f

PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS

DESIGN MANUAL

STRESS GROUP

BECHTEL INC.

I 1//79 ~ ~R ~mON J W}S -

REV. DA= -N ~R REVISION BY ~R

.._
aE~ Coff.
OES. GUIDE NO. -“
PLANT DESIGN AND PIPING
30G -P45-OOZ I
:
@ ~ld”5z
.. ..... .
I t“ ‘,

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. GENERAL

2. DRAWING DISTRIBUTION AND PROCEDURES

3. INITIAL PIPING STUDIES

4. STRESS RELIEVED VESSELS AND PIPING

5. REVIEW OF CRITICAL PIPING

5.1 Pumps

5.2 Compressors

5.3 Turbines

5.4 Ai rfans

5.5 Heaters

5.6 Buried Piping

5.7 Cryogenic & Low Temperature Piping

6. STANDARDIZATION OF APPROACH TO PIPING PROBLEMS

6.1 Allowable Pipe Spans

6.2 Allowable Pipe Overhang

6.3 Pipe Guide Spacing

6.4 Instrument Strong Back Flexibility

6.5 In-Line Pumps

6.6 Expansion Loop Design

6.7 Pipe Anchors

6.8 Stacked Exchangers

6.9 Off Plot Pipeways

7. MISCELLANEOUS AND SPECIAL PROBLEMS

7.01 Slug Flow

7.02 Mitered Elbows

7.03 Tee Connections

7.04 Injection Connections

7.C5 Heater Coil Decoking

7.c6 Catalyst Regeneration

Page 1 of 51

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I ,-,

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT’D.)

7.07 Reformer Furnace Pigtail Design

7.08 Cold Spr ng

7.09 Blowdown Systems

7.10 Field Checkout

7.11 Soot Blowers

7.12 Settlement and Frost Heave

7.13 Ambient Temperature Effect on Bare Piping

7.14 Control Valve Piping

7.15 Hydrotest of Large Low Pressure Piping

7.16 Pipe Supports

7.17 Tank Field Piping

7.18 Steam Trace and Steam Trap Piping

7.19 Plastic Piping

7.20 Rotations, Reactions and Stresses at

Nozzle Connections to Vessels

7.21 Bowing of Pipe

7.22 Compressor Bottle Support

.7.23 Tank Nozzle Movements Due to Pressure

and Temperature

8. PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS WORK CHECK LIST

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Page 2 of 51
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1. GENERAL

This Design Guide is intended to aid stress personnel in

following approved procedures and techniques to complete
their work on an assigned project.

Although it is reco~nded that the standards be followed

closely, individual thought and sound engineering judge-
ment must be used at all times.

In reviewing piping isometrics, mdels or drawings, the

Stress Analyst should keep in mind that the aesthetic de-
sign of the piping systems is the responsibility of the
piping design groups and therefore he should review them from
a stress and support standpoint only. Exceptions to the
above should only be made when a situation ridiculously
improper or a large econamic saving is involved, keeping
in mind lost time in making revisions and their affect on
schedules.

All piping systems reviewed by the Piping Stress Analysis Group

shall be considered for all the “Design Conditions” as listed
under Section 301 of the Code for Pressure Piping ANSI 631.3,
latest ~, or other applicable codes. As a general rule
most computer analyses of piping should include only the effects
of thermal expansion, restraints and effects of support, anchor
and terminal movements. Effects of dead load on a well supported
system are generally small. Other effects are to be studied by
I
special calculations only when engineering judgement deems them
i
to be possibly severe.

D.G. C-5

Page 3 of51
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2. DRAWING DISTRIBUTION & PROCEDURES

The following normal procedures may be adjusted for particular

projects or office locations to suit the special conditions and
requirements of those projects and locations.

2.1 The assigned Stress Analyst shall confer with the Pressure
Vessel Job Supervisor and indicate his preference of draw-
ings which should be distributed to him. These drawings
should generally be plot plans, P&lD’s, paving and grading,
underground piping, pipeway stanchions, line designation
tables, basic data, flow diagrams, piping drawings and
piping isometrics. When vessel drawings and structural
drawings are included, the filing of drawings becomes a
major problem. In fact, much filing would be avoided if
P&lD’s and paving grading drawings were not included. This
judgment is left to each individual.

2.2 The routing of piping isometrics between the Plant Design

Group and the stress group has been standardized to increase
efficiency of all groups concerned and to reduce the amount
of paper handling. Isometrics will be referred to as iso’s in
further discussions. The presently adopted procedure for iso
distribution on model led jobs is:

a) After isometrics are drawn up and checked within the Plant

Design Group and are ready to issue for construction, a
print of each together with a transmittal list shall be
sent to the Stress Analyst one week before date to be
issued for construction.

b) The Stress Analyst then places a design data stamp (See

Standard C-701) on all iso’s except those which can be
approved for stress by inspection without specific design
data. The stamped iso’s should then be filled in with
the necessary design data from piping specifications and
line design tables. An efficient and acceptable method of
recording the expansion temperatures is to ~reDare a list
of maximum “exp’i temperatures for each particular service
as shown in the Line Designation Table i.e.:

1A (instr. air)------100oF RW (raw water)----------- 100oF

UA (util. air)-------lOO°F Cw (coo ing water)------- l2OoF

N (nitrogen) ---------lOO°F LS (1OW press.steam) --40# sat stm temp.

MS (reed press. II It
DW (drinking water)--lOO°F steam)-150# “

PW (potable water)---lOO°F HS (high press. steam)-60()# “ “ “

—
Page 4 of 51
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,.

But process lines require individual temperature assignment

from the line tables.
I

Likewise, a list can be prepared for pipe specifications which

are repeated often that are of carbon steel and the same schedule.
Alloy spec.’s and their schedules should be specially listed for
ease of identification. I
i
c) The iso’s are then reviewed at the models and passed by judgment
I
as much as possible, leaving only a few to verfiy by computer
calculation.
up with
All
support
iso’s
designations
passed by inspection
during the review
should be
of each
marked
iso.
I
This in general will be the most efficient operation except
where a group of iso’s must be immediately released by the
Plant Design Group for prompt delivery to the fabricator to
I
meet a schedule.

I
After
reviewed,
supports,
all the
those
iso’s

or which
which
listed

can be
can
on a particular
be field-supported,
supported
transmittal
or require
by whollv , standard
have
no
support
been
[
1
details, ”are indicated on the” transmi~tal and the blue pr”int of
the iso itself with the designations FTS, respectively.

The Plant Design Group can stamp the orig nal iso’s accordingly
without need of their passing through the pipe support groups.
Technicians. will be retained by The Plan Design Group for the
‘\
purpose of assigning proper designations to the-l’STD” supports
required on every iso. This should bxpedite the ~paration of
iso’s to be issued for construction on the Rev. O issue.

All other iso’s are checked off on the original transmittal as

being approved for stress with an engineered support designation
~except where a flexibility change or calculation is needed.
The symbol HFS indicating IiHold For !jtressli will be tagged on the
transmittal~posite the iso involved. Two copies of the trans-
mittal with the above notations should then be given to the Plant
Qesign Supervisor.

d) All iso’s as they are approved by the Stress Analyst, should be 1

initialed on the tracing by the Stress Analyst or his designated

alternate. Where iso’s require a calculation, the tracing
should be detained by the Plant Design Group until the Stress
Analyst finalizes his study of them. The Stress Analyst should
assign the highest priority to finalizing these iso’s.

e) IAetI isols are verified as satisfactory by calculation, the Plant

Design Group should be imediatel:~ notified forAnd its release.
if iso’s require a revision, the print shouId be marked up with
the required change and a copv ~f the print should be given to the
?Iant Design Group. After the iso revisions have been made, a

n.G. c-5
Page 5 of 51
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new print should be again issued to the Stress Analyst for final
review. If the iso is correct the Stress Analyst will initial
the tracing as approved.

f) All prints marked up by the Stress Analyst with the support require-
ment symbol ~ are then turned over to the Support Group. if iso’s
are stamped for review of critical support details, the pipe
support designer must return the iso and support details to the
Stress Analyst who, upon approval of the detail, initials the
stamped area on the iso.

g) The Support Group then adds the “PSt’ numbers and locations to
the iso tracing and initials the tracing. The tracing is then
returned to the Plant Design Supervisor for issue.

h) [f after an iso is issued for construction, the Plant Design Group

makes a revision to the piping, it is the responsibility of the
Plant Design Supervisor to stop the support group from further
work on the iso and reclaim the print marked up by the Stress
Analyst. we Piping Supervisor then reissues the iso and the
originally marked up print to the Stress Analyst who reviews the
iso for further approval and sJpport mark-up. Where piping
revisions are judged insignificant by the Plant Design Supervisors,
(i.e. not affecting flexibility or support of the system) the iso
\, - is then just reissued for construction, by-passing the Stress
Group.
I

i) If piping isometric numbers are revised by the Plant Design Group, I

a cross reference list of new numbers versus old numbers must be

provided to the Stress Group to keep records straight. To keep
better control of isols marked up by the Stress Group, the plant I
Design and Support Groups should also keep a check list of iso’s I

received. \

1
j) The stress markups are then kept in alphabetical and numerical
order in special long binders by the R“ipe Support Group for
!
!
reference.

I
--- k) When the job is complete the marked isometrics are returned to the !

0 ,
Stress Analyst whb keeps them close at hand for approximately
: !
1 year, then files them in storage.
w
,
* 2.3 A sepia of all orthographic drawings of piping on-plot or off-
~ plot should be issued to the project Stress kalyst prior to
being issued for construction. The sepia shall be stamped and I
t I

u distributed per Standard C-702 upon stress review completion.

k The Stress Analyst shall convert sepias of the piping L drawings I
w
into stress STR drawings and maintain a drawing control of all I
%
a STR drawings per Standard C-703.
i

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D.G. C-5

Page 6 Of S1
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3. INITIAL PIPING STUDIES

3.1 Study preliminary plot plan and pipeway layouts for troublesome
arrangements.

a) Indicate pump placements which will aid in achieving flexible

piping arrangements. Avoid placing pumps directly opposite
annecting equipment.

b) Estimate the number and position of pipeway expansion loops for

steam, condensate and other long, high-temperature systems.

c) Keep mvements in steam lines to generally 4 inches or a maximum

of 6 inches by judicious number and location of loops. Determine
the loop size to help in positioning the header in the pipeway
to avoid large overhangs o? the necessity of auxiliary means of
supporting loops. Design mests of loops as early as possible
and give exact layout to Plant Design Group. Expansion movements,
insulation thickness, effect of cold spring and extra clearance
should all be included. Generally keep a minimumof l+ to 2“
extra clearance from adjacent piping or other obstructions for
worst case of design temperatures or differential pipe mvements.

3.2 Review preliminary alloy piping isometrics or layouts by inspec-

tion for material commitment. Generally this is done to avoid
large differences between material coimnitment and final purchase
of alloy pipe and fittings required; therefore, an exact analysis
should not be made. Retain the preliminary study for comparison
with the final iso to be issued-for-construct ion At this time
many iso’s can still be passed for stress by inspection, but it
is recomnded that piping to pumps, compressors and possibly
heaters, exchangers or reactors when high reactions are suspected,
should be run as a formal calculation on the computer.

