I

I

CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

IX

INTRODUCTION

I. The political background I I. The scientific background

III. The biographies of Ibn al-Nafis

I

z 6

10

IV. The literary output of Ibnal-Nafis 22

V. Ibn al-Nafls's theological novel al-Risiila al-Kamiliyya 28

VI. The manuscripts 36

TRANSLATION 38

Excursus A 75

Excursus B 77

Excursus C 78

Excursus D 79

Excursus E 80

Excursus F 8 I

Excursus G 82

Excursus H 82

ARABIC PART

List of Abbreviations Biographies

r, Biography of Ibn al-Nafis by Safadl

2. Extract from the biography of Ibn al-Nafis by 'Umari p,

3. Extract from the biography of Baybars by Ibn

Taghribirdi .J

+ Extract from the biography of Kalawun by Ibn

Taghribirdi )

'I'ext of al-Risiila al-Kiimiliyya fil-Sira al-Nabawiyya by

Ibn al-Nafis

.Annales de l'Institut d'Etudes Orientales (Algiers) Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies F. Buhl, Das. Leben Muhammads, transl, H. H. Schaeder, Leipzig 1930

The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 4 vols. and Supplement, Leiden and London 1913-38; The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, Leiden and London 1960 ff.

C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur», 2 vols., Leiden !943-9; Supplementbiinde, 3 vols., Leiden 1937-42

A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad (rransl. of the Sira of Ibn Iahak), O.U.P. 195.5

Hajji Khalifa, Lexicon bibliographicum et encyclopaedicum, ed, and trans!' G. Fluegel, 7 vols., Leipzig 1835-58 Ibn AbI Usaybia, 'Uyiin al·Anbil' fi Tabahat at. Atibbti', ed. E. Muller, text 1. ii, Caito 1499/1882, introduction and indexes, Konigsberg 1884

Kitdb al-Tabaka: al-Kabir, ed. E. Sachau and others, Leiden 1905 ff.

Ibn Taghribirdi Nujiim, al-Nujiim. al-Zdhira, vii, Cairo 1357/1938

JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society

AIEO BSOAS

Buh!

EI

GAL

Guillaume

I;IKh

lAU

Ibn Sa'd

Jeffery

Kitab al-Bad' ual-Tartkh Luciani

Manhal al-$aJf

(Wiet)

RSO Shadhariii Stieglecker

za« al-Ma'ad

ZDMG

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A. Jeffery, A Reader on Islam, Hague I962

By Mutahhar ibn Tahir al-Makdisr, Ed. and transl.Cl, Huart, 6 vols., Paris 1899 ff.

J.-D. Luciani, El-Irchad. par Imam el-Harametn, cdite et traduit, Paris I938

G. Wiet, Let Biographies du Manhal al-Sdfi (of Ibn Taghribirdi), Cairo 1932

Rivista degli Studi Orientali

Ibn al-Tmad, Shadhardt al-Dhahab, 8 vols., Cairo 1351 H. Stieglecker, Die Glaubenslehren des Islam, Paderborn 1962

Ibn Kayyim aI-Jawziyya, Ztid al-Ma'adfi Hady Khayr al" 'Lbad, 4 vols., Cairo 1347/1928

Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft

INTRODUCTION

'ALA' AL-DIN 'ALl' [BN ABI L-I:IARAM,calledforshortIbnalNafis, born and educated in Syria, but later chief physician in Cairo, is an outstanding figure in the Arab medical world of the 7th(r 3th century. He is well known in the history of Arab medicine as a compiler of and commentator on the works of Hippocrates, Galen, and Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and has recently won fame on the discovery of his description of the lesser circulation of blood in the human body, three centuries before Servetus and Colombo, who probably knew the theory of their predecessor through the intermediary of Andrea Alpago, physician and Orientalist, M. Meyerhof published the texts in question, with a German translation, commentary, and biography of the author, in I93Y An old biography of Ibn al-Nafis edited and translated there mentions a small book of his with the title Kitiib Fiidil ibn Niiti~, which it states to be a counterpart to Ibn Sina's philosophical tale of Hayy ibn Ya~?iin. Professor H. Ritter of Istanbul kindly informed us that the treatise in question, which was thought to have perished, is preserved in a manuscript in Istanbul and is identical with the same author's al-Risiila al-Kamiliyya fil-Sira al-Nabawiyya, a copy of which was known to exist in the Egyptian Library at Cairo. We are very much indebted to Professor Ritter for a photograph of the Istanbul manuscript. Having in the meantime published two studies on philosophical, and especially Greek, learning among medical men in Egypt in the Middle Ages, the first on the famous controversy between the Muslim Ibn Ridwan of Cairo and the Christian Ibn Butlan of Baghdad, both reputed practitioners of the 5th/lIth century," and the second on a polemic of the celebrated Jewish theologian, philosopher, and physician, Musil ibn Maymun (Maimonides, A.D. II35-1204), against the Greek physician Galen who, a thousand years before him, had

I See below, p. I I n. 'I.

Z See J. Schacht and M. Meyerhof, The Medico-Philosophical Controversy between Ibn Butlan Of Baghdad and Ibn Ridsoan of Cairo, Cairo 1937 (The Egyptian University, The Faculty of Arts, Publication no. 13).

~SU2 B

2

INTRODUCTION

attacked the cosmogony of the Old Testament," we now return to the treatise of Ibn al-Nafis, It appeared that it was a counterpart not to Ibn Slna's.!:Iayy ibn Ya~J2'i'in but to the philosophical novel, bearing the same title, of the Hispano-Moorish philosopher Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Malik, known as Ibn Tufayl (d. 581/ 1185). If Ibn Tufayl'saim is to show the discovery of philosophical and mystical truths by an individual created by spontaneous generation on a desert island, or exposed there immediately after his birth, that of Ibn al- N afis is to describe the same discovery with regard to the main tenets of Islamic religion, the life- story of the last Prophet, and the subsequent fate of his community. Edward Pocock the Younger (1648-1727), who first printed Ibn Tufayl's book in 1671,2 gave it the name of Philosophus Autodidactus; so we are entitled to call Ibn al-Nafis's treatise Theologus Autodidactus. Its fourth and last part deals, without mentioning names, with the condition of the sultanate of Egypt and Syria under the powerful Mamluk ruler Baybars al-Bundukdan, called aI-Malik al-Zahir (658 /1260-676/I277); we therefore found it appropriate to give a short survey of the historical and scientific background of the author's period, followed by his biography according to the best available sources, as well as some remarks on his literary output.

1. THE POLITICAL BACKGROUND

EGYPT, Palestine, and Syria-with parts of Arabia-were nearly always united under the rule of the Fiitimid caliphs (356/969- 567/II7I), the Ayyubids (564/II69-648/1250), and the Mamluks (648/1250-922/1517). Ibn al-Nafis lived from 607/1210 to 687/ 1288, and we will consider the main events of the 7th/13th century. At the beginning of that century, Egypt and Syria were under the vigorous rule of the Ayyilbid, al-Malik al-'Adil Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr, brother and successor of the celebrated f;1aJaI_1 al-Dln (Saladdin).» Around his realm sp'rang up petty kingdoms under his sons and relatives, in Aleppo, Harna, Hims (Emesa), northern

I See J. Schacht and M. Meyerhof, 'Maimonides versus Galen', in Bulletin Of the Faculty of Arts oj the University of Egypt, v] : (May 1937), Cairo 1939.

2 E. Pocock, ·Philosophus Autodidactus; etc. (with a Latin translation), Oxford 1671; the same, An Account ()f the Oriental Philosophy, etc., Oxford 1674- 3 On Egypt and Syria under the Avyubids, see H .. A. R Gibb, chapter xx in K. M. Setton (ed.), A History oj the Crusades, ii, Philadelphia 1962; on the Mamluks, see lVI. M. Ziyada, ibid., chapter xxii,

THE POLITICAL BACKGROUND

3

Mesopotamia, and Yemen. The heirs of Saladdin we~e contending bitterly among themselves, while the Crusaders continued to hold the Syro-Palestinian coast. About the middle of the century, the Ayyubids in Egypt were superseded by the Mamlnks, the generals of the army, which had been recruited from slaves. The w.eak caliphs of Baghdad had to defend their limited possessions against the shahs of Khwarizm, and from about 617 /I220 to face the evergrowing danger of the Mongols or Tartars (Tatar), ~s the Arab historians call them, from the east. Nevertheless, during the first half of the century there was comparative peace in Baghdad, learning flourished, and schools and libraries were patronized. 'It was but the lull before the fatal storm."

Having conquered the whole of inner Asia and south Russia, the Mongols at last besieged, took, and sacked Baghdad, where the last Caliph, al-Musta'sirn, found his death in 656/1258. ~h~y immediately proceeded westward, swept away the small Ayyubid kingdoms, temporarily occupied Damascus, and threatened the boundaries of the Syro-Egyptian realm. Here they were stopped by the third Mamluk sultan, Kutuz, who defeated them in the battle of 'Ayn Jali1U' Immediately afterwards Kutuz was murdered by his general, Baybars al-Bundukdari, who succeeded hi~ o.n the throne of Egypt and Syria.s This remarkable man was originally a slave from the Turkish people of the Kipchak in south Russia, tall and blue-eyed but with a white spot in one of his eyes so that, when he was sold for the modest sum of 800 dirham in Damascus, the buyer returned him. He was then bought by the Mamluk em~r 'Ala' aI-Din Aydekin al-Bundukdari, from whom he took hIS surname. When part of the property of this emir was confiscated by the Ayyubid sultan ai-Malik al-Siilih, Baybars came. into t~e possession of this last, who later set him free and started him on his

I Sir William Muir, The Caliphate, its Rise, Decline, and Fall, new and revised

edition by T. H. Weir, reprinted, Edinburgh 1924, 589. . ". . .

Z On the events preceding the battle, see G. LeVI Della Vida, L l1l~aSIOn~ del Tartari in Siria nel 1260 nei ricordi di un testirnune oculare ', in Orientalia, IV (1935),.353-76, reprinted in his Aneddoti i! soaghi, Milar; and Naples 1959, 58-72.

On the battle itself, see B. Lewis, art. ' 'Ayn Djaluc', III EI'. .

J On the Arabic sources. for the biography of Baybars and of his successor Kalawun, see J. Sauvaget, Introduction Ii l'histoire de l'Orient musulman, new and revised edition by CL Cahen, Paris 1961, 180 f. For a recent ~~.count of. the reign of Baybars see S. Runciman, A History of the. Crusa_des, 11!, .Cambndge 1954, 315-48; on Kalawun, ibid., 387-423. On his religious policy, see H. Laoust, Les Schismes dans l'Lslam, Paris 1965, 251-4.

