for the
Decatur to sail,” Jones reiterated the need for
swift communication.
Manifest Destiny’s Inept Diplomat
The private mail company steamers made
monthly circuits of the Central American
ports on the Pacific, but Jones considered
that frequency by no means adequate. He
called—unsuccessfully—for a steam warship
to be placed at his disposal.
On June 9, the Decatur finally put to sea,
beating north against contrary winds and
through extended calms. Nearly three weeks
later, the ship anchored in the protected
harbor of Punta Arenas, Costa Rica’s
principal seaport.
A party—including Commander Thatcher
and Jones—left the Decatur to travel
inland to San José. They rode the mule-
drawn railway to its terminus, paused for
lunch, and then mounted mules. The next
The Decatur’s assistant surgeon, John Y. Taylor,
sketched the ship during its cruises. In one (top
left), he fancifully gave the main ground to a flying
fish. In two others, he recorded the Decatur in foul
weather: beating against contrary wind in the Straits
of Magellan, heading for the Pacific (top right), and
in a fierce storm off Patagonia’s Cape Fairweather
(bottom).
morning, they climbed uphill—“up, up and
up,” as Thatcher remembered. A heavy rain
began “as usual” in the mid-afternoon, and
they ended their second day of travel at a
“rancho” eating beefsteak and “tortillos”
for dinner. Then “some of the company,”
including Jones, fell sick and were left
behind.
After visiting San José, Commander
Thatcher returned to the Decatur to await
Jones’s return. There, he received a note from
a former military surgeon in Walker’s army,
describing a large group of “wretched and
helpless” filibuster survivors who were on
shore in desperate condition. The surgeon
begged Thatcher to find a way to send them
to the United States.
“A speedy removal to a more bracing
climate,” his note continued, “together with
the comforts of home and friends can save
the lives of a large portion of them.” Thatcher
visited the filibusters on shore and wrote to
Pacific Squadron Commodore Mervine that
“more complete destitution and misery, I
have never witnessed or conceived.”
Thatcher had brought Jones to Punta
Arenas, and the diplomat was believed to
Prologue 35
be gainfully occupied at San José. Then
Thatcher had been ordered to “render
assistance to American citizens who have been
connected with the expedition under General
Walker in Nicaragua”—they were to be
rescued and brought to Panama. Over the next
10 days, the Decatur was prepared to house
the invalids, and on July 27, 25 filibuster
soldiers were brought on board. Fourteen
of them suffered from disabling wounds, at
least one was an amputee, three had severely
infected bullet wounds, and four suffered from
dysentery. Some had walked barefoot from
Rivas to Punta Arenas, and their feet were
lacerated and infected. Many were syphilitic
and all had malaria—they were “emaciated,
bloodless and spiritless,” according to Decatur
Surgeon Levi Cooper Lane.
As the Decatur sailed south to Panama,
the warship’s surgeons were overwhelmed
by caring for these invalids, and “this small
vessel” was overcrowded with sick men
whose “groans and cries” could be heard
throughout the ship and whose wounds
created “offensive stenches on board . . .
extremely . . . prejudicial to the health of
the crew.” When Thatcher anchored off
Panama, the Decatur had become a hospital
ship.
healthy, and they continued to gamble on
the main chance in Central America.
Jones encountered one of them—Tom
Edwards, a veteran of Walker’s army and
a likable western rogue. Charmed by the
filibuster’s stories, Jones chose Edwards as
a traveling companion from Punta Arenas
to San José, and then as a roommate in the
city. There, Jones claimed that Edwards
had stolen $700 and many valuables.
Certainly, Edwards had easy access to Cass’s
instructions in Jones’s trunk because he was
soon “blabbing them all over the country.”
But in fact, long before his arrival in
the city, San José newspapers had already
published the news that “an agent of the
government of the United States” was on his
way. It had taken the Decatur three weeks
to sail from Panama to Punta Arenas; the
mail steamer left Panama 12 days after the
Decatur sailed and arrived seven days before
the sloop-of-war. Under the circumstances,
Jones complained to Cass that it was
impossible to “hold here the character of a
simple traveler.” He decided to visit Costa
Rican President Juan Rafael Mora and
candidly explain his mission, initiating
discussion of the Nicaragua transit.
Mora declined to meet with Jones for
nearly two weeks, offering various excuses
that irritated the touchy diplomat. When
Mora finally received Jones, the New York
Times correspondent in San José reported
that Jones rudely thrust a summary of U.S.
objectives into Mora’s hands at the beginning
of their meeting.
Jones then instructed Mora to only read
the paragraph that referred to Costa Rica,
pointing to it on the page. But “[t]he
President replied that if he read any, he must
read the whole” because both he and Jones
were concerned with all five states of Central
America. Jones then impatiently “snatched
the paper, telling President Mora that he
should read nothing.”
But Jones reported to Cass that he was
“received with apparent warmth” in a
pleasant but inconclusive meeting, of “a most
friendly character.” The discrepancy between
the public newspaper account and private
diplomatic report could not be greater. Cass
must have been concerned by Jones’s lack of

Off to Costa Rica

The secretary of the Navy and the U.S.
State Department had ordered the Pacific
Squadron to help these American citizens,
but no one had realized how many invalid
filibusters there were and how weak and ill
they had become.
Commodore Mervine booked rail
passage across the Panama isthmus for
those filibusters fit to travel. On the
Atlantic side, they were shared out among
Navy warships and transported to New
York. When the filibusters arrived, the
newspapers published shocking tales of
their condition. It was hard to believe that
men even more debilitated stayed behind
in Central America, too sick to travel. But
a few of Walker’s opportunists remained An officer inspects a squad of filibuster soldiers at Virgin Bay in Nicaragua.

36 Prologue Winter 2010

self-discipline and tact, by his dishonesty, and
by his highly public misadventures.
Established in a San José hotel, Jones hired
as cook a man he described as a “destitute
fellow countryman who had been the
baker” for Walker’s army. Then Jones struck
up an acquaintance with another former
filibuster, a naturalized German American
citizen named Stroebel, who had been one
of Walker’s topographical engineers. Jones
hired the engineer to make some sketches to
accompany his reports to Cass.
On August 18, 1857, while Stroebel sat
in San José’s central plaza, sketching “the
Cathedral and the mountains,” he was
arrested and charged with “speaking in
favor of William Walker, late president of
Nicaragua, and against the government of
Costa Rica, and of having been an officer
in the army of General Walker.” Jones
filed a protest, claiming that Stroebel was
a member of his diplomatic “suite” and
should be released at once. Mora was said
to be unable to read the note, written in
English, because there was no translator
present. Jones rewrote the note in Spanish,
and the president was said to be unable to
read it because he was sick in bed.
Snubbed, Jones seethed in the lobby of
the residence and eventually returned to
his hotel to fire off a volley of irate notes
to Costa Rican officials. The secretary of
foreign relations responded by disparaging
his credential as “a simple passport” which
Jones was improperly trying to use to free
Stroebel. Jones replied with 13 pages of long-
winded indignation to which the secretary
returned a curt note, affecting surprise that
Jones seemed to expect “attentions and
immunity” that his passport did not merit.
Jones found the secretary’s tone so insulting
that he wrote to Cass he could hardly bear
to translate it.
According to the New York Times
correspondent, Stroebel was an “insufferable”
character who “used to get intoxicated, and
go reeling and swaggering through the
streets of San José . . . proclaiming his earnest
Manifest Destiny’s Inept Diplomat
Secretary of State Lewis Cass warned Jones that
“Much must be left to your discretion, because it
is impossible to foresee what precise condition of
affairs may exist” in Nicaragua.
desire that Walker might return, take the
country, confiscate the property, and chop
its inhabitants into inch pieces.” Stroebel
had been legitimately arrested for disturbing
the peace, the reporter continued, and Jones
was incompetent, tactless, and ignorant of
the language and customs of Costa Rica.
Certainly Jones was indiscreet to hire these
former filibusters, banished by decree August
9, 1857, in reaction to repeated rumors of a
filibuster landing. After his “bust-up” with
President Mora and the Stroebel affair,
Jones stormed out of San José, “in high
dudgeon.” Far from securing an agreement
with the Costa Rican government to reopen
the Nicaraguan transit, Jones had become
persona non grata.
Seeking More Power
At the coast, Jones found that the Decatur
had sailed for Panama with the filibuster
invalids. In Punta Arenas, he encountered as
many as 40 more survivors of Walker’s army.
Everywhere one turned in Central America,
there seemed to be more ragged, starving,
feverish scarecrows.
The survivors were, Jones wrote, “sick,
many; wounded, some; nearly naked,
without shelter day or night. They wound
the sight wherever one turned in Punta
Arenas. They are . . . without any possible
means of getting away [and] they are mostly
Americans by birth.” Two dozen Americans
passed a petition to Jones for President
Buchanan, begging to go home, that they
were “in the most unhappy condition that
men could be placed upon the earth.”
Petitioned by these wretched American
filibusters and stinging with his San José
rebuke, Jones made formal application
to the State Department to be appointed
minister to Nicaragua or Costa Rica, with
“powers of commissioner” to the other
Central American states. One month later,
Jones directed the same request to President
Buchanan. There appears to have been no
response. Instead, Cass instructed the special
agent to take a firm stand against Costa
Rica’s apparent “war of conquest” because
the United States would not tolerate the
Nicaragua transit’s continued closure.
Cass was worried that Costa Rica would
repudiate the “transit grants” made to
American investors and urged Jones to
remind the Costa Ricans that their president
had declared, “Ours is not a fight for a piece
of land, not to secure ephemeral powers, not
to achieve wretched conquest” but rather to
drive out “the freebooters now attempting
to usurp the territory, and the independence
and liberties” of Nicaragua. That goal had
been accomplished, Cass wrote, and it was
time for Costa Rica to withdraw.
In the fall, Jones traveled north to
Nicaragua on the mail steamer. Tomas
Martinez and Maxime Jerez had just been
elected co-presidents of Nicaragua, but the
transit remained closed by the Costa Rican
army to prevent access by the “highway of
filibusterism.”
Jones wrote to Cass that he’d urged
President Martinez to trust American
Prologue 37
assurances to prevent any filibuster and
that he was met with ridicule and “disbelief
in the good faith of the United States.”
Rumored sightings of William Walker or his
senior officers were almost daily occurrences
on both coasts.
Walker toured the American South to the
strains of “Yankee Doodle Dandy,” speaking
to enormous crowds to raise recruits
and money for his second expedition
to Nicaragua. He claimed that he had
been forced from Nicaragua by Northern
abolitionists because of his reinstatement of
slavery.
Walker’s “sub secretary of state” wrote
to a Kentucky sympathizer, encouraging
“gentlemen from southern states . . . to
emigrate to this country [Nicaragua] with
their slaves.” The New Orleans Delta reassured
slaveowners that they could soon safely head
for Nicaragua “to cultivate sugar, coffee, rice,
indigo or chocolate plantations.” All that
remained to be done, the Delta concluded,
was to regain Nicaragua and then restore
the African slave trade to the Atlantic coast.
American slaveholders fervently embraced
Walker’s second filibuster, eager to build a
Central American refuge.
Return to Nicaragua
The steamer Fashion left New Orleans
on November 14, 1857, with nearly 300
filibuster recruits. Once a beachhead was
established, “many thousands of young
To learn more about
• How the border between the
United States and Mexico was
established, and re-established,
go to www.archives.gov/publications/
prologue and click on “Previous Issues,” then
Summer 2005.
• African Americans and the building of the
Panama Canal, go to www.archives.gov-/
publications/prologue, click on “Previous
Issues,” then Summer 1997.
• Finding ancestors in the Panama Canal Zone, go
to www.archives.gov/publications/prologue, then
click on “Previous Issues,” then Fall 2007.
38 Prologue
southerners” planned to follow Walker to
Nicaragua. The steamer ran down the coast
past Greytown to disembark a company
to advance overland, and the Fashion itself
headed into Greytown harbor. Two hundred
filibusters hastily made camp on Nicaraguan
soil, landing unmolested right under the
nose of U.S. Navy Commander Frederick
Chatard in the Saratoga.
However, Home Squadron Commodore
Hiram Paulding turned the Wabash
broadside against the encampment and
ordered 300 marines and sailors rowed
to shore to arrest Walker and his men.
Outflanked and outgunned, the filibuster
army surrendered, and so ended Walker’s
second filibuster.
Central Americans were relieved that
Paulding had intercepted the invaders but
irate that he had landed an armed force on
the Greytown beach to do so. In fact, they
were indignant that the filibuster had taken
place at all. If the U.S. government sincerely
wished to put an end to these illegal
expeditions, surely it would be prudent to
arrest, try, and imprison their mastermind.
For his part, Walker styled himself
as an outraged citizen of Nicaragua, “as
legitimately President of Nicaragua as
Buchanan of the United States.” President
Buchanan sent a message to Congress that
condemned filibustering but also charged
Paulding with a grave error in landing
armed sailors and marines on Nicaraguan
soil to arrest Walker. Cass reportedly told the
filibuster in a face-to-face meeting that he
disavowed Commodore Paulding’s actions
as “illegal, inexcusable and unauthorized,”
and Walker was said to have gone “on his
way rejoicing,” as the Independent put it.
The second filibuster generated
considerable controversy concerning the
Navy’s response, and public opinion about
Chatard and Paulding’s actions and inactions
divided largely along sectional lines. In
its ambiguous response to Walker, U.S.
leadership expressed the nation’s growing
inability to pursue a foreign policy in
Central America that was free from sectional
influence. A western crusade of manifest
destiny had become a Southern crusade for
slavery. As historian David Potter remarked,
by late 1857, American nationalists were
no longer expansionists, and expansionists
were no longer nationalists. In Central
America, U.S. representatives followed their
convictions while pursuing their duty.
The second filibuster posed a further
challenge to Jones’s diplomacy. Nicaraguan
President Martinez and Jones were in
conference when the urgent message arrived
reporting Walker’s landing in the Fashion
and Paulding’s capture of the filibuster.
The Nicaraguan president questioned
Jones “pretty closely” as to whether Paulding
had really “captured” Walker’s force and why
the U.S. government believed it had the
“right” to seize prisoners on the shores of a
foreign state. Annoyed, Jones retorted that
if President Martinez wished to appeal the
filibuster arrests, doubtless the U.S. Navy
could return the prisoners to the “place from
which they had been taken,” armed and
ready to go, and that he would be happy to
be Martinez’ messenger in the matter.
Jones’s thinly disguised advocacy for either
Walker’s filibuster or American annexation
of Nicaragua alienated the presidents of both
Costa Rica and Nicaragua; the New York
Times reported that Jones had “succeeded
in getting upon nearly as bad terms with
President Martinez as he did with Mora in
Costa Rica.”
Jones had reached the end of his rope by
January 1858. “First,” the New York Herald
commented derisively, “he lost his baggage,
now it seems he has lost himself.” He had
suffered constant mishaps: it had become
public knowledge that the ingratiating thief
Tom Edwards had bestowed Jones’s stolen
wedding ring on a prospective bride at San
Juan del Sur.
Jones had been embarrassed by the
Decatur’s painfully slow progress up the
coast; his cover was blown, he was robbed,
he “quarreled with everybody,” his travel
Winter 2010
San José, the capital of Costa Rica, was a modern thriving city when Decatur captain Henry Knox Thatcher and agent William Carey Jones visited in the summer of 1857.
plans were frustrated by “sinister controlling
influences,” and he was insulted, almost
mocked. He was deeply offended by
theatrical displays of insolence, he couldn’t
keep his temper, and he drank far too much.
He was convinced that his correspondence
was being opened and read. He was irritated
with Cass and with his assignment: he
complained that he had “all the duties and
more than the responsibilities of a diplomatic
minister, without his power, privileges
or position.” His bids to be appointed
ambassador had met with stony silence;
there was no Navy warship to support him.
And he thought it was high time that Costa
Manifest Destiny’s Inept Diplomat
Rica and Nicaragua were punished for their
“outrages on our citizens.”
Absorbing the Failures
The most foolish element of Jones’s bumbling
diplomacy was his continued relationship
with filibuster veterans.
On the heels of taking up with Edwards
and hiring two former filibusters in San
José, Jones hired a third in Nicaragua—a
Mr. Fields—to serve as his private secretary,
“who told me very frankly that he had been
in the army of Walker . . . the fact of [which]
was not a crime and to have continued until
the capitulation rather a virtue.” President
Martinez remarked that he suspected Fields
would join any future filibuster, and perhaps
Jones agreed.
In one of his final reports to Cass, Jones
suggested that 500 armed men could easily
seize the Nicaragua transit, if the force could
“escape the vigilance of the authorities
of the United States.” If, as Jones was
convinced, his mail was being intercepted,
this inflammatory suggestion was de-
liberately written to be read by Martinez,
Mora, and their staffs. Jones had abandoned
his mission.
Meanwhile, in the states, Walker was
raising just such a force, as he organized
Prologue 39
the third filibuster and worked on the
manuscript of The War in Nicaragua. He had
been driven against his will from Nicaragua,
Walker wrote, and was compelled to return
by “honor and duty.” Framing the filibuster
as a noble quest on the South’s behalf, Walker
paid tribute to the martyrs who left their
homes “in defense of slavery [and] yielded
up their lives for the interests of the South.”
As Walker raised money and recruits,
Southern newspapers trumpeted “We are
Walker, Nicaragua, Pro-Slavery Men” above
the fold, and Southerners continued to
“regard General Walker as the great agent
for the Americanization of that region and
the reinstitution of slavery.”
As Southern fire-eaters embraced
Walker’s obsession, resistance to anticipated
filibusters and resentment of seeming federal
complicity solidified pan–Central American
nationalism. Jones did nothing to calm local
fear and anger. According to the New York
Herald, Jones loudly remarked while drunk
in the Rivas public square that he was all for
American interference in Central America,
that he advocated “no milk and honey
policy,” and if Walker’s filibusters couldn’t
hold Nicaragua, he would see to it that
“Uncle Jonathan” did.
“Damn all diplomatic missions!,” Jones
was reported to have continued, “Nicaragua
forever! Boys, let’s have a drink!” Jones was
publicly ridiculed in the Times and Herald
columns, satirized as “Mr. Buchanan’s
secret agent,” thin-skinned, arrogant, and
quarrelsome, a tragicomic ambassador of
manifest destiny.
William Walker’s easy and amiable
relationship with the President and the
secretary of state, the apparent support of
some U.S. Navy officers (though not all),
and the belligerent diplomacy of Jones
crippled American interests in Nicaragua.
Horace Greeley editorialized that the
government had alienated Central Americans
by its “open sympathy with and aid to
William Walker’s butcheries in Nicaragua,”
and Decatur Surgeon Levi Cooper Lane—
40 Prologue
who was there in person—maintained
that Walker’s “freebooting expedition . . .
had the sanction of President Buchanan’s
administration, and the aid of the Navy, as
far as it was possible to go without arousing
international suspicions.”
While U.S. policy condemned the
filibuster’s “illegal expeditions,” U.S.
practice furthered his successes and
softened his defeats. Presidents Martinez
and Mora jointly signed a May 1, 1858,
proclamation, condemning all the “official
agents of the United States at Nicaragua
[to date]” as “accomplices and auxiliaries
of the invaders . . . openly menac[ing]
Central America with inevitable annexation,”
Note on Sources
The principal primary sources for the Decatur’s
antebellum Pacific Squadron cruise are found in the
Old Navy and U.S. State Department records in the
National Archives in Washington, D.C., and in College
Park, Maryland. This material includes a wealth of
bureaucratic paperwork: logbooks, medical logs, and
records of courts-martial that document daily naval
life, as well as correspondence among the secretary of
the Navy, squadron commodores, and numerous sea
officers and site commandants, and among Secretary of
State Lewis Cass, Special Agent William Carey Jones,
and other U.S. ministers and consuls. I am deeply
indebted to the kind and competent help of archivists
in Washington and in College Park as well as at the
National Archives in Seattle.
Additionally, this article involves contemporary
perspectives and convictions drawn from newspapers,
including the New York Times and the New York
Herald, and periodicals, including The United States
Democratic Review and DeBow’s Review, and E. G.
Squier’s prolific booster literature on opportunities of
the Central American antebellum frontier. William
Walker’s The War in Nicaragua is a fascinating—and
carefully stage-managed—revelation of what Richard
Slotkin, in The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the
Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800–1890
(1985), called the filibuster’s effort to “recapture
his own myth, to vindicate his own heroism.” The
best way to learn about life on merchant ships and
warships under sail is in the words of sailors: Richard
Henry Dana, Two Years Before the Mast; Herman
Melville, White-Jacket or, The World in a Man-of-
War; and Alfred Thayer Mahan, From Sail to Steam:
Recollections of Naval Life.
clearly referring to William Carey Jones. In
1858, the Nicaragua transit—the filibuster
highway and the great isthmian strategic
link—remained closed. P
© 2010 by Lorraine McConaghy
Author
Lorraine McConaghy is public
historian at Seattle’s Museum of
History & Industry. This article
is drawn from her book Warship
Under Sail: USS Decatur in the
Pacific West (University of Washington Press, 2009),
and the reader will find there an interpretive history
of the sloop-of-war’s commission in the Pacific
Squadron, 1854–1859, including maps, endnotes,
and bibliography.
Scholarship on the old Navy, Pacific West
imperialism, and the filibusters themselves is
extensive—here are a few starting points. For the
political landscape of radical expansionists, see
Yonatan Eyal, The Young America Movement and the
Transformation of the Democratic Party (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2007). For antebellum
imperialism, readers should begin with Norman A.
Graebner, Empire on the Pacific: A Study in American
Continental Expansion (New York: Ronald Press
Co., 1955) and Arrell Morgan Gibson, Yankees in
Paradise: The Pacific Basin Frontier (Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico Press, 1993); also see
Matt K. Matsuda, “The Pacific,” American Historical
Review 111 (2006): 758–780. For the classic study
of antebellum America, see David M. Potter, The
Impending Crisis, 1848-1861 (New York: Harper &
Row, 1976). For the old Navy and the antebellum
Pacific Squadron, readers will enjoy Robert E.
Johnson, Thence Round Cape Horn (Annapolis,
MD: United States Naval Institute, 1963); Harold
D. Langley, Social Reform in the United States Navy,
1798–1862 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
1967); and John H. Schroeder, Shaping a Maritime
Empire: The Commercial and Diplomatic Role of
the American Navy, 1829–1861 (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1985). For the filibusters and the
men to whom they appealed, readers will find helpful
and appealing Robert E. May, Manifest Destiny’s
Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
2002) and Amy S. Greenberg, Manifest Manhood
and the Antebellum American Empire (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2005).
Winter 2010
New!