D.G. C-5

Page7 of 51
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4. STRESS RELIEVED VESSELS AND PIPING

4.1 The Pressure Vessel Job Supervisor will provide a list of all
stress relieved vessels on the job and all established dates from
the fabricator for stress relief of each particular vessel.
These dates will be marked on tags put on the vessel mdels by
the vessel department. Normlly the model should be completed
and “checked” a minimum of (6) weeks ahead of the stress reiief
date. This gives the stress analyst and support group (2) weeks
to complete their work and get details sent to the fabricator
(4) weeks prior to actual stress relief.

4.2 It is very important that the Plant Design Supervisor remind all
his designers that the piping should not be revised thereafter.
If the change must be made, the revision has to be coordinated
with the vessel fabricator immediately to avoid serious problems
such as re-stress relieving and deiay in delivery.

4.3 Piping requiring stress relief generally is drawn up and issued

to the shop together with the required pipe supports which are
to be welded on and stress relieved with the pipe. Occasionally,
support details are held up for one reason or another and fail
to reach the shop in time. The supports must then be welded to
the pipe in the field. Welding of supports to stress relieved
piping in the field is to be avoided. The stress relief kits
are not only costly in themselves (sometimes amounting to several
hundred dollars) but require many manhours for their installation,
application and removal. Stress relief must still be applied
where process reasons dictate (i.e. stress corrosion or other),
but for PI material, non-pressure parts or external attachments
are not required by A.N.S. I. Code to be stress relieved as long
as the throat of the attachment filiet does not exceed 3/4”.
For any questions regarding welding of supports to stress re-
lieved pipe refer to the general welding instructions for pipe
supports.

o
h
\
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.

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D.G. C-5

Page8’ of 51
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5. REVIEW OF CRITICAL PIPING

The following equipment & cond tions invo ving critical piping
require special treatment, and are briefly discussed within each
classification.

5.1 PUMPS

5.101 Pumps, turbines and compressors have common sources of

concern. The greatest concern is for keeping proper
alignment of the pumps and compressors in relation to
their turbine or motor drivers. Improper alignment
causes hot bearings with resulting wear and/or serious
vibration. Reactions to the cast steel nozzle and
casing structure is generally of secondary concern.
Whenever the casings are made of cast iron the
allowable loadings should be reduced 25%.

5.102 Acceptable loadings on most centrifugal and rotary

pumps which are base, frame, flange or centerline
mounted, are shown in Standard C-705. When the
loadings are higher than permissible every effort
should be made to meet the allowable loadings by
increasing the flexibility of the piping system
rather than employing expansion joints.
.—
t. 5.103 Standard C-721 (4 sheets) shows some common configura-
tions of pump piping. The tabIes accompanying the
various figures show the maximum operating temperature
of the system without overstressing the pipe. When
the maximum allowable temperature is greater than
150°F$ the system is OK for 300°F steamout or steam
tracing.

5.104 Piping reactions on in-line, deep well, vertical frame

mounted, reciprocating pumps, heavy barrel type, or
other specialized pumps must be reviewed on an
individual basis. The primary rule regarding any
piping system to pumps is that the allowable stress of
the pipe at the nozzle must not be exceeded, and that
reactions in lbs should generally not exceed 150 x the
nozzle diameter in inches or that permitted by the
pump manufacturer in loadings published on his vendor
prints, or by agreement, or per specifications.

D.G. C-5

Page 9 of S1
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5.105 In-1ine pumps should be capable of withstanding equivalent pipe

allowable stress based on the minimum nozzle size and re-
duced to material allowable stress for the cast body. These
pumps should be supported by the adjoin-ing piping only,
except, where the horsepower of the pump exceeds 75H.P.,
the pump itself should also be supporte.d_on_..~_p.ier. See
Standard C -729. Generally, none of these suppo-rts re-
quire bolting, in fact, if the pump can SI ide it provides
rel ief for thermal expansion. (Refer Par. 6.05).

5.106 Deep well pumps generally have a cylindrical plate steel

casing which is flanged and bolted to a concrete founda-
tion. Loadings to nozzles of this type of equipment are
limited to the allowable stresses of the pipe and/or casing.

5.107 Pump piping can be designed to twice the .normal

. . ... . .allowable
... .. ___
“Stress as”pti~ .. . .Standard”
. . C“-70”5 Wh”en’ considering steam-out or
u~set St earn trace temperatures. When the pump and/or —-..—. ... piping
,is being stea~out, the ~mp.—.. is .-not
--.<. ..=— ..— ... runniff~ and therefore
misalignment
.. does
- . .. ....— ______ ;~~ate.
—..—— -.—-. -

5.108 Pressure rating of pumps is indicative of ability of pump

casing and supports to withstand piping reactions. As the
pu~ pressure rating is increased, it is built ~re
sturdily; it has heavier walls, weighs mre and is more
stable with sturdier supports. Naturally, therefore, it
can withstand higher piping reactions.

5.109 Where pumps are top suction and/or top discharge, the only
manner of removing eccentric loads on the pumps would be ‘
from beams above. For pumps handling hot materials the
piping should be spring supported to beams above. Therefore,
for ease of supporting pump piping in this case, the pump
should be located under the stanchion struts, (i.e. those
running parallel to and on each side of the pipeway).

5.110 Whenever possible the pump suction lines should be supported

to a concrete pad extension of the pump foundation. Where
this is not possible, beams should be embedded in the
foundation and projected out the sides or front far enough
to support the piping under the vertical riser. In the
case of plants located in regions of frost heave, these
. beams must adequately clear the maximum estimated heave of
the area slab. Where differential vertical expansion of
the pump versus the piping permits, the supports discussed
above should be solid, sliding type supports. Spring sup-
ports should only be used when this vertical differential
u
L expansion is high or questionable.
WI

D.G. C-5

Page 100f51
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@

5.2 COMPRESSORS

The types of compressors usually found in refineries and

chemical plants are as foliows:

Paragraph

Centrifugal, Rotary and Screw 5.21

Reciprocating 5.22

In-Line 5.23

Blowers and Fans (Below 1 psig EAP) 5.24

The allowable loadings, methods of calculating them, types

of support, and piping design considerations for each of the
above compressor types, are discussed individually in the
paragraphs noted.

5.21 Centrifugal, Rotary and Screw Type Compressors

Allowable loads on centrifugal compressors shall be

covered by Bechtel Standard specifications. These specifi-
cations shall state that the equipment shall be designed to
withstand the following external loadings:

Vertical Component

The allowable vertical reaction from combined forces, and mo-

ments due to all piping connections, or to any one piping
connection (either upward or downward) at any support point
shall be at least one half the dead weight reaction of the
co~ressor at the support point.

Horizontal Transverse ComDonent

The allowable horizontal reaction from combined forces.

and mments due to all piping connections, or to any indivi-
dual piping connection, in a horizontal transverse direction
at any support point shall be at least one third the total
dead weight reaction of tbe compressor at the support point.

Axial Comoonent

The allowable axial force from combined axial forces of all

piping connections, or axial force of any one piping con-
nection, in an axial direction on the compressor casing shall
w be at least one-sixth the compressor weight.
L
In

-. D.G. C-5

Pagel]. of 51
I

a) For calculation preparation set up the individual systems

connected to the compressor casing and support structures .
as indicated in Standard C-724, 725 & 726, or by some other
equivalent system. To avoid moment restraints, all
restraints used should be simple couples. The layout of
the problem and the subsequent computer run should be
based on the coordinate system as shown in the Standards.

b) Generally, centrifugal compressors are not sources of serious

vibration and therefore, the piping is given only a cursory
review for resonance. Large frameworks of free standing
pipe or Iarge overhangs should be snubbed to prevent large
amplitude vibration.

c) Piping to centrifugal compressors need not have a machined

spool piece to makeup the last connection to the compressor.
For years the construction department has displayed the
capability to mate flanges by bringing misaligned piping
into prcper position by the heat and quench method. How-
ever, where cold spring is employed the field should’ be
instructed carefully as to the proper procedure to produce
the results desired.
.—

5.22 Reciprocating Compressors

Piping reactions on reciprocating compressors are not cri-

tical from the standpoint of misalignment of equipment, but
due to piping vibrations, the piping stresses should not
crowd the allowable stress range. Although higher stresses
can be allowed at the nozzle than for centrifugal compressors,
it is not unreasonable to keep axial and shear forces within
those shown in Standard .C-705, and as a conservative rule,
keep stresses to within twice those permitted for turbines
in the same standard.

a) Generally there is no need to combine pipe system loadings

for reciprocating compressors as was required for centrifugal
compressors since piping is usually small and reactions are
negligible relative to the sturdy equipment. In fact, most
piping systems to this type of equipment can be reviewed by
inspection.

b) Vibration is a rather serious problem within piping to recip-

rocating compressors. The piping generally should be guided.,
held down and possibly restrained with hydraulic type vibration
snubbers when unsupported lengths or spans fall into the range
of the first or second harmonic of the compressor operating
frequency.
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D.G. C-5

Page12 of51
I

c) Pulsating compressor discharge requires that special

Ilbottlesll be designed to prevent sur9e vibra-
cylindrical
tion. These bottles are often large diameter and heavy.
Therefore, to reduce the possibility of a fatigue failure
between the discharge bottle nozzle and the cylinder head
nozzle, the dead load of the bottle should be supported
by elastic supports as described in paragraph 7.22.
Sometimes the compressor manufacturer recomnds a wedge
type solid support. These have been widely used but don’t
aliow any room for error of installation. The wedges have
to be adjusted when the compressor is at operating tempera-
ture. For upset temperatures the wedge type may be danger-
ous since no further expansion can be absorbed. Bechtel
Refinery Division practice usually avoids using wedge
supports.
suction
Suction
temperatures
bottles
vary
can utilize
negligibly.
solid supports since
I
5.23 In-Line Compressors

Misali~ment of in-line compressors obviously is no problem,

since their driver is bolted to their casing. Permissible
loadings on their nozzles can approach the allowable of the
piping system, but should be reduced by the allowable stress
for the cast material of the equipment when nozzle and pipe
thicknesses are comparable. \lhether the in-line compressor is
supported or’ not depends on ability of piping to support it.
The analyst must be sure to take vibration into consideration.

5.24 Blowers and Fans

Due to the possible light weight construction of this type

of equipment the allowable nozzle load tables should not be
used. The vendors prints should be examined for clues rela-
tive to strength and manner of supports, and/or other pertinent
data. If no allowable loads are published, the intake and/or
discharge lines might require impregnated cloth or neoprene
expansion joints. This type of joint is banded on to the
exterior of the adjacent pipes with suitable small gap between
the pipe elements. Generally, the sheet should have a slight
circumferential bulge between bands to absorb tensile movements.
Generally, piping or ducts to blowers and fans are large and
thin walled, requiring direct routing. These may require
expansion joints made of rubber or stainless steel and be
rectangular, oval or circular in shape. Allowable loadings
on this type of equipment are based on engineering judgement,
since allowable are not usually published or known by the
manufacturer.

D.G. C-5

page 13 of 5.1
I

5.25 TO reduce operating reactions from piping to compressors the

most generally used methods are to employ cold spring or by
increasing the flexibility of the piping. Expansion joints
are virtually forbidden since they suffer from vibration
fatigue.

If a system is to be cold sprung it should follow the rules

of the ANSI B31.3. The cold spring should be located at a
convenient place in the system, generally a flanged connec-
tion or a field weld. See Standard C-723 for cold spring
notations.