4

INTRODUCTION

military career. Having risen to ever higher positions, Baybars was acclaimed sultan after he had murdered his predecessor, and ruled from 658/1260 to 676/1277. He was the real founder of Mamluk power. He WaS not only a military leader of indomitable courage, but a superior organizer who rebuilt the navy, constructed fortresses, bridges, and religious buildings, dug canals, improved harbours, and connected Cairo and Damascus, the two capitals of his realm, by a swift postal service taking a week or less. Several of his architectural monuments have survived in Egypt and Syria. In his numerous campaigns against the Crusaders he broke the backbone of the power of the Franks in Palestine and Syria and conquered the fortresses of the dreaded Assassins, whilst his generals extended his dominion westwards over Libya and southwards over Nubia, which was now permanently conquered for Egypt. He exchanged embassies with Berke, the khan of the Golden Horde in south Russia, who was the first great Mongol ruler to convert himself to Islam, and allied himself with this prince against Hulagii and his successor Abaka, the pagan Mongol IlKhans of Persia. I Three times he defeated the Mongols in Syria and Mesopotamia. For reasons of political expediency, he recognized as caliph an alleged member of the 'Abbasid family who had escaped the blood-bath of Baghdad; this last invested him with the government of Egypt, of Syria, and of other countries to be conquered.> When the caliph showed pretensions to independence, Baybars sent him at the head of an insufficient force against the Mongols, who promptly annihilated him. The sultan then appointed to the caliphate another pretended member of the 'Abbasid family, who gave, of course, every proof of docility. 'His religious orthodoxy and zeal, together with the glory he brought to Islam, combined to make his name a rival to that of Harlin al-Rashid. In

I See VV. Barthold and J. A. Boyle, art. 'Berke', in El>. Baybars also exchanged embassies with Klng Manfred of Sicily (see below, p. 76, Excursus A, para. 0), with King Alfonso X, 'the Sage', of Castille (see P. Martinez Montavez, 'Relaciones de Alfonso x:. de Castilla con el Sultan mameluco Baybars y sus succsores', .Al-Andalus, xxvii (I 96Z) , 343-76), and with the Byzantine emperor (see M. Canard, 'Un traite entre Byzance et Egvpte au XIII" siecle et les relations diplomatiques de Michel VIII Paleologue avec les Sultans Musulmans Baibars et Qala'uri', in MEilanges Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Cairo .1935-45, 197-224)'

a See R. Brunsc-hvig, La Berberis orientale sous les Hafsides, i , Paris I 940, 46f.; R. Hartmann, ZU<r Vorgeschichte des 'abbtisidischen Schein-Chalifats von Cairo (Abh. d. Deutsch en Akad. d. Wiss., Phil.-hist. Klasse, 1947, ix), Berlin 1950; D. Ayalon, 'Studies on the Transfer of the 'Abbasid Caliphate from Bagdad to Cairo', Arabica, v ii (1960), 4I-59.

THE POLITICAL BACKGROUND 5

legendary history it looms even higher than that of Saladdin. His romance and that of 'Antar remain to the present day more popular in the Arab Orient than the Arabian Nights." His great qualities to a certain degree outweighed his brutal cruelty, his treacherous behaviour to his sovereigns and rivals, and the merciless taxation he imposed on his subjects. One of the rare humane traits in the character of this sultan is the respect which he always kept for his former master, the emir Aydekin, and even for the former master of this last, after both had become his subjects.

After two years of inefficient government under two young sons of Baybars, he was followed on the throne by his general, Kalawun, who took on the throne name of al-Malik al-Mansur and ruled from 678/1279 to 689/1290. A worthy successor ~f Baybars in energy and organizing power, he was, like that ruler, originally a Turkish slave from Kipchak, purchased for no less than 1,000 gold dinars by the Mamluk emir Aksunkur, and later by al-Malik al-Salih. He had distinguished himself in the wars of Baybars before he ascended the throne of Egypt and Syria; he was the only Mamluk in whose line the succession continued, though not without interruptions, to the fifth generation. His first great deed was to inflict a heavy defeat near Hims in 679/17.80 on the superior armies of the Mongol Il-Khan Abaka who had received help from Crusaders and Christian Armenians and Georgians. Shortly after, the Mongols of Persia adopted Islam under their new ruler, a brother of Abaka, who took the name of Ahmad, Kalawun then reduced the Crusaders' castles in Syria, destroyed the town of Tripoli, and prepared the extinction of Frankish rule in the Near East. He renovated on a grand scale the citadels of Damascus, . Aleppo, and Baalbeck, and constructed many fine buildings. The most famous of these is the combination of tomb-mosque, school, and hospital in Cairo, completed in 683/1284, important parts 'of which still exist.s Ibn al-Nafis must have witnessed the building of this hospital, to which he bequeathed his house and his library. The sultan Kalawun died two years after Ibn al-Nafis.

I P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, London 193'7, 676. See R. Paret, art. '(sirat) Baybars', in EP.

2 The foundation of this Mansur] hospital is described in detail by Shafi' ibn 'All al-'Asl~alani (d. 730/1330), al-Fadl al-Ma'thUr min Sirai al-Sultdn al-Mali]: al-Mansic«, MS. Marsh 4Z4 (Bodleian i. 766), fols, 12Jv ff. (GAL", i. 389, to be transferred to the Suppl. ii. 35); also by Ibn al-Furat (d. 807/1405), Tarikh, ed. C. K. Zurayk, viii, Beirut 1939, 9-II.

6

INTRODUCTION

II. THE SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND

WE do not intend to discuss here all the scientific institutions of the period in question, e.g. all the the_ological. sch~ols (:nadrasa) in which there was given occasional instruction In phIlosophy, medicine and science also. The hostility of some sectors of Islamic orthodox~, and of the Hanbali school in particula:, towards t~e 'sciences of the ancients" was but one aspect of the Intellectu~l life of the 6th/12th and the 7th/13th century. We shall see how hlg~ly the educated Muslims in the Ayyilbid and the Mamluk period regarded the medical profession. It might hav.e be~n thought that medicine, as one of the 'sciences of the ancients and theref?re essentially non-Islamic, would have suffered from the revulsion of popular sentiment which was one of th.e effects ?f the Crusa~es and inspired a number of literary productions hostile to the ~hnstians. It is in this literature that there had appear~d rec~ntly, in the time of Saladdin, the legend of the caliph 'l!m~r s hav~ng ordered the destruction of the library of Alexandna; It was intended as an example of how a good Muslim ought to behave towards t~e 'sciences of the ancients'. Conscious paltcy had perhaps a share III creating and spreading this kind of senti~~nt ~1llong t~e m~s~es,2 but educated people, including the speCIalIsts .1I~ Islamic relIgIOUS sciences as a rule held aloof. There were religious scholars who took an interest in philosophy and medicine, and ~edical men wh_o were active in the field of religious scholarship ; Ib~ al-N~fls himself we shall see was one of these. The tension which nevertheless existed b~tween Islamic and Hellenistic thought is exemplified in the person of the blind philosopher and ~~et alHasan ibn Muhammad ibn Naja, known as al-'Izz al-Irbili, who died in Damas~us in 660/1262.3 He held reading sessions on the

I H. Laoust, in the introductions to his Es;ai sur les doctri~es sOcia_le: et

l't' d B Tao'''I,-ya Caito "'39 Trmte de droit public d Ibn Taimiva,

po ~ ,ques e... . " " .. h

Beyrouth 1948, and Precis de droit d'Ibn Quddma, Beyr.out 1950.

2 Anti-Christian propaganda in the Mamluk emprre ser~ed purposes ~f internal rather than of external politics; see M. Perlrnann, Notes on AntiChristian Propaganda in the Mamluk Empire', BSOAS"x (1940-2), 843-61. See also E. Strauss, 'L'inquisition dans I'eta: mamlouk, RSO, xxv (1950),

II~Z~~e Abu Shama (d. 665/IZ68), Dhayl al-R.awjatayn, ed. Kawtharl, Cairo I366/1947 216 (to be corrected after the MS. Oriental 1539 of the Bntlsh Museum, fo!. 130<); Yunlni (d. 726/13Z6), Dhayl]}lir'at al-Zamdn, i, Hydera~ad ]374/1954, 501; Kutubi (d. 764/1362), Fawdt al-Wajaydt;_ s.v. a}~I:Iasan Ibn Muhammad; Ibn Kathir (d. 77411373), al-Bidaya toal-Nihdya, Calf 0 1351-8/

TI-IE SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND

7

'sciences of the ancients' for people of all persuasions who came to his house, Sunni and Shi'a Muslims and unbelievers, Jews, Christians, Samaritans, philosophers, and others. Though highly esteemed by all, including the last Ayyilbid ruler of Damascus, aI-Malik al-Nasir, he was regarded as irreligious, but on his deathbed, according to the report of an eyewitness, quoted sura Ixvii, I4: 'Doth He not know those whom He hath created, while He is the Subtile, the Aware?' and added: 'Allah is right and Ibn Sina is wrong.' Whereas the Hanbali biographer, Yfinini, gives him a lengthy, purely laudatory biography from which every mention of his alleged lack of religious faith is omitted, with extensive quotations from his poetry, the somewhat later Hanbali sympathizer, Ibn Kathir, in his short obituary notice denigrates even his undoubted intelligence and, comparing him to the sceptical and pessimistic poet Abul- 'Ala' al-Ma'arrt, curses both.

We will now speak of the medical learning and of the hospitals in Damascus and Cairo, where Ibn al-Nafis received his training and was later a teacher. After a long series of hospitals created by former princes, I two powerful rulers of the 6th/12th century founded two great new hospitals in the two capitals of the SyroEgyptian realm. The Turkish prince Nur aI-DIn Mahmud ibn Zengi, of the family of the Atabegs of Mosul, established himself in Damascus in 549/1I54, and founded a well-equipped hospital which was called after him the Nuri Hospital (al-bimaristan alnuri).2 His Kurdish general, al-Malik al-Nasir ~alal:t al-Din Yiisuf ibn Ayyub, or Saladdin, followed his example and in S67/1I7I, three years after becoming master of Egypt, founded a hospital in Cairo which was called the Na~irI Hospital (albimaristan al-na#ri). Both establishments gained great fame in the world of Islam, and over several centuries continued to attract 7932-9, xiii. Z35. See also E. Strauss, lac. cit., II f. On some inter. Islamic controversies of the period, see L. Massignon, in Etudes d'Ortentalisme deaiees rlla memoire de Leci-Pronencal, Paris 1962" ii. 662-77.

I See Ahmad Issa Bey, Histoire des bimaristans (h6pitaux) J.l'epoque islamique, Cuiro 19Z8; new and revised Arabic edition, Tiirikh al·Bimiiristaniit fi l-Tsldm, Damasous 1357/1939. On hospitals and medical teaching, partly in corinexion with mosques and madrasas, see J Oh8. Pedersen, art. 'Masdjid", section F.4.C, in "'f!; on hospitals in Syria from the 6th/14th to the 8th/14th century, See N. A. /';incieh, Urban Life in Syria under the Early Mamluhs, Beirut 1953, 'S8ff. For lite plan of a small typical hospital which was founded in 745/1344 and has remained unaltered, see J. Sauvaget, Alep, Pads 1941, album, plate Ixi.

, On this hospital, See J. Sauvaget, Les Perles choisies d'Ibn ach-Chihna, i, Heyrouth 1933, 168f.