F R OM T H E N AT ION A L A R C H I V E S

FBI/CIA Films: Declassified on DVD

More than 29 hours of historical footage selected by archivists

from the National Archives’ vast motion picture holdings take you
inside the minds of some of America’s most notorious criminals
and into the files of covert operations and criminal investigations.

89.99 MSRP
$
• “Espionage” highlights actual case histories of • “Special Ops” tells the real story of U.S. Special
infamous Soviet spies, the history of the Office of Operation Forces, along with the life of a Navy
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Special Investigations, and the apprehension of a Seal, a secret U.S. military group in Europe, and the
Sam’s Club,
Communist spy ring. history of military snipers.
Costco, Amazon,
and other • “Crime Busting” describes how the FBI battled
• “Spy Craft” presents an actual training school
major retailers against bootleggers and gangsters like John
for Soviet spies, shows how an interrogation team
nationwide, Dillinger, “Baby Face” Nelson, and “Ma” Barker.
as well as at
conducts interviews, and highlights the historic
selected NARA “Corona Program,” the nation’s first foray into • “Investigation” takes you inside FBI training
museum shops. photo-reconnaissance satellites. and a crime lab, explores evidence-gathering, and
examines the investigation of a bank robbery.
• “Survival” features first-person accounts
from ex-hostages, as well as an inside look at • “OSS/WWII Undercover” discloses how the
the FBI Hostage Rescue Team, survival tips, and Danish resisted Nazi occupiers and how secret
instructions on how to escape capture. agents develop and maintain “cover.”
 Opposite top: The Confederate government’s peace overture to Seward was a test of Lincoln’s message in an August 23, 1862, letter to
Horace Greeley (right) in which he stated that “If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do that.”
Opposite bottom: George Sanders (left), a well-known Confederate agent, and others at Niagara Falls in 1864.

42 Prologue Winter 2010

I t was explained to Wendell that he was chosen as the go-
between due both to his prior and current political views
as well as his personal friendship with Seward. Although
actions would be followed by negotiations aimed at
restoring the Union.
There was one catch, however, and that arose out of
Wendell had supported the candidacy of Stephen Douglas President Lincoln’s own words.
over Lincoln for President in 1860, he stayed true to the
Union cause when the South began seceding and firmly confederate envoy cites lincoln's public pledge
believed that the rebellion must be suppressed at all costs. On August 22, 1862, Lincoln had written a letter to Horace
This other person, the gentleman explained, was a Greeley, the editor of the New York Tribune, responding
very important person in the South and was authorized to an article that Greeley
to represent the Confederate States in this confidential had published titled “The
matter. Wendell agreed to the meeting, and it was Prayer of Twenty Millions,” in
decided that it would take place at the Clifton House—a which it was implied that the
popular hotel on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls— Lincoln administration lacked
on April 16. direction.
Upon arriving for the meeting, Wendell immediately In his rebuttal letter Lincoln
recognized the Confederate agent as someone who held a wrote, “If I could save the
very high position in his home state and who once served Union without freeing any
in a diplomatic position abroad. Wendell explained to slave I would do it, and if I
Seward, however, that he was not at liberty to disclose the could save it by freeing all the
identity of the man at that time. slaves I would do it; and if I
During the course of their four-hour conversation, the could save it by freeing some
gentleman explained to Wendell that he was acting on and leaving others alone I
behalf of the Confederate States of America and that he would also do that.”
had been sent from Richmond in an attempt to enlist The Confederate government wanted to test just how serious
Wendell’s help in establishing a line of communication Lincoln was regarding prior statements he had made suggesting
with Secretary Seward. that the abolition of slavery was not the primary reason for
The Confederate government, he explained, wanted to prosecuting the war—that saving the Union was first and
know if Seward would be open to receiving a communication foremost. Lincoln’s letter to Greeley was mentioned as a
outlining a suspension of hostilities between the basis for the beginning of peace negotiations.
North and the South, as well as a withdrawal of all The mystery gentleman proposed
troops—both Union and to Wendell that the decision of
Confederate—from the slavery might be left up to the
fields of battle. These individual states to decide through
popular elections and that a constitutional
amendment might be adopted guaranteeing
each state’s status on the slavery question.
After hearing details of the meeting, Seward
informed Wendell that he would speak with
the President and meet with him again the
following day.
Seward and Wendell met for a second time
on April 20. After assuring Wendell that his
confidence would not be violated under any
circumstances, Seward explained that the
United States government could not engage
in correspondence with the Confederates
because they were not recognized as a
legitimate government.
Seward did say, however, that the
administration would be willing to receive
proposals for peace from any private citizen
44 Prologue
or from any individual state currently
involved in the rebellion.
As to the issue of slavery, Seward explained
that although the United States government
was open to proposals of peace, slavery was
nonnegotiable.
It needed to be understood, Seward
emphasized, that slavery must be abolished
throughout the states and that all slaves be
made unconditionally free. The government
could afford to be liberal in other areas of
negotiation, but it was absolutely vital that the
Union be preserved and that slavery die.
The administration, said Seward, refused to
give ground on these two issues. Wendell and
Seward both agreed that this would be a sufficient
response for the anonymous representative to
take back to his superiors. It was decided that any
further communication would be unproductive
as long as their positions on the issue of slavery
remained unchanged.
more attempts at peace conference
fail as the north stands firm
In July of 1864, George Sanders, Clement
Clay, and James Holcombe attempted to
arrange another peace conference at the
Clifton House, this time inviting Lincoln
himself to attend. Sanders was a well-known
Confederate agent operating out of Canada,
and Clay and Holcombe were Confederate
commissioners also operating north of
the border. The talks were cancelled when
Lincoln refused to commit to attend.
As it turned out, it was probably best that
the President did not attend the conference.
Col. Ambrose Stevens, who was asked by Gen.
John A. Dix to travel to Canada and report
on the happenings at the Clifton House,
found the hotel swarming with Confederate
agents. He reported back to Dix that one
of the commissioners was talking about
a plan to assassinate Lincoln before the
November elections.
When told of the plot, the
President urged that it be kept
quiet in order to avoid potentially
harmful publicity. Although the
name of the person advocating
Lincoln’s assassination was never
reported, George Sanders was likely
the guilty party.
Is it possible that Sanders was also
Wendell’s mysterious agent representing the
Confederate government in April?
Under President Franklin Pierce,
Sanders once held the post of consul
to London—matching Wendell’s
Secretary of State William
Seward reported in a
memorandum that on
April 19, 1864, Cornelius
Wendell visited him
with news of a
Confederate offer “to
effect a restoration of
peace and Union.”
Winter 2010
George Sanders is one of the likely suspects as the
mysterious agent representing the Confederate
government at Clifton House in July 1864.
description of the man having held a diplomatic
post abroad—but his support for European
revolutions and political assassination forced
his recall to the United States. He was also
from Kentucky, the birthplace of Confederate
President Jefferson Davis, and was in regular
contact with him.
It is documented that Sanders checked
into the Clifton House on June 1, but
could he have possibly been there two
months earlier? Could a meeting with
Wendell have been a last-ditch attempt
at a peaceful settlement to the war before
more serious action would be considered
To learn more about
• The Civil War’s impact on
American history, see our
special Spring 2010 issue at
www.archives.gov/publications/
prologue, click on “Previous Issues,” then click
on Spring 2010.
• NARA resources on the Civil War, including
a listing of Civil War-related articles that have
appeared in Prologue, go to www.archives.gov/
exhibit/civil-war and click on “Resources.”
• The National Archives’ two-part exhibit,
“Discovering the Civil War,” go to www.archives.
gov/exhibits/civil-war/.
The South Appeals for Peace
Clifton House, a popular hotel on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls, swarmed with Confederate agents when
Col. Ambrose Stevens investigated the hotel.
by the Confederates? Or could Seward’s
rebuff have set the wheels of assassination
in motion? (Seward would be seriously
injured the same night the President was
assassinated in April 1865.)
Whatever the case, a last attempt at
peace was made when President Lincoln
and Secretary Seward traveled to Hampton
Roads, Virginia, on February 3, 1865, to
meet with Southern leaders—including
Vice President Alexander Stephens—aboard
the ship River Queen near Fort Monroe in
Newport News. This meeting ended in
failure when the Confederate contingency
refused to accept any offer that did not
include complete independence.
The war continued for another two months
before Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered his
Army of Northern Virginia to Gen. Ulysses
S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on
April 9, 1865. P
Note on Sources
Seward’s memorandum detailing his conversations
with Wendell is “Memorandum regarding a peace
proposal. April 19 and 20, 1864,” Civil War Papers
1861–1865, Entry 997, General Records of the
Department of State, Record Group 59, National
Archives at College Park, Maryland. The information
describing the activities of George Sanders, Clement
Clay, and James Holcombe was obtained from the
book Come Retribution: The Confederate Secret Service
and the Assassination of Lincoln, by William Tidwell,
James O. Hall, and David Winfred Gaddy. (Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 1988).
Author
Jay Bellamy is a specialist with
the Research Support Branch at
the National Archives at College
Park, Maryland, where he has been
employed since April 2000. He is a
student of the Civil War, with special emphasis on the Battle
of Gettysburg, as well as the life and times of Abraham
Lincoln. In 2008 he published his first book, Dear Jennie, a
mystery novel that centers on the Gettysburg battle.
Prologue 45
genealogy NOTES

New Questions in the

h1940 CENSUS h
B y C onstanc e P ott e r

The 1940 census will be released—digitally—on April 2, 2012.

The digital images will be accessible via the Internet, either at home or at a National Archives facility. It
will not be released on microfilm. For more information, see the 1940 web site at www.archives.gov.
 E very 10 years the National Archives and Records Administration
(NARA) releases a new federal population census. On April 2,
2012, NARA will open the 1940 census in accordance with the 72-
year restriction on access to census schedules. As with every census,
the 1940 census shows the social, political, and economic issues of
the previous decade. The 1940 census reflects the Great Depression
of the 1930s. This census asked some questions not asked in earlier
censuses.1 The enumerator indicated the person in each home who
answered the questions, each person’s residence in 1935, and whether
a person was working in one of the public works programs of the
New Deal, such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA),2
the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), or the National Youth
Administration (NYA). Other new questions covered employment
and education.
At the bottom of each schedule, a supplementary census asked
additional questions of two people enumerated on preselected lines
on the form. These supplemental questions related to the birthplace
of the respondent’s parents, veterans’ service, and Social Security and
Railroad Retirement, two new national insurance plans. On both the
complete form and the supplemental form, people gave the industry
they work in and their specific occupation.

National Youth Administration (NYA) Instrument Repair Shop, March 4, 1941. The 1940 census
asked about participation in public emergency projects including the NYA, WPA, and CCC.