It is important that no rotation at the welded joint is per-

mitted to assure that proper counter moments are built into
the system. Instructions on this procedure should be sent
to the field for critical systems. Where cold spring is in-
effective or impractical, the piping should be rerouted to
improve its flexibility.

5.3 TURBINES

Centrifugal turbines with pedestal, base or flange muntings,

are the only types considered herein.

5.31 Flange mounted steam turbines are used as in-line pump dri-
vers and are therefore not misalignedby piping reactions.
\ Piping stresses can approach the mximum piping allowable
except where cast iron casings are encountered, then the
stresses should be reviewed considering the lower allowable
stress of cast iron.

5.32- Piping reactions on pedestal and base munted centrifugal

turbines are governed by two conditions. First, if the tur-
bine is a pump driver and is single stage, the allowable
loadings as noted in Standard C-705 should apply. Secondly,
where the turbine is multi-staged or is used as the driver
to a compressor, the allowable loads will be in accordance
with the Bechtel Standard Turbine Drive Specification as
previously described under Centrifugal Compressors.

.
5*33 For preparation of calculations to verify loading conditions
\zo on the turbine, use the procedure as outlined under paragraph
5.21(alfor centrifugal compressors.
w
*
5.4 AIRFANS

Airfan heat exchangers have gained widespread popularity and use

over the last several years. At least three major problems
confront the piping stress analyst.

—-
D.G. C-5

Page 14 of 51
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5.41 First, where the inlet and outlet header boxes have two or
mre nozzles per unit, a difference in expansion exists bet-
ween it and the attached pipe header. For years many such
units have been connected together using only fitting makeup
with no apparent ill effects. (Very similar to cylindri-
cal exchangers being connected by their nozzles being bolted
together directly.) Therefore, a practical standard is need-
ed for determining when additional flexibility is required
and how to compute it. Standard C-717 suggests that fitting
makeup is tolerable until the difference in horizontal expan-
sion between the nozzles of the pipe header and header box
exceeds l/1611. This applies to either the inlet or discharge
sides but not when several units are joined together and the
inlet and discharge nozzles are at the same end. Where the
expansion difference exceeds I/1611 use the formuia indicated
to compute length “~” required between manifolds.

5.42 Second overall expansion of the pipe header joining several

airfan units together must be accommodated by allowing the
header box to slide on its clip supports within the unit side-
channe supports. Normally the gap between each end of the
header box and the support channel should be s/16” or mre.
This is now generally accepted and appears in Bechtel s~eci-
fications issued to manufacturers who are to bid on the jobs.
Where mre than s/161’ mvement is required, the pipe header
can be cold sprung, as shown on Standard c-718, pulling the
units together as much as 5/1611, whereby the permissible
expansion can be increased from 2 x s/16° or 5/811 at each
end of the units to 2 x 5/8’ or 1 l/4° total for the overall
length of all units connected together.

5.43 Thirdly, where inlet and outlet piping are at the same end
of the airfan units, extra flexibility of the out”let piping
is generally required and should be routed as shown on Stan-
dard c-718 or in some equivalent manner. External piping
loads affecting the equipment nozzles additionally should
conform approximately to those loadings published by each
manufacturer.

‘ Another manner in which difference in expansion between inlet

and outlet pipe headers can be absorbed is by requesting the
airfan manufacturer to supply horizontally spl it header boxes
that slip individually to absorb the difference in movements.
This method would generally permit fitting makeup between the
pipe header and the header boxes for both inlet and outlet
connections even though both are located at the same end of
-the airfan.

5.5 HEATERS

Early in the design of a plant, specifications are drawn up and

material requisitions are prepared regarding the types of heaters
— to be used. It is at this stage that the stress group should

D.G. C-5
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5.5 (Cent’d.)

confer with the project engineers regarding support requirements

of external piping to the heaters. The material requisition
should state that it will be the responsibility of the heater
manufacturer to provide adequate platform framing or other means
toaccmodate all external piping loads of the inlet and/or
outlet piping.

5.51 A preliminary piping load estimate should be sent to the

selected manufacturer for completion of his platform design.
Unless this is done at an early stage, it might prove costly
to arrange for piping to be supported to the heater after
the design and/or fabrication is completed.

5.52 In general, piping to the heaters should first be studied

for inherent flexibility without alteration of heater inter-
nal supports or openings into the heater. If the proposed
piping is either overstressed or creates unacceptable, high
reactions on the heater nozzles, then either the piping should
be rerouted to produce a desired flexibility or the heater
manufacturer should be requested to absorb some reasonable
lateral mvement of the heater tubes. This ~vement may re-
quire some alteration of the tube support castings on hori-
zontal , rectangular (box type) heaters and some possible
enlargement of the openings to either the horizontal or ver-
tical (cylindrical) heaters.

5.53 When a horizontal, rectangular heater is being used, the

radiant and convection section tubing is generally anchored
(axially only) at the front of the heater with allowable
loadings indicated. Where the manufacturer does not indicate
an anchor, he should be requested to add an anchor to all
nozzles and submit their allowable reactions. It is better
to have the piping anchored and the mvements therefore con-
trolled rather than to let systems float and be in doubt as
to ultimate movements. In some cases, such as heaters used
in amnia plants, the heater tubes are anchored internal Iy,
whereby large movements are indicated at the nozzle and are
imposed on the external piping. By judicious Iocation of
equipment these movements can be counteracted by expansion
of external piping.

5.54 Cylindrical heaters (axis vertical) have their tube coils

running vertically. They can be supported either at the top
or the bottom of the tubes. The tubes are guided periodi-
cally to the heater shell. The inlet and outlet nozzles
generally hang free, being supported to the adjacent tube
through the 180° return bend at one of the ends. Therefore,
these tubes can be moved laterally in a horizontal plane, to
rel ieve external piping stresses and reactions if necessary.

D.G. C-5

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5.54 (Cent’d. )

But the manufacturer must be agreeable to the particular re-

lief movements requested. If the piping is amply flexible,
no modifications are necessary by the heater manufacturer,
but the reactions on the nozzle must be reasonable. These
allowable loadings as indicated on their drawings generally
are 500 to 1000 pounds.

5.55 When considering the design of piping to cylindrical heaters

the location the of tube supports can be critical. When
top supported, with inlet and outlet nozzles at the bottom
of the heater, large vertical mvements occur and are im-
posed on the external piping below. This may require costly
additional pipe for flexibility and the use of expensive
constant load spring supports.

5.56 If the tubes are top supported with inlet and outlet nozzles
at the top, then the external piping can be supported to the
platforms or shell at the same level as the tube supports.
This would reduce the need for constant load spring supports
but external piping flexibility is still required between
the heater and other equipment or the pipeway. When the
tubes are supported at the bottom and the nozzles are at
either the bottom or the top, the need for external piping
flexibility or constant load spring supports can both be mini-
mized.

5.57 Additional care must be used when considering 2 phase flow

in heater piping. The inlet will generally be 100% liquid
at .50 to .85 specific gravity but the material in the outlet
will vary from the inlet liquid density to a nearly 100%
vapor flow. This creates special support problems and the
differential load must be minimized on connecting piping by
pre-setting springs for an intermediate Ioad condition.

5.6 BURlED PIPING

Buried piping, regardless of depth of burial or soil in which

it is buried, has the tendency to expand or contract with temper-
ature changes whether from flow temperatures or surrounding soil
temperature changes. The total change in length it undergoes
depends on the restraint of the soil both from friction and pas-
sive resistance.

5.61 Computing Growth of Buried Pipe

A reasonable approach to calculating buried pipe mvements is

based on resistance to mvement from soil friction in a rect-
angular load pattern as shown in Standard c-716. This has
been found to be slightly unconservative by roughly 20% since

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Page 17 of 51
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&
5.61 (Con’ t.)

cyclic expansion and cooling tend to increase end movements.

The choice of a proper coefficient of soil friction is of
great importance since the value can vary from .4 to greater
than 1.0.

5.62 Results of Jackinq Tests

From Jacking tests made by P.G.&E. Co. (see Sept. 1933 issue
of ‘Western Gas”) on 37’-4” length of 22” pipe with 2’-6’I
of cover (assume average cohesionless soil) showed a soil
friction of 0.40 psi or closely a co-efficient of friction
of 0.4.

5.63 Method of Restraining Expansion of Buried Pipinq

At corners (right angle turns) of buried piping systems,

large expansions might cause a failure at the elbow, due
to restricted flexibility , or similarly at branch connec-
tion of underground header.

For small temperature changes the system can be fully

restrained to prevent the above failures. Methods of
providing full restraint are by anchoring the pipe with
-- concrete blocks which encircle the pipe or by deadmen
with struts attached to the pipe. (Standard c-728. ) Also
the line can be fully restrained using very large bends in
the pipe through the principle of hoop compression. (See
Standard C-71O.)

5.64 Stress Analysis of Buried Pipinq Systems

5.641 General

AS in above ground piping systems, thermal expansion

stresses are induced in buried piping systms when
the temperature of the systems changes. However, the
thermal stress condition of buried piping systems is
much more complex than that of above ground piping
i
systems due to restriction of the piping movement by
i
the surrounding soil. The stress level in the pipe
depends on the temperature change, pipe size, piping
configuration, soil characteristics, depth of burial,
!
E skin friction, operating pressure, etc. For a long
L
straight buried pipe under temperature change, the
2
thermal expansion of the middle portion is completely
w
L restrained by the soil friction and only the end
In
portions, generally a few hundred feet long, show some
movement. See the Sample Problem, as herein after
referred to, of Standard 735, Page 2. The length
of the end portions, which expand under partial
—

D.C. C-5
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5.641 (Con’t.)

restraint, and the resulting end movements may be

calculated by the formula shown in Standard
c-716 and is shown on Page 2 of the Sample Problem.
Buried piping systems under temperature change may
be moved laterally near the bends and branch connec-
tions. It is assumed that the pipe moves against
a soil spring and the maximum spring force is equal
to the passive soil resistance. A buried piping
systm may be analyzed for thermal expansion efforts
to include soil friction and soil resistance by the
piping flexibility program ME632 or ME 101.

5.642 Input

a)
Data

Dimensions
Preparation

of Calculation Model
I
After determining the length of the partially
restrained portions of the buried pipe system,
the calculation model can be set up as shown on
Page 4 of the Sample Problem. As can be seen,
only 8001 of the 5000’ run of the complete system,
as shown on Page 1 of the Sample Problem is
included in the model since the remainder is
totally restrained. To achieve the 3.49” deflec-
tion of Data Point 33 either the anchor at Data
— Point 80 can be moved in the “-X” direction or
an equivalent rate of expansion can be applied
to the 8001 length to produce the same result.
Actually, the length of the partially restrained
run of pipe as calculated by Design Guide c-716
does not include the soil resistance on the pipe
at right angles to the main run as shown by Data
Points 8 through 33. A more accurate result may
be obtained by a rerun with a new partially
restrained length, Data Point 33 through 80,
including the lateral soil resistance on Data
Points 2 through 33.

b) Soil Resistance “Sprinqs”

A buried piping system under temperature change

moves against a soil spring force (subgrade
reaction) which has a limiting value equal to
the passive soil resistance. [t is found from
tests that the buried pipe moves against the
soil a certain amount or displacement before
developing a maximum passive soil resistance.
This displacement depends on the soil property
and the depth of the burial. From the Foundation
Engineering Handbook, the displacement is about
0.05 H for sand and 0.10 H for clay, where H is
the depth of the burial to the bottom of the
pipe in inches.