8

INTRODUCTION

numerous patients and medical scholars. I We know the names and activities of many of the practitioners and teachers attached to these benevolent institutions from the historian of Arab medicine, Ibn Abi Usaybi'a (d. 668/1270), who was himself an oculist and the private physician of an emir in Syria.> The stimulus to this revival of medical learning in Syria and Egypt in the 7thj r jth century came in the last resort from the great 'Adudj Hospital in Baghdad, a foundation of 'Adud al-Dawla, the powerful Buwayhid sultan and viceroy of the caliph in the 4th/roth century. He founded this model institution in 371/98 I, a year before his death. Generations of skilled medica Imen practised in it, the most prominent of whom was the Christian Amin al-Dawla Hibat Allah Ibn al- Tilmidh, who died in 560/1165 at the age of 95.3 He was Chief Physician (ra'is al-atibba'), i.e. the principal medical officer, of Baghdad, and had many pupils. He instructed them in Greek medicine and philosophy and read with them Ibn Sina's enormous medical encyclopedia al-J.Ginfin fi l-Tibb. Several of these disciples left Baghdad after the death of the master and came to Damascus, where they were appointed to the Niir! Hospital, in their turn educating medical practitioners. The most eminent among them was Radi al-Din al-Rahbl, long-lived like Ibn al- Tilmidh and teacher of numerous medical men, He died in 631/12,33, and his son continued his work.s Other doctors later left Baghdad, probably on account of the growing political disorder, for Damascus, and increased the reputation of the medical school there. Ibn Abi Usaybi'a gives the biographies of some twenty distinguished representatives of the medical school of Damascus, of whom we will mention only Fakhr al-Din al-Maridini who died in 594/1198 after successful work as a teacher.s and Ibn al-Matran, a converted Christian who became a favourite of Saladdin, collected a great library, and died in 587/1191.6 Both had

1 J. Sauvaget, Alep, 126 n. I, has pointed out that only the insane and patients' suffering from certain special diseases (e.g, of the eyes) were actually treated in this kind of hospital; the other patients came to consult the doctors and receive medicines which they took at home.

a 'Uyun al-Anbd' fi TabaZ"'it al-Atibbti", ed. E. Muller,:4 vols., Cairo 12991 1882, introduction and indexes, Konigsberg 1884 (referred to hereafter as IAU). Chapters 14 and 15, at the end of vol, ii, treat of the physicians of Egypt and of Syria.

3 See M. Meyerhof, art. 'Ibn al-T'ilmidh', in BP, Suppl,

'4 IAU, ii. r92~20I. 5 IAU,1. 299-30I.

6 IAU, ii. '75-81.

THE SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND

9

been disciples of Ibn al- Tilmldh. On account of the close links between Egypt and Syria under the Ayyilbids and the Mamli:iks, there was a continuous two-way traffic of teachers and students between the great hospitals of the two capitals.

The Syro-Egyptian school of medicine in the 7th/13th century reached its zenith with Muhadhdhib al-Din 'Abd al-Rahim ibn 'Ali, called Dakhwar ji he enjoyed the highest reputation and influenced the majority of the prominent physicians of Syria and Egypt, Dakhwar was born in Damascus, the son of an oculist, was at first an oculist himself, and afterwards studied medicine with Ibn al-Matran, He became the personal physician of the sultan al-Malik al- 'Adi! Sayf al-Din, the brother of Saladdin, and accompanied him from Syria to Egypt, where he witnessed the terrible plague of 6IZ/IZ16. When the son of the sultan, al-Malik al-Kamil Muhammad, later on himself sultan of Egypt, was attacked by the disease" Dakhwar treated him with great devotion and saved his life. Thereupon the sultan appointed him Chief Physician of Egypt and Syria. Three years later the sultan died, and his successor in Syria was his other son, al-Malik al-Mu'azzam Sharaf al-Din 'isa; he confirmed Dakhwar in his office. Numerous princes and important persons consulted him, and he became a rich man. At the same time, he was attached to the Nuri Hospital, where his now very old teacher, Radi al-Din al-Rahbi, and an eminent Jewish physician, Tmran ibn Sadaka, 2 were his colleagues. Ibn Abi Usaybi'a was their disciple, and he could not find words enough to express his admiration of the useful collaboration of these three practitioners. It inspired him to write the verses:

Then passed away those years and their team, And they vanished away like a dream.'

Notwithstanding his numerous occupations, Dakhwar never ceased to give instruction to his pupils, in his house or at the hospital, He was a devoted student of Galen's works, and when one of the disciples read, during his lectures, a remarkable passage about the theory or practice of the treatment of some disease or other, Dakhwar would exclaim ,: 'This is Medicine l' He was a great lover of books, copied with hIS own hand numerous medical and philosophical works, and formed a considerable library. During his lectures he used to have with him, besides medical books, the

a IAU, ii. 213 f.

3 IAU, ii. 243.

--------------- - - - --------------"~-------==----

10

INTRODUCTION

$i~a/:l of jawhari, the Mujmal of Ibn Faris,1 and the .E(itiib alNabiit (,Book of Plants') of Abu Hanifa al-Dtnawari.> At the end of his life he became partly paralysed of by stroke, and he died childless in 628/1230, having left his house in Damascus, together with the revenues of his estates and other donations, as a pious foundation (wakJ) for the benefit of a medical school which he had founded.i This school, the Madrasa al-Dakhwariyya, was still in existence in 820/1417, when part of it was repaired. The first director of this school, appointed by Dakhwar himself, was Sharaf al-Din al-Rahbi, son of his old teacher Radi al-Dm.

Several of Dakhwar's disciples gained a high reputation. One of his most eminent pupils was Ibn Abi Usaybi'a, the historian of Arab medicine mentioned before, and another was Ibn al-Nafis, The two men were near contemporaries, and although they may never have met, it is impossible to believe that Ibn Abi Usaybi'a should not have known of Ibn al-Nafis. But whereas he devotes the last part of his work to the biographies of his contemporaries in Egypt and in Syria arid paints a vivid picture of the intense intellectual life there in the 7th/13th century, he does not give the biography of Ibn al-Nafis and does not mention his name even incidentally+ This strange silence must be the result of personal enmity or professional jealousy or both. Fortunately there are other sources for the biography of Ibn al-Nafis.

III. THE BIOGRAPHIES OF IBN AL NAFls

WE have come across no fewer than eighteen biographies or obituary notices of Ibn al-Nafis, and know of the existence of a few

I Two well-known dictionaries; the authors died in 393/Io03 and in 395/1005 respectively; cf. GALl, i. I33, 135.

2 A famous and many-sided author, d. 282/895; cf. GAL, Suppl. i. 187.

3 The two relations of the foundation of the school, in lAD. ii. 244 f. and in Nu 'aymi, al-Daris fi Tarihk al-Madaris, ii. 12,7 ff., are not necessarily contradictory.

• The manuscript 'dmm 4883(1) of the Z;iihiriyya Library in Damascus (cf.

Fihris Makhtl'tat Ddr al-Kutub al-;;iihiriyya, vi (Tarikh), by Yusuf al-'Ishsh, Damascus I366/I947, 306), a late copy, is drastically abbreviated at the end but finishes with a short notice on Ibn al-Nafis which is fulsomely laudatory in general terms but lacks all biographical details. This notice is not by Ibn Abi Usaybia because its author speaks of Ibn al-Nafis at a certain distance in time (his writings are 'authoritative in the opinion of sound scholars in most countries', makbula 'ind al-muba~~i~in ii ahthar al-hily.a'), but he knows several works of his which are not mentioned by the other biographers,

THE BIOGRAPHIES OF IBN AL-NAFIS

II

others. The three oldest biographies are in part based on information given by a pupil of Ibn al-Nafis in philosophy, the famous grammarian, theologian, and linguist, Athir al-Din Abu Hayyan Muhammad ibn Yiisuf al-Andalusi. This scholar was born in Granada in 654/1256, travelled through North Africa and Egypt, performed the pilgrimage to the Holy Places of Arabia, and settled down in Cairo, where he studied with the grammarian Ibn alNal,lJ:las (whom he later succeeded), took lessons from Ibn alNafis, and became himself a lecturer at several institutions. He died in Cairo in 745/1345.1

The biographical notices of Ibn al-Nafis in European works are mostly recent and derived from the sources with which we shall now have to deal. 2

The two most detailed biographies of Ibn al-Nafis, which are also among the oldest, are nearly identical; they occur in the voluminous works of two scholars of encyclopedic learning, both of them pupils of Abu Hayyan ai-Andalusi, One is the Masalik al-Ab!iir fi Mamalil: al-Amsar of Ibn Fadl Allah al-'UmarI (d. 749/1349),3 and the other the biographical dictionary, al- Waft bilWafayat, of Khalil ibn Aybak al-Safadt (d. 764/1363).4 As the relevant part. of neither work has been printed as yet, we have us_ed manuscripts; for the work of "Umari, the copy 8 M Ma'iirif 'Amma (formerly 99 M Tarikh), part 8, of the Egyptian Library in Cairo,s collating the text with the photostaticcopy,preservedinthe . r GAL",ii. 133 f.; Suppl.ii. I35£.; S. Glazer, art. 'Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati ', III EI"; E. Garda Gomez, 'A proposito de Ibn Hayyan. Resumen del estado actual delas estudios ... ', Al-Andalus, xi (I946), 395-42,3; Nu 'aymi, al-Ddris [i Ttil'ikh al-Maddris, index s.v, Muhammad b. Yusuf h. 'All b. Yusuf,

z GAL', 1. 649; Suppl .. i. 899 f.; F. Wustenfeld, Geschichte der arabischen Arzte und Naiurforscher, Gottingen 1840, I46 f.; L. Leclerc, Histoire de la medecine arabe •. Paris 1876, ii.207-9; G. Sartori, Introduction to the History of Science, ii, Baltimore I93I, I099-IIOI; lVI. Meyerhof, 'Ibn an-Nafis und seine Theorie des Lungenkreisluufa', in Quellen und Swdiet!, zur Geschichte der N aturzcisseuschajten und der Mediein, iv (Berlin I 93 3), 37-88; abridged versions in Bulletin de I'Tnstitut d'Egypte, xvi (r934J. 33-46, and in Isis. xxii (1.935), 100- zo ; idem, art. 'Ibn al-Nafis', in EP, Suppl.; J. Schacht, 'Tbnal-Nafis et Son Theologus Aiuodidactus', in Homenaje a Miilds-Valticrosa, ii, Barcelona I956, 325~45·

3 GAL", ii. I77f.; Suppl. ii, 175 f.; D. S. Rice, 'A Miniature in an Autogl"ftpb of Shihabal-D in Ibn Fadlallah al-'UmarI', BSOAS, xiii (195I) ,856-67; G, Deverdun, 'Un nouveau mauuscrit des Masalik al-Absar d'Ibn Fadl-Allah

lIt-'Umar!', Hesperis, 1954,475-8. ..

4 GALS, ii. 39 ff.; Suppl. ii. 27ff.

, Cf, Fihrist al-Kutub al-'Arabiyya al-Ma1:tiu?a bil-Kutubkhdna al-Khidiluiyya, v. 149 f.; Da"Y al-Kutub al-Misriyya, Fihris al-Kutub al- 'Arabiyya, v, 344.