New Questions in the 1940 Census Prologue 47

Citizenship of the Foreign Born (Column 6)
Beginning with the 1900 census, people were asked if they
were naturalized, had filed their papers, or were aliens. In
1940, the Census Bureau added the category “American
Citizen Born Abroad” (Am. Cit.), which covered people
born abroad or at sea. A person born aboard was an American
citizen if (a) his or her father was an American citizen who
had resided in the United States before the time of the child’s
birth, or (b) the person was born after May 24, 1934, if
either parent was an American citizen who had resided in the
United States before the time of the child’s birth.3
Identification of Persons Furnishing
Information (Column 7)
Knowing who answered the questions may explain why
certain questions were answered the way they were, but
before the 1940 census, the schedule did not show who
gave the information to the census taker. In 1940 the
enumerators were instructed to:
Write an X with a circle around it x in col. 7 after
the name of the person who furnishes you with
the information concerning the members of the
48 Prologue
household. If you find it necessary to obtain the
information from a person who is not a member of
the household write the name of this person in the left-
hand margin, opposite the entries for the household,
thus: “Information from John Brown, neighbor.”4
Education—Highest Grade of
School Completed (Column 14)
Although questions about education were asked in
earlier censuses, this is the first time the census asked for
the highest grade of school completed.
In What Place Did This Person Live
on April 1, 1935? (Columns 17–16)
The WPA
The Census Bureau, interested in internal migration, asked worked at
everyone where he or she lived on April 1, 1935. The bureau rebuilding
defined migrants as “those persons who lived in 1935 in a the nation’s
county, or quasi county, different from the one in which infrastructure,
which included
they were living in 1940. A quasi county was a city that had
public buildings
100,000 inhabitants or more in 1930.” The bureau defined
such as this
nonmigrants as people living in the same county, or quasi bus terminal
county, in 1935 as in 1940.5 in Hackensack,
Immigrants were defined as people living in the New Jersey.
Winter 2010
 Table I. Population 14 years old and over in the labor force, by migration status, type of migrations, and sex, for the United States, 1940.7

Migration status Number: Number: Number: % Distribution: % Distribution % Distribution

and type of migration Total Male Female Total Male Female
Total Labor Force 52,789,499 39,944,240 12,845,259 100.0 100.0 100.0
Non-migrants 44,929,168 34,011,522 10,917,646 85.1 85.1 85.0
Migrants 7,261,507 5,483,314 1,778,193 13.8 13.7 13.8
Migrants within 4,079,456 3,070,940 1,008,516 7.7 7.7 7.9
a state
Migrants between 1,500,793 1,133,826 366,967 2.8 2.8 2.9
contiguous states
Migrants between non- 1,681,258 1,278,548 402,710 3.2 3.2 3.1
continguous states
Immigrants 188,346 136,230 52,116 0.4 0.3 0.4
Migration status 410,478 313,174 97,304 0.8 0.8 0.8
not reported

WPA workers continental United States in 1940 who reported that their questions were “Amount of money, wages, or salary received
build a road place of residence in 1935 was in an outlying territory, (including commissions)” (column 32) and “Did this per-
between Clearfield
possession of the United States, or in a foreign country.6 son receive income of $50 or more from sources other than
and Shawsville,
Pennsylvania, to
money wages or salary (Y or N)” (column 33).
cut off seven miles Employment Status (Columns 21–33)
between farmers The schedule asked 13 questions about the employment Public Emergency Work (Column 22)
and markets. status of people 14 years old and older. Included in the new The census asked if anyone in the household during the

New Questions in the 1940 Census Prologue 49

week of March 24–30, 1940, was at work on, or assigned
to, public emergency work projects conducted by the
WPA, the NYA, the CCC, or state or local work relief
agencies. The WPA, established May 6, 1935, developed
programs to move unemployed workers from relief to
jobs. The WPA workers, among other things, rebuilt
the national infrastructure, wrote guides to the 48
states, worked in the arts and theater, and assisted with
disaster relief. The NYA, established under the WPA,
gave part-time jobs to high school and college students
to earn money to continue their education. The CCC,
created March 31, 1933, employed men aged 18–25 in
conservation work in the national parks and forests.8
Misclassification of Persons
on Public Emergency Work
After the completion of the census, the Census Bureau
noted that many people on public emergency work
could have been misclassified.9 The census reported
2,529,606 people were employed on public emergency
work. About the time of the census, however, 2,908,196
were recorded on the payrolls of the federal emergency
work agencies, excluding the NYA Student Work
Program.
The degree of misclassification varied greatly from
state to state. Among the factors responsible were
confusion about the classification of certain types of
public emergency work on the part of the enumerators
and respondents, the classification of certain types of
public emergency work, and the reluctance of some
people to report that they were on emergency work. The
most common type of misclassification was the reporting
of emergency workers as “at work” rather than as “on
Mr. Whitehall and
public emergency work.” Persons on the NYA Student
the NYA Quartet
Work Program were very frequently reported as in
participate in a
school and not in the labor force. There is also evidence radio workshop.
 A WPA worker
helps build a
public comfort
station at
Powell’s Fort
Organization
Camp in Virginia.
that a considerable number of emergency workers were
classified as seeking work.
Questions on the Supplemental Schedules
Starting with the 1880 census, people were asked not
only where they were born but also the birthplace of their
father and mother. In the 1940 census, this question was
moved to the supplemental schedule. In columns 36–37,
the person was to give the place of birth of the father and
the mother.
For the first time, the census did not ask if a person
served in the Civil War. Veterans (columns 39–41)
were asked if they served in the World War, Spanish-
American War, Philippine Insurrection, or Boxer
Rebellion and if in a Regular Establishment (Army,
Navy, or Marine Corps), peacetime service only, or
another war or expedition. The wife, widow, or under
18-year-old child of a veteran was also required to
answer the questions.
New Questions in the 1940 Census
The supplemental schedule also asked about
participation in two national insurance plans—Social
Security and Railroad Retirement (columns 42–44).
Although Civil War pensions may be considered the
first large-scale pension program in the United States, the
pensions did not cover all aged people. In 1906, old age
qualified a soldier for a pension. By 1910, more than 90
percent of the remaining Civil War veterans were getting
a pension; however, this comprised only about 6 percent
of the population.10 Various state and private insurance
plans were tried before the 1930s, but the advent of the
Great Depression made a national program of national
insurance a necessity. The Railroad Retirement Board
covered railway employees.
The Social Security Act, signed into law by President
Franklin Roosevelt on August 14, 1935, included
unemployment insurance, old age assistance, aid to
dependent children, and grants to states to provide
various forms of medical care.11
Prologue 51
 * * * *
Census records are the only records that theoretically
describe the entire population of the United States on
a particular day. The 1940 census is no different. The
answers to the new questions—and the old—will tell
us, in detail, what the United States looked like on
April 1, 1940, and what issues were most relevant to
Americans after a decade of economic depression. As
with all censuses, the answers to these questions may
lead to different avenues of research.
To learn more about
• NARA's genealogy records and how to
get started doing genealogy research at the
National Archives, go to www.archives.gov/
genealogy/.
• Census records at the National Archives, go to www.ar-
chives.gov/genealogy/census/.
• Past U.S. censuses in general, go to www.archives.gov/
publications/prologue/, click on “Genealogy Notes.”
Note on Sources
The author would like to thank James Collins, John P. Deeben,
Katherine Vollen, the genealogy aids at the National Archives and
Records Administration, and Thomas E. Weir, Jr., who first got me
interested in census records.
1
For more information on the questions, see 1940 Census
Forms and Questions Asked on the 1940 Census at www.archives.gov
(click on 1940 census).
2
The Instructions to the Enumerators refer to the Works Progress Ad-
ministration; the Guide to Federal Records in the National Archives of the United
States refers to the Work Projects Administration (Record Group 69).
3
Instructions to the Enumerator, 1940 Census at www.archives.
gov (click on 1940 census).
4
Ibid.
5
Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce,
16th Census of the United States, 1940, Population: Internal
Migration 1935 to 1940: Economic Characteristics of Migrants (U.S.
Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1946), p. 1.
6
Ibid., p. 1.
7
Ibid., p. 2.
8
For a comprehensive history of the WPA, see Nick Taylor,
American-Made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA: When FDR Put
the Nation to Work (Bantam Books: New York, 2008).
9
Bureau of the Census, Population: Internal Migration 1935
to 1940, p. 4.
10
Social Security Administration, Historical Background and
Development of Social Security (www.ssa.gov/history/briefhistory/3.
html), page 4, accessed September 17, 2010.
11
Ibid., p. 21.

Author
Below: The supplemental schedule asked selected people if they Constance Potter is a reference archivist specializing in federal
had applied for Social Security, which included old age benefits and records of genealogical interest held at the National Archives and
other assistance to those in need. Records Administration.

52 Prologue Winter 2010

what's new in the past? For more than 40 years, Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives and
Records Administration has been telling readers about the rich resources and programs of the
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In every issue you will find thought-provoking and enter-
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✮ ✮ How freed slaves and former slaveholders worked
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Reconstruction era.
✮✮ How the Civil War was the transformative event of the
19th century, an essay by historian James McPherson.
✮✮ How four U.S. Army Air Service planes raced in 1924 to
be first to circumnavigate the globe.

Coming UP: Prologue will have articles that describe the

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AUTHORS ON THE RECORD

the inner circle

Brad Meltzer’s New Novel Set in National Archives
by hilary parkinson

Anyone can enter the National Archives from the Constitution Avenue side to see the Charters of
Freedom: the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. But what about
the staff members going in and out of the entrance on the Pennsylvania Avenue side? What kinds of
documents—and mysteries—do they have access to?
Brad Meltzer takes on this idea in his latest novel, The Inner Circle. A fictional National Archives staffer
named Beecher White discovers an unusual document that leads him to some surprising revelations
about the government—and his workplace.
Brad Meltzer

Meltzer has written New York Times best-selling thrillers set in Washington, D.C. The Inner Circle,
published in January 2011, is his first novel set in the National Archives. He holds a JD from Columbia
Law School and lives in Florida with his wife, who is an attorney.

Your previous novels have been set in Washington, D.C., in
places like the White House and the Supreme Court. What
made you decide to use the National Archives as the setting for
your upcoming novel?
I came to visit and fell in love. Truly. Lost history, secret documents,
long-forgotten letters from Presidents and other big shots—all of
which tell the true history of our nation. How could a history
nut not fall in love? Plus, they let me see the Declaration of
Independence up close. That was the clincher.
When was the first time you came to the National Archives?
Aside from researching the setting for The Inner Circle, did
you ever do any research in our holdings?
Sadly, I’d never done research there. Like most people, I don’t
think I knew there was research I could do there. I’d walked by
the National Archives Building for years while researching other
thrillers. But I’d never gone inside. And finally, I just thought:
what do they have in there besides the Big Three documents?
While the setting is real, the story is fiction. How authentic do
you try to make your settings? Do you ever find it challenging
to keep the fact and fiction separate in your mind when you
are writing?
The entire premise for The Inner Circle came from a private
conversation I had with a former President of the United States.
I’ll never forget it. We were talking about how hard it was to keep
a secret and make sure you’re not overheard when you’re in the
White House. And when a real President whispers something like
that to you, you pay attention.
When it comes to setting, the more real I can make it, the more
you’ll believe the fake parts that are the natural elements of the story. I
can make up where the secret tunnels are below the White House. But
if I tell you to go through the ground floor corridor, then make a left
though the small room where they store the chairs for the state dinners,
then you’ll smell flowers—the White House flower shop is on your
left—and then go straight until you hit the end. Make a right. That
steel door is the real entrance to the secret tunnels below the White
House—that that’s where the bomb shelter is. . . . Well, now you
believe me. And that’s all I tried to do with the Archives.
When you visited the National Archives, did you know this
was where you wanted to use the idea of how hard it is for a
President to have secrets? Or was the book’s setting decided
after you came here?
A few years back, I got a call from Homeland Security asking me if
I’d come in and brainstorm different ways for terrorists to attack the
United States. My first thought was, “If they’re calling me, we’ve got
bigger problems than anyone thinks.” But they’d seen the research

54 Prologue Winter 2010

in my books. And they know I have
good sources, so they invited me in.
I was honored to be a part of
the Red Cell program.  They’d pair
me with a Secret Service guy and a
chemist—and they’d give us a target—
and we’d destroy major cities in an
hour. It’s not the kind of day where
you go home feeling good.  You go
home terrified, because you see how
easy it is to kill us. On lunch breaks,
I’d be talking to all the national
security folks. They’re the ones who
helped me tease out the entire plot of
The Inner Circle. They’re the ones who
taught me what every President really
needs—plus I had what one former
President gave me. But once I saw the
National Archives Building, I knew I
had a place to tell that tale.
The reader follows your main
character, Beecher, into the
vaults and stacks that visitors
don’t see. But there is very little mention of the documents
that most people associate with the National Archives—the
Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Was this a
deliberate omission?
It was. Anyone can see the gasper documents—the documents
that make you gasp. Every single tourist can see the Constitution
and Declaration of Independence. What I want to show you are
the places you can’t go. The places only an insider sees.
Documents are stored in some unusual places, and Beecher
goes into two of them: the underground storage caves and a
SCIF (Sensitive Compartmented Information Facility). Which
place would you not want to be locked in overnight?
Cave. No doubt. That underground cave was scary [Meltzer
visited some underground record storage facilities]—and I knew
they were letting me out.
You shadowed Trevor Plante, a senior archivist at the National
Archives, for a day. Were you familiar with what an archivist
Authors on the Record
does? Did it make you reconsider
trading in your writing career for
an archival one?
Trevor was amazing. But I didn’t
just shadow Trevor. I met with tons
of staffers in every division I could
find. And each one added another
piece to the complex puzzle. But it
was Trevor who really showed me
the day-to-day stuff and, yes, made
me realize how vital a job it is to
understand—and keep track of—
our nation’s documents.
What was the most surprising job
that you saw a National Archives
staff member doing?
I was most amazed by the fact that
you still have people combing
through documents from the
founding of our country. In my
Google-influenced brain, I thought
everything was read and catalogued.
I love that there are new Lincoln
letters—and new secrets being found every single day.
During your visit, were there any records that you really wanted
to see? Were you shown any documents that inspired your plot?
Nearly everything that the archivists in the book are working
on was based on real work I saw—including the scene in the
Preservation Lab. Ask Morgan Zinsmeister. He’s the reason my
Preservation guy was dressed so nice.
The cover of your book shows the White House. Any particular
reason the National Archives wasn’t featured?
Oh, I warned them about that one. But for a publisher, the White
House still is more recognizable and therefore “sells” more. They’ll
pay for that one. They will.
In addition to fiction and television, you also write comics. Do
you think there is any chance of creating a new superhero—
maybe one called the Archivist or the Genealogist?
The Archivist, huh? Sounds like a better villain name than a hero.
Prologue 55
Events

Washington, D.C. Boston, Massachusetts Hyde Park, New York

For up-to-date event information, consult NARA’s
Calendar of Events. The free Calendar is available
from National Archives and Records Administration,
Calendar of Events (NPAC, Room G-1), 700
Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20408,
or on the web at www.archives.gov/calendar.
Permanent exhibit: “The Public Vaults.”
National Archives Building. 202-357-5000.
Through April 17. Exhibit: “Discovering the
Civil War,” Part II. National Archives Building.
202-357-5000.
Abilene, Kansas
Opening January 29. Exhibit: “8 Wonders of
Kansas.” Eisenhower Library. 785-263-6700.
Opening February 19. Exhibit: “The White House
Garden.” Eisenhower Library. 785-263-6700.
March 2, 16, 23. Paul H. Royer Film Series.
Eisenhower Library. 785-263-6700.
Continuing exhibit: “Passing the Torch––The
Inauguration of John F. Kennedy.” Kennedy
Library. 866-JFK-1960.
February 6. Edmund Morris discusses
Colonel Roosevelt, chronicling the last 10 years
of Theodore Roosevelt’s life. Kennedy Library.
866-JFK-1960.
February 21. “The Presidency of JFK: A 50-
Year Retrospective,” a panel discussion hosted
by Caroline Kennedy. Kennedy Library. 866-
JFK-1960.
Chicago, Illinois
Continuing exhibit: “Becoming American:
Immigrants, the Federal Courts in Chicago,
and the Expansion of Citizenship, 1872–1991.”
National Archives at Chicago. 773-948-9001.
March 2011. Black History program. For
specific date and more information, call
National Archives at Chicago. 773-948-9001.
January 30: FDR Birthday Event: Rose Garden
Ceremony. Roosevelt Library. 845-486-7745.
February 19. “Documents on Display:
Presidential Autographs.” Roosevelt Library.
845-486-7745.
Independence, Missouri
February 12. Lecture: “Talkin’ Truman: Young
Bess in Hats.” Truman Library. 800-833-1225.
Kansas City, Missouri
Through March 19. Exhibit: “Documented
Rights.” National Archives at Kansas City. 816-
268-8000.
Opening February 15. Exhibit: “Cowboys,
Quacks, and Carousels: Stories of Kansas.”
National Archives at Kansas City. 816-268-8000.

Ann Arbor, Michigan College Station,Texas

Continuing exhibit: “The Remarkable Life and
Times of Gerald and Betty Ford.” Ford Library.
734-205-0555.
Continuing exhibit: “Gerald Ford in Mao’s
China.” Ford Library. 734-205-0555.
Continuing exhibit: “The Heart Truth’s Red
Dress Collection.” Bush Library. 979-691-
4000.
February 10. Classic Film: Thoroughly Modern
Millie. Bush Library. 979-691-4000.