D.G. C-5
19 Ofsl;
I
. ,.,

:
&
— 5.642 (Con’ t.)

In the absence of
the subgrade reaction data
for the jobsite, the displacement of 0.03 H has
been used as the necessary movement to develop
a passive state and it is used generally for
conservatism. The soil spring constant KS is
calculated as follows:

Passive Soil Resistance (Standard C-710)(#

KS = ‘ft)or #/in./ft.
.03H (in.)

The soil springs are treated as translational

restraints with a flexibility of KA #/in. from
Ks x length of pipe affected. The restraints are
spaced such that the passive soil resistance
on the pipe is adequately represented. In
general a closer restraint spacing is required
for the area where high stresses and movements
are anticipated. However, the spacing should
not be closer than two times the pipe diameter.
Since the soil resistance must not be higher
than the passive soil resistance on the pipe,
the analysis shall be carried out by a trial-
and-error method. More than one computer run
may be needed to obtain a satisfactory answer.
The forces of the soil spring restraints from
the computer result must be below the passive
soil resistance. Othetwise, the soil spring
restraints must be changed to the restraints
with constant force whose magnitude is equal
to the passive soil resistance. Another computer
run with the new restraints should be made until
no restraint reactions frm computer result are
significantly higher than the passive soil
resistance.

5.7 CRYOGENIC AND LOW TEMPERATURE PIPING

Cryogenic piping is understood gene~ally to include the range

of operating temperatures from -150 F to absolute zero (-459.4°F).
Cryogenic piping is more critical than nomal refrigeration and
other low temperature piping for several reasons. Greater care
in design is required to prevent water vapor from entering the
insulating media where it would freeze and cause an insulation
breakdwn. Special anchors and supports also are required to
prevent low temperatures from affecting carbon steel support beams
and causing brittle fracture. The stress analyst’s responsibility
covers thermal construction and design basis for supports, guides
and anchors, etc. Project engineering shall specify the insulation
and vapor barrier requirements.

—
D.G. C-5
20. of 5]
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5.71 Support Desiqn

Special saddles have been designed within the stress group

for cradling the insulating media. It was found that for
24I’ pipe containing LNG (liquid methane at -258°F) a 6“
thickness of polyurethane (density 2 lbs/cu ft) or foam
glass is usually required for insulation. At support
points, a higher density of the polyurethane has been
used instead of low density polyurethane or foamglass
because of better abrasion and shear resistance. The
limit of 1% deformation under dead load is a reasonable
criteria to determine the proper density of the poly-
urethane block. A recent installation required 7#/cu ft
density for a 24’I pipe and supports spaced up to 26I

apart. The cost of polyurethane increases with density,

so it is suggested that a practical minimum be arrived
at. See Standard C-727 for a recommended saddle design.
Saddle supports have been either clamped to the insulating
media or cemented to the insulating block with polyurethane
elastomer, both have been found to work satisfactorily.
Likewise, the special support block of insulation between
the saddle support and the pipe has satisfactorily been
cemented to the pipe itself to ensure movement of the
support with the piping system. Until feedback from
operating plants or engineering design proves otherwise,
all support blocks should be cemented to the pipe with
Ad~prene or its equivalent, #2050 Adhesive (Polyurethane
Elastomer), by CFR Division of the Upjohn Company or other
suit~ble compound. The above adhesive has been tested to
-423 F (liquid hydrogen) by the research division of one
of the aircraft companies and found to maintain its
adhesive qualities at those low temperatures.

5.72 Anchor and Guide Details

Wherever it is felt that below freezing temperatures can

affect support, guide or anchor members constructed of
carbon steel stressed to values of 5000 psi or greater,
special details should be provided to insure that the
structural members are not detrimentally affected by
those temperatures. Special carbon steels or alloy steels
should be used having proper impact value where tempera-
tures dictate. See Standard C-727 for recommended anchor
and guide designs.

5.73 Reduction of Friction at Support Surfaces

Whenever the anchor forces or frictional forces at supports

might prove detrimental to the system’s design, special
sliding or roller supports should be provided. Te~lon
slide plates bonded to the under surface of the pipe
saddle support channel have been successfully used. These

D G, C-5
21 of51
I ,,

slide plates bear on a similar slide plate bonded to a

metal plate which is tack welded to the support beam.
The overall thickness of the two slide plates cmonly
is 7/1611 total. Their usefulness does have temperature
limitations which vary with each manufacturer.

5.74 Flexibility Design of the Pipinq System

The materials used in Cryogenic piping systems increase

in strength as the system gets colder and brittle
fracture is avoided by the proper selection of special
materials of construction. Therefore, conservatively,
the same allowable bending stress is permitted as if the
system was at 100°F. To absorb the contraction of the
piping system, the first consideration should be to use
expansion loops or offsets. Where this is not possible,
bellows type expansion joints should be utilized in tandem
within a minimum offset in the piping. The use of the
bellows type in direct extension or compression should
be avoided but are not prohibited. Bellows expansion
joints must be very carefully protected from icing up
and ultimately being crushed. This is their main draw-
back. Other methods of absorbing the systems contraction
are as follows:

a) Jacketed piping with internal axial expansion joints.

This may require expansion joints periodically in
the external jacket pipe, if the system has long runs.
This system incorporates insulation in the jacket space.

b) In very special cases, the line might be prestressed

to absorb contraction. This requires no expansion
joints but suffers from large expansion forces and
requires very special installation procedures. The
use of hydraulic jacks or liquid gas cooldown might
be employed.

D.G. C-5
22 Ofs]
I

6. STANDARDIZATION OF APPROACH TO PIPING PROBLEMS

6.01 Allowable Pipe Spans

a) The spans in Standard L-518 are limited by longitudinal bending

stress or a midspan deflection which has proven accept-
able from past experience, whichever governs. Although the spans
are the maximum allowable, they are limited to a practical span for
general pipeway use of 20 to 25 feet, These and other limitations
are explained in the Standard itself.

b) Where it is impractical or very costly to install special stanchions

for support of small line branches from the pipeway headers or the
support of long runs of very small piping, consideration should be
given to suppo~ting the lines f om a single large diameter header by
cantilevered structural mebers welded on, or by a trapeze beam hung
between larger lines. Normally the supporting of pipe to any other
piping system is not a good pol cy and should be generally avoided.

c) Occasionally groups of very sma 1 diameter piping, such as chemical

injection lines, can be banded I ogether whereby the moment of inertia
of the ~rouD
-. as a whole reduces the bending stress or deflection of
the system to a permissible amount.

6.o2 Allowable Pipe Overhang

At turning points of pipeway stanchions, the supported piping systems

have varying lengths of pipe overrunning the last support beam and rise
up or turn down to join similar “overhangs” of piping from the adjacent
pipeway at right angles to the first one. These overhangs within
certain limitations are permissible without support. But, when the
overhang is such that stress or deflection limitations are exceeded
(See Standard L-532) then. the overhanq requires a special support.
Dummy legs welded to the piping elbow and extended until it crosses
the next stanchion beam is the most corrnnonly used method of supporting
the overhang. Essentially, it supports the system by extending the
pipe as a “beam” across two supports. (See Standard L-539 for dummy
legs required.) Where the dummy leg becomes too long, special beams
should be added to the stanchion to support the overhang.

6.03 Pipe Guide Spacinq

Pipe guides are used for several purposes. They keep lines essentially
.
straight for good general appearance, or they prevent buckling due to
high axial loads from friction or expansion loop forces. Guides can
also be used to react against lateral line connections thereby con-
stituting an anchor for the branch pipe. When anchoring branch
piping by this method the guides are placed on the main header at
the beams on adjacent stanchion column lines. The lateral reaction
is taken by “bead’ action of the 20’ to 25’ pipe span. Under high
loads the stress or deflection of the pipe should be checked.

D.G. C-5

Page23 of51
I

a) Guide spacing varies for the different areas of application. On

vessels, guide spacing is reduced from those permitted in on-plot
or off-plot piping. This is due to higher wind loads with in-
creased elevation and load limitations of the various guide details
used. See the pipe support manual for these allowable spacings,

b) On-plot and off-plot guide spacings could be essentially the same

except that within a guide range for any pipe size, it is pre-
ferable to use the low side of the range for on-plot pipeways
and to use the high side of the range for off-plot pipeways. The
reason for this is that on-plot piping, being more critical in
nature due to branch connections, should have a more conservative
design.

c) The suggested guide space ranges are:

Line Size Guide Space Ranqe

2,1
40 ‘ - 501
3,I 40 ‘ - 51)1
4, I 40 ‘ - 601
6, I 60 I - 801
8, I
80 I - 100’
10” 100’ - 120’

12” 120’ - 150’

14” 120’ - 150’

16” 150’ - 200’

18” 150’ - 200’

20” 200’ Max.

24I I II II

The guide space ranges are a general rule and in situations where
high axial loads exist these guide spacings should be reduced,
after checking for buckling in column action.

6.04 Instrument Stronq Back Flexibility

u a) During normal operation instrument strong backs heat up with the

attached vessel and since no differential expansion exists between
the two there is no flexibility problem. But , if some faulty
operation develops within the instruments, the block valves at the
vessel nozzles can be shut and the instruments removed for repair.
The strong back at this time cools down to atiient temperatures.
At this time there is a differential expansion that exists between
the strong back and the vessel. Unless the nozzles or the offsets in
the piping to the strong back are flexible enough a failure could
occur in the vessel nozzle or in the strong back proper and connect-
ing instruments. Standard C-706 has been developed to give the

!.G. C-5
Page24 of 51
I ,-

Piping Designer a reasonable approach in providing flexibility

in the system before it is reviewed by the Stress Group.
These systems should be approved by the Stress Group by checking
with the above standard.

b) Support of Instrument Stronq Back

Where long strong backs are offset and “Christmas Trees” are hung
from vessel nozzles there is a need of supporting these assemblies
to the vessel shell or platforms. Generally this is done by
inspection without taking time to go into lengthy calculations.
If in doubt, add a support, always taking notice of affects of
differential expansion between supports and nozzle connections.

6.05 In-Line Pumps

As a general rule, in-line pumps exceeding 75HP shou}d be

supported on a foundation regardless of whether the piping is supported
separately or not. On pumps of this size, base fianges may or may not
be provided, but this need not dictate that flanged pumps be bolted
down. If sliding is required, provide base plates and either eliminate
bolting or add notes to pertinent drawings or isometrics to adjust nuts
hand tight. Sleeves may possibly be used to assure that nuts will not
bear tightly on flanges. The stress analyst should note that holes
are to be oversized or slotted to allow for movement required. Pumps
smaller than 75 H.P. may be supported to the adjacent piping. See
Standard C-729 for suggested support techniques.

6.06 Expansion Loop Desiqn

The design of expansion loops for pipeways or any pipe system has been
programmed to produce a book of “Loop Tables”. These tables enable a
stress analyst to closely design by inspection a loop to any desired
stress or reaction force. A complete description of the method used to
arrive at a design is found within the Design Guide C-3.

a) A design pad (form 149) is available for recording all pertinent

information regarding the design and location of the expansion
loop. To arrive at the minimum sized expansion loop required,
the maximum allowable stress for the piping system has to be
determined from the limitations in the code on the material at the
operating temperature. The actual size of the expansion loop is
equal to or greater than the minimum loop size to fit properly on
a supporting media. The spring constant and the resulting bending
force within the system are then tabulated on the design pad for
reference.

