Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Examples:
• A band usually marches by playing a popular tune.
• Each night, the lonely old lady feeds the ducks.
• Each night he practices in front of the television.
• Cigarette smoke has an offensive odor.
Some verbs, sometimes called stative verbs, are almost always used in the simple present
form when they are not describing the past. These verbs describe states of being, not actions.
These verbs relate sensory perceptions, conditions, judgments, conclusions, emotional states,
or states of being.
Examples:
• David wants to be a sports announcer.
• There appears to be a good deal of excitement here.
• The crowd loves its team.
• His proposal sounds intriguing.
• I see the roses in the garden.
• You seem to be upset.
• I think that we ought to consider changing our position.
• This exercise is really easy.
A few verbs are used in the simple present tense though they describe future actions.
Fortunately not many verbs are in this group. These verbs generally describe acts of arriving
and departing, and beginning and ending.
Examples:
• The game begins in ten minutes.
• The plane leaves for Bermuda in the morning.
• The ship departs for Manila in two hours.
• The train arrives tomorrow morning.
Note: These types of verbs can also be used in the present progressive to convey future actions.
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The preceding three uses are the most common however, there are some less common uses of
the simple present to be aware of.
a- The simple present can be used to describe the steps in demonstrations, such as a
scientific experiment.
Example: We first put the solution in the flask, and then we place the flask in an
area where it will get lots of light. When the solution is settled, we add two more
ounces of soda.
b- The simple present is often used in commentaries on radio and television to describe
what is taking place. In this case, the simple present often conveys a rapid sequence
of events and provides a sense of drama/
Example: The referee tosses up the ball. Jones tips it to his teammate, who races
down the court.
c- The simple present is often used in announcements and in newspaper headlines.
Example: Flood destroys ten homes in the canyon.
The simple past tense in regular verbs is formed by adding ed to the infinitive.
Contractions:
Did not is normally contracted in the negative and negative interrogative
Example: I didn’t work Didn’t you work?
Irregular verbs:
These vary considerably in their simple past form:
Examples:
To speak spoke
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To eat ate
To see saw
To leave left
The simple past form of each irregular verb must therefore be learnt, but once this is done
there is no other difficulty, as irregular verbs, like regular verbs have no inflections in the past
tense
The simple past is the tense normally use for the relation of past events.
It is used for actions completed in the past at a definite time. It is therefore used:
For a past action when the time is given.
Example: I met him yesterday.
When the time is asked about:
Example: When did you meet him?
When the action clearly took place at a definite time even though this time is not mentioned:
Example: The train was ten minutes late.
Sometimes the time becomes definite as a result of a question and answer in the present
perfect:
Example: Where have you been? I’ve been to the opera. Did you enjoy it?
The simple past tense is used for an action whose time is not given but which occupied a
period of time now terminated, or occurred in a period of time now terminated
Examples:
• He worked in the bank for four years
• She lived in Rome for a long time
• My grandmother once saw Queen Victoria.
• Did you ever hear Madonna sing?
The simple past tense is also used for a past habit:
Example:
• He always carried an umbrella.
• He never drank wine.
The simple past is used in conditional sentences of type 2.
Example: If I met the queen, I would be very excited.
The future tense is used with clauses of condition, time and sometimes purpose
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Example: If I drop this glass it will break
Verbs of the senses, of emotion, thinking, possessing…normally express the future by the
future tense
Example: He’ll be here at six.
The future tense is used chiefly in newspapers and news broadcasts, for formal
announcements of future plans:
Example: The president will open the new heliport tomorrow.
COMPLEX TENSES
The present progressive tense: The present progressive is used to describe a single action
that is in progress at a specific moment, usually the moment of speaking or writing.
Examples:
• Samson is studying the lesson right now.
• The people are cheering wildly.
•
The present progressive may also be used to describe an action in progress over a long period
of time, even though the action may not be taking place at the moment of speaking or writing.
This action, however, is perceived as temporary.
Examples:
• David is attending the University of California. (he may be on vacation at the
moment of speaking but he is still a registered student there).
• He is taking his first course in broadcasting this semester. (again he may not be
in class right now, but he is enrolled in it).