Atlanta, Georgia February 10. Celebrate Presidents Day with

Through February 28. Exhibit: “The Mississippi
Civil Rights Movement through an Activist’s
Lens: A Photography Exhibit in Black and
White,” by Dr. Doris A. Derby. National
Archives at Atlanta. 770-968-2100.
February 26. Harry & Bess Truman “Performance.”
Carter Library. 404-865-7100.
Through February 27. Exhibit: “The Working
White House: Two Centuries of Traditions and
Memories.” Carter Library. 404-865-7100.
March 15. Author lecture: Belva Davis, Never
in My Wildest Dreams: A Black Woman’s Life in
Journalism. Carter Library. 404-865-7100.
April 16. Civil War Symposium: “America’s
Long Struggle.” National Archives at
Atlanta.770-968-2100.
Austin,Texas
February 15. Former President Jimmy Carter
will speak as part of the Harry Middleton
Lectureship. Johnson Library. 512-721-0200.
“Hail to the Ladies” with Judy Bernstein. Bush
Library. 979-691-4000.
January 29. Winter Film Series: The Harvey
February 17. “The Life of the Buffalo Soldiers”
Girls. National Archives at Kansas City. 816-
tells the rich history of the Buffalo Soldiers
268-8000.
through stories, artifacts, and music. Bush
Library. 979-691-4000.
February 5. Winter Film Series: In Cold Blood.
National Archives at Kansas City. 816-268-8000.
February 24. Heart Health Lecture: Dr. James
Rohack, former president of the American
February 12. Winter Film Series: Ride with the
Medical Association, discusses heart health for
Devil. National Archives at Kansas City. 816-
National Heart Month. Bush Library. 979-
268-8000.
691-4000.
February 24. Lecture/Reception: Dennis
March 3. Classic Film: It’s A Mad Mad Mad
Farney & Mary Lynn Beech Oliver discuss The
Mad World. Bush Library. 979-691-4000.
Barnstormer and the Lady. National Archives at
Kansas City. 816-268-8000.
Grand Rapids, Michigan
Through February 27. Exhibit: “Betty Ford––An Little Rock, Arkansas
Extraordinary Life.” Ford Museum. 616-254-0400. Continuing exhibit: “Revolution and Rebellion:
Wars, Words, and Figures.” Clinton Library.
Opening March 17. Exhibit: “The American 510-374-4242.
Soldier––A Photographic Tribute to Soldiers
and Marines from the Civil War to Iraq.” Ford Through February 6. Exhibit: “Haiti: Building
Museum. 616-254-0400. Back Better.” Clinton Library. 510-374-4242.

56 Prologue Winter 2010

Opening February 18. Exhibit: “The Secret Art
of Dr. Seuss.” Clinton Library. 510-374-4242.
New York, New York
Continuing exhibit: “New York: An American
Capital” at the Federal Hall National
Memorial. National Archives at New York
City. 866-840-1752.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Continuing exhibit: “Blasting through the Silence:
The Allegheny Arsenal Explosion of 1862 and the
Creation of Public Memory.” National Archives at
Philadelphia. 215-606-0112.
Seattle, Washington
Continuing exhibit: “Faces in the Pacific
Northwest.” National Archives at Seattle. 206-
336-5115.
Simi Valley, California
Through April 15. Exhibit: “The White House
Miniature.” Reagan Library. 800-410-8354.
February 6. Ronald Reagan 100th Birthday
Celebration. Reagan Library. 805-577- 4057.
February 7. Opening of the renovated Museum
Galleries. Reagan Library. 805-577-4057.
February 10. Ronald Reagan Centennial Postage
Stamp Issued. Reagan Library. 805-577- 4057.
West Branch, Iowa
January 22–March 20. Exhibit: “The Oxford
Project,” documenting 20 years of the small
town of Oxford, Iowa, in black-and-white
photographs. Hoover Library. 319-643-5301.
Through March 21. Exhibit: “Patterns of the
Past: A Century of American Quilting, 1840–
1940.” Hoover Library. 319-643-5301.
Yorba Linda, California
January 14. An NFL Hall of Fame Evening,
featuring former Los Angeles Rams and Pro
Football Hall of Fame players Tom Mack and
Jackie Slater. Nixon Library. 714-983-9120.
Through January 28. Exhibit: “A World in
Miniature: Lego Trains at the Nixon Library, a
Holiday Tradition.” Nixon Library. 714-983-9120.
Through January 30. Exhibit: “Treasures from
the Vault.” Nixon Library. 714-983-9120.
Events
Genealogy Events
Washington, D.C.
Genealogy workshops are conducted throughout
the year. For up-to-date information, consult
the monthly Calendar of Events and www.
archives.gov/research/genealogy/events.
April 20–21. Seventh Annual Genealogy Fair.
National Archives Building. 202-357-5000.
Atlanta, Georgia
February 26. Black Family History Day in
partnership with the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints. National Archives at Atlanta.
770-968-2100.
Denver, Colorado
February 4. “Tracing Your Roots––
Introduction to Genealogy at the National
Archives.” Colorado State University, OSHER
Continuing Education Class. National
Archives at Denver. Call 303-407-5740 for
more information.
February 18. National Archives at Denver Tour
and Hands-on Research. OSHER Continuing
Education Class. National Archives at Denver.
Call 303-407-5740 for more information.
Kansas City, Missouri
January 21. “Provost Marshal Records Related
to the Civil War.” National Archives at Kansas
City. 816-268-8000.
January 28. “Leavenworth Records at the
National Archives.” National Archives at
Kansas City. 816-268-8000.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
February 4 and March 4. First Friday Open
House. National Archives at Philadelphia. 215-
606-0100.
Pittsfield, Massachusetts
February 3, March 2, and April 4. “Beginning
Your Genealogy Research at the National
Archives.” National Archives at Pittsfield. Call
to register, 413-236-3600.
February 10, March 9, and April 8. “Using
Federal Census Records.” National Archives at
Pittsfield. Call to register, 413-236-3600.
February 24. “Finding Your Immigrant Ancestors
at the National Archives.” National Archives at
Pittsfield. Call to register, 413-236-3600.
March 8. “Examining the 1940 Census.”
National Archives at Pittsfield. Call to register,
413-236-3600.
March 16. “Genealogy on the Internet.” Nation-
al Archives at Pittsfield. Call to register, 413-236-
3600.
March 24. Researching Irish American Ances-
tors. National Archives at Pittsfield. Call to reg-
ister, 413-236-3600.
March 29. Researching French Canadian
Ancestors. National Archives at Pittsfield. Call to
register, 413-236-3600.
April 11. “Finding Family Information in
Military Pension Files.” National Archives
at Pittsfield. Call to register, 413-236-3600.
April 14. “Researching Polish Ancestors.” Na-
tional Archives at Pittsfield. Call to register,
413-236-3600.
Seattle, Washington
February 10, and March 10. “Brick Wall
Genealogical Group,” bring your brown-bag
lunch and your “impossible” family history
problem. National Archives at Seattle. 206-
336-5115.
January 24. “Genealogy Resources at NARA.”
National Archives at Seattle. 206-336-5115.
March 12. “Using NARA Records, Daughters
of American Revolution group practicum.”
National Archives at Seattle. 206-336-5115.
March 12. “Using the online resources of
the Daughters of the American Revolution.”
National Archives at Seattle. 206-336-5115.
Waltham, Massachusetts
February 1. “Researching African American and
Under-Documented Populations.” National
Archives at Boston. 866-406-2379.
February 23. Genealogy for Kids (Grades 3–8
and chaperones). National Archives at Boston.
866-406-2379.
March 1. “Genealogy Research: What’s Online;
What’s Not Online.” National Archives at
Boston. 866-406-2379.
April 5. “Introduction to Genealogy.” National
Archives at Boston. 866-406-2379.
Prologue 57
News & Notices
INS Alien Case Files Transferred
To National Archives at Kansas City
For the first time, more than 300,000 case files on alien residents
of the United States who were born in 1909 or before are now
open to the public at the National Archives at Kansas City.
These files, known as “Alien Files” (commonly referred
to as “A-Files”) were transferred to NARA from the U.S.
Citizenship and Immigration Service (USCIS) and are only
a small part of the millions of case files that will eventually
be transferred and opened to the public.
A-Files are eligible for transfer to the National Archives
when 100 years have passed since the birth date of the subject
of a file. A-Files document the famous, the infamous, the
anonymous, and the well-known, and are a historical and
genealogical gold mine. These files contain an abundance of
relatively modern immigration documents in one file, making
them a rich source of biographical information.
The National Archives at Kansas City will maintain
A-Files from all USCIS district offices except San Francisco,
Honolulu, Reno, and Guam. These files will be housed
at the National Archives at San Francisco because of the
significant research use of related immigration files there.
Files to be housed at the National Archives at San Francisco
are currently being prepared for transfer.
NARA Receives Top Presidential Award
As Environmentally Friendly Workplace
The White House Council on Environmental Quality has
designated the National Archives and Records Administration
as one of the most energy efficient and environmentally
friendly places to work in the United States.
The National Archives Energy Team at the National
Archives at College Park, MD, received one of eight
Presidential Awards for Leadership in Environmental,
Energy, and Economic Performance. NARA was cited
in the “Lean, Clean, and Green” category. Winners were
selected from more than 300 nominations.
GreenGov Presidential Awards celebrate extraordinary
achievement in the pursuit of President Obama’s Executive
Order on Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and
Economic Performance. The College Park project is estimated
to reduce annual energy use by 24 billion BTUs, saving more
than $400,000 and eliminating 2,000 tons of carbon emissions.
“This is a significant achievement for the National Archives,”
said David S. Ferriero, Archivist of the United States. “We
hope to become a beacon to other federal agencies that want
to go green and enhance their own performance.”
58 Prologue
A cipher disk used to protect Union Army communications is featured
in the “Discovering the Civil War” exhibit.
Part II of Civil War Exhibit Open Until April;
Major National Tour Will Follow in 2011
The second part of the National Archives’ groundbreaking
exhibit “Discovering the Civil War” is open until April 17,
2011, in the Lawrence F. O’Brien Gallery in the National
Archives Building in downtown Washington, D.C. After it
closes, parts one and two will be combined for a multicity
national tour beginning in 2011.
Part one, which was shown in 2010, dealt with
“Beginnings.” Part two deals with the “Consequences” of
the war and is presented by the Center for the National
Archives Experience and the Foundation for the National
Archives.
This exhibit peels back 150 years of accumulated
analysis, interpretation, and opinion to take a fresh look
at the Civil War through little-known stories, seldom-
seen documents, and unusual perspectives. “Discovering
the Civil War” presents the most extensive display ever
assembled from the incomparable Civil War collection of
the National Archives.
In part two, visitors will see two 13th amendments to
the U.S. Constitution that were proposed by Congress;
firsthand accounts of the Battle of Gettysburg at the
veteran’s 75th reunion filmed by the Army Signal Corps;
original Freedmen’s Bureau records documenting murders
and outrages committed against African Americans; and
how a congressional investigation into war profiteering
transformed the meaning of the word “shoddy.”
Winter 2010
 Online Public Access Debuts, Improves
Access to National Archives Resources
In late December, the National Archives Online Public
Access (OPA) prototype was made available to the public.
OPA is the prototype for the public portal that will provide
centralized access to digitized records, descriptions of holdings
that are not online, and eventually access to electronic records
from the Electronic Records Archives (ERA).
Online Public Access is the National Archives’ first step
in providing a single search to all of its online holdings and
is part of the agency’s ongoing commitment to transparency
and online access to the nation’s treasured documents.
The prototype streamlines the search process for the
user by integrating searches across several Archives.gov
resources and displaying the results in a more user-friendly
presentation. Instead of having to go to several places on
our web site to look for information, a user will be able to
type the search term in one box and retrieve images and
information from multiple locations on one results screen.
The prototype currently contains all of the data from
the Archival Research Catalog and seven series from
Access to Archival Databases, which contains 10.9 million
permanent electronic records. Additionally, the prototype
provides access to 1 million electronic records currently in
ERA, which are not available elsewhere online.
As the public begins to use the OPA prototype, they are
encouraged to share their experiences and ideas for making
improvements.
Nixon Library Releases Early 1973 Tapes,
Video Oral Histories of Nixon-Era Figures
The Richard Nixon Library in Yorba Linda, California,
has opened 265 hours of White House tapes from early
1973, more than 140,000 pages of presidential records, and
75 hours of video oral histories made in the past few years.
All of the White House tapes and selected documents are
available online at: www.nixonlibrary.gov.
The tapes cover conversations from February and March
1973 and a few from early April 1973. There are no transcripts
for these tapes, but the library has produced a detailed subject
log for each conversation. These tapes cover such subjects as the
ceasefire in Vietnam, the release of American prisoners of war,
Watergate, U.S. policy in the Middle East, the state visits of King
Hussein of Jordan and Prime Minister Golda Meir of Israel, the
Wounded Knee incident, and wage and price controls.
Also in this release are nearly 2,500 pages of formerly
classified national security records including materials from
News & Notices
President Nixon confers with assistants H. R. Haldeman, Dwight Chap-
in, and John Ehrlichman, March 13, 1970, in the Oval Office.
the files of top White House aides H. R. “Bob” Haldeman
and John Ehrlichman.
Also released were 43 video oral histories done in the past
few years by Library Director Timothy Naftali. They include
interviews with former Senators George McGovern and Lowell