D.G. C-5

Page25 of 51
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—
6.07 Pipe Anchors

The anchors described herein are for above ground piping. Anchors
are used to direct the expansions or contractions of piping systems
and thereby prevent interferences with other piping or structures,
and/or control reactions to attached equipment. The reactions at
anchors are taken by support beams made of braced or unbraced struc-
tural steel or precast concrete. These anchor reactions shall be
placed on an ozalid of the pipeway, specifically reduced for use by
the stress group, and a print of it passed on to the structural group
for review of their stanchion design.

a) It is suggested that these anchor loads be calculated and faith-

fully tabulated on a form for later reference. The client upon
occasion has requested these loadings, therefore, the tabulation
may be very important. The individual stress analyst may compute
them one by one, as he comes to an anchor tentatively and compute
all the loadings at once when the piping is finally completed.
Standard calculation sheets are available for these anchor cal-
culations (form 149).

b) The calculation sheet for expansion loop data and anchor force
determination does not include a listing of every item for tab-
ulation but covers key items for final summation to obtain the
anchor force. It is suggested that the auxiliary sheet of pipe
weights (form 188) will be used by the stress analyst to mentally
.-
add up incremental weights for a particular system under “Wt”.
The coefficient of friction to be commonly used for steel on steel
shall be 0.2 unless special surfaces are applied or additional
factor of safety is desired. Where piping is supported on round
bars the coefficient of friction should be raised to 0.3.

c) Anchor loads for buried piping can be computed by forqulas re-

comnded in the section on “Buried Piping”. (par.5.6)

d) When computing anchor loads for above ground piping, the loadings
on each side of the anchor generally tend to balance out to some
degree, In some cases a long run of piping will be anchored near
the center of the run just to prevent gradual creeping of the
system. The frictional force on each side of such an anchor may
theoretically balance or cancel out. The load to assign to su$h
an anchor should never be less than 25% of the frictional force
from one side alone.

6.08 Stacked Exchangers

a) When exchangers are stacked it is customary to use radial nozzles

directly connecting the two channel sections and the two shells.
The hotter shell expands more than its adjacent shell and tends
to be constrained by the inter-connections. Some deformation of
the nozzles takes place and when the temperature difference and
resulting stresses are large enough they can cause a failure in
service. This failure not only results in a plant shutdown but
could be the cause of a disastrous fire or explosion.
D.G. C-5
Page26 of51
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b) Standard C-715 has been established to give analysts a common
approach in reviewing the problem. As can be seen, when the
difference between mean temperatures of the adjoining shells
is greater than 100°F some provision should be made to add flex-
ibility to the nozzle connections. These studies should be made
early in the job such that nozzle orientations can be corrected
before fabrication is started. Nozzle and piping arrangements
to improve flexibility are shown on the Standard.

c) To reduce movements of piping from exchangers leading into unit

pipeways, hot exchangers should be anchored at the support closest
to the pipeway. The exchanger expansion tends to cancel the ex-
pansion of the connected piping and its affect on pipeway clear-
ances. Where cooling water from below grade is connected to the
channel end of the exchanger the exchanger should be anchored to
the support closest to the channel end. For a dimensional guide
see Standard Drawing L-512.

6.o9 off plot Pipeways

6.091 General

a) Prior to the design and layout of offplot pipeways the project”

stress analyst should meet with the offplot project engineer to
discuss and establish proper temperatures for the expansion de-
.,_ sign of offplot piping. The temperature range shall be realistic,
t\ and it shall include reasonable atiient temperature variations at
the job site, but unless the client insists, remote upset condi-
tions should not be stipulated.

b) Review should be made with Project Engineer and the Client,

regarding the use of steam-out. Usually offplot piping is not
steamed out and is therefore not designed for that conditio~
Normal operating and maximum or upset design temperatures should
be listed for all lines on the offplot line designation tables
which should be completed prior to making the stress studies.

c) Methods of absorbing pipe expansion should be reviewed with the

offplot project engineer to see if the client might have restrictions
on the use of expansion joints or couplings, etc.

i d) When the design conditions have been established and if no formal

o
. memorandum has been issued by the project engineer, the stress
analyst should prepare a memorandum covering all final decisions
and issue it to both the Chief Pressure Vessel Engineer and the
Offplot Project Engineer, who should be requested to transmit such
information to the client for information and record.

D.G. C-5

Page~7 of 51
I .

6.092 Expansion Studies

a) The design approach to offplot piping should not be as strin-

gent as that for on-plot piping, therefore systems should be
designed up to the maximum stress allowed by ANSI code for the
upset condition except where reactions dictate otherwise.
Additional lengths may be required to nest loops or use common
supports. In some cases where only few stress cycles may occur,
Article S-1 of ASME Section Vlll, Div.2, L)esignb~edon Fati gue
%alysis might be employed. This criteria allows up to3 times the
allowable stress intensity for secondary stresses, thereby
permitting close to 60,000 psi for A106 or A53 GRB pipe materials.

b) Tt,e expansion review of offplot piping is essentially a clearance

check of pipes as they move relative to one another or whether
they interfere with the structural appurtenances ~f sleepers or
stanchions. See Standard C-720 for other than 90 corner move-
ments.

c) The tie-in temperature used as the calculation basis should

consider the specific time of year for plant construction. AISO
care should be exercised to consider the clearances and stresses
for both expansion and contraction of all adjacent piping systems.

d) Except in the vicinity of offplot pump manifolds or other equip-

ment limiting reactions or stresses, the systems should be allowed
to expand up to a practical limitation of 12” at a corner of the
pipeway or at each leg of expansion loops. This means that ex-
pansion loops should normally absorb up to 24” of expansion.

e) Support shoes for insulated piping in pipeways now are ordered

in two standard sizes, 18” & 30”. The 1811 shoe permits 6’I and
the 30” permits 12° of movement each way from their ~ with 3“
of overhang for assurance that the system won’t hang up on the
support. This 3“ overhancj is a standard allowance to be used at
any support after maximum movement of an insulated piping system.

As an aid to the pipe support design group, the supports at which

pipe expansions exceed 6“ and 12” should be noted to assure that
shoes of proper lengths are assigned to each support.

f) Design of pipe guides and anchors is covered in paragraphs

6.03 and 6.07.

9) Cold spring of systems should be avoided unless absolutely nec-

essary to reduce reactions at equipment or provide necessary
clearance. See Standard C-723 for method of noting cold spring.

Branch piping from the offplot pipeways leading into diked tank
fields must be reviewed for restriction of lateral movement due to
small clearance in the sleeve buried in the dike. Sometims the
pipe is just coated, wrapped and buried in the dike which there-
fore permits negligible lateral movement. Anci~ors may therefore
be required close to these branch connections to protect them

D.G. C-5
page 28 of51
I

against excessive lateral movement. Expansion of these

branches whether from dike sleeves or pump manifolds can
be allowed to deflect the headers laterally, therefore,
the guides in the headers should be located far enough
apart to keep reactions back to the pumps or sleeve seals
to a reasonably low value. Axial movement of these
branches is generally prevented by either the burial of
the pipe in the dike or by a link seal between the sleeve
and the pipe on the tank side of the dike. Piping within
the diked area is described in paragraph 7.17 on “Tank
Field Piping.i’

6.093 Pump Manifolds

Pump manifolds can be quite complicated and “tight” but

when near ambient operating temperatures the expansion
movements are usually small. Such movements can be
directed away from the pumps if anchors and restraints
are properly located. See Standard C-730 for an example
of a properly anchored system. Offsets in the branches
to the pumps should be avoided wherever possible.
“Normally no offsets are requir~d in these branches on
systems at temperatures of ~50 F or less. Where
temperatures exceed say 150 F, then offsets in the
branches to the pumps may be required to improve flexi-
.— bility and reduce reactions on the pumps. Where the
suction or discharge lines leading to or from the pumps
are eccentric by several feet from the pump centerline
it may not only be required to support the overhang, but
al SO restrain movement in the axial direction of the
branch pipe. Several support-restraints of this type
are shown in Standard c-731.

w
k
m

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Page 2~of 51
I

7. MISCELLANEOUS AND SPECIAL PROBLEMS

7.01 Slug Flow

a) In two-phase gas-liquid flows where the phases are unevenly

distributed and pass through a restriction, such as a valve
or an expanded section, or a turn such as an elbow, there is a
variable force exerted on the containing walls. This variable
force creates impact loadings on the guides .and supports of
the system which must be adequately accounted for in their
design. The magnitude of this variable force cannot be accurately
evaluated due to the complexity of the flow. Therefore the
design loads of the supports and guides should include an addi-
tional design factor which might be classed as an impact factor.
in lieu of some definitely calculable factor it is suggested
that this impact factor be 3.0 times the weight of a slug of
liquid that might pass separately through the pipe as approxi-
mated by the Project Process Engineer.

b) These variable flow conditions also can affect the system

detrimentally by setting up severe vibrations. The system
should be carefully reviewed with this in mind and if necessary
hydraulic type shock absorbers should be utilized to prevent
large amplitude vibrations. Within one of our recent refinery
projects slug flow caused large diameter piping to vibrate
continuously and though the amplitude was small (1/811 peak to
peak) it resulted in a failureata 301’ diameter tee connection.
The tee connection was reinforced considerably and a hydraulic
damper was used to reduce the amplitude of vibration. Although
guides and hydraulic struts can reduce slug flow effects, best
results are obtained in reducing slug flow internally or
routing pipe to permit a more uniform and smooth flow.

7.02 Mitered Elbws

a) Mitered elbows are used many times in low pressure piping systems
for economy since the cost of welded or seamless elbows becomes
prohibitive in the larger size pipes. Two of the drawbacks
-- to mitered ells are high stress concentrations and poorer
0
. flow characteristics. As more pieces are used to mab Up a metered
b
\ ell flexibility increases and stress intensifications decrease.
0
. In other wrds the m ter with more pieces approaches the flexi-
bility of a smooth e’ bow of the same radius.

b) For flexibility stud es using some q?mputer Programs the mitered I

ell must be replaced by an equivalent elbow with the same flexibi- I
be used in obtaining the equivalent elbow is j
lity. The method to
shown in Standard C-709. In most of the more recently i
developed programs the mitered elbow is handled auto~ticallY. i

I
—
D.G. C-5

Page30 of 51
I

7.02

c) Before using miters in a flexibility calculation, they

should be checked for permissible pressure by the formulas
in paragraph 304.2.3 of the ANSI B31.3 Code.

Page 31 of 51
I ,-

7.03 Tee Connections

a) The history of failures in piping systems points to tee

connections as being particularly vulnerable. Tee connec-
tions have high hoop stress patterns around them which are
non-uniform and involve stress raisers or intensification
factors. Vibration causes cyclic stresses which may be
low in magnitude, but can be troublesome when acting
through medium to high frequency. When piping systems
are studied by the computer flexibility program, care
should be taken to always include the stress intensifica-
tion factor at all tee connections. If the specific
computer program doesn’t have this capability, then add
them manually to the output. Although no strict rule can
be given regarding allowable stresses at tee connections
in vibrating systems, good engineering judgment should
dictate that the analyst use less than the maximum
allowable stress.

b)’ The stress concentration factors for tee connections have

been calculated by a computer program and the resulting
values have been plotted on graphs for easy reference.
The graphs are shown in Standards C-711,712,713, and 714.
They give stress factors for unreinforced tees, tees
reinforced with pads both equal to the header thickness
.— and 1.5 times the header thickness and for forged tees.
It is suggested that all questionable stress levels at
tee connections in flexibility calculations include the
proper stress factor read from one of the graphs pro-
vided. An accuracy of 2 decimal places is sufficient.