• She is writing her first novel . (the pen may not be in her hand at this precise
moment, but the activity is going on during the present time span and will end at
some time in the future).
The present progressive can be used to express a future action, especially when that action is
in the near future. Usually you need adverbials of time to clarify that the present progressive
is indicating future time.
Examples:
• Next week he is giving his first demonstration.
• Miss La Belle is appearing at the Orange Grove Theater tomorrow night.
• The ship is arriving this afternoon at three o’clock.
• We are taking the exam later this afternoon/
The present progressive can also express the beginning, progression, or end of an action in
the present time.
Examples:
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• It is beginning to get hot.
• It is starting to rain again.
• My writing is getting worse.
• I am becoming a little irritated with you.
• The movie is just beginning.
Note: The verb “be” is used in the progressive since it describes a general state of being. There are
instances , however when you do use the verb “be” in the progressive.
Example:
My child is being obnoxious right now. Please excuse him;
In this instance, the progressive is used because the meaning is “my child is acting
obnoxiously right now”. The child is not generally obnoxious.
Example: It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and is still raining. How long
has it been raining? It has been raining for 2 hours.
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- We can use the present perfect continuous for an action repeated over a period of time.
Example: John is a very good tennis player. He has been playing since he was eight.
4- Past continuous:
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Use: We use the future perfect to say that something will already be complete.
Example: Sally always leaves for work at 08.30 in the morning. So, she won’t be at home at
09 o’clock. She’ll have gone to work.
Exercise 01: Complete the sentences with one of the following verbs in the correct form:
Look, make, have, work, learn, try, see.
1-You ……hard today? Yes? I have a lot to do.
2-Would you like something to eat? No thanks, I …..just……lunch.
3- Maria…… English for two years.
4- You ……. A lot of noise. Could you be quieter? I …….to concentrate.
5- Is Ann coming to the cinema with us? No, she ……already……the film.
6- Hello Tom, I ……for you all morning. Where have you been?
Exercise 02: Read the situation and write sentences from the words:
1- I invited Rachel to the party, but she couldn’t come. (she arrange to do something else)
2- You went to the cinema last night. You arrived at the cinema late. (the film already begin)
3- I was very tires when I arrived at home. (I work hard all day).
4- I haven’t seen Alan for ages when (I last see him) (he try to find a job).
5- There was nobody in the room, but there was a small cigarette. (somebody smoke in the
room).
6- We were in a very difficult position (we not know what to do).
Exercise 03: Put the verbs into the correct form: “will be doing” or “will have done”.
1- Don’t phone me between 7 and 8 we (have) dinner then.
2- Phone me after 8 o’clock (we finish) by then.
3- Tomorrow afternoon we are going to play tennis from 3 o’clock until 4.30, so at 4 o’clock
(we play) tennis.
4- Do you think (you still do) the same job in ten years time?
56 If you need to contact me (I stay) at the Hilton hotel until Friday.
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Modal auxiliaries
General characteristics of modal auxiliaries
Verbs like can and may are called modal auxiliaries, though we often refer to them simply
as modals. We frequently use modals when we are concerned with our relationship with
someone else. We may, for example, ask for permission to do something; grant permission to
someone; give or receive advice; make or respond to requests and offers, etc. We can express
different levels of politeness by the forms we choose and the way we say things.
Modals sharing the same grammatical characteristics are:
Can - could
May - might
Will - would
Shall - should
Must -
Ought to -
Verbs which share some of the grammatical characteristics of modals are: need, dare, used
to.
By comparison, need to and dare to are full verbs.
Modals have two major functions which can be defined as primary and secondary.
Compare:
• Jack was an excellent player. He could beat anybody. ( = he had the general ability to
beat anybody)
but
• Jack and Alf had a game of tennis yesterday. Alf played very well but in the end Jack
managed to beat him. or … was able to beat him. ( = he managed to beat him in this
particular game.
Can
Could I borrow your umbrella,
May (please)?
Might
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Can is the commonest and most informal
• Can I borrow your umbrella, (please)?
Could is more ‘hesitant’ and polite than can. We often use it when we are not sure
permission will be granted:
• Could I borrow your umbrella, (please)?