12

INTRODUCTION

same library (2568 Tiirikh, part 5, vol. iii), of a manuscript of the library of Aya Sofya in Istanbul;' and for the work of Safadi, the manuscript Oriental 6587 in the library of the British Museum, which contains the fifth part of the work.> As Safadi, who is known as a compiler, died fifteen years after 'Umari, it is probable that he copied the biography from his older contemporary. But as the text of Safadi, in the manuscript of the British Museum, is better than that of 'U marl in both manuscripts at our disposal, we have taken the former as the basis of our edition and translation, and give a supplement from 'Umari's text.t

I. Biography of Ibn al-Nafis according to$afadi, aI-WaH bilWafayat (MS. British Museum, Or. 6587, 20v-Zlv).

'Ali ibn Abil-Haram: he is the excellent imam, the most learned doctor, 'Ala' ai-Din ibn al-Nafis al-Kurashi al-Dimashki.? The learned Athir al-Dln Abu Hayyan+ gave me the following information:

He grew up in Damascus and there occupied himself with medicine under Muhadhdhib al-Din al-Dakhwar, Al-Dakhwar was an excellent scholar and had many pupils, among them al-Rahbi, b Ibn J>:ac)I Ba'Iabakk," and Shams aI-DIn al-Kulli." 'Ala al-Din was a unique leader in the science of medicine, in which no one equalled or approached him in ready knowledge and thorough investigation. He worked hard into his old age and wrote outstanding works and excellent books. He composed 'The Comprehensive Book on Medicine' (Kitab al-Shdmil fil-TiM), the plan of which shows that it was to consist of three hundred volumes, so I was told by one of his friends. He made a fair copy of eighty of them; they are now a bequest to the Manstrri Hospital in Cairo. He also wrote 'The Well-Arranged Book on Opthalmology' (Kitah al-Muhadhdhab fil-Kul,tl), a Commentary on the J:Ctiniin of Ibn Sina in a number of volumes, and others on medicine. Someone who saw him composing"

I Cf. Ddr al-Kutub al-,iVIi,riyya, Fihris, IDe. cit.

2 We are indebted to Professor F. Gabrieli for a copy of this text from the photograph of the manuscript. in the Fondazione Caetani in Rome.

• The two texts are printed as .introductory matters, nos. I and '2, in the Arabic part of this publication. References to the persons mentioned in these two texts will be found in Excursus A, below, pp. 75 ff., and notes (a)-(x) in the text refer to the paragraphs of the excursus.

-I The two manuscripts of 'Umari which w\, have consulted have Ibn Abi Usaybia instead of Abu Hayyan, but this is obviously a mistake (see above, p, IO), and Abu Hayyiin occurs not only in Safadi but also in Dhahabi (see bulow, p. IS). That the name of Ibn Abi U~aybi'a did slip in emphasizes how confidently the mention of Ibn al-Nafls by Ibn Abi U saybi 'a could be expected 11m! bow strange his omission is.

THE BIOGRAPHIES OF IBN AL-NAFIS

13

told me that he used to write from memory without consulting a book while composing.

He also knew logic and wrote a compendium on this subject and a commentary on the Hiddya of Ibn Sina on logic.' In this science he leaned exclusively towards the method of the earlier authors, such as Abu Nasr (al-Farabi) and Ibn Sina, and was averse to the method of al-Afdal al-Khunaji/ and of al-Athir al-Abhart.s I studied quite a part of this book al-Hiddya of Ibn Sina under him, and he explained it in the best possible way. I learned from him, too, something of medical science. He also wrote on the principles of jurisprudence and on applied law, on Arabic language, traditions, rhetoric, and other subjects; but in these sciences he did not stand in the front rank, he only took part in them. (In grammar) he prepared a book in two volumes in which he put forward causes (for grammatical reactions) different from those the specialists give. In this science he had studied only the Unmildhaj ('Specimen') of Zamakhsharl- under the Shaykh Baha' al-Din Ibn alNahhas," and yet he dared to write about that science.

By him and by our Professor "lrnad al-Din al-Nabulusi' the physicians in Egypt and Cairo were formed. He was an elder of very tall stature with an oval face, slender, and of polite manners. I was told that during the illness of which he died some of his medical friends advised him to tale some wine because, as it is claimed, his illness would be likely to be cured thereby. But he refused to take anything of it and said: 'I will not meet Allah, the Most High; with any wine in my body.'!

He built himself a house in Cairo and had it paved with marble, even its hall, and I have never seen a marble hall save in this house. He did not marry," and he bequeathed his house and his books to the Mansnrl Hospital." He loathed the style of Galen and described it as weak and profuse with nothing in it, and this in contrast with our Professor "Imad al-Din al-Nabulusi, who valued it highly and encouraged the reading of Galen's works. 'Ala' al-Din had been entrusted with the teaching of religious law at the Masrnriyya School in Cairo," and it was reported

I See G. C. Anawati, Essai de bibliographie atncinienne, Cairo 1950, no. :<:4.

I:Ill.jji Khalifa (Lexicon, ed, G. Fluegel, vi. 478, no. 14363) is wrong when he calls it a work on medicine.

2 A grammatical compendium of one of the most celebrated Arab philologists, who died in 538/1 "44. See GAP, i. 34-50; Suppl. i. 507-13; EI', s.v .

3 The Almohade prince al-Mamiur (S80/II84-S9S/II99) enforced the prohibition. of wine so strictly that his court physician, Abu Ja'far ibn al-Ghazziil, could not even procure the few drops which he needed for making a theriac; see IAU, ii. 80.

• He may, of course, have had concubines. .

5 The hospital founded by al-Malik al-Mansur Kalawun in 683!l284; see above, p. 5.

o According to MaJ,rizi, Khitat (Buliil;c 1270), ii. 378, this school had been founded by the eunuch Shams al-Khawass [sic] Masriir, one of Saladdin's

14

INTRODUCTION

that he explained the Tanbih' from the beginning to the chapter on sahwz in an excellent manner. He was ill for six days, beginning on a Sunday, and died on the morning of Friday, 21St Dhul-Ka'da 687,' in Cairo. May Allah the Most High have mercy on him!

Al-Safi Abu l-Fath ibn Yuhanna ibn Sallb ibn Murj! ibn Mawhub, the Christian." recited to me the following verses which he composed himself and in which he lamented 'Ala: al-Dm Ibn al-Nafis (metre kamil):

'Many a one asked: Is there still a learned or an excellent man,

Or a man with a share of high qualities (al- 'ulii) left after al- 'Ala'? Then I answered, while fire was burning in my heart:

Stop! At the death of al- 'Ala' high qualities (al- 'ula) died with him.' End of the report of Athir al-Din.

The learned imam, the Master Hurhfin aI-Din Ibrahim al-Rashidl," preacher at the mosque of Amir Husayn in Cairo, told me the following:

When al- 'Ala' Ibn al-Nafis wanted to write, they laid ready-cut (reed) pens before him; he turnod his face towards the wall and began to compose without consulting a book, writing like a torrent in spate, and when the pen became blunt and used up, he threw it away and took another one so as not to lose time in pen-cutting.

I was told by the Master Najm al-Din al-Safadi! (may Allah the Most High have mercy on him l): The Professor Baha' al-Dm Ibn a1- Nahhas'" used to say: 'In grammar I am not satisfied with anyone's style in Cairo except that of 'Ala' al-Dm Ibn al-Nafis', or words to that effect. I have seen a small book of his which he opposed to the Treatise of Hayy ibn Ya.~?an of Ibn Sina and which he called the Book of Fddil ibn Na.ti(~, In it he defends the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world. And-by my Jife!he has produced something wonderful, and this proves his competence, the soundness of his intelligence, and his capability in the intellectual sciences.

I was told by al-Sadid al-Durnyati, the physician of Cairo," who was one of his pupils: One night he and the cadi, J amal al-Drr, Ibn Wa~it,o were together whilst I was sleeping in their company. When they had ended the last evening prayer, they began a learned discussion and courtiers, The foundation of the Madrasa al·llIasJ'liriyya in Damascus was also attributed to him (Nu'aymi, Duris, i. 455).

[ A well-known treatise of Islamic religious law, according to the Shafi T school, by the celebrated jurist, Abi1 I8]:1al;: Ibrahim ibn 'AU al-Shirazi (d. 476/ 1083). See GAL', i, 484-6; Suppl. i. 669 f. French transl, by G.-H. Bousquet, i-iv, Algiers '949-52. (Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Droit de I'Universite d'Alger, ii, xiii, xi, xv),

• Unmindfulness during ritual prayer.

3 Corresponding to 17 December, A.D. Iz88.

TI-lE BIOGRAPHIES OF IBN AL-NAFfs

15 passed from one science to another. During all this, the Master 'Alii' alDin co~versed with self-control and without becoming heated; whereas the cadi Jamal al-Din became excited, his voice grew loud, his eves went red, and the veins of his neck swelled. Thus they continued until dawn. When they came to an end, the cadi Jamal al-Din said: '0 Master 'Ala' al-Din, I know of problems and subtleties and rules, but you possess treasures of learning.'

The same [al-Sadid al-Durnyatr] said further: I told him: 'Sir, if you were to write a commentary on the Shz/a' of Ibn Sina, I that would be better than commenting on the J:Caniin, because people are in need of it.' He replied: 'I have still got some passages in the Sh1/a' which need putting right.' By this he meant that he did not understand those passages because the style of the Chief (Ibn Sina) in the Shl!a' is difficult.

Another informant told me: The Master 'Ala' aI-Din once went to the public bath which is situated at Bab al-Zuhuma.> Whilst he was in the middle of washing himself, he went out to the dressing-room (maslakh) of the bath, asked for ink, pen, and paper, and wrote down a treatise on the pulse from beginning to end. Afterwards he returned to the bath and finished his ablutions.

It is reported that he once said: 'If I did not know that my works would last for ten thousand years after me, I should not have written them.' ~llt the responsibility for this must be borne by those who have re~ate~ It. ,To sum up, he was a great leader, and many excellent men said: He IS a second Ibn Stna.'

I copy the following from a biography of his, the author of which I do 110t know: He wrote a commentary on the [::tiniin in twenty volumes in whi~h he elucidate~ the scientific problems, pointed out th~ logical c~nelusions, and explained the medical difficulties. No one had previously written such a commentary because the utmost all previous commentators had done was to content themselves with the explanation of the general part (the liulliyyat), as far as the pulse .of the pregnant woman,

[ Avicenna's great philosophical treatise, comprising logic, physics, mathemanes and astronomy, and theology (GAL·, i. 592, 1.10.18; Suppl . .i, 815, no. IS; ~. ~~hman (ed.), Avic~nna's De Anima. Being the psychological part Of Kitilb al:'6htfa O.UP. 1959; French transl, by J. Hakes, Psychologie d'Ib» Sind d'apres son ceuure as-Sifil', Prague 1956); there are several recent editions of other sections. On Avicenna and his Shifd' in general, See F. M. Pareja, Islamologie, J'lcyrouth 1957~63, 986 f.

" Originally One of the gates of the great F:i.~imid palace in Cairo (Sejer Nameh, Relation du Voyage de Nassiri Khosrau, ed, Ch, Schefer, Paris ,881,44 (text), 129 (transl.}; ed, M. Ghani-zade, Berlin 1341/(19z3), 62), and later the nurne of a gateway of the central town (Makrizi, Khitat (Billa];. 1270), i. 435); today, a lane near the Khan al- Khalili Bazaar still bears the name of H drat Bab

al-Zuhuma. ..

INTRODUCTION

and in that part medicine is rarely discussed. He also commented on all the books of the excellent Hippocrates, and On most of them he wrote two commentaries, a detailed and a concise one. He commented also on the Ishdrdt,' He knew the kulliyyat of the Kdniin by heart, and esteemed the style of Hippocrates.> He used to refer students only to the Kdniln, and this is what encouraged the (medical) public to study that book. He was always ready to give information by day or by night. To seek his company in his house came a number of emirs, as well as the Chief Physician, Muhadhdhib al-Din Ibn Abi Hulayka.> Sharaf al-Din Ibn $aghlr,qand the great physicians. The persons were seated according to their rank. To his prominent pupils belonged the Chief Physician, Badr aI-Din Hasan," Amin al-Dawla Ibn al-Kuff," alSadld.' Abul-Fadl Ibn Knshak," and Abul-Futnh al-Iskandari."