When calling for a reinforcing pad the minimum width shall

be 0.2 x branch outside diameter, which results in equal
stress at both the crotch and the outside of the reinforc-
ing pad.

7.04 Injection Connections

Whenever piping connections, involving injections of near

ambient temperature fluids, are made into piping ~ystems
operating at elevated temperatures, say above 500 F, a
critical stress condition exists at the nozzle connection
whether reinforced or not. Failures have already been
brought to our attention. To avoid the sudden transition
of temperature change the small pipe should first enter a
larger nozzle at a blind flange or weld cap attached to its
end. This should be brought to the attention of the Project
Engineer who in turn should locate these for review by the
Project Stress Analyst. A standard will be developed to
cover this problem.

D.G. C-5
Page 32 Of 51
I ;.

7.05 Heater Coil Decokinq

a) During normal operations of most heaters a layer of coke

gradually builds up on the inner wall of heater tubes. As the
thickness of the layer increases the firing rate must also be
increased. This increase in firing rate results in an increase
in the tube wall temperature and could eventually exceed the
maximum allowable temperature for the stress level in the tube.
To prevent this condition the coke must be removed periodically
or whenever operating conditions indicate excessive coke build-
up.

b) The coke is removed by using a steam-air or thermal decoking

method. This method involves heating the tubes first and then
passing steam through them at a specific mass velocity and
then introducing a mixture of steam and air. The effluent is
water quenched and discharged to the sewer, and the gas is
vented from the quench drum stack. The temperature affecting
the external decoking mainfold and effluent piping during
this time is generall ~ 1000°F. Flue gas temperatures gener-
ally reach 400 to 450 F.

c) Supports for piping to the heaters must be properly located

and designed for the disengagement of both normal piping and
— the connection to decoking effluent or steam piping.

7.o6 Catalyst Regeneration

Catalyst regeneration is required periodically in Catalytic

Reformer Plants to reactivate the catalyst for efficient
plant operation. At the time of regeneration the hydrocarbons
are stripped or burned off of the catalyst and the entire
system is made as free as possible of residual hydrocarbons.
This is done by heating the system to normally greater than
operating temperatures by nitrogen until a specific temperature
level is reached and oxygen is then gradually added in small
volumes further increasing the temperature. This burns off
the hydrocarbons and is continued until a system gas analysis
shows that little hydrocarbon remains. Regeneration tempera-
tures usually read as high as 900 to 1000°F for a period
lasting several days.

D.G. C-5

Page33 of 51
I ●

Obviously these increased temperatures create an additional

condition within the external piping system that must be
accounted for in both piping flexibility and support.

7.07 Reformer Furnace Pigtail Design

The piping connections of both the inlet and outlet piping

to the vertical tubes of Reformer Furnaces are subjected to
both vertical expansions of the tubes and the horizontal
expansions of the inlet and outlet collection headers. The
large vertical expansions require that the outlet collection
header be spring supported to move up and down with the
furnace tubes. These furnace tubes are generally supported
solidly near their base and expand upward several inches.
The piping connections from the furnace tubes to these
collection headers are called
pigtails because of their
design shape. Unfortunately there is a space limitation and
these pigtails are somewhat restricted in their flexibility.
In the analysis of any pigtail dead load stresses of the
loop must be considered along with stress concentration fac-
tors at tee connections.

7.o8 Cold Spring

a) Cold Springing of piping systems originally was utilized to

reduce stresses and reactions in piping systems, and to
equalize somewhat the displacements of piping about a
neutral axis, or reduce interferences.

b) The modern piping code no longer permits the reduction of

stress, as such, but permits allowable stresses within a
“stress range”. Therefore, if a system is cold sprung, a
certain portion of the stress range is already utilized and
only the remainder is permitted for the expansion beyond
the amount of cold spring.

c) Since cold springing is an additional operation for the

field to complete, it is suggested that cold springing should
only be requested where it is critical to the systems design.
For example, piping to turbines or compressors might require
cold spring to reduce reactions to an acceptable level.

--
D.G. C-5

Page34 ofsl
I ,

Generally, in pipeways, the design of expansion loops should

not involve cold springing although the loops may still be
designed right up to the maximum allowable stress. Other
systems between columns, exchangers, drums, or connections
to other piping should not be cold sprung unless absolutely
necessary to avoid the additional operation. It has been
found that cold spring notations have been overlooked or
cold springing has been improperly applied in the field, un-
less great care has been taken to flag and describe the
manner in which it is to be applied. If equipment must be
protected by cold springing of its piping systems and the
manner of procedure of cold springing is felt to be particularly
important, the Stress AnaIyst should write step by step pro-
cedures and send them to the Field Engineer in charge.

d) Typical cold spring notations are shown on Standard C-723.

7.09 Blowdown Systems

a) Blowdown piping as a general rule operates at low pressures

with medium to high temperatures (i.e. 300°F - 1000°F) and
close to 10~~ vapor. The main headers are usually large
diameter pipes up to as much as 4 or S feet in diameter.
The systems become operative upon sudden release of vapors
from safety relief valves and therefore are subject to
sudden surges of gas flow. This tends to set up large am-
plitude vibrations or shaking of the system. To protect
against the piping from bouncing off supports or damaging
adjacent equipment, hold down guides should be judiciously
located throughtout the system. The system should be amply
anchored to direct its thermal movements and where movements
are too large to absorb within the inherent offsets of the
piping, loops, or offsets with tandem expansion joints, are -/-
recommended. Direct axial expansion joints are undesirable
.-
because of large anchor forces required to contain the ., .
....
system. There is no limit to the total expansion which the
above devices can take except that sound engineering judgement
shall be applied to limiting anchor forces, lengths of
support saddles, and spacing required to other pipe or equip- ..

ment.

b) Branch connections, expanding thermally between relief valve

and the blowdown headers, may require the addition of flexible
offsets to absorb such movements. The allowable stress of the
pipe at the connection to the relief valve should be limited
to prevent any distortion at the valve which would render it
inoperative. As a rule of thumb the resultant bending stress
at the connection should be kept below a maximum of 10,000 psi.
..-, - .=.
,
~:’g:;i
.:;.~;r~f,
D.G. C-5

Page 35 of ~1
1 ,

Large weight reactions should be removed from the relief

valve by use of spring supports or equivalent. Welding of
gussets from the valve discharge pipe to the valve inlet nozzle
as a solid support is not recommended and shall not be used
on systems exceeding 150°F.

c) When gas flow through blowdown systems has a velocity at tee

connections above .2 Mach, the pipe wall for at least 5
diameters on each side of the tee connections should be in-
creased in thickness to prevent cracking by ovaling vibrations.
The branch pipe should likewise be increased in thickness for
a short distance back from the tee.

d) The reactive forces resulting from the discharge of relief

valves can be computed from the following formulas:

F = g.84w (for closed system, from API RP520-Jan. 1963) ~

/ *M
F= : v, + (P1-Pa)Al (for vented system,from ANSI B31. l,Appendix 11)

Where F = “reactive force at valve outlet, lbs.

w. mass flow rate, lb./see.

K = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv

T = absolution temperature at inlet, ‘R = ‘F + 46o

M = molecular weight of gas or vapor

9= gravitational constant = 32.2 ft./sec2

V1 = exit velocity, ft./see.

Pl,Pa = exit and atmospheric pressure, psi

Al = flow area, in.2

7.10 Field Checkout

a) Field Checking has become an important part of the Project Stress

Analyst’s responsibility. Errors in the Field due to omission or
improper interpretation of design drawings have necessitated that
critical piping”be reviewed just prior to 14nit startup. A moan
list should be developed at the field covering any items yet to be
completed by the construction department (to cover possible omiss-
ions) and to itemize in detail any corrections or modifications
required on any support or piping installations where the design
intent was not met. Exceptions may be made where the system as
installed will function adequately and every effort should be
made to avoid requesting corrections unless there is danger of
failure of some component of the system. The moan list should
become part of a report which is then given to the Job Superin-
tendent and the Supervising Field Engineer.

Page 36 of 51
I ,

.
B
0

7.17 Tank Field Pipinq

a) The piping in tank fields is subject to several special design

considerations such as:

Tank settlement
Earthquake movements
Containment within diked areas

b) Where tank settlement is a problem the first pipe support should

be located, say, 20 feet away from the nozzle and be of an adjust-
able type. Adjustable supports can be made up of wood block
layers 1/2 inch or I inch thick that can be retracted as the
tank settles. Where adjustable supports do not fit into the
design, flexible couplings or joints can be used in a tandem
arrangement. A tandem unit involves a length of pipe with a
flexible connector at each end which absorbs deflections by
angulating the unit at right angles to the axis of the pipe.

c) Earthquake movements can be accommodated by providing a pipe

offset at the tank.
This offset can be used for both settle-
ment and earthquake movements. The routing of a long line
without offsets directly connected to a tank nozzle should be
avoided.
.
d) Piping routed between and anchored in dikes of a tank field
generally requires either loops or offsets to absorb its
expansion and contraction, even though only affected by ambient
temperature changes. The burial of the pipe in the dike pro-
vides sufficient restraint generally to anchor the pipe. Where
sleeves are used, a link is generally provided between the pipe
and the sleeve.

7.I8 Steam Trace and Steam Trap Pipinq

a) Steam trace piping details are provided to the field by an

Engineering Standard L-521. A problem arises in the connect-
w ions from the steam headers to the steam traced pipe. The
expansions of the steam header requires that the interconnecting
branch pipe to the steam traced pipe be of sufficient flex-
ibility to absorb the deflection without failure. Also the
clearance of the branch pipe to other piping or structures must
be considered. The location of these steam trace branches is

D.G. C-5

Page43 of51
I

b) On return to the main office, the Stress Analyst should make a

brief trip report to the Project Engineering Manager, and send
copies of the report with the moan list attached to the Project
Superintendent, the Supervising Field Engineer, the Unit Project
Engineer, and the Chief Vessel-Stress Engineer. S= Standard
C-704.

c) A typical check list of items for field review might include:

1) Clearances between piping systems or between critical

piping and structural members or any equipment. This
includes revi- of critical cold springing.

2) Sufficient overhang of pipe support shoes on beams

to allow for maximum pipe movement.

3) Movement of piping as affecting instrument or electrical

connections.

4) Spring supports adjusted to proper loadings and stops

removed after hydro test of system.

5) Pipe anchors located and installed correctly.

-. 6) Expansion joint assemblies installed properly including

orientation of hinges or tie rods, if any. Sizing bars
to be removed.

7) Critical Piping:

Steam lines, including Turbine piping.

Reactor piping.
Furnace Transfer lines.
Blowdown Systems.
Compressor Piping.
Pump Piping.
Hot process piping (generally over 350°F).
Cryogenic and refrigeration piping.
Steam trace connections.

7.11 Soot Blowers

a) In today’s high performance steam generators, “Controlled

Cleanliness” of horizontal and pendant tube surfaces must be
maintained to assure proper heat absorption and optimum steam
w
L temperatures. Soot blowers are needed for the specific pur-
m
pose of cleaning tubes in the convection section of heaters
and boilers. The soot blowers are constructed of long hooded
frames which support horizontal lances up to 24’ long.