May is more formal, polite and ‘respectful’ than can and could.:
• May I borrow your umbrella, (please)?
Might is the most hesitant, polite and ‘respectful’ and is rather less common than the other
three:
• Might I borrow your umbrella, (please)?
Permission to ask an indiscrete question may be requested with the formulas ‘if I may ask’
and (more polite) ‘if I might ask’.
How much did you pay for this house if I may/might ask?
Asking for permission with ‘can’t’ and ‘couldn’t’
Can’t and couldn’t are often used in place of can and could when we are pressing for an
affirmative answer:
Can’t / couldn’t I stay out till midnight (please)?
You may/may not carry the authority of the speaker and is the equivalent of ‘I (personally)
give you permission’. You can/cannot is more general and does not necessarily imply
personal permission.
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4. Uses of modals to express certainty and possibility
If we are certain of our facts, we can make statements with be or any full verb:
• Jane is (or works) at home. (a certain fact)
If we are referring to possibility, we can use combinations of may, might or could + verb:
• Jane may/ might/ could be (or work) at home. (a possibility)
We use may or might to say that something is a possibility. Usually you can use may or
might, so you can say:
• It may be true. or It might be true. ( = perhaps it is true)
• She might know. or She may know.
The negative forms are may not and might not (or mightn’t):
• It might not be true. (perhaps it is not true)
• I’m not sure whether I can lend you any money. I may not have enough. (= perhaps I
don’t have enough)
For the past we use may have (done) or might have (done):
• A: I wonder why Kay didn’t answer the phone.
B: She may have been asleep. ( = perhaps she was asleep)
• A: I can’t find my bag anywhere.
B: You might have left it in the shop. ( perhaps you left it in the shop)
• A: I was surprised that Sarah wasn’t at the meeting.
B: She might not have known about it. ( = perhaps she didn’t know)
• A: I wonder why Colin was in such a bad mod yesterday.
B: He may not have been feeling well. ( = perhaps ha wasn’t feeling well).
We also use may and might to talk about possible actions or happenings in the future:
• I haven’t decided yet where to spend my holidays. I may go to Ireland. (= I will go to
Ireland)
• Take an umbrella with you when you go out. It might rain later. ( = perhaps it will
rain)
• The bus doesn’t always come on time. We might have to wait a few minutes. (=
perhaps we will have to wait)
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We may draw a distinction between the expression of possibility in this way (which allows
for speculation and guessing) and deduction based on evidence. Deduction, often expressed
with must be and can’t be, suggests near-certainty:
• Jane’s light is on. She must be at home. She can’t be out.
For the past we use must have (done) and can’t have (done). Study this example:
George is outside his friends’ house. He has rung the door bell three times but nobody has
answered. They must have gone out. (otherwise they would have answered).
• The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. I must have been asleep.
• I’ve lost one of my gloves. I must have dropped it somewhere.
• Jane walked past me without speaking. She can’t have seen me.
• Tom walked straight into a wall. Ha can’t have been looking where he was walking
Study the structure:
We use must and have to to say that it is necessary to do something. Sometimes it doesn’t
matter which you use because as far as meaning is concerned these three forms are
interchangeable:
• Oh, it’s later than I thought. I must go. or I have to go. or I’ve got to go.
But there is a difference between must and have to /have got to and sometimes this is
important:
Must is personal. We use must when we Have to/have got to is impersonal. We use
give our personal feelings. have to/have got to for facts, not for our
‘You must do something’ = ‘I (the speaker) personal feelings.
say it is necessary’: ‘You have to/I’ve got to do something’
• She’s a really nice person. You must because of a rule or the situation:
meet her. (= I say this is necessary) • You can’t turn right here. You have
• I haven’t phoned Ann for ages. I must to/have got to turn left. (because of the
phone her tonight. traffic system)
• My eyesight isn’t very good. I have to
wear/have got to glasses for reading.
• George can’t come with us this evening.
He has to/has got to work.
‘Need’ as a modal:
Need has only some of the characteristics of modal verbs in that it occurs in:
• Questions: Need you go? Need you leave so soon? (= surely not/ I hope not)
• Negatives: You needn’t go.