Weicker, former Secretary of the Treasury Paul O’Neill, former
Secretary of Agriculture Earl Butz, former U.S. Attorney for the
District of Columbia Earl Silbert, George Elsey, Peter Flanigan,
David Gergen, Morton Halperin, Lee Huebner, Terry Lenzner,
Dana Mead, Jerry Schilling, and Gerald Warren.
National Archives to Hold
25th Preservation Conference
The National Archives 25th annual preservation conference
will be held March 16 and 17, 2011, in the Marriott Inn and
Conference Center on the campus of the University of Maryland
University College in Hyattsville, Maryland. The theme will be
“Conservation2 = Preserving Collections x Our Environment.”
The conference will focus on the challenges posed by assuring
the long-term preservation of archival, library, and museum
collections in the face of rising energy costs, global warming, and
reduced budgets. Speakers will address ways in which archival,
historic and cultural institutions can get “green”: using building
methods and materials that provide sustainability; maximizing
the efficiency of HVAC systems to benefit collections and the
bottom line; considering alternative storage sites; applying risk
assessment to evaluate the impact of environmental change on
buildings and collections; and implementing low-cost methods
to minimize risks to collections.
Specifics of the conference, including costs and speakers
program, are available at at www.archives.gov/preservation/
conferences/2011/.
Prologue 59
Publications
New Report on Nazi War Crimes Issued
Hitler’s Shadow: Nazi War Criminals, U.S. Intelligence,
and the Cold War, released in December 2010, is based
on findings from newly declassified decades-old Army
and CIA records released under the Nazi War Crimes
Disclosure Act of 1998. These records were processed and
reviewed by the National Archives–led Nazi War Crimes
and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency
Working Group (IWG), and the report was written by
IWG historians Richard Breitman and Norman J.W.
Goda.
The 2010 report serves as an addendum to the 2004
IWG report U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis, based on
approximately 8 million pages of documents declassified
in the United States under the 1998 Nazi War Crimes
Disclosure Act.
The latest CIA and Army files have evidence of war
crimes and about the wartime activities of war criminals;
postwar documents on the search for or prosecution of war
criminals; documents about the escape of war criminals;
60 Prologue
documents about the Allied protection or use of Nazi
war criminals; and documents about the postwar political
activities of war criminals.
The 1.3 million Army files include thousands of titles
of many more issues regarding wartime criminals, their
pursuit, their arrest, their escape, and occasionally, their
use by Allied and Soviet intelligence agencies. These
include files not only on German war criminals, but also
collaborators from the Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine,
Romania, Hungary, Croatia, and elsewhere. These files
also include information on Allied and non-aligned states
that had an interest in Axis personalities, including Great
Britain, France, Italy, Argentina, and Israel.
Hitler’s Shadow is available free as a PDF on the IWG’s web
site: http://www.archives.gov/iwg/reports/hitlers-shadow.pdf.
Cartographic Records Relating to Railroads
Reference Information Paper (RIP) 116, Records Relating to
Railroads in the Cartographic Section of the National Archives,
compiled by Peter F. Brauer, describes records housed
Winter 2010
 in the Cartographic Section at College Park, in College
Park, Maryland. The records include cartographic records,
architectural and engineering drawings, and aerial photographs
relating to railroad equipment, tracks, and property.
These records focus primarily on the United States,
although there is widespread coverage of countries and
regions worldwide. The dates of these records range from
1828 to 2009. Foreign coverage dates mostly from the early
to mid 20th century. The records described include more
than 215 series of records in 69 record groups. Additional
railroad records are housed in other National Archives
offices nationwide.
The guide includes an introduction, a topical
index, an index by railroad name, and illustrations of
representative records. The guide is particularly useful for
the identification of railroads nationwide, tracing railroad
expansion and technological innovations, government
policies, and military operations. For a free copy, contact
the Research Support Staff (NWCC1), 700 Pennsylvania
Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20408: telephone 202-
357-5400, 1-866-325-7208.
Microfilm and Digital Publications
Microfilm and digital publications are produced by
the National Archives and Records Administration to
make records holdings more widely available for research.
Current projects include the filming of military service
records of the United States Colored Troops (Civil War). A
descriptive pamphlet (DP) is available where indicated.
Manifests of Permanent and Statistical Alien Arrivals at El Paso,
Texas, April 1924–September 1954 (A3455, RG 85, 89 rolls)
Nunc Pro Tunc Affidavits Taken at New York, New York,
December 1911–June 1921, Relating to Aliens Who Arrived
in the United States After June 29, 1906 (A3484, RG 85,
12 rolls)
Manifests of Alien Arrivals at Baudette, Warroad, and
International Falls, Minnesota, March 1910– July 1923
(A3490, RG 85, 1 roll)
“Alien Certificates” Surrendered at San Francisco,
California, April 1912–February 1946, by Aliens Who Had
Arrived at Honolulu, Hawaii (A3975, RG 85, 2 rolls)
Mortuary Records of Chinese Decedents in California, July
1870–April 1933, Compiled by the San Francisco, California,
Immigration Office (A4040, RG 85, 1 roll)
Records of the Property Control Branch of the U.S. Allied
Commission for Austria (USACA) Section, 1945–1950
(DN1929, RG 260, 413 disks)
Publications
For descriptions of the contents of National Archives
microfilm publications, visit Order Online at www.
archives.gov. Consult the roll list or table of contents for the
series before ordering specific rolls.
Publications can be purchased for $85 per microfilm
roll or $125 per CD-ROM through Order Online or by
submitting an order form (available on www.archives.gov/
research/order) to National Archives Trust Fund, Cashier
(NAT), Form 72 Order, 8601 Adelphi Road, College Park,
MD 20740-6001. Make checks payable to the National
Archives Trust Fund. VISA, MasterCard, Discover, and
American Express are also accepted. Provide the account
number, expiration date, and cardholder signature.
Telephone: 1-800-234-8861; fax: 301-837-0483.
Picture Credits
Cover, pp. 3, 47, 119-s-20f-482-5; inside cover, p. 46,
29-c-1B-19; pp. 1, 6, 8 (left), 8–9 (top), Eisenhower
Library; pp. 4 (top left), 43 (bottom), The William
Banning Collection; pp. 4 (right), 12 (second from
right), 208-PU-104HH(4); pp. 8–9 (bottom), 342-AF-
18302USAF; pp. 9 (right), 59, Nixon Library; p. 10
(left), courtesy of Simon & Schuster; p. 10 (bottom),
Adriana Echavarria; p. 12 (left), 148-GW-18; p. 12
(second from left), 148-CD-4(15); p. 12 (right), 148-
CC-11(3); p. 13, courtesy of Penguin Press; p. 14
(left), 148-CC-13(3); pp. 14–15, 60, National Archives
and Records Administration; p. 16, 148-GW-733;
p. 17, 148-CD-4(18); pp. 20–21, 22, photos by Earl
McDonald; p. 23, back cover, courtesy of David M.
Rubenstein; pp. 24–25, 27, National Archives Gift
Collection; pp. 26, 28, courtesy of the Huntington
Library; p. 29, 238-NT-592; pp. 30–31, Records of the
Office of the Chief of Engineers, RG 77 (Civil Works
Map File, AMA-62); pp. 32 (top), p. 32 (bottom left),
University of Washington Libraries; pp. 32 (bottom
right), 33–34, 36–37, 45, Library of Congress; p. 35,
Naval Records Collection of the Office of Naval Records
and Library, RG 45; p. 39, University of Washington
Libraries, Special Collections, UW27971z (San Jose); p.
43 (top), New York Tribune; p. 44 (left), General Records
of the Department of State, RG 59; p. 44 (right),
111-B-4204; p. 48, 69-MP-1-12729; p. 49, 69-MP-
1-19070; p. 50, 119-S-20F-10344; p. 51, 35-G-2D-
624; p. 52, 47-G-1M-8143; p. 54, photo by Herman
Estevez; p. 55, courtesy of Grand Central Publishing;
p. 56, National Archives at Kansas City; p. 58, Records
of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer, RG 111; p.
63, photos by Alexander Morozov; p. 72, Records of
Headquarters, European Theater of Operations, United
States Army (World War II), 1942–1947, RG 498.
Prologue 61
the foundation for the National Archives
Support for
“Discovering the Civil War”
As the city of Washington, D.C., launches a multiyear com-
memoration of the 150th anniversary of the Civil War, the
Foundation for the National Archives is extremely proud that the
second part of the “Discovering the Civil War” exhibition was the
focus of a fall press and public event with
our partners in the local tourism and cultural
community.
“Discovering the Civil War” is an excellent
example of the successful partnership
between the Foundation and the National
Archives Experience. Now on display in
the Lawrence F. O’Brien Gallery and soon
to travel the country, the unique exhibition, which included a
limited viewing of the original Emancipation Proclamation,
tells the story of how everyday people were affected by the war.
Already, it has engaged visitors from around the globe, in person
and through its online components and interactive “tweets.”
The exhibition and an accompanying book published by the
Foundation, as well as our marketing initiatives that have brought
so many visitors to the exhibit, were made possible through
generous contributions from our loyal corporate, foundation, and
individual donors.
On behalf of the Board of Directors of the Foundation, I would
like to thank all of the donors to this project, including our latest
contributors whose donations were received just as the second
part of the exhibit, “Discovering the Civil War: Consequences,”
opened in November.
The Seedlings Foundation, headed by President Karen Pritzker,
has made a generous contribution to be used in support of the
exhibition and its educational activities. The Seedlings Foundation
supports literacy, housing, and health research, as well as a variety
of educational projects.
In addition, Retired Lt. Col. William Konze and his wife, Alice
Konze, who helped kick off a major fundraising drive to support
the exhibition last spring, have now doubled their initial gift. The
Konzes have been members of the Foundation’s Society since
2008 and actively support many of our events and activities.
These most recent contributions, as well as those in honor of
the late Budge Weidman, volunteer manager of the Civil War
Conservation Corps, her husband, Russell Weidman, many
members of the Foundation’s Board and Society, and corporate
sponsor AT&T, are making “Discovering the Civil War” a must-
see exhibition as the National Archives Experience leads the way
in Washington’s Civil War commemoration.
We very much appreciate your ongoing support.
KEN LORE
President, Foundation for the National Archives
62 Prologue
Foundation’s Annual Gala
Honors Ken Burns
The Foundation was pleased to present its seventh annual Records of
Achievement Award to documentary filmmaker and Foundation Vice
President Ken Burns during its annual black-tie Gala on November 9,
2010, the eve of the opening of the National Archives Experience’s
exhibition “Discovering the Civil War: Consequences.”
The Foundation is extremely grateful to actor Morgan Freeman,
who chaired the Gala, and to the event’s sponsors. This year’s Gala,
which celebrates the public-private partnership between NARA and the
Foundation, was made possible through the generosity of lead sponsor
Bank of America, with additional support from the Maris S. Cuneo
Foundation and The Boeing Company.
“Ken Burns is one of America’s greatest storytellers,” said Bill Couper, Mid-
Atlantic president, Bank of America. “His work as a
historian and filmmaker has brought the past to life
for millions of people in America and around the
world. All of us at Bank of America are honored to
have the opportunity to celebrate his artistic visions.”
The Records of Achievement Award, the
Foundation’s highest honor, is the annual tribute to
an individual whose work has cultivated a broader
national awareness of the history and identity of the United States through
the use of primary sources. The honoree’s accomplishments reflect the
Foundation’s mission: to elevate the stories found in the billions of documents,
photographs, maps, films, and recordings in the Archives’ holdings in a
manner that fosters a fuller understanding of the American experience.
Foundation Chairman and President Ken Lore and Archivist of the
United States David S. Ferriero presented the award to Burns during a
ceremony in the William G. McGowan Theater. Freeman, who worked
with Burns on The Civil War series, narrating the works of escaped slave
and abolitionist leader Frederick Douglass, also spoke during the program,
praising Burns’s vision for The Civil War series to “bring to life the great
people of our nation’s past using their own words, which he unearthed
from primary sources, including the original government records that are
held in trust for the American people by the National Archives.”
“Through his incredible work as a historian and filmmaker, Ken has been
able to bring this evidence of our shared past to a worldwide audience,”
Freeman said, “and we are better for it.”
“This award is such a wonderful honor,” said Burns. “It has always
been my great privilege to serve on the Foundation’s board; it has
been a source of great joy to be able to try to pay back my debt to
the Archives for its longtime assistance to me and the projects I have
worked on over the last 35 years. The Gala and this award only increase
that debt—but in the most pleasurable way.”
The Foundation for the National Archives supports the National Archives
and Records Administration in developing programs, projects, and materials
that tell the story of America through the holdings in NARA.
For more information on how you can help others experience the
National Archives, contact the Foundation at 202-357-5946, or write to
us at foundationmembers@nara.gov.
To learn more about the Foundation, visit www.archives.gov/nae.
Winter 2010