D.G. C-5

Page37 of 51
I

The lance (or femle pipe) is extended into the heater or

boiler convection section by retracting it from its internal
,Ima]ell feeder PiPe*
The soot blower assembly is fed by air or
steam at a flanged nozzle 1S’ or 20’ out from the wall of the
convection section. It is not rigidly held at this point but
can be moved laterally a small amount (say III +) and even
slightly rotated.

b) If several units are to be connected together by a common steam

header, the above movements can normally be tolerated. The
soot blower frame is supported at each end to the platform
structures of the heater or boiler.

7.12 Settlement and Frost Heave

a) Differential settlement between pieces of equipment, or structures

and equipment, can induce damaging reactions or stresses to
both piping and the equipment to which it is attached.

b) It is essential that specific settlement or heave deflections

are obtained frm the structural department for critical
locations such as around pumps, tanks, and at all vessels and
columns. These deflections must then be incorporated into
the design analysis of all affected piping. Where these
deflections cannot be easily absorbed it may require that pipe
supports be extended below the frost line or that piles be
driven to prevent settlement.

C) TO avoid special piles for foundations, pump piping may be

supported to the pump foundation itself by extending a portion
of the foundation under the piping. Also, a beam can be em-
bedded into the pump foundation with a short section cantilevered
out to support the eccentric pipe system. This cantilever
section should be sufficiently above the grade slab so that
anticipated frost heave will not affect it. Support lugs may
be cinch anchored into the side of the foundation. The method
of supporting the pump piping must therefore be agreed upon
early in design stages of the plant.

d) At plant sites where frost heave is a problem, the support of

piping manifolds alongside exchangers can be supported to
structural members fastened to the sonotube or pier supports
of the exchanger itself rather than provide deep separate
foundations for the piping separately.

D.G. C-5

Page 38 of S1
I ..

:
_&
e) Where piping systems below grade are subject to settlement
piled supports should be provided to prevent detrimental
deflections of branch piping to pumps or other equipment.
Deep burial of these headers are required in areas affected
by frost heave.

7.13 Ambient Temperature Effect on Bare Pipin~

a) Empty piping in long pipeways can be greatly affected by atmos-

pheric temperature (ambient) changes. Stagnant systems in
100-l lO°F temperatures can reach effective wall temperatures
of 130° to 140°F depending on ~i pe surface coloration or cover-
ing. It is suggested that 130 F minimum be used for the high
temperature design of systems affected by ambient changes only.
For the contraction of systems below the tie-in temperature
the basic design data of the locale should be reviewed to de-
termine the minimum temperatures that the systems will be
subjected to. It is very important that contraction from a
tie-in temperature be considered when checking clearances, or
designing expansion joints with limit stops or internal sleeves.
Severe failures in systems have already occurred where this
was not properly accounted for.

b) The tie-in temperature should realistically be chosen for the

time of the year of installation and the locale of the plant.
For example, if piping is to be installed in Alaska during the
winter months the tie-in temperature might range from below
zero to freezing (32°F), whereas piping installed in Libya
in the winter months would range from 40° to 80°F. For long
pipeways this can result in a considerable difference in ex-
pansion movements.

7.14 Control Valve Pipinq

a) Piping to control valves or let down valves are subject to

vibration which sometimes reaches dangerous ampl itudes or
destructive frequencies. In general the connecting piping
systems should be guided whenever possible to eliminate
large amplitude vibrations. But, where sonic vibrations occur
with high energy input, the pipe tends to oval,or wave patterns
develop circumferentially dictating that rigid attachments
should be avoided since failure at points of rigidity on the
pipe wall will generally occur.

D.G. C-5

Page 39 of51-
I

b) It is the responsibility of the Control Systems Group to flag

systems with those critical tendencies for special study and
corrective design. When the stress anaIyst is confronted with
this type of problem he should contact the Control Systems
Specialist for the proper solution to the problem.

7.15 Hydrotest of Larqe Low Pressure Pipinq

a) The design of supports for large diameter piping systems can

be greatly affected by whether or not the system will be filled
with a liquid, since the filled weight can be many times the empty
weight. Therefore in the early stages of plant design it is
extremely important to get agreement with the client and our
construction department on the basis of support design of
large diameter piping systems normally handling gas flow.
If a hydrotest is imperative then
the structural group must
design supports for liquid load.
If the system will be air
tested, or by similar alternate gas test, then al I parties
concerned must agree in writing in order to protect Bechtel ’s
interest, and avoid design checking or modifications near
job completion.

b) Ring girders or thick saddle plates may be required at support

points for hydrotested systems.

! ‘- 7.16 Pipe Supports

a) When marking up piping isometrics or drawings for required

supports, the list of Standard Support Symbols as shown on
Standard c-707 should be utilized. This will help the
support group to interpret the markings of each stress analyst
in a commonly understood fashion.

b) Elaborate, highly detailed, and non-standard supports should

be avoided. Supports should be as simple as possible.

c) Some basic precepts on where, when and how to support I iping

are:

1) Avoid supporting one pipe to another except for sma 1

utility lines being routed to off plot facilities a ongside a
large line high above grade.

D.G. C-5

Page40 of 5T
I

Occasionally individual branch lines of small diameter

are routed between the pipeways and process vessels at an
excessive span and at elevations in excess of 10’ above
grade. In cases like this, the support to a larger line
nearby is acceptable.

2) Spring supports should be specified only when important to

the safe or proper design of a piping system. A great
number of spring supports are often rather casually de-
signed into the piping in a plant. Upon closer inspection,
however, it will usually be found that the system could be
designed with solid supports. The use of shims in pre-
springing pipe will permit minor expansion movements.

3) Maintenance Supports should not be provided unless required

by clients specifications. During plant shutdowns any
system that is to be repaired can be temporarily shored up.

4) Piping to vertical vessels that are flanged at the vessel

nozzle should be provided with a bracket support. This is
more for installation and maintainance generally than for
stress purposes. Non-flanged piping to vessels may not re-
quire these bracket supports, stress permitting.

5) Where rigid guides or struts would restrict the free expansion

of a piping system in such a way as to affect it detrimentally,
the system should be guided with truck shock absorbers (see
support group details of acceptable units) or in the case of
large, critical piping the more specialized hydraulic
cylinders should be installed. (i.e. Bergen, Grinnell, Barco,
Harpak or equivalent types). Piping expansion occurs generally
at a slow enough rate to permit the gradual adjustment within
the hydraulic unit.

d) Spring Supports

1) Spring supports, when properly used, fulfi]] a verY important

need in the support of piping However, systems.
they should
not be used indiscriminately or as an easy solution for the
support of piping which is affected by vertical eX~JansiOnS
w or other mechanical movements. For proper installation
procedures for the construction department a structural
standard M504 is available for their use.

D.G. C-5

Page 41 of 51
I

2) Solid supports are usually practical when the support lug

on the inlet or outlet piping is at the proper elevation to
balance out vertical expansion of the equipment and its pedestal
supports. In other cases as a generai rule, it is better to
make a calculation if it will prove that a solid support is
acceptable. if calculation time does not exceed about four hours
it is probably worth making the calculation in order to eliminate
the spring supports.

3) When spring supports are used in pump systems the stress

analyst must review the effect of the spring reaction on the
system based on a spring preset reaction which has been
calculated for a liquid filled system. Prior to start-up this
reaction is applied to an empty pipe system. If the liquid
weight portion of the reaction can’t be tolerated by the pump
or piping, the spring may have to be preset at some value between
the full and half full pipe weight reactions. When the liquid
weight affect is intolerable for even a 50% weight change, the
piping will have to be rerouted to provide an acceptable design.
See Specification M-504 for field installation instructions for
spring supports and ensure that design of spring supported
systems is consistent with the requirements of that specification.

4) When to Use Spring Supports

If vertical expansions or mechanical movements (imposed on a

piping system restricted by solid type supports) result in
intolerable stresses or reactions, then spring supports may be
required. Spring supports permit the piping system’s flexibility
to be used to absorb system movements within tolerable limits;
they must be used on hot piping systems adjacent to pumps, turbines
and compressors when solid supports cannot be tolerated.
Wherever variable spring hangers are used, the stress analyst must
check to assure that the total variation in support effect does
not result in harmful stresses and forces within the piping system.
Otherwise constant spring supports or counter weight supports
should be considered. Generally for non-critical systems, varia-
tion of support force up to ~ 25% and movements up to 3“ may be
allowed.

5) How to Avoid Using Spring Supports

If a support is not adjacent to a piece of rotating equipment or

some other similarly delicate apparatus, a piping system subjected
to 3/8” or less movement might well be shimmed at supports after
the system has been completely welded in place or bolted up. If
the flexibility of the piping permits, and the dead load of the pipe
will not keep the expanded system on its supports, the use of
nominal shims, from 1/8” up to 1/2” thick, should be utilized
rather than specify spring supports.

D.G. C-5
Page 42 of 51
I

left up to the field forces and therefore it is the duty of the

Stress Analyst during Field Check to review these connections.

b) Steam trace branches and condensate return lines are often banded
together in plants located in freezing Obviously climates.
differ-
ential expansions of the steam and condensate headers may
detrimentally affect these connections. Therefore, a horizontal
loop must be extended from the smaller condensate branch before
rejoining the steam line for banding together. The extended loop is
separately insulated and is allowed to cantilever out unsupported
except by the banding upon return to the steam line. Drip legs of
steam headers have been routed directly to a stanchion beam or other
structural member and clamped tightly to a fixed support permitting
no movement at all. Standard drawing for drip leg details, L-519,
has been revised to alert the field of this problem.

7.19 Plastic Piping

a) Because of the need within refineries and chemical plants for piping
to carry alkalies or acids, various metals are used in the fabrica-
tion of special piping for this use. Some of the materials used
are rubber lined or glass lined steel pipe, and solid plastic or
reinforced plastic pipe, usually known as reinforced thermo-setting
resin pipe, filament wound, either hand laid, bag molded, or cast.
In the case of lined steel pipe, its flexibility and support are
similar to unlined pipe. But, where plastic or reinforced plastic
pipe is used the support and flexibility requirements should closely
follow the recommendations of the specific manufacturer. AS a
guidance, refer to ASME Code Case N115-1.

b) it ha”s been noted that different manufacturers of PVC (Poly Vinyl

Chloride) pipe recommend different methods of supporting and restrain-
ing the systems. The Stress Analyst is urged to consider expansion
and and contraction forces and stresses in systems before agreeing
to totally restrain the systems with thrust blocks as recommended by
one of the plastic manufacturers. In fact, all manufacturers agree
on the cemented joints as being equal to or better in strength than
the pipe itself. Therefore allow the free expansion of the system
normally with the suggestion that the field be notified to exercise
great care in installing the cemented joints for complete adequacy.
Also, the manufacturers allowable support spans should not be exceeded.

c) Because of the considerably lower values of Young’s modulus of

elasticity (1.5 to 1.0 x 106) of the plastic materials, the pressure
elongation of the pipe line may be a significant factor in the
flexibility or displacement stress analysis of FRP pipes. To take
this into consideration, an equivalent coefficient of expansion
that will include the pressure strain effect should be used in the
Bechtel piping stress programs.

Page 44 of 51
I . .