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In Yes/No question a negative answer is expected. Yes/No question with need? Can be
answered with must or needn’t:
• Need I type this letter again? – Yes, you must. /No, you needn’t.
Need + have + past participle behaves in the same way:
• Need you have told him about my plans?
• You needn’t have told him about my plans.
Yes/No question with Need … have …? can be answered: Yes, I had to. (no choice) No, I
needn’t have. (I had a choice)
Lack of necessity can be expressed by needn’t, don’t have to and the more informal haven’t
got to (where got is often stressed)
‘You needn’t do something’ = it is not necessary that you do it, you don’t need to do it:
• You can come with me if you like but you needn’t come if you don’t want to. ( =it is
not necessary for you to come)
• We’ve got plenty of time. We needn’t hurry.
Needn’t and don’t need to are similar to don’t have to.
• We’ve got plenty of time. We don’t have to hurry.
Needn’t have done: George had to go out. He thought it was going to rain so he took the
umbrella. But it didn’t rain, so the umbrella was not necessary. So:
• He needn’t have taken the umbrella.
Compare needn’t (do) and needn’t have (done):
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• That shirt isn’t dirty. You needn’t wash it. (present lack of necessity)
• Why did you wash that shirt? It wasn’t dirty. You needn’t have washed it. (you
washed it unnecessarily)
inadvisability prohibition: a scale of choice:
We can use modals and other verbs to express inadvisability and prohibition on a scale
which reflects a degree of choice. This scale may vary according to the subjective point of
view of the speaker.
prohibition
Don’t have to and haven’t got to can never replace mustn’t to convey prohibition . Like
needn’t, they convey lack of necessity.
Mustn’t conveys the strongest possible opinion of the speaker;
• You really mustn’t say things like that in front of your mother.
• Julian mustn’t hitchhike to Turkey on his own.
Prohibition reflecting external authority (in e.g. public notices , documents) is often
expressed as must not (in full):
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• You shouldn’t / oughtn’t to / mustn’t / can’t be / had better not be late tomorrow.
(future)
Shouldn’t , oughtn’t to , mustn’t , can’t be , had better not are used to refer to the future
although they do not have future forms.
‘Shouldn’t have’ and ‘oughtn’t to have’: Both these forms suggest a criticism of an action:
• You shouldn’t have / oughtn’t to have paid the plumber in advance.
or failure to observe a prohibition
• You shouldn’t have / oughtn’t to have stopped on the motorway.
Exercise 1: Complete the sentences using can or (be) able to. Use can if possible; otherwise
use (be) able to.
Exercise 2: Complete the sentences with can / can’t / could / couldn’t + one of these verbs:
Come eat hear run sleep wait
Exercise 3: Complete the sentences using could, couldn’t or was / were able to.
Exercise 5: Read the situations and use the words in brackets to write sentences with must
have and can’t have:
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1. The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. (I / asleep)
2. The jacket you bought is very good quality. (it / very expensive)
3. I haven’t seen the people next door for ages. (they / go away)
4. I can’t find my umbrella. ( I / leave / it in the restaurant last night)
5. Don passed the exam without studying for it. (the exam / very difficult)
6. She knew everything about our plans. (she listen / to our conversation)
7. Fiona did the opposite of I asked her to do. (she / understand / what I said)
8. When I woke up this morning, the light was on. (I forgot / to turn it off)
9. The lights were red but the car didn’t stop. (the driver / see / the red light)
10. I was woken up in the middle of the night by the noise next door. (the neighbours / have /
a party)
1. Where are you going for your holidays? (to Ireland ???)
I haven’t decided yet. I
……………………………………………………………………....
2. What sort of car are you going to buy? (a Mercedes ???)
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I’m not sure yet. I
……………………………………………………………………………
3. What are you doing this weekend, (go to London ???)
I haven’t decided yet.
………………………………………………………………………..
4. Where are you going to hang that picture? (in the dining room ???)
I haven’t made up my mind yet. …………………………………………………………….
5. When is Tom coming to see us? (on Saturday ???)
I don’t know yet.