2. Supplement to the biography of Ibn al-Nafis from 'Umari, Masalik al-Abssr (MS. Egyptian Library 8 111 Ma'arif '.if.mma, formerly 99 M Tartkh, part 8, 119').

Several of his disciples, for example our Professor Abu l-Fath alYa'murl," told me the following: Ibn al-Nafis possessed an enormous knowledge of (theoretical) medicine and had mastered its branches and principles. But he had not so much insight into (practical) treatment. When he had made prescriptions,he never departed from the method to which he was accustomed; he did not prescribe a remedy as long as he could prescribe a diet, and he did not prescribe a compound remedy as long as he could content himself with a simple drug. He used to prescribe dishes of wheaten flour (1!arn~iyya) for sufferers from ulcers, noodle soup (tutrniij)3 for sufferers from vapours" carobs and parched chick-peas for sufferers from diarrhoea, and so on, choosing for everyone

r Avicenna's main work on logic (GAL2, i. 592f., no. 20; Suppl. i. 816f., no. 20; French transl, by A.-M. Goichon, Livre des directives et remarques, Beyrouth and Paris 1951).

z [Sic], also in "Umari, probably a mistake of the anonymous biographer for

Ibn Sina; cf. above, p. 13. J

3 Meverhof in his previous publications on Ibn al-Nafis (see above, p. I I

n. 2), h~d proposed to correct the reading of the manuscript, tatumah, which is impossible, into tabaha], a kind of meat ragout (see Lane, Lexicon, s.v., and the Persian dictionaries). It is, however, the arabicized form (also written tutmdj, tutmdj, tutmaj) of Turkish tutmac, a kind of noodle 8?Up. The word occurs in numerous Turkish-Arabic glossaries, including those 1U the dialect of the Mamluks: see, e.g., Mahmud al-Kashghari, Diwdn Lughd: al-Turk, i, Istanbul I333, 377; M. Th. Houtsma, Ein. turkisch-arabisches Glossar, Leiden 1894, 70 n. I; A. Caferoglu, Kitiib al-Ldrtik li-listin al-Atrdl« (a work of Abu Hayyan al-Andalusi), Istanbul 193I, 108; A. Zajaczkowski, Manuel arabe de !a langue des Turcs et des Ki.plchaks, Warsaw '938, 53 (the three last Items contain further references). There exists in Syria a dish called tii!mdk, a kind of bread soup (information given by the late Ahmad Zaki Pasha).

THE BIOGRAPHIES OF IBN AL-NAl"iS

17

the diet which agreed with and corresponded to his usual food, until the druggist and syrup-merchant in whose shop he held his consultations' told him: 'If you intend to go on making prescriptions of this kind, you had better go and sit in a butcher's shop, but as long as you are with me, please prescribe sugar, syrup, and remedies only.'

Our professor, Abu l-Thana' al-Halabi, the Secretary," told me the following: I complained to Ibn al-Nafis of a ganglion" on my wrist. He told me: 'By Allah, I have got a ganglion myself.' Thereupon I asked him: 'And how shall I treat it?' He replied: 'By Allah, I do not know myself how to treat it.' And after that he did not speak to me any more about this matter,

These are the two most important biographies of Ibn al-Nafis, They give us many details about his personality and his manner of living and working, but no record of the course of his life. The study of those of his books which have corne down to us confirms much of this information, for instance, that he must have written down (or, as we shall see presently, dictated) most of his works from memory, because he rarely quotes any previous author. On the other hand his style, at least in the treatise which forms the subject of this book, does not seem to deserve the prai.se which his professor in grammar, Ibn al-Nahhas, bestowed upon it (see below, pp. 34 f.). Moreover, if Ibn al-Nafis is praised by his admirers as a second Avicenna, the criticism of Abu l-Fath al-Ya'rnuri, related by 'Umart, shows that notwithstanding his modern ideas on treatment he was a learned theorist rather than a practical physician. Nevertheless, the range and depth of his general culture are impressive.

3· Still older but shorter than the two preceding biographies of Ibn al-Nafis is that in the Tiirikh al-Isldm (,History of Islam') of the historian and traditionist, Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Dhahabi, who was born in Damascus in 673/1274, while Ibn al-Nafis was still alive, and died in Cairo in 748/1348.3 We have used the manuscript Laud Or. 279 ofthe Bodleian Library (Catalogus, i. 656), where the biography of Ibn al-Nafis occurs on fo!' 17oT, collating the text with two manuscripts of the British

I Doctors in the medieval tradition used to, and in places still do, hold their consultations in druggists' stores.

z The Arabic term in the text, 'u~~til, means a shackle or tether; medically it probably means a ganglion or some other affection of the articulation hindering free movement. The modern term is 'ukda (knot).

s GAL', ii. 57-60; Suppl. ii. 45-47.

8151Z2

c

18 INTRODUCTION

Museum: Catalogus, 1641 (Or. 53) and Supplement (Rieu), 468 (Or. 1540). The second half of this biography reproduces a written communication from Abu Hayyan al-Andalusl, which corresponds to about the first half of the information given by Safadi and 'Umari on the authority of this scholar. The first half of Dhahabi's biography, however, contains some additional details, as will appear from the following extract.

'Ali ibn Abil-Haram, the most learned 'Ala' al-Dln Ibn al-Nafis al-Kurashi al-Dimashki, the physician, the prince of physicians in his time. He studied under the Shaykh Muhadhdhib al-Din al-Dakhwar and became excellent in (theoretical medical) art and (practical) treatment .... He used to dictate his works from memory, and did not need to consult a book because he was thoroughly familiar with the subject. He became the Chief Physician of Egypt (wa-ntahat ilayhi ri' dsat altibb bil-Diyiir al-Mi~riyya). He left a vast fortune and bequeathed his house, his (landed) property, and his books to the Mansur! Hospital. He died on 218t Dhul-Kada (687), more than eighty years old, and left no one like him behind. I

Dhahabi mentions the important fact that Ibn al-Nafis became Chief Physician of Egypt. The office of Chief Physician (ra'is al-atibba', of which the expression ri'iisai al-tibb, in Dhahabi, is the abstract) was an important appointment. Ibn Kadi Ba'labakk (see Excursus A, paragraph c, below, p. 75) Was appointed by an 'open decree' (manshilr) of the governor of Damascus in 635/1238,?and the letter of appointment of three sons of Abu 1:-1 ulayka, one of whom was to have precedence.t was drafted by one of the secretaries of state, the famous philologist Muhammad ibn Mukarram Ibn Manziir," in Cairo in 684/I285' It is quoted in full by Ibn alFur1it,5 and we see from it that the appointment \~as not merely honorific but conferred disciplinary powers over the physicians, oculists, and surgeons. In view of Dhahabi's explicit statement, there can be no doubt that Ibn al-Nafis held this appointment, and as it is clear from the implications of the Theologus Autodidactus

I Dhahabi's short extract from his own work, called Kitdb Duzoal al-Isldm, contains a brief mention of the death of Ibn al-Nafis in 687 (and ed., Hyderabad '364-5, ii. 143).

., See IAU, ii. 244, ult.; for the: date, see E. de Zambaur, Manuel de genealogie et de chronologie, Hanover '927, 30 and table H.

, This is Muhadhdhib al-Dln, on whom see Excursus A, paragraph p, below, p. 77.

• GAL', ii, 14f.; Suppl. ii, 25. 5 Tarihh, viii. 22-25.

THE BIOGRAPHIES OF IBN AL-NAFIS 19

that he was the personal physician of Baybars,' it is likely that he was appointed by this sultan. As Ibn al- N afis must have been near eighty years old when the three sons of Abu Hulayka were appointed in 684/1285, it is natural to assume that they were his (direct or indirect) successors. Sultan Baybars died in Damascus in 676, on the return journey from one of his military expeditions; so it is not surprising that Ibn al-Nafis is not mentioned in the various reports on his last illness and death. Z

The other short biographies or obituary notices of Ibn al-Nafis of which we know, are, with one exception (below, no. 6), almost completely derived from the three preceding ones. They occur in the following works:

4- 'Abd Allah ibn As'ad al-Y1ifi'i (d. 768/I367), Mir'at alJanan, iv, Hyderabad 1339, 207. A short obituary notice.

5. Taj al-Din al-Subki (d. 771(1370), Tabaka: al-Shafi'iyya alKubra, Cairo 1324, v, 129. A very competent, concise biographical notice which contains all the essential data. The inclusion of Ibn al-Nafis in this biographical compendium ofthe Shafi'i scholars of religious law shows the reputation which he had gained in the subject. Subki reports that he was considered unequalled in medicine since Avicenna, and even regarded as stronger than Avicenna in (practical) treatment. There are several mistakes to be corrected in the printed text, particularly concerning the date of the death of Ibn al-Nafis (A.H. 687) and his age (about 80).3

I See below, p , 34.

a See Ibn Shaddad, trans!' M. Sereft.ddin Yaltkaya, Baypars Tarihi, Istanbul 194', "2;£.; Ibn 'Abd al-~ahir, al-Rawl/.al-Ziihir, MS. Fatih4367, 193'-194', in Abdul Aziz al-Khowayter, A critical edition, etc., unpublished thesis, London, SOAS; 1960; 'All ibn 'Abdal-Rai)hnibnAl;J.madal-Mu'!'afIarI, Dhayl Mufarrij alKurid: li-bn Wa~il, MS. Paris, Arabe 1703, 187v; Baybars al-Mansuri, Zubdat al-Fikra, MS. British Museum, Add, 23325, 87" v; Yunini, Dhayl 11,1i"'at al-Zamdn, iii, Hyderabad '380/1960, 24.S; Shall' ibn 'Ali, Husn al-Mandhib alSariyya (an extract from Ibn 'Abd al-Zdhir), MS. Paris, Arabe '707, 144'; NuwayrI, Nihayat al-Arab, MS. Paris, Arabe '578. 94r• v (quoting Ibn 'Abd al-Z;ahir); and of later historians: Dhahabi, Kitdb Duwal al-Lsldm, ii. '34; Ibn Kathir, al-Biddya scal-Nihdya, xiii. 274 f.; Ibn al-Furat, Tarihh, vii, 85-88; Mukrizl, Kitab al-Suluk, i/2, 635 f.; Ibn Taghribirdi, al-Nujiari al-Zrihir a, vii,

Cairo 1357/1938. '75, '77,178£.

3 According to the catalogue of the Oriental Public Library at Bankipore, iv,

Calcutta 19ID, no. 28, Ibn al-Nafis occurs also in the biogn,phical works on Shall'! scholars by Ibn al-Mulakkin (d. 8041'401) and by Ibn I5,.ag.i Shuhba (d. 851/1448, below, rio, II).