7.20 Rotation, Reactions and Stresses at Nozzle Connections to Vessels

a) Most piping systems connected to shel 1s of columns, exchangers

drums and tanks are analyzed conservatively without consider-
ing the rotational rel ief afforded at the nozzle connections.
Generally, as long as the stresses in the piping and loadings
on other attached equipment are within allowable limits, the
systems as a whole is deemed acceptable. However, when the
reactions on the shell nozzle appear high, then the Engineering
Design Guide C-1 “Local Stresses in Cylindrical Shells due to
External Loadings” may be used to approximate the vessel stresses
due to the fixed end reactions. If this stress is too high, a
calculation can be made employing the spring constant of the
nozzle attachment whereby the reduced loadings on the vessel
shell may be acceptable when compared to allowable in Guide
c-1.

If a system is obviously very tight, the spring constant “K”

of any nozzIe attachment should be evaluated from the Standard
C-722 and incorporated in the calculation from the beginning.

b) If two vessels are interconnected by radial nozzles, such as

stacked exchangers, and the shells are at different temperatures,
the difference in longitudinal expansion must be absorbed mostly
by a rotation of the joined nozzles at each shell connection.
(i.e., nozzle rotation = differential expansion ~ total nozzle
length). See Standard C-715 for condition requiring this
evaluation and for the procedure to be followed.

c) The spring constants of Standard C-722 can also be used to find

the deflection or rotation of pipe supports (i.e., cantilevers
or brackets, etc.) attached to shells, due to the flexibility
of the shell under the applied loads and moments.

d) Storage tanks present a unique problem involving rotation and

deflection of shell nozzles close to the tank bottom during
I
filling of the tank. These movements affect attached piping I
and should therefore be considered when locating external pipe 4
I supports or routing the pipe itself in a proper manner. See
C-732 and C-733 for design criteria.
“o-
C 7.21 Bowinq of Pipe
0
.
a) Bowing in piping systems is due to unequal heating of the pipe
*
wall from side to side along its length. This type of bowing
E
is unrelated to column instability from compressive axial loads.
&
L
u As one side of a pipe becomes hotter than the opposite, its
k
VI longitudinal elements expand more than those of the colder side
u and bowing occurs.
2

.
D.G. C-5

Page45 of 51
I ,

b) Bowing may occur when:

1. Hot or cold fluid flows in partially filled pipes.

2. Sun’s radiation heats the tops of large empty pipes

laying close to the frozen ground.

3. Unequal surface heating of furnace tubes.

4. LNG in partially filled loading lines.

5. Channeling occurs in tubes filled with packing.

6. -The burner flames in a furnace are not equally dis-

tributed across the tube diameter.

c) If a piping system is not restrained and is considered

weightless, bowing does not induce stresses in the pipe.
Weight, friction and restraint, however, will induce stresses
in the pipe, and the restraints may be subjected to very
high reactions.

d) Bowing can usually be tolerated when it is of only short dura-

tion. If
bowing is considered detrimental, and it is not
possible to improve the uniformity of the temperature in the
pipe, then external restraints must be designed and provided.

7.22 Compressor

a) As explained
Bottle

in
Support

paragraph 5.22 (c), there is a need for an

I
elastic support for compressor bottle to allow for vertical
expansion downward from the cylinder support level. From
design data for rubber bearing pads, a design procedure has
been set up to properly size bearing pads. The pads can be
placed between the support lug or saddle on the compressor
bottle and the load adjustment plate underneath. This load i
adjustment plate is supported by four or more bolts embedded I
!
in a concrete pier. The plate is suspended about 3 inches
above the top of the concrete pier to allow for tuning of the
support to inhibit vibration.

The design procedure to size the bearing pad and the adjust- 1
f
ment plate is explained herein and the rubber bearing pad
physical data is shown on Std. Dwg. C-719. The support
assembly detail is a structural standard. The size of the
rubber bearing pad in the detail shall be determined by the I
Piping Stress Group by completing Form No. 70 of the !
Pressure Vessel Standards. I
i
The suction bottles resting on the compressor cylinders need
t
no support, except for eccentric or overhanging portions of I
the bottles, since the load is in compression. The discharge
bottles hang from the cylinders putting tension into the
nozzles which, under constant vibration, are more likely to
fail. See page 47 for Bearing Pad size calculation procedure.
I
D.G. C-5
46 of 51
I .-
,’,

Bearinq Pad Size (See Forms 70 and 365)

CO]. No. Description

(1) Support No.

(2) Wt. = total wt. of compressor bottle, lb.

(3) AexP = thermal movement, vertical down from top of support

for cylinder heat to bottom of compr. bottle

(4) t = pad thickness, inch = 45 x(3)

(5) L = pad length, inches = 1/3 channel depth

(6) W = pad width i riches = channel flange width

(7) AL = load area, in02 = (5) x (6)

(8) AB = bulge area, in.2 =2x[(5) + (6)] x (4)

(9) Shape Factor = (7) - (8)

(lo) E, psi, from C-719

(11) R = weight on each pad, lb. = (2) s 4

(11) x (4)
(12) Awt = deflection due to weight, in. =
(7) x (10)
(13) Strain =
(3) + (12) If this > 15%, make new trial
~ x ‘00%”
using larger t or larger pad size and higher
durometer no.

(14) * If this > 15%, make new trial

= {w
\l&J
x 100%.
Uwt
using larger t or smaller pad size and lower
durometer

Bottom Plate Thickness “T” See Form 365

Design the bottom plate as a simple beam of cross-section “C” x “T”

with supports spaced “F” apart and with a central concentrated load
equal to “2R” [2 x (11) from above].

D.G. c-5

47 of 51

—
I

!
7.23 Tank Nozzle Movements Due to Pressure and Temperature 1
I

With the advent of larqer diameter and taller storaae tanks. a ,

I
problem of shell defo~ation close to the bottan of-tank due to
product storage pressure has been magnified. Under pressure the
1
tank wall will stretch and will move radially outward if unre- I

strained. At the juncture of this shell to the tank bottom the

pressure creates a shear load which tends to stretch the tank
bottom. This stretch is negligible compared to the shell radial
distortion, therefore, the shell is nearly totally restrained
at its juncture to the tank bottom plate. From this point a
vertical section would show that the shell gradually follows
an elastic curve to a point closely equal to 1.56#~ above the
tank bottom where the radial deformation is equal to PR2. Any
z )
nozzle on the tank located in this bulge area will exhibit both !
a downward rotation and an outward defection. This results in
a bending and shifting of the piping system connected to the
nozzle which must be accommodated by its inherent flexibility
considering all restraints acting on the piping system especially
the location of the first pipe support adjacent to the tank.
Where tank settlement is also involved adjustable supports or
couplings can be employed as described in Section 7.17. When
necessary to study the nozzle rotation effect on external piping
to the tank refer to Engineering Standards C-732 and 733 for the
,
conservative values of both rotation and deflection and input
them into a flexibility calculation. Differences in expansion
of the tank shell and tank bottom, which is reacted on by
friction and may have minor buckling effects, are considered 1
negligible.

--

D.G. C-5
48 of 51
I ,-.,, .

.:
@

8.PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS WORK CHECK LIST

The following list of work items is provided as a check list for

Project Stress Analysts. It lists items essentially in their
chronological sequence as they will occur on a project and is intended
to draw attention to critical items, some of which must be reviewed
and pre-planned at specific stages of a job in order to avoid delays
and changes in other engineering work.
(Ref. Par. No.)

8.o1 Desiqn Data

Obtain from the Project Engineer:

a) Basic design data for job site, i.e., Wind Loads, E. Q. Loading,
Temperature Variations, etc.

b) Steam-out temp. - Proj. Eng. must issue memo to all Unit Engrs.
(6.09)
c) Steam-trace temp. -Proj. Eng. must issue memo to all Unit Engrs.

d) Settlement or frost heave criteria. This is very i~~~~~~nt

(7.12) “
8.o2 Drawing Distribution

See that name is on Distribution of Documents, schedules, etc.

for items required for stress work.
(2.1)

8.o3 Initial Pipinq Studies (3.0)

8.o4 Alloy Pipinq (3.2.)

a) Give preliminary approval for material commitment.

b) Make final studies so that detailed supports can be

issued for shop 1S0’s.

8.o5 Stress Relieved Vessels & Pipinq (4.0)

a) Obtain dates from the Pressure Vessel Supervisor for

scheduled shop stress relief of each vessel.

b) Complete stress studies of piping and send 1S0’s to

Support Group six weeks ahead of scheduled ISU issued-
for-construction date. Coordinate this with the Piping
Supervisor.

D.G. C-5

Page49 of 51
,,
@
(Ref. Par. No.)

8.06 Heaters (5.5)

The Piping Stress Analyst shall arrange a meeting with the

Project Engineer & Heater Specialist and supply all infor-
mation required on the heater bid specification, including
the following:

a) Anchor nozzles - Yes or No.

b) Nozzle Movement - Amount and Direction.

c) Support of tubes - Top or Bottom -Effect on external piping.

d) Need for brackets on heater shell for pipe supports and plat-
forms, etc. (Loads, details, etc.).

8.07 Compressors & Their Turbine Drivers (5.2 & 5.3)

a) Check with equipment specialists to assure that Mfrs. agree

to our specified loading conditions, as related to equipment
dead load.

b) Send piping 1S0’s with support locations to Mfr. with request

for an analog vibration study for each reciprocating compressor.

8.08 w (5.1)

a) Locate large bottom out pumps with respect to vessels to

give best arrangements for flexible pipe configuration.

b) Avoid direct piping from equipment to pump.

8.09 LooPs in Pipew~ (6.06)

a) Place loops in headers to limit their expansion or affect on

branches to turbines, pumps or compressors.

b) Locate off-plot pipeway loops as soon as possible as an aide

to the Construction Dept. for field “fill-in” work. (6.09)
.
w c) Locate and size anchors and loops for systems which are to be
used during construction (steam and other utilities) when
requested. (6.07)

D. G. C-5

Page SO of51
1 .,,
* .
.

-@

(Ref. Par. No. )

8.10 Ai rfans (5.4)

a) Check with Project Engineer to assure that the specifications

requi re a lateral movement tolerance of 5/1611 min.

b) Acquaint pipe designers with flexibility requirements when

several units are joined together.

8.11 Auxiliary Pipe Stanchions

Establish all additional auxiliary stanchions or special

supports requiring piles or foundations, as soon as possible -
when sufficient branch piping is model led, so that field
crews can complete pile driving operations and advance to
later operations without concern for the need for additional
piling in an area.

8.12 Tank Field Pipinq

(7.17)

8.13 Field Checking

(7.10)

8.14 Special I’-?cign. Criteria

J

a) When complete thermal cycles within a piping system exceed 7000

and the expansion stress anywhere within the system exceeds
1.25 Sc, the overstressed section requires full examination in
accordance with 336.5.1 (b) (2) (ANSI B31.3-1973 ED)
,
b) For piping in cold climates it is important to see that those
constructed from carbon, low alloy and high alloy steels are
not stressed higher than 6000 psi based on a combination of
longitudinal stresses due to pressure, dead load and displacement ‘
strains. The operating pressure should be no greater than 15%
of the maximum design pr%ssure at that time nor should the
. temperature be below -50 F. If any of the above are exceeded an ;
!
impact test is required . (See paragraph 323.2.2)

DOG. c-5

Page 51 of 51