Ken Burns receives the Records of Achievement Award. Left to right: Bank of
America’s Bill Couper, Ken Burns, Foundation Executive Director Thora Colot, Gala
Chair Morgan Freeman, Foundation Chairman and President Ken Lore, Archivist of
the United States David S. Ferriero.
NARA’s Trevor Plante, left, provides a vault tour to Gala guests Maris S. Cuneo, Fred
Specktor, Morgan Freeman, and honoree Ken Burns.
Pat Lore enjoys the Gala with Board members Cokie Roberts and Marilynn Wood Hill.
The Foundation for the National Archives
Texas Instruments Supports
DocsTeach Web Site
Texas Instruments, a generous and longtime supporter of the
educational initiatives at the National Archives Experience, has
pledged $200,000 to the Foundation to support teacher training
on the use of primary sources in the classroom.
This generous, multiyear gift will support the National
Archives Experience’s new web site, DocsTeach, as well as provide
continuing support for the Foundation’s scholarship program,
which brings teachers from diverse school districts to participate
in the Primarily Teaching Institute at National Archives facilities
nationwide.
“We are extremely grateful to Texas Instruments for working
with us to create a very strong educational partnership,” said Ken
Lore, chairman and president of the Foundation. “The company
was a generous contributor to the development of the National
Archives Experience and for the past three years has supported
the Foundation’s scholarship program for Primarily Teaching.
We are thrilled that their increased support will also enable us to
provide history and civics teachers nationwide with the tools they
need to use primary sources in their classrooms, through the new
web site DocsTeach.”
DocsTeach, developed in partnership between the Foundation
and the National Archives’ education team, is revolutionizing
the way teachers use documents from the National Archives
in their classrooms. The popular web site, www.DocsTeach.org,
enables teachers to use educational activities created by education
specialists at the Archives to engage their students online. It is
unique, however, in that teachers can also use the activity creation
tools on the site to make their own interactive learning activities,
customized to their particular students or educational standards.
Teachers select tools based upon the skills they want to teach
their students, then incorporate records from a database of more
than 2,000 Archives records selected by NARA educators with
classroom experience. The activities can be used in the classroom,
in e-mailed homework assignments, or even by history lovers of
all ages nationwide who are welcome to access the web site.
“Texas Instruments has been so supportive of our educational
initiatives, and we truly appreciate their generosity,” said Archivist
of the United States David S. Ferriero. “This gift will help us to
fulfill our mission to make the most important records of our
democracy accessible to teachers and children in classrooms
across the country.”
“Initiatives such as DocsTeach and Primarily Teaching are great
examples of the valuable educational resources of the National
Archives,” said Paula Collins, Texas Instruments vice president of
governmental affairs. “Texas Instruments is proud to partner with
the Foundation for the National Archives to connect educators
with the tools they need to enhance children’s understanding
of our country’s history and culture. We are especially pleased
that DocsTeach includes activities that teach not only history and
civics, but also math and science, by including Archives records
such as scientific inventions, graphs, and census data.”
Prologue 63
INDEX
Compiled by Susan Carroll
“68, 937 and Counting,” by Tim Rives and
Steve Spence, 2-54–61
“Abraham Lincoln and the Guerrillas,” by
Daniel E. Sutherland, 1-20–25
Access to Archival Databases, 4-59
Accessory Transit Company, 4-32, 4-33, 4-34,
4-36, 4-37, 4-40
Adams, Ansel, 1-65–66
Adams, John, 4-15, 4-17; Papers of, 4-14, 4-15,
4-16; portraits, 4-12, 4-17
Adler, Dale and Leonard, 1-65
Adoption, 2-20, 2-22
Advance Guard of the West, by Eduard Ulreich,
3-48
Aerial circumnavigation of the earth, 2-6–17
African Americans, care for mentally ill, 2-49,
2-50; children and youth, 2-20–21; as civil
servants, 3-18–26; and the Civil War, 3-19,
3-20, 3-66; in the District of Columbia,
1-52–59; emancipation of, 1-52–59, 2-28,
3-66; ex-slaves, 2-28–33; habeas corpus
petitions, 1-57–59; manumission papers,
1-55–56, 1-57–59; pensions for ex-slaves,
2-28–33, 3-24–26; and Reconstruction,
3-18–26; reparations for, 2-32–33; and
slavery, 1-52–59, 2-28; in South Carolina,
3-18–26
Aid to Dependent Children, 2-20–21
Alabama, and the Civil War, 1-22
Alabama, CSS, 1-38, 1-41, 1-43
Alaska, 2-6, 2-8–9, 2-10; and population
censuses, 3-58
Alien residents case files opened, 4-58
American Founding Era Collection, 4-16
American Philosophical Society, 4-14
American Red Cross, and population censuses,
3-59, 3-60, 3-61
American Revolution, 3-36–43
Amidon, Audrey, “Women of the Polar
Archives,” 2-38–45
Amphibious operations, 3-7–16
Amundsen, Roald, 2-43
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, 4-16
Archival Research Catalog, 2-37, 4-59, 4-72
Archives, destroyed during World War II, 3-63;
foreign, 3-62–63
Arctic exploration, 2-38–45
Armistead, Amanda J., 3-30, 3-32, 3-33; photo,
3-28
Army Air Service, 2-6–17
64 Prologue
Army Nurse Corps, 3-33, 3-34
Army of Northern Virginia, 1-43, 1-44, 1-45,
1-46, 1-47
Arnold, Leslie, 2-7, 2-8, 2-10–11, 2-12, 2-14,
2-16–17; photos, 2-8, 2-12, 2-16
Art, saved during World War II, 3-62–63
AT&T, 1-71, 4-62
“At the Edge of the Precipice: Henry Clay and
the Compromise of 1850,” by Robert V.
Remini, 1-14–18
Atkins, Oliver F., photographic collection
opened, 1-65
Atkinson, H. M., 1-35
Australia, 1-61; and World War II, 3-9
Ayres, Edward L., 1-37
Baffin Island, 2-44
Baker, James Heaton, 1-27, 1-31–32, 1-33,
1-34; portrait, 1-27
Bank of America, 4-62
Barrett, Harrison, 2-31
Barrett, Joseph H., 1-27, 1-30, 1-33
Bartlett, Robert A., 2-39, 2-40, 2-41, 2-42,
2-44, 2-45; photos, 2-40
Bartlett, Sam, 2-44
Bates, Edward, 1-21
Bates, Julian, 1-21
Beaty, David C., 1-23
Beaufort County, South Carolina, 3-18–26
Beauregard, Capt. P. G. T., 1-42; photo, 1-42
Bellamy, Jay, “The South Appeals for Peace,”
4-42–45
Bentley, J. A., 1-30, 1-32
Benton, Thomas Hart, 1-18, 4-33; illustrations
of, 1-10, 1-14
Berndston, Lt. Arthur H., 3-13, 3-15
Berry, Mary Frances, 2-29
Bertillon, Alphonse, 2-57–58
Bickley, George W. L., 1-72
Bigger, Maj. Warner T., 3-11–13, 3-14; photo,
3-10
Billingsby, Navy destroyer, 2-14, 2-15
Black, Conrad, 3-67
Block, Louise J., 3-30, 3-32; photo, 3-28
Blondo, Rick, 1-50
Board of Commissioners for the Emancipation
of Slaves (D.C.), 1-54–55
Boeing Company, 2-71, 4-62
Borden, Lizzie, 3-72
Bosanko, William J., 2-68
Boston, plane, 2-6, 2-8, 2-11–15
Boston II, plane, 2-17
Boston Post, 2-72
Bougainville Island, 3-9, 3-11, 3-14, 3-16
Boyd, Julian, 4-15
Boyd, Louise Arner, 2-38, 2-39, 2-42–45;
photos, 2-38, 2-42, 2-43, 2-44
Bradley, Gen. Omar N., 4-28
Bradsher, Greg, “Operation Blissful,” 3-6–16;
“The Nuremberg Laws,” 4-24–29
Brady, Mathew, photos by, 1-5, 1-12, 1-21, 1-22
Brauer, Peter F., compiler, Records Relating to
Railroads in the Cartographic Section of the
National Archives, 4-60–61
Bredhoff, Stacey, Winning West Virginia: JFK’s
Primary Campaign, 2-69
Breitman, Richard, and Norman J. W. Goda,
Hitler’s Shadow: Nazi War Criminals, U.S.
Intelligence, and the Cold War, 4-60
Brey, Ilaria Dagnini, photo, 3-62; The Venus
Fixers, 3-62–63
Breyer, Stephen, photo, 1-64
Brown, H. J., 1-32–33
Brown, Jasper, photo, 2-60
Brown, John, illustration of, 1-11
Buchanan, James, 4-33, 4-35, 4-37, 4-38, 4-40
Buell, Gen. Don Carlos, 1-22–23
Bunyan, Maureen, 3-70
Burbridge, Gen. Stephen B., 1-24
Burkhardt, Katherine, 3-46, 3-49
Burma, 2-8–9
Burns, Ken, 2-70, 3-71, 4-62; photo, 4-63
Bustard, Bruce, 1-50, 1-70; “Discovering the
Civil War,” 1-36–41
Calhoun, John C., 1-8, 1-18; illustration of, 1-15
California, 1-8, 2-23
Cape York, Greenland, 2-39
Carr, George, photo, 2-56
Carter, Col. John, 1-56
Cass, Lewis, 4-33, 4-34, 4-36, 4-37–38, 4-39,
4-40; portrait, 4-37
Cejka, Diane, 3-67; photo, 3-67
Census Bureau, 4-48, 4-50
Censuses, 1940, 4-46–52; population, 3-54–61,
4-46–52
Central America, 4-32–40
Chambers, Thomas A., “A Soldier of the
Revolution,” 3-36–43
Chaplin, Ralph, 2-58–59
Chase, Salmon P., 1-18; illustration of, 1-14
Chatard, Commander Frederick, 4-38
Chernow, Ron, 4-15, 4-18; photo, 4-13;
Washington: A Life, 4-13, 4-18
Chicago, plane, 2-6, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9, 2-11, 2-13–
14, 2-15–16, 2-17; photo, 2-8
Winter 2010
“Children as Topic No. 1,” by Marilyn Irvin
Holt, 2-18–26
Choiseul Island, 3-6–16; maps of, 3-9, 3-10
Citing Records, leaflet, 1-68
Citizenship questions in the 1940 census, 4-48
Civics education, 2-70, 3-51
Civil rights, and children and youth, 2-20–21
Civil War, 1-6–13; appeal for peace from
the South, 4-42–45; and the birth of the
nation, 1-10, 1-12–13; casualties, 1-7;
exhibits, 1-36–41, 3-66, 3-70, 3-71, 4-58,
4-62; guerrilla fighting as part of, 1-20–25;
pension applications, 1-26–35, 3-24–25; and
resignations from the U.S. Army, 1-42–47;
role of the U.S. Navy in, 1-60–61; and Walt
Whitman, 2-62–63
Civil War, The, documentary series by Ken
Burns, 2-70
“Civil War on the High Seas, The,” by Hilary
Parkinson, 1-60–61
Civilian Conservation Corps, 4-47, 4-50
Clark, Edward, 2-51
Classified records, 1-2, 2-2, 2-68, 3-66
Clay, Clement, 4-44
Clay, Henry, 1-14–18; illustrations of, 1-15,
1-18; portrait, 1-17
Clay, William Lacy, 3-70
Coast of Northeast Greenland, The, by Louise
Boyd, 2-44
Cobb, Josephine, 1-5
Colbert, Dan, photo, 2-57
Collins, Paula, 4-63
Colot, Thora, 1-48–49, 1-50, 1-51, 1-70, 2-70;
photos, 1-71, 4-63
Columbia University Press, 4-14
Committee on the District of Columbia, 2-47
Communism, as threat to children, 2-23–24
Compromise of 1850, 1-8, 1-14–18, 1-54, 1-56
Confederate States Army, 1-42, 1-43, 1-44,
1-45, 1-46, 1-47
Confederate States Marine Corps, 1-42, 1-47
Confederate States Navy, 1-42, 1-43, 1-61
Confederate States of America, 1-9, 4-42–45
Connell, William, 2-30
Constitutional Convention, U.S., 4-12, 4-13, 4-17
Cook, Becky, photo, 2-61
Coolidge, Calvin, 2-17; photo, 2-16
Corcoran, William Wilson, 2-53
Cortina Productions, 1-70
Costa Rica, 4-33–40
Couper, Bill, 4-62; photo, 4-63
Cox, Christopher C., 1-32
Cragin, Charlie, photo, 1-71
Index
Cragin, Maureen, photo, 1-71
Crawford, Bob, photo, 2-60
“Creating a More Open Government,” by David
S. Ferriero, 2-2
Criminals, 2-54–61
Crosia, F. C., photo, 2-7
Crotty, Rob, “Magellans of the Sky,” 2-6–17
Cuba, 1-8, 3-30, 3-31, 3-56
Cumberland, USS, 1-68
Cuneo, Maris S., photo, 4-63
Cuneo, Peter, 2-71
Curtis, Washington, photo, 2-59
Dannenberg, M.Sgt. Martin, 4-28
Data.gov, 1-65
Daughters of the American Revolution, 3-29–30
Daulton, John G., photo, 2-61
Davidson, Charlotte, 1-71
Davis, Commander Charles Henry, 4-33
Davis, Damani, “Slavery and Emancipation in
the Nation’s Capital,” 1-52–59
Davis, Jefferson, 1-8, 1-9, 1-18, 1-20, 1-44
De Wald, Ernest, 3-62
DeBow’s Review, 4-33
Decatur, USS, sloop of war, 4-33, 4-34–36,
4-37, 4-38–39, 4-40; illustrations of, 4-35
Declassified records, 1-2, 2-2, 2-68, 3-66, 3-67,
4-59
Democratic Party, and Reconstruction, 3-23;
Young America wing, 4-32, 4-33
Denmark, 2-44
DerDerian, Chris, 3-71
Dewing, Charles, 2-53
Dickerson, Isaiah H., 2-31–32
Diem, Ngo Dinh, 4-10; photo, 4-9
Discovering the Civil War, book, 3-71
“Discovering the Civil War,” by Bruce Bustard,
1-36–41
“Discovering the Civil War,” exhibit, 1-36–41,
1-42, 1-70, 1-71, 2-70, 3-66, 3-70, 3-71,
4-58, 4-62
District of Columbia, 1-8; African Americans
in, 1-52–59, 2-21; St. Elizabeths Hospital,
2-46–53
Dix, Dorothea, 2-48, 2-49
Dix, Gen. John A., 4-44
DocsTeach, 2-70, 3-50–53, 4-63
“DocsTeach.org,” by Stephanie Greenhut and
Suzanne Isaacs, 3-50–53
Documentary films, 2-34–37; about Arctic
exploration, 2-38–45; about the Civil War,
2-70; government-produced, 2-35–36
Dodd, William E., 4-26, 4-27
Donohue, Keith, “The Founding Fathers
Online,” 4-12–18
Doubleday, 4-7–8, 4-9
Douglas, Donald, 2-8
Douglas, Stephen A., 1-8, 1-9, 1-18; illustration
of, 1-14
Douglas Aircraft Company, 2-8, 2-16
Douglas World Cruisers, 2-8–17
Dudley, W. W., 1-28
Dulles, John Foster, 4-8–9; photo, 4-8
Dulles International Airport, 4-8
Duncan, Lt. Rae, 3-12, 3-13
Durig, Ernest, 2-53
Early, Gen. Jubal A., 1-24
Education, federal aid to, 2-25, 2-26; NARA
aids for teachers, 2-70, 3-50–53; questions
on the 1940 census relating to, 4-47, 4-48;
White House focus on, 2-25
Edward I, 4-23
Effie M. Morrissey, schooner, 2-39, 2-40, 2-41,
2-44; photo, 2-41
Ehrlichman, John, 4-59
Eider, Navy ship, 2-9–10
Eisenhower, David, with Julie Nixon
Eisenhower, “Going Home to Glory,” 4-7–10;
photos, 4-9, 4-10
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 2-21, 2-22, 2-25, 4-28;
Crusade in Europe, 4-7; Mandate for Change,
4-7; memoir of life with, 4-7–10; photos of,
4-6, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10; Waging Peace, 4-10
Eisenhower, John, 4-7–8, 4-9–10
Eisenhower, Julie, photo, 4-9
Eisenhower administration, 2-25, 4-7
Electronic records, 2-2, 2-68, 4-2, 4-59
Electronic Records Archives, 1-64, 2-2, 3-2, 4-59
Ellis, Joseph, 4-15
Ellis, Roger, 3-63
Emancipation Act of 1862, 1-53, 1-54
Emancipation Proclamation, 3-66, 3-70, 4-62
Employment questions in the 1940 census,
4-47, 4-49–51
England, 4-21–22, 4-23
Ewald, William, 4-7, 4-9
Ewing, Oscar R., 2-24
Ewing, Gen. Thomas, Jr., 1-24
Exhibits, 1-36–41, 1-66, 1-70, 1-71, 2-69, 2-70,
2-71, 3-66, 3-70
Ex-slave pension organizations, 2-30–33
Fallen, Anne-Catherine, 1-48, 1-49
Farquharson, Amy B., 3-30, 3-32–33; photo,
3-28
Prologue 65
Fashion, steamer, 4-38
Faulkner, Barry, illustration of mural by,
4-14–15
Federal Register, website for, 3-66–67
Federalist Papers, The, 4-14, 4-18
Ferguson, Champ, 1-23
Ferriero, David S., 1-65, 2-68, 2-71, 3-51, 3-70,
3-71, 4-17, 4-58, 4-62, 4-63; “Creating a
More Open Government,” 2-2; “Making
Tough Choices in NARA’s Budget,” 3-2;
photos, 1-64, 4-28, 4-63; “Taking the
Leading Role on Declassification,” 1-2;
“Transforming the Archives,” 4-2
“Fighting for Democracy,” exhibit, 2-71
Filibuster soldiers in Nicaragua, 4-32–40
Filmore, Millard, illustration of, 1-15
Fingerprints, 2-57–58
Fiord Region of East Greenland, The, by Louise
Boyd, 2-43–44
Fischer, David Hackett, 4-15
Fitzpatrick, John C., 4-14, 4-18
Flickr Commons, 1-65–66
Florida, 2-29, 3-48
Foote, Henry S., 1-8; illustration of, 1-10