20 INTRODUCTION

6. Asnawi (d. 772/1370), rabaf!.iit al-Fukaha' al-Shaji'iyya, MS. Or. 3037 of the British Museum (Rieu, Supplement, 643), a copy of 773. This short biographical notice, the sources of which are ~ot apparent and which in its formulation differs somewhat from its predecessors, contains some additional information most if not all of which is erroneous. The author attributes to Ibn al-Nafls a book called al-$afl on applied law and on the principles of jurisprudence which is not mentioned in the other sources. He is certainly mistaken when he asserts that Ibn al-Nafis lived in the Mansuriyya School (which itself is a mistake for the Masruriyya School) in Cairo and that he died in his lodgings there, whereas his disciple Abu Hayyan describes the luxurious house which he built for himseif (above, p. 13). He also gives wrongly as the date of his death the 2Sth (instead of the z rst) Dhul-Ka'da 687 (see above, p. 14)·

7. Ibn Kathlr (d. 774(1373), al-Bidaya soal-Nihaya, Cairo 1351-8/ 1932-9, 313. A short obituary notice.

8. Ibn Habib (d. 779/1377), Durrai al-Aslak fi Dawlat al-Airiik, MS. Marsh 591 of the Bodleian Library (Catalogus, i. 819); Tadhkirat al-Nabih fi Ayyam al-Man~ur wa-Banih, MS. Add. 733 S of the British Museum (C atalogus, 3 I 5); two short obituary notices, both under the year 687; in the second, the verses of Ibn Mawhtib (above, p. 14) are quoted.

9. [Ibn al-Furat (d. 807/I405), Tarikh, ed. Costi K. Zurayk, viii, Beirut 1939. There is a big lacuna in the biographies of the year 687 (see p. 75 n. 2), and this accounts no doubt fd'r the absence of a biographical notice of Ibn al-Nafis.]

10. Makrizi (d. 84S/I4+2), Kitab al-Sulak li-Ma'rifat Duwal alMuZuk, ed. M. Mustafa Ziada, i/3, Cairo 1939, 746. A very short obituary notice in which Ibn al-Nafis is called Chief Physician (ra'is al-atibbii').

11. Ibn I)_a<;li Shuhba (d. 851/1448), 'J'abal:-lit al-Shiifi'iyya, MSS. Or. 3039 (Rieu, Supplement, 644) and Add. 7356 (Catalogus, 370) of the British Museum, both of 843. A biographical notice derived from Subki, Dhahabi, and Asnawi (whose mistakes do not recur here).

THE BIOGRAPHIES OF IBN AL-NAFis 21

I2. Mahmiid ibn Ahmad al-'Ayni (d. 855/I451), 'Il:-d al-Juman. We are indebted to Professor H. Ritter for a copy of the biography of Ibn al-Nafis in the manuscript Besir Aga 457, under the year 687. This biography alone contains, apart from data derived from Abu Hayyan, the information that Ibn al-Nafis composed a commentary on the famous 'Questions on Medicine' (lVlasii'iljilribb) of the celebrated physician and translator Hunayn ibn Ishak (see below, p. 24).

13. Ibn Taghribirdi (d. 874/1469), al-Manhal al-Siifi, MS. Cairo, Tiirihl: III3, vol, ii, fol. 383 (index by G. Wiet, Les Biographies du Manhal al-Safi, Cairo 1932): a biography derived from Abu Hayyan, quoting the verses of Ibn Mawhub: al-Nuium al-Ziihira, vii, Cairo 1357/I938, 377: a notice derived from the first half of the biography by Dhahabi, and mentioning his office as a Chief Physician with a slightly different wording (wa-ntahat ilayhi ri'iisat fannih fi zamiinih).

14. JaHil aI-Din al-Suyiiti (d. 9II/1SOS), lfusn al-MuflacJara, i, Cairo I299, 313 (section on Philosophers, Physicians, and other representatives of the Sciences of the Ancients): a short notice, carelessly compiled; the title of his work, Mujiz, 'Epitome' (of Avicenna's J:Canun), has been transformed into a description of his works in general as being concise. The commentator of the Miljiz of Ibn al-Nafis, Nafis ibn 'Iwad (below, p. 25), quotes this notice at the beginning of his commentary.

IS. 'Abd al-Kadir ibn Muhammad al-Nu'aymi (d. 927/1521), al-Dan's fi Tarikh al-Madaris, ii, Damascus 1370/195I, 131. A short notice, derived from Dhahabi and Ibn Kathir.

16. Tashkopruzade (d. 968/1S60), Mifta/:tal-Sa'iida, i, Hyderabad 1328/I91O, 269. Reproduces the notice of Subki.

17. Ibn al-Tmad (d. 1089/1679), Shadhariit al-Dhahab, v, Cairo 1351, 401 f. An obituary notice with quotations from Dhahabi, Subki, the 'J'abal:-at al-Shafi'iyya of Asnawi, and the Kitdb al- 'Tbar, an alternative title of Dhahabi's Kitab Duwal al-Islam,

18. Muhammad Bakir al-Khwansari (d. 1313/1895), RawcJat alJannat, Teheran 1304-6, 494f. = vol. iii, 145 f. This biography

22

INTRODUCTION

occurs in a section devoted to non-Shiite authors; the author quotes Safadi's biography in full and adds two lines on the Mftji.z of Ibn al-Nafis.!

This uninterrupted series of biographical or obituary notices of Ibn al-Nafis shows the high regard in which he has always been held in the tradition of medieval Islamic scholarship.

IV. THE LITERARY OUTPUT OF IBN AL-NAFIS FOR a review of the works of Ibn al-Nafls we are limited to the indications in his biographies and in the bibliographical compendium of I:Eijji .Kl.alifa,> and to the existing manuscripts.e They certainly do not give an even approximately complete list of the output of such a profuse writer as Ibn al-Nafis, We will begin with his works on medicine.

I. Kitab al-Shamil fil-Sina'o. al-Tibbiyya, 'The Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine' (I;IKh, IV. 10, no. 7397; GAL, Suppl., no. 15). According to AbuHayyan, this encyclopedia of medicine was to have consisted of three hundred volumes, eighty of which were completed by the author. Apart from the two partial copies, Pocock 248 (of 687/1288) and 290-2 of the Bodleian Library.t which are anonymous and have therefore been of uncertain attribution so far, there have recently become known three volumes, the 33rd, 42nd, and 43rd of the original division of the work, in the Lane Medical Library, Stanford University,. Stanford, California.s It appears that these volumes, of 94, 96, an'd 97 folios respectively, are in the handwriting of the author, the typically cursive hand of a scholar; volume 43 was completed in the year 641/1243-4, and volumes 42 and 43 partly coincide with the

I According to Ahlwardt, catalogue Berlin, no. 6224, Ibn al-Nafis is also mentioned in the Dustiir al-L'ldm Li-Ma'drif al-A'ldm of Muhammad Ibn 'Azam (d. 89rlr486; GAL'; ii. 173; Suppl. ii.2,22 f.) and in the Tdrihh' of Yiisin ibn Khayr Allah aI-'Umar! (wrote after 1226/181 I; GAL, Suppl. ii. 781 f.).

2 Lexicon bibliographicum et encyclopaedicum, ed. and transl. G. Fluegel, 7 vols., Leipzig 1835-58. (Referred to hereafter as l;:!Kh.)

3 The references to GAL and GAL, SuppZ. in this section, followed by a number, refer to the entries in the paragraphs devoted to Ibn al-Nafls in GAL', 'i, 649, § 37, and in Suppl. i. 899 f., § 37.

• Catalogus, i, 539 and 536-8.

5 See N. Heer, 'Thaliithat Mujalladat min Kitab al-Shamil li-bn al-Nafis ', Revue de l'Institut des Mcnuscrits Ambes, vi (1960), 203-10 (with three plates).

THE LITERARY OUTPUT OF IBN AL-NAFIS 23

manuscript Pocock 290, which makes the identification certain. According to the bio&"raphical notice on Ibn al-Nafis in the manuscript 'iimm 4883(r) cf the Zahiriyya Library in Damascus (see above, p. 10 n. 4), thiswork of Ibn al-Nafis contained an account of 'the different schools-of thought of the scholars and the various beliefs ofthe groups of sages in the several sciences and (systems of) philosophy, together with the substance and quintessence of their arguments and opinions, accompanied by a simple, exhaustive, efficacious, and satisfactory explanation'. But the manuscripts do not seem to contain anything of the kind.

2. AI-Kitab al-Muhadhdhab jil-Kuly.l, 'The Well-Arranged Book on Ophthalmology' (GAL, Suppl., no. 12). It is a comprehensive but not very original record of the whole knowledge of the Arabs in ophthalmology. It was quoted by several later authors, e.g. by Sadaka ibn Ibrahim al-Shadhill, the Egyptian, who lived in the second half of the 8th/14th century, in his 'Umda al-Kuhliyya.:

3· Al-Mukhtiir min al-Aghdhiya, 'The Choice of Foodstuffs', on dietetics (GAL, no, I),

4. Risala fi Manaji' al-A'da' al-Insaniyya, 'Treatise on the Functions of the Organs of Man', MS. majami'209(3) of the Egyptian Library, Cairo.> According to the catalogue, which quotes the expanded form of the title of this treatise which describes its contents in detail, it was dedicated to a certain Husam aI-Din Khalil, presumably a prince of the dynasty of the Hazaraspids in Luristan in the first half of the 7th/13th century.s and the manuscript was completed in 672/1273, during the lifetime of Ibn al-Nafis. Considerations of the functions of the organs play an important part in the Theologus Auiodidactus (see below, p. 41).

5. 'The Treatise on the Pulse', mentioned in "Umari's and Safadr's biographies (above, p. 15), does not seem to have been preserved.

I GAL', ii. 171; J. Hirschberg, Geschichte der Augenheilhunde im Mittelalter, Leipzig 1908, 81, 88.

Z Fihrist al-Kutub al- 'Arabiyya, etc., vii. 257 f. (not mentioned in GAL or in GAL, Suppl.). The form of the name of the author, 'Ali ibn Abil-Hasan alI>.m-ashi, is a printing mistake for ibn Abil-Haram, i.e, Ibn al-Nafis, as appears from the context of the catalogue.

3 E. de Zambaur, Manuel de geneaiogie et de chronologie, 235. The title Amir al-Mu'minin which the catalogue gives to this person is certainly a mistake and perhaps a misreading of the manuscript.

24 INTRODUCTION

More numerous and important are Ibn al-Nafis's commentaries on medical works of the Greek and Islamic periods.

! '.

6. A Commentary on Hippocrates' Aphorisms (Fu~ul). It exists

in numerous manuscripts (GAL and Su/ppl., no. 4, where the reference to a manuscript in Meyerhof's' collection ought to be deleted; the manuscript in question contains no. 13 below; also Aya Sofya 3644,1 and Manisa 1814).2

7. A Commentary on Hippocrates' Prognostics (Takdima; alMa'rifa), of which there exist several manuscripts (I:IKh, ii. 386, no. 3454; GAL and Suppl., no. 5).

8_ A Commentary on Hippocrates' Epidemics (GAL, Suppl., no. sa).

9. A Commentary on the De Natura Hominis of Hippocrates. Meyerhof saw a manuscript in the possession of Professor A. S. Yahuda in London in 1933; this copy had at the end an iJiiza (licence to teach the text) written by Ibn al-Nafis himself for a physician, Abu I-Fa~1.3

It is unlikely that Ibn al-Nafis should have commented on all the books of Hippocrates, and written two commentaries, a detailed and a concise one, on most of them, as his anonymous biographer, quoted by 'Umarl and by Safadl, asserts (above, p. 16); in any case, nothing of all this has survived,"

10. A Commentary on the Masa'il fil-Tibb, 'Questions on Medicine', of Hunayn ibn Ishak (GAU, i, 225; Ritter and "walzer, ibid., 836).