…………………………………………………………………………….
6. What is Julia going to do when she leaves school. (go to university ???)
She hasn’t decided yet.
………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9: Complete these sentences with must or have to (in the correct form).
Sometimes it is possible to use either; sometimes only have to is possible:
Exercise 10: Read the situations and write sentences with should/shouldn’t . Some of
these situations are past and some are present: (for example)
1. I’m feeling sick. I ate too much. I shouldn’t have eaten so much.
2. That man on the motorbike isn’t wearing a helmet. …………………………………
3. When we got to the restaurant, there were no free tables. We hadn’t reserved one.
We ……………………………………………………………………………………
4. the notice says the shop is open everyday from 8.30. It is 9 o’clock but the shop isn’t yet
open. ………………………………………………………………………………
5. The speed limit is 30 miles an hour, but Catherine is doing 50.
She…………………………………………………………………………………..
6. I went to Paris. A friend of mine lives in Paris but I didn’t go to see him wile I was there.
When I saw him later he said: You …………………………………………………
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7. I was driving behind another car. Suddenly the driver behind stopped without warning and
I drove into the back of his car. It wasn’t my fault. …………………………………..
8. I walked into a wall. I wasn’t looking were I was going.
……………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 12: Read the sentences and make sentences with needn’t have.
1. George went out. He took an umbrella because he thought it was going to rain. But it
didn’t rain. He
……………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Ann bought some eggs when she went shopping. When she got home, she found that she
already had plenty of eggs. She……………………………………………………………..
3. A friend got angry at you and shouted at you. You think this was unnecessary. Later you
say to him/her: You …………………………………………………………………………
4. Brian had no money, so he sold his car. A few days alter he won some money in a lottery.
He……………………………………………………………………………………………
5. When we went on holiday, we took the camera with us but we didn’t use it in the end
We…………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. I thought I was going to miss my train so I rushed to the station. But the train was late and
in the end I had to wait 20 minutes. I ……………………………………………………….
Exercise 13: Complete the sentences using “can”, “be able to”, “can’t”, “could”,
“couldn’t”.
Exercise 14: Read the situations and use the words in brackets to write sentences with
“must have” and “can’t have”.
Exercise 15: Write these sentences in a different way using “may” or “might”.
Indirect Speech
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech) doesn’t use quotation marks to
enclose what the person said and it doesn’t have to be word for word.
When reporting speech, the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported
speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who
spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs usually have to be in the past too.
Example: Direct: “I am going to the cinema”, he said.
Indirect: He said that he was going to the cinema.
Tense change: As a rule, when you report something someone has said you go back a tense.
Direct Indirect
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Present simple Past simple
Present continuous Past continuous
Present perfect simple Past perfect simple
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
Past simple Past perfect
Past perfect Past perfect (no change)
Past perfect continuous Past perfect continuous (no change)
Will Would
Can Could
Must Had to
Shall Should
May Might
Note: There is no change to : could, would, should, might, and ought to.
You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still
true.
Example: My name has always been and will always be Lynne so:
Direct: “My name is Lynne”, she said.
Indirect: She said that her name was Lynne. Or: She said her name is Lynne.
- You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.
Direct: “Next week’s lesson is on reported speech”, she said.
Indirect: She said next week’s lesson is on reported speech.
Time change:
If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the
time of reporting. We need to change words like “here”, “yesterday” if they have different
meanings at the time and place of reporting.
Example: Direct: “Today’s lesson is on presentations”.
(+24 hours) Indirect: She said yesterday’s lesson was on presentations.
Direct Indirect
This That
Today yesterday
These Those
Now Then
A week ago A week before
Last week end The week end
Here before
Next week There
Tomorrow The following
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week
The next day
In addition, if you report something said in a different place where you heard it, you must
change the place (here) to the place (there).
- Pronoun change:
In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
Example: “I teach English”.
She said that she teaches English.
- Reporting verbs:
“Said”, “told”, and “asked” are the most common verbs used in indirect speech.
We use “asked” to report questions.
We use “told” with an object.
We usually use “said” without an object.
Conditionals
Conditional sentences have two parts: the if clause and the main clause.