Fort Castillo, Nicaragua, illustration of, 4-32
Fort Sumter, South Carolina, 1-9, 1-42
Fort Ticonderoga, New York, 3-36–43
Foster care, 2-20, 2-22–23
Foundation for the National Archives, 1-48–49,
1-51, 1-70–71, 2-70–71, 3-51, 3-70–71,
4-58, 4-62–63; Records of Achievement
Award, 2-70, 4-62
“Founding Fathers Online, The,” by Keith
Donohue, 4-12–18
Fox, Gustavus V., 1-61
“Frame After Frame,” by Phillip W. Stewart,
2-34–37
France, and the Nuremberg trials, 4-27, 4-28
Franklin, Benjamin, 4-17; Papers of, 4-14;
portrait, 4-12
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, 1-64, 3-67
Freedmen’s Bureau, 2-29
Freedpeople, movement to provide aid to, 2-28–33
Freeman, Morgan, 4-62; photo, 4-63
Frémont, Gen. John C., 1-21, 1-22, 4-33; photo, 1-22
French, Benjamin Brown, 1-17
Frick, Wilhelm, 4-28, 4-29
Fugitive slave law, 1-8
Fugitive slaves, 1-55–56, 1-57–59
Furman, Ben, 2-21
Gaines, Ed, photo, 2-57
Gehring, Christina, 1-48, 1-49, 1-51
66 Prologue
Genealogical research, 1-26, 1-52–59, 2-54–61,
4-46–52
General Services Administration, 3-45, 3-49
Georgia, 1-44, 2-29, 2-32–33
Germany, and persecution of Jews, 4-24–29
Goda, Norman J. W., Hitler’s Shadow: Nazi War
Criminals, U.S. Intelligence, and the Cold War,
4-60
Godding, William Whitney, 2-49, 2-51
Goering, Herman, 4-28, 4-29
“Going Home to Glory,” by David Eisenhower
with Julie Nixon Eisenhower, 4-7–10
Gordon-Reed, Annette, photo, 1-71
Gorgas, Maj. William, 3-30, 3-32
Government Hospital for the Insane,
Washington, D.C., 2-46, 2-48–49
Graf, Mercedes, “A Very Few Good Nurses,”
3-28–34
Graham, Martha, 3-46
Graham, Young, photo, 2-58
Grant, Ulysses S., 4-42, 4-45
Grants, 1-64
Great Britain, and Nicaragua, 4-33; and the
Nuremberg trials, 4-27, 4-28
Greaves, Renty Franklin, 3-18–26
Greeley, Horace, 4-40, 4-43
Greenhut, Stephanie, 2-70; and Suzanne Isaacs,
“DocsTeach.org,” 3-50–53
Greenland, 2-38, 2-39–42, 2-43–44
Gresham, Walter Q., 1-48
Guam, 3-56
Guerrilla warfare, and the Civil War, 1-20–25
Habeas Corpus Case Records, 1820–1863, of
the U.S. District Court for the District of
Columbia, microfilm publication, 1-54,
1-57–59
Haldeman, H. R. “Bob,” 4-59
Hall, Bryan, 2-46, 2-47, 2-50, 2-51–52; photo,
2-50
Hall, Charles H., 2-47, 2-52
Halleck, Gen. Henry W., 1-22, 1-23, 1-24;
photo, 1-22
Halsey, Adm. William F., 3-11, 3-16
Hamilton, Alexander, 4-16, 4-17, 4-18; Papers
of, 4-14, 4-15; portrait, 4-16
Hardin, Stephen, photo, 2-58
Harding, 1st Lt. John, 2-6, 2-12; photos, 2-7,
2-13
Harlow, Bryce, 4-10
Harmon, William E., 2-36
Harmon Foundation, 2-36–37
Harper’s Magazine, 2-25
Harris, David, 2-52
Hartt, Lt. Frederick, 3-62–63
Harvard University Press, 4-14
Harvey, Sgt. Alva, 2-6, 2-7, 2-9, 2-10; photo,
2-9
Hasson, Esther Voorhees, 3-29, 3-30–31, 3-32–
34; photos, 3-28, 3-31
Hawaii, and population censuses, 3-58
Hawaii State Archives, 1-64
Hawke, Robert A., 2-52
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 3-37
Henry, Joseph, 2-53
Henry III, 4-23
Henson, Matthew, 1-66, 2-39
Hess, Rudolf, 4-28, 4-29
Highsmith, Carol M., 1-50
Hill, First Lt. Ambrose Powell, 1-45
Hill, Marilynn Wood, photo, 4-63
Hilton Head, South Carolina, 3-19, 3-20, 3-22,
3-24
Hinckley, John, Jr., 2-47
Hirano, Irene, photo, 2-71
Historic African American Education
Collections, 1-64
Historical document editing, 4-12–18
History education, 2-70
Hitler, Adolf, 4-24, 4-27–28
Hitler’s Shadow: Nazi War Criminals, U.S.
Intelligence, and the Cold War, by Richard
Breitman and Norman J. W. Goda, 4-60
Hobby, sailing vessel, 2-43
Holcombe, James, 4-44
Holmes, Oliver W., 2-52
Holocaust, 4-24–29
Holt, Joseph, 1-24
Holt, Marilyn Irvin, “Children as Topic No. 1,”
2-18–26
Hoover, Herbert, 2-19; photo, 2-21
Hospital ships, 3-28–34
House, Callie D., 2-31–33
Housing, and children and youth, 2-20, 2-23,
2-26
Housing Act of 1949, 2-23
Howard, Gen. Oliver O., 2-53
Hunter, Gen. David, 1-21, 1-24
Huntington Library, 4-29
“‘I have the honor to tender the resignation . . .’,”
by Trevor K. Plante, 1-42–47
Iceland, 2-15
“In Freedom’s Shadow,” by Giselle White-Perry,
3-18–26
Independent, The, 4-38
Winter 2010
India, 2-8–9, 2-11–12
Indians Watching Stagecoach in the Distance,
mural by Eduard Ulreich, 3-45, 3-47, 3-49;
illustration of, 3-44–45
Inmate case files, 2-54–61
Inner Circle, The, by Brad Meltzer, 4-54–55
“Inner Circle, The,” by Hilary Parkinson,
4-54–55
Innocent III, Pope, 4-23
Inouye, Daniel K., 2-71; photo, 2-71
Institute for Editing of Historical Documents, 1-64
“Institutional Memory,” by Frances M.
McMillen and James S. Kane, 2-46–53
Interdepartmental Committee on Children and
Youth, 2-20
International Criminal Tribunal, 4-25, 4-28
Internet, use of to make records available, 2-2,
2-37, 4-13, 4-16–18
Isaacs, Suzanne, 2-70; “DocsTeach.org,”
3-50–53
Isaacson, Walter, 4-15
Italy, 2-15, 3-62–63
Jackson, Robert H., 4-25, 4-28–29
Jackson Brady Design Group, 1-70
Japan, 2-8–10, 2-11; and World War II, 3-6–16
Japanese American National Museum, 2-71
Jarrell, Harry L., photo, 2-59
Jefferson, Thomas, 4-15, 4-16, 4-17; Papers of,
4-14, 4-15, 4-16; portrait, 4-12
Jeopardy!, television show, 1-66
Jerez, Maxime, 4-37
Jews, persecution of in Germany, 4-24–29
John, King of England, 4-23
John F. Kennedy Library, exhibits, 2-69
John Hancock Financial, 3-70
Johnson, Andrew, 1-22, 1-23, 2-29
Johnson v. McAdoo, 2-33
Johnston, Brig. Gen. Joseph E., 1-44, 1-47;
photo, 1-44
Johnston, Lt. Samuel, 3-11, 3-13, 3-15
Jones, William Carey, 4-31, 4-32, 4-33–40
Juvenile delinquency, 2-20, 2-21–22, 2-26
Kahn, Herman, 2-52
Kane, James S., “Institutional Memory,”
2-46–53
Kansas, 1-8, 1-24
Kansas City Times, 3-45–46
Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, 1-8
Kennedy, John F., 2-26, 2-69, 4-10; photos,
3-15; and World War II, 3-7, 3-13–16
Kentucky, 1-24
Index
Keresey, Lt. Richard, 3-9, 3-10, 3-12, 3-13–14
Khrushchev, Nikita, 4-7–8; photo, 4-8
Knights of the Golden Circle, 1-71
Koblik, Steven S., photo, 4-28
Konze, Lt. Col. William and Alice, 4-62
Krulak, Lt. Col. Victor H., 3-7–16; photo, 3-7
Ladd, Col. Fred, 4-10
Lampe, Elise, 3-30, 3-32; photo, 3-28
Lane, Levi Cooper, 4-36, 4-40
Laux, Second Lt. Robert, 4-72
Lawrence, Richard, 2-47
Leach, Joseph S., photo, 2-56
League of Nations, 4-26
Leavenworth, Kansas, 2-54–61
Lee, Gen. Robert E., 1-43, 1-46, 1-55
Legendre, Yann, 1-51
“Letters of Walt Whitman, The,” by Hilary
Parkinson, 2-62–63
Lieber, Francis, 1-23
Lieber Code, 1-23–24
Lincoln, Abraham, 1-10, 1-12, 1-17, 2-63,
4-43–44, 4-45; and emancipation of slaves
in the District of Columbia, 1-53, 1-54;
and guerrilla conflict during the Civil War,
1-20–25; photos, 1-5, 1-12, 1-20; and slavery,
1-8–9, 1-12, 1-53, 1-54, 4-43–44; and the
U.S. Navy, 1-60–61
Lincoln and His Admirals, by Craig L. Symonds,
1-60–61
List of Pensioners on the Roll, January 1, 1883,
1-33
“Lizzie Borden took a . . . trip,” 3-72
Locatelli, Antonio, 2-15, 2-16; photo, 2-7
Logbooks of the USS Cumberland, October 1843–
September 1859, microfilm publication, 1-68
Longstreet, Maj. James, 1-47; photo, 1-47
Lore, Ken, 1-70, 1-71, 2-70, 2-71, 3-70, 4-62,
4-63; photos, 1-70, 1-71, 4-63
Lore, Pat, photo, 4-63
Lossing, Benson, Pictorial Field-Book of the
Revolution, 3-36–43; illustrations from, 3-36,
3-37, 3-42
Louisiana, 1-45
MacDonald, Maureen, 1-48, 1-49
Madison, James, 4-16, 4-17; Papers of, 4-14;
portrait, 4-14
“Magellans of the Sky,” by Rob Crotty, 2-6–17
“Magna Carta Returns to the Archives, The,” by
David M. Rubenstein, 4-20–23
“Making Tough Choices in NARA’s Budget,” by
David S. Ferriero, 3-2
“Manifest Destiny’s Inept Diplomat,” by
Lorraine McConaghy, 4-31–40
Marine Amphibious Corps, First, 3-7, 3-9, 3-10,
3-11, 3-12, 3-14, 3-16
Marine Parachute Regiment, First, 3-7–16
Maris S. Cuneo Foundation, 4-62
Marshall, George C., 4-9
Marshall, William, 4-23
Martin, Maj. Frederick L., 2-6, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9,
2-10; photo, 2-9
Martinez, Tomas, 4-37–38, 4-39, 4-40
Maryland, and the Civil War, 1-21; and the
mentally ill, 2-48; and slavery, 1-53–54, 1-55
Mason, Patty Reinert, 1-49, 1-50, 1-51
Massachusetts Historical Society, 4-14
McCarthy, Joseph, 4-7–8
McCarthy, Shane, 2-26
McCay, Joseph M., 1-32
McConaghy, Lorraine, “Manifest Destiny’s Inept
Diplomat,” 4-31–40
McCormack, Sean, photo, 1-71
McCullough, David, 4-15
McDonald, James G., 4-26–27
McGee, Anita Newcomb, 3-29–30, 3-32, 3-33;
photo, 3-29
McGowan, Sue Gin, 2-71
McLester, W. P., photo, 2-59
McMillen, Frances M., and James S. Kane,
“Institutional Memory,” 2-46–53
McPherson, James M., “Out of War, A New
Nation,” 1-6–13
McQuown, William, photo, 1-30
Medical examinations for pension claims,
1-27–30
Medical records, inmates, 2-58
Meltzer, Brad, The Inner Circle, 4-54–55
Mental illness, hospitals for the treatment of
people with, 2-46–53
Mervine, Commodore William, 4-33, 4-35,
4-36
Mexican-American War, 1-8, 4-31–32
Mexico, 1-72
Michigan State University, 1-64
Microfilm publications, 1-54, 2-69, 3-69;
African Americans, 1-54; alien arrivals,
2-69, 3-69, 4-61; Austria, 4-61; California,
3-69, 4-61; certificates of identity, 2-69;
claims against Russia, 1-69; crew lists, 1-68,
2-69, 3-69; District of Columbia, 1-54;
emancipation, 1-54; Financial Intelligence
Group, OMGUS, 1-69, 3-69; Florida,
3-69; Foreign Exchange Depository Group,
OMGUS, 3-69; Germany, 1-69; Hawaii,
Prologue 67
 4-61; headstones, 3-69; intelligence
operations, 1-69; logbooks, 1-68; Michigan,
2-69; Minnesota, 2-69, 3-69, 4-61; Mortuary
records of Chinese decedents, 4-61;
naturalization records, 1-69; New York, 1-68,
3-69, 4-62; North Dakota, 1-68, 2-69, 3-69;
OMGUS, 2-69; OSS, 1-69; passenger lists,
1-68, 2-69; Pennsylvania, 3-69; Rhode Island,
1-68; Russia, 1-69; slavery, 1-54; Texas, 1-68–
69, 4-61; U.S. Allied Commission for Austria,
4-61; veterans, 3-69; Vicksburg National
Cemetery, 1-69; Washington, 2-69; World
War II draft cards, 1-69; Wisconsin, 1-69
Military personnel, and censuses, 3-55, 3-56,
3-58, 3-59, 3-60, 3-61
Miller, Thomas, 2-48
Millikan, Frank, 2-47
Millikan, Robert, photo, 4-26
Minor, William Chester, 2-53
Mississippi, 1-45, 2-20–21
Missouri, 2-21; and the Civil War, 1-21, 1-22,
1-23, 1-24
Missouri Compromise, 1-8
Missouri Supreme Court case files, 1-64
Mitchel, Gen. Ormsby M., 1-22
Mitchell, Billy, photo, 2-16
Mitchelville, South Carolina, 3-19–20
Mora, Gen. Joaquin, 4-33
Mora, Juan Rafael, 4-36, 4-37, 4-38, 4-39, 4-40
Morgan, John, photo, 2-54
Morris, Gouverneur, 4-12
Morton, Cyrus, 3-37–38
Moscow Declaration of 1943, 4-27–28
Motion pictures, 2-34–37, 2-38–45;
preservation of, 2-45
Mount Holyoke College, 1-64
Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association of the Union,
4-18
Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, papers opened, 3-67
Muilenburg, Dennis, 2-71
Murals, 3-45–49
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, 1-64
Musto, David, 2-52
Naftali, Tim, 1-64–65, 3-67, 4-59
Narcotics offenders, 2-58
National Archives and Records Administration,
75th anniversary, 1-48–49; appropriations,
3-2; Archivist Development Program, 1-64;
award as environmentally friendly workplace,
4-58; budget, 1-64, 3-2; Center for Polar
Archives, 2-45; Controlled Unclassified
Information Office, 1-64; Donated Materials
collections, 2-34, 2-36–37; exhibits, 1-36–41;
five-year plan, 4-2; Founding Fathers Online,
4-12–18; Independence Day Celebration,
3-70; Information Security Oversight Office,
2-68; microfilm publications, 1-54, 1-68–69,
2-69, 4-61; mission, 1-2, 2-2; motion picture
collections, 2-34–37; Motion Picture, Sound,
and Video Branch, 2-34–37; news and
notices, 1-64–66, 2-68, 3-66–67, 4-58–59;
Office of Government Information Services,
1-64, 2-2; Office of the Federal Register,
3-66–67; Open Government Plan, 1-65,
2-2; Preservation Conference, 4-59; Public
Vaults, 1-66; publications, 1-48–51, 1-68–69,
2-69, 3-68–69, 4-60–61; and records
declassification, 1-2; web site, 1-65, 2-2, 2-37,
2-70, 3-50–53
National Archives at Atlanta, The, leaflet,
3-68–69
National Archives at Kansas City, The, leaflet,
3-69
National Archives Building, ban on photography
in, 1-65; book about, 1-49–51; exhibits,
1-36–41, 1-66, 2-71, 3-66, 3-70, 4-58;
Lawrence F. O’Brien Gallery, 1-41, 2-71,
3-66; as setting for a new novel, 4-54–55;
shop, 1-70, 3-71
National Archives Building: Temple of American
History, The, 1-49–51
National Archives Experience, 2-69, 3-70, 3-71,
4-62, 4-63
National Archives Online Public Access, 4-59
National Archives Regional Archives System,
Atlanta, 3-68–69; Central Plains Region,
2-54, 2-61, 3-67; Kansas City, 2-55, 3-45–49,
3-67, 3-69, 4-58
National Bureau of Standards, 2-44
National Center for the Preservation of
Democracy, 2-71
National Declassification Center, 1-2, 2-2, 2-68,
3-66
National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty, and
Pension Association of the United States of
America, 2-30–33
National Historical Publications and Records
Commission, 1-64, 4-13, 4-15; grants, 1-64,
4-15, 4-18
National Historical Publications Commission,
4-15, 4-17
National Youth Administration, 4-47, 4-50–51
Navy Nurse Corps, 3-33–34
Nazi Party, and persecution of Jews, 4-24–29
Nebraska, 1-8
Nelson, 1st Lt. Erik, 2-8, 2-11, 2-12, 2-13–14,
2-15; photos, 2-7, 2-13, 2-16
Neutrality Law, 4-32–33
“New Books Draw on Archives’ Holdings for
75th Anniversary,” by Hilary Parkinson,
1-48–51
New Deal, 4-47, 4-50
“New Life for WPA Art,” by Kimberlee Ried,
3-45–49
New Mexico, 1-8
New Orleans, plane, 2-6, 2-8, 2-11, 2-12, 2-13–
14, 2-15–16, 2-17; photos, 2-11, 2-12–13
New Orleans Delta, 4-38
“New Questions in the 1940 Census,” by
Constance Potter, 4-46–52
New York Colonial Council Records, 1-64
New York Herald, 4-38, 4-40
New York Times, 2-21, 2-41, 2-44–45, 4-15,
4-18, 4-33, 4-36, 4-37, 4-38, 4-40
New York Tribune, 4-43
Newsreels, 2-36
Nicaragua, 1-8, 4-32–40
Nichols, Charles H., 2-49, 2-51, 2-52
Nixon, Richard M., 2-25, 3-67
“No Pensions for Ex-Slaves,” by Miranda Booker
Perry, 2-28–33
Norcross, Arthur, 2-40, 2-42; photo, 2-40
North Carolina, 3-48–49
North Dakota, 3-48
Northrup, Jack, 2-8
Norway, 2-43
Now the Drum of War: Walt Whitman and His
Brothers in the Civil War, by Robert Roper,
2-62–63
“Nuremberg Laws, The,” by Greg Bradshaw,
4-24–29
Nurses, military, 3-28–34
Obama, Barack, 1-2, 1-65; budget request, 3-2;
Open Government Directive, 2-2, 4-2
Oberg, Barbara, 4-16
Office of Management and Budget, 3-2
Office of the United States Chief of Counsel,
4-28
Ogden, Sgt. Henry, 2-11–12, 2-17; photos,
2-12, 2-16
Ogletree, Charles, 2-71
“Operation Blissful,” by Greg Bradsher, 3-6–16
Oroloff, Jake, 2-10
Osborn, Kevin, 1-48, 1-49
“Out of War, A New Nation,” by James M.
McPherson, 1-6–13
Overholser, Winfred, 2-50