I H. Ritter and R. Walzer, A"abiscke Uberseteungen griechischer Arzte in Stambuler Bibliotheken (Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad, Wiss., Phi1.-hist. Klasse, I934, xxvi), 808. See also F. Rosenthal, in Bulletin of the History of Medicine, xl (I966), 240f.

2 Une Liste des manuscrits choisis parmi les bibliotheques de Manisa, Akhisar. (publiee it I'occasion du XXII. Congres International des Orientaliates), Istanbul I95', no .. 288.

3 Possibly the physician, Abu l-Fadl Ibn Kushak, mentioned in Safadi's biography (above, p. I6 n, u).

4 In the introduction of his Commentary on the Aphorisms Ibn al-Nafis says that the previous copies of his work-i.e. those taken down by students in the course of his lectures-differed according to the different interests ofthe students, and that he will now give the (complete) text which he considers .adequate (MS. Berlin (Ahlwardt), no. 6224); it is possible that the existence of different texts like these might have contributed to the statement of the anonymous biographer.

THE LITERARY OUTPUT OF IBN AL-NAFls 25

II. Miijiz al-Jianiin, 'Epitome of the Jianun' (of Ibn Sina), an extract from all parts of the K,.aniln but omitting anatomy and physiology.' It is a concise manual of the whole of medicine, particularly useful for the practitioner, and among the works of Ibn al-Nafis it has met with the greatest success in the Oriental medical world. It exists in numerous manuscripts and was printed or lithographed in India alone six times or more between 1828 and 1906; it was the subject of a series of commentaries and super-commentaries, the most reputed of which is that by Nafis ibn 'I wad al-Kirmani (completed 841 11437), the personal physician of the Timurid ruler Ulugh Beg (d. 853/1449), which was lithographed in India for the last time as recently as 1328/1910; it was also translated into Turkish and into Hebrew. (I:IKh, vi. 251-3, no. 13399; GAV, i. 598; Suppl. i. 825 f.; also Florence, Laurentiana 229; Brit. Mus., Or. I2I42; Rabat, Aw~af270' 421).

12. A Commentary on the !:;1iniln of Ibn Sina in a number of vclumes.s Ibn al-Nafis says in the introduction that he followed the arrangement of the subject-matter in the¥aniln, exceptthat he collected the passages relating to anatomy from the first three sections and commented on them in a separate section which he placed after the first section (the kulliyyat) of the original work, and that he placed the section on pharmacology (a~rabadhin), the fifth section of the original, after that on simple drugs (al-adwiya al-mufrada), which is the second section of the original; this makes the arrangement of the subject-matter much more logical. (GAL2, i, 597 j Suppl. i. 824; needs several additions and corrrections.) The individual sections of the commentary, however, continued to exist more or less independently of one another, and therefore we find. apart from general references to the 'Commentary on the .{((im7n' :

(a) references to a Commentary on the Kulliyyat of the f!:anun (Subki's biography; I:IKh, iv. 435. no. 9082; 497, no. 9354),

t I:l:Kh, iv. 497, no. 9354, erroneously calls it an extract from his commentary Ilil the Kulliyytit of the K:d11U11. Cf. M. J. L. Young, 'Some observations On the 1111,) of Arabic as a scientific language as exemplified in the Mujiz al-Qdnio: of llin al-Nafis (d. Iz88)', Abr Nahrain, i (r959-60), 68-72.

~ This is the expression of Abu Hayyan as quoted by 'Umari and Safadi (nhove, p. 12); the anonymous biographer, also quoted by both, says 'twenty volumes' (above, p. IS). They were presumably of the same size as the autograph volumes of the Kittib al-Shamil (see above, no. I).

26

INTRODUCTION

and the separate existence of this section In manuscripts (e.g. Berlin (Ahlwardt), no. 6273);

the separate existence of a Commentary on the' Section on Simple Drugs' (Shar~ jV[ufmdat al-Kaniln) in manuscripts of the Library of Aya Sofya (nos. 3659,3660);

the separate existence of a Latin translation of the Commentary on the Fifth Section of the Kaniln; 1

the existence of the Commentary on Avicenna's Anatomy as a separate book.

13. This Commentary on the Anatomy of Ibn Sina exists in numerous manuscripts.> In this work Ibn al-Nafls sets out his theory of the lesser or pulmonary circulation of the blood through heart and lungs, against the erroneous theories of Galen and Avicenna, three hundred years before it was reformulated in Europe by Michael Servetus, who most probably knew of the work of the Arab physician in translation, and by his contemporaries, Realdo Colombo and Joan de Valverde, who developed and elaborated his ideas in the light of their observations.i

(b)

(c)

(d)

14. An anonymous Commentary on Galen's Anatomy (GAL, Suppl., no. 5b), tentatively attributed to Ibn al-Nafis, is probably not by him because 'he loathed the style of Galen'.» But he knew Galen's Anatomy very well, as he made extensive use of it in explaining the Anatomy of Ibn Sina.

Another part ofIbn al-Nafis's literary activity is concerned with philosophy. To this group of writings belong:

IS. a Commentary on Ibn Sina's main work on logic, al-Ishariit, mentioned by the anonymous biographer (above, p. 16), and

I Ebenefis philosophi expositio ,uper quintum Canonem Avicenne, in a miscella~y beginning with, Aoicenne libellus de rem oven dis nocumentis. quae accidunt. tn' regimine sanitatis .... Ab Andrea Alpago ex arabico in laiinum versa, Venice I547; cf. M.-T. d'Alverny, 'Avicenrie et les rnedecins de Venise", in Medioevo e Rinnscimento, studi in onore di Bruno Nardi, i, Florence I955, I77-98 (p. I95 n.46).

2 For a list of these manuscripts see Al-Andalus, xxii (1957), 22I n. IS.

a See, in addition to the writings of M. Meyerhof, mentioned above, p. II

n. "I, G. Wiet, 'Ibn al-Nafis et la circulation pulmoriaire ', JA, r956, 95-roo; J. Schacht, 'Ibn ai-Nafis, Servetus and Colombo', Al-Andalus, xxii (1957), 317-36.

• See above, p. 13.

THE LITERARY OUTPUT OF IBN AL-NAFIS 27

16. a Commentary on the Hidiiya, another work of Ibn Sina on logic, mentioned by Abu Hayyan (above, p. 13).1

17· Abij Hayyan mentions further a Compendium (mukhta~ar) on logic (ibid.), and this is probably identical with his Kitab al-WUI'aykat or with his own commentary on it which exists in the manuscript Hunt 469 of the Bodleian Library ( GAL, no. 8). This is a summary of the contents of the Organon and the Rhetoric of Aristotle, and the author says at the beginning that it is a commentary on his own Kitiib al- Wuray~iit, although it does not show the usual characteristics of a commentary. The section summarizing the Analytica Priora includes a discussion of the legal proofs admitted in Islamic law and of the limited value of the reasoning by analogy (~iyi.is) from the point of view of logic. This excursus shows the same kind of original reasoning as the Theologus Autodidactus, and the attribution of the work to Ibn al-Nafis on the title-page is no doubt correct.s

In the fields of grammar and rhetoric we have:

18. a book called rari~ al-Fasiiha, 'The Path of Eloquence' (I:IKh, iv, 165, no. 7973, without any details), and it is doubtful whether it is identical with the 'book in two volumes' on grammar of which Abu, I;Iayyan speaks somewhat critically (above, p. i3); and

19· a commentary on the Fusiis, an anthology, by the famous philologist $a'id ibn al-Hasan al-Raba'i al-Baghdadj (d. 4I7 /1026; I~IKh, iv. 424, no. 907I; GAL, Suppl. i, 254).

Islamic religious sciences are represented by:

20. a Commentary on the Tanbib of Shirazl, a treatise of Islamic religious law-unless its mention in Subki's biographical notice 011 Ibn al-Nafis (and in I:IKh, ii. 433, no. 3639) results from an erroneous interpretation of the statement of Abij Hayyan that Ibn

I I;IKh, vi. 478, no. 14363, errs when he calls it a work on medicine.

• Alfarabi (d. 3391950), in his Kitdb al-J>.iyas al-$aghir, had 'interpreted rhe arguments of the theologians and the analogies (l;eiyasat) of the jurists "" logical syllogisms in accordance with the doctrines of the ancients' (cf. A, L Sabra, in JAOS, r965, 2.42,). The treatise in question was edited, with an ILlI:.mduction and Turkish translation, by MIle Mubahat Turker in Dil Tarih (.'ol1rajya Faltultesi Dergisi (University of Ankara), xvi (r958), r65-286, the text 1>11 pp. 244-86.

INTRODUCTION

al-Nafis explained the first chapters of this work in his lectures at the Masruriyya School in Cairo (above, p. 14)·

21. A Mukhtasa» fi 'Ilm U~ftl al-Hadith, 'Compendium on the Principles of the Science of Tradition', exists in a manuscript copy in the Egyptian Library (GAL, no. 9)·

22. There is, finally, al-Risala al-Kamiliyya fil-Sira al-Nabasoiyya'The Treatise relating to Kamil on the Life-History of the Prophet', also called the Book of Farjil ibn Niiti~ or, in short, the Theologus Autodidactus, which forms the subject of the present publication (I:IKh, iii. 432, no. 6296; above, p. 14)·'

V. IBN AL-NAFIs'S THEOLOGICAL NOVEL

AL-RISALA AL-KAMILIYYA

THERE are two precedents to the work of Ibn al-Nafis in Arabic literature, the philosophical allegories of the great Ibn Sina (Avicenna, d, 428/1°37) and of the Andalusian physician and philosopher, Ibn Tufayl (d. 58r!I18s), both of which bear the title of Risiilat Hayy ibn Ya1Jz.an. The parallel between Ibn Sina's book> and the treatise of Ibn al-Nafis is very slight; it does not go beyond the fact that both authors introduce the figure of a narrator, called Hayy ibn Ya~~an by Ibn SIna (and by Ibn Tufayl), and Fadil ibn Natik by Ibn al-Nafis. But whereas the Hayy ibn Ya~~an of Ibn Sina (and likewise of Ibn Tufayl] is the person whose teachings (or, in the case of Ibn Tufayl, reflections) are related in the book, the Fadil ibn Naril~ of Ibn al-Nafis plays only the part of a quite superfluous transmitter of the tale of the hero, who is called Kamil. Whereas this feature proves that Ibn alN afis was aware of the works of his two predecessors, it is quite

I For a few other, doubtful Dr not identified, items see GAL and Suppl., nos. 3, '3, ,6; the biographical notice in the manuscript 'dmm 4883(I) of the Z;ahiriyya Library mentions, at the end, the titles of five items which have not survived, among them a book on triplets and a treatise on children's ailments. Ibn al-Nafis himself in the present treatise (below, p. 43, p. S of the Arabic text) refers to a book of his, apparently on astronomy, of which we have found no other trace.

• See GAL', i. 593, no. 26; Suppl, i. &'7, no. 26; A.-M. Goichon, art. 'Hayy b. Yakzan', I, in sr (With bibliography); G. Vajda, 'Notes philologiques eI;L marge du "Recit de Hayy Ibn Yaq;ean"', in Arabica, vii (1960)., 85-87; Mul;1ammad Saghir Hasan al-Ma'sumi, 'Risalat Hayy ibn Yalg:an ma'a sharhiha li-bn Sina', Majallat al-Majma' ai-t Ilmi al-i Arabi, xxix/3-xxxI3 (1373/1954-

13741'955).