Example: If it rains, I shall stay at home.
“If it rains” is the if clause, and “I shall stay at home” is the main clause.
There are three kinds of conditional sentences. Each kind contains a different pair of tenses.
With each type certain variations are possible.
The verb in the if clause is in the past tense; the verb in the main clause is in the conditional
tense.
Examples: If I had a map, I would lend it to you. (But I haven’t a map. The leaning here is
present).
If someone tried to blackmail me, I would tell the police The meaning here is future.
There is no difference in time between the first and second types of conditional sentences.
Type 2, like type1, refers to the present or future, and the past tense in the if clause is not a
true past but a subjunctive, which indicates unreality (as in the first example above) or
improbability (as in the second example above)
Type2 is used :
-When the supposition is contrary to known facts:
Examples: If I lived near my office I’d be in time for work (but I don’t live near my office)
If I were you I’d plant some trees round the house (but I am not you)
-When we don’t expect the action in the if clause to take place.
Examples: If a burglar came into my room at night, I’d throw something at him.(but I don’t
expect a burglar to come in)
If I dyed my hair blue, everyone would laugh at me (but I don’t intend to dye it).
Some if clauses can have either of the above meanings:
Examples: If he left his bicycle outside, someone would steal it.
“If he left the bicycle” could imply “but he doesn’t” (present meaning) or “but he doesn’t
intend to” (future meaning). But the correct meaning is usually clear from the text.
At one time ambiguity of this kind was avoided by using were + infinitive instead of the past
tense in type2
Examples: If a burglar were to come........
If I were to dye my hair...........
If he were to leave.....................
Examples: If anyone interrupted him, he got angry (whenever anyone interrupted him)
If there was a scarcity of anything, prices of that thing went up.
-When if is used to mean “as” or “since”, a variety of tenses is possible in the main clause. If
+ past tense here has a past meaning. The sentence is not a true conditional.
Example: Ann: The pills made him dizzy. All the same he bought some more/has bought
some more/ is buying some more...
Tom: If they made him dizzy, why did he buy/ has he bought/ is he buying more?
-Variations of the if clause:
Instead of if + simple past we can have:
-If + past continuous.
Example: We’re going by air and I hate flying. If we were going by boat, I’d feel much
happier.
-If + past perfect.
Example: If je had taken my advice, he would be a rich man now (this is a mixture of type2
and type3
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If + should can be used in type1 to indicate that the action, though possible, is not very
likely. It is usually combined with the imperative and is chiefly used in written instructions/
Example: If you should have any difficulty in getting spare time, please inform the factory at
once.
If and in case:
In case is followed by a present or past tense or by should. It appears similar to “if” and is
often confused with it. But the two are completely different.
An in case clause gives a reason for the action in the main clause:
Example: Some cyclists carry repair outfits in case they have a puncture = Some cyclists
carry repair outfits because they may have / because it is possible they will have a puncture.
An in case clause can be dropped without changing the meaning of the main clause. In a
conditional sentence , however, the action in the main clause depends on the action in the if
clause, and if the if clause is dropped, the meaning of the main clause changes.
Compare: Bill: I’ll come tomorrow in case Ann wants me
Tom: I’ll come tomorrow if Ann wants me.
• In the first case, perhaps Ann will want Bill, perhaps she won’t. But Bill will come
anyway. His action doesn’t depend on Ann’s. “In case Ann wants me” could be
omitted without changing the meaning of the main verb.
• In the second case, a conditional sentence, Tom will only come if Ann asks him. His
action depends on hers. We cannot remove “if Ann wants me” without changing the
meaning of the main verb.
An in case clause is normally placed after the main clause, not before it.
Example: In case of accident, phone 999.
If only:
Only can be placed after “if” and indicates hope, a wish or regret according to the tense used
with it.
If only + present tense will express hope:
Example: If only he comes in time = We hope he’ll come in time.
If only + past/past perfect expresses regret
Example: If only he didn’t drive so fast/ If only you hadn’t said ‘liar’
If only + would can express regret about a present action as an alternative to “if only + past
tense”
Example: If only he would drive more slowly.
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