68 Prologue Winter 2010

Owen, Ezra, photo, 2-61
Pacific Squadron, 4-32, 4-33, 4-35, 4-36
Panama, 4-32, 4-34, 4-36, 4-37
Papers of the Founding Fathers, 4-12–18
Paris, France, 2-13
Parkinson, Hilary, “The Civil War on the High
Seas,” 1-60–61; “The Inner Circle,” 4-54–55;
“The Letters of Walt Whitman,” 2-62–63;
“New Books Draw on Archives’ Holdings
for 75th Anniversary,” 1-48–51; “The Venus
Fixers,” 3-62–63
Pathé News, 2-39, 2-41
Patrick, Gen. Mason, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9, 2-10, 2-12–
13, 2-16, 2-17; photo, 2-16
Patton, Gen. George S., Jr., 4-25, 4-28–29;
photo, 4-26
Paulding, Commodore Hiram, 4-38
Payton, John, 2-71
Pearl affair, 1-56
Peary, Josephine, 2-38, 2-39, 2-44
Peary, Robert E., 1-66, 2-38, 2-39, 2-45
Peary Monument, Cape York, Greenland, 2-39–
42; photo, 2-40–41
Pension Building, photo, 1-35
Pension office, 1-26–30, 1-33–35
Pensions, applications, 1-26–35, 3-24–26,
3-38–43; Civil War, 1-26–35, 2-30–31,
3-24–26; for disability, 1-27–30, 1-31–33,
3-25–26; medical examinations for, 1-27–30;
movement to provide to ex-slaves, 2-28–33;
Revolutionary War, 3-38–43; for widows,
1-32
Pensions, Bureau of, 2-31, 2-32
Perls, Sgt. Frank, 4-28
Perot, H. Ross, 4-21
Perry, Miranda Booker, “No Pensions for Ex-
Slaves,” 2-28–33
Perry, Ray, 2-57
Pershing, Gen. John J., 2-13, 4-9; photo, 2-13
Peuser, Rick, 1-60
Phelps, Gen. John S., 1-22
Philippine Islands, 3-56
Philosophy of the Dusk, by Kain O’Dare, 2-57
Photographs of Arctic expeditions, 2-42–45
Physical fitness of youth, 2-25–26
Pickering, Loring, 2-9
Pickett, Capt. George E., 1-46; photo, 1-46
Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution, by Benson
Lossing, 3-36–43; illustrations from, 3-36,
3-37, 3-42
Pierce, Franklin, 2-48, 2-49, 4-33
Pinkert, Marvin, 1-70
Index
Plante, Trevor K., 4-55; “‘I have the honor to
tender the resignation . . .’,” 1-42–47; photo,
4-63
Polar exploration, 2-38–45; exhibition on, 1-66
Pony Express, mural by Eduard Ulreich, 3-45,
3-47, 3-49; illustration of, 3-47
Ponzi, Charles, 2-72; photo, 2-72
Pope, Alfred, 1-56
Pope, Gen. John, 1-22; photo, 1-22
Pope, John Russell, 1-50
Population censuses, and Americans living
overseas, 3-54–61
Porter, Russell Williams, 1-66
Post Office Department, 2-31–33, 2-72
Post offices, art for, 3-45, 3-47–49
Potter, Constance, “New Questions in the 1940
Census,” 4-46–52; “U.S. Census Schedules
for Americans Living Overseas, 1900 to
1930,” 3-54–61
Potter, David, 4-38
Pound, Ezra, 2-53
Prechtel-Kluskens, Claire, “A Reasonable Degree
of Promptitude,” 1-26–35
Presidential Award for Leadership in
Environmental, Energy, and Economic
Performance, 4-58
Presidential campaigns, 2-69
Presidential libraries, renovation of, 1-64;
exhibits, 2-69. See also individual libraries.
President’s Conference on Fitness of American
Youth (1956), 2-25–26
President’s Council on Physical Fitness, 2-26
Primarily Teaching Institute, 4-63
Princeton University, 4-14
Prison records, 2-54–61
Pritzker, Karen, 4-62
Propaganda, during World War II, 3-9–10,
3-11, 3-16, 3-63
PT boats, 3-7, 3-10, 3-12–16; photos, 3-6, 3-12
Public Buildings Service, 3-47
Public housing, 2-23
Puerto Rico, and population censuses, 3-56,
3-58
Putnam’s Magazine, 4-32
Quantrill, William C., 1-24
Railroad Retirement, 4-47, 4-51
Railroads, 4-60–61
Raiser, Molly, 2-71
Reagan, Ronald, 4-15–16
“Reasonable Degree of Promptitude, A,” by
Claire Prechtel-Kluskens, 1-26–35
Reconstruction, in South Carolina, 3-18–26
Records declassification, 1-2, 2-2
Records management, 2-2, 2-34, 2-68
“Records Management Self-Assessment 2009”
report, 2-2, 2-68
Records of Our National Life, 1-48–49, 2-70
Records of the Accounting Officers of the
Department of the Treasury, Record Group
217, 1-55
Records of the Board of Commissioners for
the Emancipation of Slaves in the District
of Columbia, 1862–1863, microfilm
publication, 1-54–55
Records of the Bureau of Prisons, Record Group
129, 2-55
Records of the U.S. District Court for the District
of Columbia Relating to Slaves, 1851–1863,
microfilm publication, 1-54, 1-55–56
Records preservation, 4-59
Records Relating to Railroads in the Cartographic
Section of the National Archives, compiled by
Peter F. Brauer, 4-60–61
Reed, Robert, photo, 1-71
Reichsgestzblatt (Reich Law Gazette), 4-27,
4-28–29
Reid, Philip, 1-55
Relief, hospital ship, 3-28–34; photo, 3-28
Remini, Robert V., “At the Edge of the Precipice:
Henry Clay and the Compromise of 1850,”
1-14–18
Republican Party, 1-8–9; and Eisenhower, 4-8;
and provisions for ex-slaves, 2-29, 2-30; and
Reconstruction, 3-22–23, 3-24–25
Research & Design, Ltd., 1-48
Revolutionary War, 3-36–43; pension files,
3-38–43
Rice, Isaac, 3-36–43; sketch of, 3-37
Richard Nixon Presidential Library, 1-64–65,
3-67; oral history collection, 3-67, 4-59;
White House tapes, 4-59
Richardson, Alonzo, 2-51
Richmond, USS, 2-14–15, 2-16
Ried, Kimberlee, “New Life for WPA Art,”
3-45–49
Rives, Tim, and Steve Spence, “68,937 and
Counting,” 2-54–61
Roberts, Cokie, photos, 1-71, 4-63
Robinson, Luther, 2-53
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 1-50, 3-67, 4-51
Roosevelt, Theodore, 2-19
Roper, Robert, Now the Drum of War: Walt
Whitman and His Brothers in the Civil War,
2-62–63; photo, 2-62
Prologue 69
Rosecrans, Gen. William S., 1-23
Ross, Martin, photo, 2-56
Rotunda, 4-16
Rowan, Ed, 3-47–48
Royal Australian Navy, 3-9
Royce, Asa, 3-39–42
Rubenstein, David M., “The Magna Carta Returns
to the Archives,” 4-20–23; photo, 4-20–21
Rutter, Lance, 1-51
St. Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, D.C.,
2-46–53; photos, 2-46, 2-49
St. Mary’s, sloop-of-war, 4-33
Salinas, Francisco, photo, 2-60
Sanders, George, 4-44–45
Sanford, Laura, 1-71
Saratoga, 4-38
Scales, Acting Midshipman Dabney M., 1-45
Schofield, Gen. John, 1-24
Scott, Gen. Winfield, 1-42, 1-43
“Seal of Guilt, A,” 1-71
Seamen, and population censuses, 3-55, 3-56,
3-60
Seattle, plane, 2-6–7, 2-8, 2-9
Seedlings Foundation, 4-62
Select List of Publications of the National Archives
and Records Administration, 3-68
Semmes, Commander Raphael, 1-43; photo, 1-43
Senn, Lt. Col. Nicholas, 3-31–32
Seton, Sub-Lt. Carden W., 3-9, 3-10, 3-11,
3-15, 3-16; photo, 3-28
Seward, William, 4-42–45
Sewell, Nickolas, 2-50
Sharp, Lucy, 3-30, 3-32
Shenandoah, Confederate raider, 1-61
Shenberger, Sheryl Jasielum, 2-68; photo, 2-68
Sherman, Gen. William T., 1-24, 2-29; photo, 1-26
Shetters, John, photo, 2-57
Simmons College, 1-64
Slave trade, 1-53–54
Slavery, abolition of, 1-10, 1-12; and Abraham
Lincoln, 1-10, 1-12, 1-17, 2-63, 4-43–44,
4-45; expansion of into territories, 1-8–13;
and Nicaragua, 4-33, 4-38, 4-40
“Slavery and Emancipation in the Nation’s
Capital,” by Demani Davis, 1-52–59
Smalls, Robert, 3-18, 3-21, 3-24
Smith, Charles, photo, 2-55
Smith, Chris Rudy, 1-70
Smith, 1st Lt. Lowell H., 2-8, 2-9, 2-10, 2-11,
2-12–13, 2-14, 2-15–16, 2-17; photos, 2-7,
2-8, 2-12, 2-16
Social Security Administration, 2-22
70 Prologue
Social Security System, 4-47, 4-51
“Soldier of the Revolution, A,” by Thomas A.
Chambers, 3-36–43
Solomon Islands, 3-6–16
“South Appeals for Peace, The,” by Jay Bellamy,
4-42–45
South Carolina, 2-29; and Reconstruction, 3-18–26
Southern Homestead Act, 2-29
Soviet Union, 2-9–10, 4-27, 4-28
Spanish-American War, 3-29–34
Specktor, Fred, photo, 4-63
Spence, Steve, “68,937 and Counting,” 2-54–61
Spirit of North Carolina, by Eduard Ulreich,
3-48–49; illustration of, 3-47
Sprague, William, 4-10
Stafford, Edward, 2-39, 2-41; photo, 2-41
Stafford, Marie Peary, 2-38, 2-39–42, 2-44,
2-45; photos, 2-39, 2-41
Stafford, Peary, 2-39, 2-41; photo, 2-40
Stanton, Edwin, 1-22, 1-24
Stephens, Alexander, 4-45
Sternberg, Surgeon General George M., 3-29–30
Stevens, Col. Ambrose, 4-44
Stevens, Thaddeus, 2-29–30; photo, 2-29
Stewart, Phillip W., “Frame After Frame,” 2-34–37
Stuart, Capt. J. E. B., 1-46; photo, 1-46
Subcommission for the Protection of
Monuments, Fine Arts and Archives, 3-62–63
Sullivan, Teresa, 4-16
Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga, New
York, by John Trumbell, illustration, 3-38
Sutherland, Daniel E., “Abraham Lincoln and
the Guerrillas,” 1-20–25
Symonds, Craig L., Lincoln and His Admirals,
1-60–61; photo, 1-60
“Taking the Leading Role on Declassification,”
by David S. Ferriero, 1-2
“Tales of Escape and Evasion,” 4-72
Tattnall, First Lt. John R. F., 1-47
Taylor, Jim, 4-16
Taylor, Zachary, 1-17
Tennessee, 1-22, 1-23
Territories, Mexican cession, 1-8; slavery in, 1-8
Texas Instruments, 4-63
Thatcher, Commander Henry Knox, 4-33, 4-35–36
Thomas, Adrienne, photo, 1-71
Thomas, Lowell, 2-13, 2-14
Thomas Jefferson Society, 4-14
Torney, Maj. George H., 3-30, 3-31
Towne, Laura M., 3-22–23
“Transforming the Archives,” by David S.
Ferriero, 4-2
Trebek, Alex, 1-66
Truman, Harry S., 2-21, 2-24, 4-15, 4-25, 4-28, 4-29
Trumbell, John, Surrender of General Burgoyne at
Saratoga, New York, painting, 3-38
Tso-Se, Dan, photo, 2-58
Tully, Grace, 3-67
Turchin, Col. John B., 1-22
Twain, Mark, 1-13
Ulreich, Eduard “Buk,” 3-45–49; illustrations of
artworks by, 3-44–45, 3-47; photos of, 3-46, 3-48
Union Army, and guerrilla warfare, 1-21, 1-22–24
U.S. Air Force, motion pictures, 2-36
U.S. Army, Civil War resignations from, 1-42–
47; hospital ships, 3-28–34; motion pictures,
2-36; nurses, 3-28–34
U.S. Army Center for Military History, 2-71
U.S. Army Signal Corps, motion pictures, 2-36
“U.S. Census Schedules for Americans Living
Overseas, 1900 to 1930,” by Constance
Potter, 3-54–61
U.S. Children’s Bureau, 2-19–20, 2-21–22
U.S. Circuit Courts for the District of
Columbia, 1-55–56, 1-57–59
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service,
records opened, 4-58
United States Colored Infantry, 3-20
U.S. Congress, and appropriations for NARA, 3-2;
and Civil War pensions, 1-27; and emancipation
of slaves in the District of Columbia, 1-53; and
funding for publication of the papers of the
Founding Fathers, 4-15; and money for anti-
juvenile delinquency programs, 2-22
U.S. Constitution, amendments to, 1-10, 1-12,
3-66; and slavery, 1-8–9
U.S. Counsel for the Prosecution of Axis
Criminality, 4-29
United States Democratic Review, 4-33
U.S. Department of Justice, 2-31, 2-32
U.S. Department of State, and Central America,
4-34, 4-36, 4-37; diplomatic corps support
for aerial circumnavigation expedition, 2-7–8;
and population censuses, 3-55, 3-60
U.S. House of Representatives, and slavery in
the territories, 1-8
U.S. Lighthouse Service, 3-24
United States Marine Corps, Civil War
resignations from, 1-42, 1-47; motion
pictures, 2-36; and World War II, 3-6–16
U.S. Military Academy, 1-42, 1-44
U.S. Naval Academy, 1-45
U.S. Navy, and the Civil War, 1-60–61; Civil
War resignations from, 1-42, 1-43, 1-45; and
Winter 2010
 filibuster soldiers in Nicaragua, 4-32, 4-33, 4-36,
4-38, 4-40; Lincoln’s relationship with, 1-60–61;
motion pictures, 2-36; and population censuses,
3-55, 3-56, 3-58, 3-59, 3-60, 3-61; support for
Army Air Service circumnavigation expedition,
2-7–8, 2-9–10, 2-13, 2-14–15; technological
advances, 1-61; and World War II, 3-7–16
U.S. Penitentiary, Leavenworth, Kansas, 2-54–61
U.S. Senate, Appropriations Committee, 3-2;
Committee on Pensions, 2-32; motion pictures,
2-35; and slavery in the territories, 1-8
U.S. Supreme Court, justices, 1-10; and
reparations for slaves, 2-33
University of Chicago, 4-14
University of Denver, 1-64
University of Virginia, 4-14, 4-16, 4-18
University of Virginia Press, 4-16, 4-18
Utah, 1-8
Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 4-32, 4-33
Vaughan, Walter R., 2-30; portrait, 2-30
Vella Lavella Island, 3-7, 3-9–10, 3-13, 3-14,
3-15–16
“Venus Fixers, The,” by Hilary Parkinson,
3-62–63
Venus Fixers, The, by Ilaria Dagnini Brey,
3-62–63
“Very Few Good Nurses, A,” by Mercedes Graf,
3-28–34
Veslekari, ship, 2-44
Veterans, American Revolution, 3-36–43; Civil
War, 1-26–35; pension applications, 1-26–35
Vietnam War, 4-10
Virginia, 1-43, 1-44, 1-45, 1-46; and the Civil War,
1-22; and slavery, 1-53–54, 1-55, 1-56, 1-58
Wabash, ship, 4-38
Waddell, Lt. Alexander, 3-9, 3-16
Wade, 1st Lt. Leigh, 2-8, 2-11–12, 2-13, 2-14,
2-17; photos, 2-13, 2-16
Walker, Hank, 2-69
Walker, Mary E., 2-50
Walker, William, 4-32–40
War Department and Arctic expeditions, 2-44
Warburg, Felix, 4-26–27
Washington, D.C., and the Civil War, 1-21, 1-25
Washington, George, 4-12–14, 4-16, 4-17,
4-18; Papers of, 4-12–18; portraits, 4-12, 4-15
Washington, Julius I., 3-18, 3-21, 3-24
Washington: A Life, by Ron Chernow, 4-13
Washington Navy Yard, 1-61
Webster, Daniel, 1-18; illustration of, 1-14
Weeks, John W., 2-10; photo, 2-16
Index
Weidman, Budge and Russell, 4-62
Weinstein, Allen, 4-23
Welles, Gideon, 1-61
Wells, Linton, 2-12–13
Wendell, Cornelius, 4-42–45
West, Cadet John A., 1-44
West Virginia, 1-22, 1-23, 2-69
Weyer, Ed, 2-39, 2-41–42
“When Ponzi’s Bubble Burst,” 2-72
Whitaker, Reed, 3-45, 3-67
White, Lt. Byron, 3-15, 3-16
White, William Alanson, 2-49–50, 2-51
White House Conferences on Children and
Youth, 2-18–26
White House Conference on Education, 2-25
White House Council on Environmental
Quality, 4-58
White House files opened, 3-67
White House tapes opened, 1-64–65
White-Perry, Giselle, “In Freedom’s Shadow,”
3-18–26
Whiting, George C., 1-26–27
Whitman, George, 2-62–63
Whitman, Jeff, 2-62
Whitman, Jesse, 2-62, 2-63
Whitman, Walt, 2-62–63
Wills, A. W., 2-31–32
Wilmot Proviso, 1-8
Winchester, Simon, The Professor and the
Madman, 2-53
Winning West Virginia: JFK’s Primary Campaign,
by Stacey Bredhoff, 2-69
Winterbottom, Colin, 1-50, 1-51
Wisconsin Historical Foundation, 1-64
Wise, Lt. Henry A., USN, 1-60
Women, as federal prisoners, 2-61
“Women of the Polar Archives,” by Audrey
Amidon, 2-38–45
Woodson, Carter G., 2-28
Woodson, Nura G., 3-46, 3-47–48, 3-49
Work Projects Administration, 4-50
Works Progress Administration, 3-45, 3-47–48,
3-49, 4-47
World War I, nurses, 3-34
World War II, and art treasures, 3-62–63;
Escape and Evasion Reports, 4-72; and Italy,
3-62–63; motion pictures relating to, 2-35,
2-36; and the Solomon Islands, 3-6–16
Yale University, 4-14
Yano, Akemi Kikumura, 2-71
Zinsmeister, Morgan, 4-55
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Title: Prologue: Quarterly of the National
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Prologue 71
PIECES OF HISTORY

Tales of Escape and

“H ave you ever watched a movie and thought, “How

do they come up with this stuff? That could never
happen.” Well, even Hollywood could take a lesson from
the files of the National Archives. Our online Archival Re-
search Catalog recently added nearly 3,000 World War II
Escape and Evasion Reports, and they are full of amazing
but true stories.
When an American soldier returned to Allied territory
from behind enemy lines in Europe, Military Intelligence
interviewed him to collect data on escape and evasion ac-
tivities in the European Theater of Operations. Most of
the reports concern bomber crews or fighter pilots downed
over German-occupied territory.
Choosing from almost any file will yield a remarkable
story.
Second Lt. Robert Laux was piloting his bomber back to
England on February 11, 1944, after a raid over Frankfurt
when German fighters attacked. After seeing that his crew
bailed out, Laux jumped and landed in northern France,
near Amiens.
On his second day, the downed pilot had a close call.
Excerpt from 2nd Lt. Robert B. Laux’s Escape and Evasion Report.
Wearing civilian clothes given him by a French woodcutter,
he was stopped on a road by a German motorcyclist. Laux night. I thought to myself, ‘Here goes,’ and walked right
reported that the German “stopped, raised his hand, and on. A German got out of the car, motioned to me to come
shouted ‘Halt!’ I thought he was saluting me, so I gave him over, and said in French something I did not understand.
the Hitler salute back. A number of truckloads of Germans I looked dumb. He repeated slowly with gestures asking
passed, and I saluted all of them. They returned my salute.” whether to go this way or that. I pointed down the road
The next day, as he was looking at road signs at a cross- and the car drove off.” After this lucky break, a woman at
roads, “a German staff car full of heavily armed MP’s the next house took him in, and the rest of his journey back
pulled up. I was still carrying my flight jacket to use at to England was arranged. P

72 Prologue Winter 2010

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 LOOKING AHEAD:
WHAT’S
NEW IN
THE 1940
CENSUS
A Grandson’s Account
Of Ike’s Final Years

Brad Meltzer Weaves

An Archives Mystery

Manifest Destiny:
Where It Stopped

Prologue Winter 2010