IBN AL·NAFis's THEOLOGICAL NOVEL

29 out . ~f the question that he should have written his book in opposlt!On to the !reatise of Hayy ibn Yaf:.z.an of Ibn Sina, as Najm al-Din al-Safadi asserts;' perhaps Najm al-Din was a prey to the common error by which the book of Ibn Tufayl was attributed to Ibn Sina.2 Much closer is the relationship between Ibn al-Nafis and Ibn Tufayl.r The main idea of hath treatises is the same' a human being originated by spontaneous generation on an unin~abited ~sland comes to know by his own reasoning the natural, phllos?phlcal, and theological truths. In the story of Ibn Tufayl, Hayy Ibn Yalq:an. as a sm~ll baby is adopted and brought up by a gazelle~ and growmg up discovers, through observation and logical deduction, the whole body of essential human knowledge, arriving finally at the deepest truths of mysticism. One day a visitor in search of solit~ude and retirement arrives on the island and, having taught Hayy Ibn Yakzan to speak, finds that the teachings of his own revealed religion are symbols of Hayy's mystical insights. r:r:oge:her they set out for the island of the visitor where the king is hIS friend, but Hayy is unable to convert the people from a perf~nctor'y performance of the outward duties of their religion to his hlghe~ Id:as. ?o both return to the desert island and spend the rest of th.elr lives m contempla~ion of the mystical truths. The subject of :hls book could not possibly have occurred to any but.an Islamic philosopher, and the same is true of the treatise of Ibn al-Nafis.

Amo~g. the many parallels in particulars, We cite: several points of detail III .the story of spontaneous generation; the description of the wor lung of the sense organs; the idea of the helplessness of

[ Above, p. '4 ..

.2 This c,onfusion exists, for example, in Ibn Khaldun (d. 808/1406), Muluuldima, section v, § 28 (ed.BflHil~ 1284, i, 346),

• J See GAL", i. 602 L: Suppl. i. 83' f.: A.-M. Goiehon, art. cit., II; add to the blbhogroaphy: A. Gonzalez Palencia, Historic de la Literatura ardbigo-espahola \COleCCI6n Labo~), 19z8, 21~-20; Antonio Pastor, The Idea of Robinson Crusoe, I, Watford '9~0; Abd al-Halirn Mahmud, Falsafat. Ibn Tufa:yl wa-Ristilatuh ... , Cairo (n.d.); W .. M_ontgo~1ery Watt, Islamic Philosophy and Theology, Edin'burgh 1962, .'38 f.: Idem, Philosophy and Theology under the Alrnohads', in Aetas del Primer Congreso ~e !£studws Arabes e Isldmicos, Madrid '964, r02-7 (pp, '04-6); H. C01:bm, HLstmr,e de la philosophic islamique, Paris 1964, 32.7-33; II. Laoust, l:es Schismes dans I Is/an," Paris '96$, 326 f.; See also J. D. Pearson, Index Islamicus I906-I955, Cambndge '958, no. 5071 f' : idem, Supplement TfJ,56-I960. '9~2, nos. '46, ff. The first English translation made from the Arabic IS by SImon Ockley (r678-r720). The Improoement of Human Reason I."t~bl[she~ in the life of Hai ebn Yokdhan, London 1708' this translation wa~ revised, WIth an introduction, by A. S. Fulton, The Histor; of Hayy Ibn 'Yaqssan London 1929. '

INTRODUCTION

30 individual man as compared with the animals which are provided with natural covering and weapons; the hero's arriving a~ the knowledge of anatomy by dissecting the bodies of dead ,mlll~als with primitive instruments; his proceeding from the observat~on of the animals to that of the plants, then that of the meteorological phenomena, then that of the celestial bodies, and finally, by the same reasoning in both books, to the kno:vle~ge of the Creator and of His attributes ;' his feeling the obligation to conform to the commands of the Supreme Being; the linking of certai~ ages of the hero with the achievement of certain stages of reasonmg; the arrival of a stranger (or of strangers) on the island, from whom .the hero accepts food and learns the language; ~is visit to.an inhabited country; the reason why the Divine Law, in addressing the common people, makes use of allegories.' In two r~spects ~oth ?ooks go, essentially, against normal, orthodox Islamic doctnne: rn the assumption of spontaneous generation, a:ld in the assump:ion that man may arrive at the knowledge of relJglOus. truths by independent reasoning.3 All these coincidences and, still more, the general parallelism between the two books, prove beyond any dou~t that Ibn al-Nafis knew the work of Ibn Tufayl and composed hIS own

treatise with it in view. .

This fact only adds to the significance of the diverge?~es ,:hlch we observe between the works and which show the ongmahty. of the thought of Ibn al-Nafis. Ibn Tufayl menti?ns an alternative theory to account for the origin of the hero, appa~:nt1y ta~en fro~ a popular tale; according to it, he had been put mto a h~tle Ark

d confided to the waves by his mother, who feared for h1S safety, r~mediately after birth; this has no ~arallel in. Ibn al- N afis. Ibn Tufayl, as we have just seen, makes 111m start hl~ care:r as a newborn baby, whereas in the treatise of Ibn al-Nafis he IS genera:ed as a vouth of 10-12 years of age; therefore Ibn Tufayl has to ~rovlde for his upbringing by a gazelle, whereas Ibn al-Nafis can dispense with that. In Ibn Tufayl the hero finds out for himself the use. of fire, especially for preparing food, an~ also the ado~tion of clothl~g as well as other practical inventions; m Ibn al-Naf_Is he learns this only from his visitors. In this context Ibn al-Nafis elaborates. the

r Cf. G. Vajda, 'La Connaissanee naturelle de Dieu selon al-Gal':lI?' critiquee par les Mu'tazilites,' Stadia Islamica, xxiv (1966), '9-33·

• Cf. I. Goldziher, introduction to Le LIVte de Mohammed Ibn T'oumert,

Algiers 1903, 74f. .

3 See below, p. 43 f., and passun.

IBN' AL-NAFIS'S THEOLOGICAL NOVEL

3!

idea, which is lacking in Ibn Tufayl, that life becomes civilized only in human society. On the other hand, he develops the philosophical reflections of the hero in much less detail than Ibn Tufayl, and he does not touch at all the reasonings which lead to mysticism, including the idea that man by his acts can assimilate himself to the Supreme Being. Whereas Ibn Tufayl makes his hero arrive at his insight into the nature of the soul by his own unaided reasoning, Ibn al-Nafis makes it part of his speculations on the doctrines likely to be taught by the prophets, that is to say, after he had been confronted by the problems posed by human society (although there are parallels in details). In the book of Ibn Tufayl, it is the visitor who communicates to the hero the positive rules of Religious Law concerning ritual and social life, whereas in the work of Ibn al-Nafis the hero deduces them by reasoning. As regards the allegorical explanation of the contents of revelation, Ibn Tufayl applies it to religious duties, but Ibn al-Nafis applies it to points of theology and the description of the future life, of which, as of the doctrine of the Last Things, he is the only one of the two authors to speak. The arrival of visitors from the outside world has a different function in each story; it serves in Ibn Tufayl to confirm .and complete the results of the hero's independent reasoning, but m Ibn al-Nafls only to acquaint him with the existence of a human society outside his island, from which he goes on to draw conclusions by solitary thinking, their confirmation by comparison with the existing religion being left to the reader. Thus the hero of Ibn al-Nafis discovers for himself not only the duties of man in worship and social relations, but also the periodical development ~f prophecy, the life-history of the last Prophet, the subsequent I'ate of the community of this Prophet, and the end of this world with the signs preceding it. All this has no parallel in the work of Ibn Tufayl, and it forms the, to us, most interesting part of the book of Ibn al-Nafis, with its highlight in the chapters on conl impcrary history. The community of believers which the hero 1)1' Ibn 'I'ufayl encounters follows the doctrine of some ancient Prophet; the work of.Ibn al-Nafls is not explicit on the religion in question, but as it is the religion of the last of the prophets there 1'1111. be no doubt in the mind of the reader that Islam is meant.! 'I'he hero's visit to an inhabited part of the world is an integral

, The word Islam escapes the author once, and there ate some other instances whul"c his fiction of abstract reasoning breaks down; see below, p. 3.5.

INTRODUCTION

32 element of the treatise of Ibn Tufayl, but only an episode, soon forgotten in its implications, in the tale of Ibn al-Nafis, Finally, the essential part played by the visitor in the boo.k of Ib~ Tufayl, and the final return of the hero with his compamon to hIS Island, have no parallel in Ibn al-Nafis. This brings us to the fundamental difference in the tendency of both works: Ibn Tufayl wants to establish the fundamental accord between traditional religion, fit for the masses, and philosophical mysticism, reserved for the elite, at the same time claiming pre-eminence for this last;' Ibn al-Naf~s, writing here as an Islamic theologian, intends to prove not only, I_n the first place, the reasonableness of the main tenets of .IslaI.Illc religious sciences," but also the appropriateness of. the historical incidents in the life of the Prophet, and of the history and the actual situation of the Muhammadan community.

In order to express this idea of appropriateness, Ibn al-Nafis uses the term aslah, 'that which is most right and proper'. The concept and the term were introduced into Islam by the th~~logical school of the Mu'tazila and taken over, in a so~e,v,"hat. rrutagated form, by Islamic orthodoxy;' they have left t~elr Impr~nt on the sciences of Islam, and even the grammar of classical Arabic was represented by some of its masters as a system of c~gent cor:elusions drawn from undeniable principles." By adopting for his hero the name of Kamil, 'The Perfect One', Ibn al-Nafis does homage to the Islamic idea of the Perfect~Man,5 although the only

1 This remains true, however the final purpose of Ibn Tufayls treatise is interpreted, The attitudes of Ibn Tufayl and ?f Ibn al-Nafis are rypical of two distinct but complementary currents of Islamic thought.

z An anonymous treatise which presents itself as ,an extra~t from Pl~to's La·z~s. although it has nothing to do with true Platonic tradition (MSS. Escurial 883(8), Golius ,69, Ouseley 95; cf. A. Ethe~ Catalogu~ of Persian M$S. zn the Bodleian Library, i, no. <42Z; F. Gabrieli, Aljarab!us, Compendtum Legum Platona, London 195Z, xiii, no. 12), contains in its third part numerous sections on subjects where the doctrines of philosophy are shown to agree :'11th those of Islamicreligion, which is not mentioned explicitly but whose techmcal terms are

freely used.

3 See Excursus C, below, pp, 78 f. "

4 See for example G. Weil, Die grammatischen Streztjragen, Leiden I913, 7~. S See'R. A. Nichoison, art. 'al-Insan al-learni!" in EJ!; H. H. Sch~eder, 'Die

islamische. Lehre vom vollkommenen Menschen', ZDMG,. lxxix CI92S), r92-2068; L. Massignon, 'L'Horrtme parfait en Is~am et son ong:nahte esc~ato[ogique', Eranos-Jahrbuch. xv (1948), 287-314;. Abd al~RaDman Badawi, alInstin al-Kamilfil-Isltim, Cairo 1950. For the ancient Arabian bac~gro,:,nd of t~e idea, see H. Lammen" Mo'awio 1'", 330 (Melanges de la Faculte Orientale, LU.

194),

IBN AL-NAFIS'S THEOLOGICAL NOVEL

33

individual features which may be traced back to that concept are the hero's abnormal bodily size and his outstanding intelligence.' The conclusions at which Ibn al-Nafis makes his hero arrive are naturally enough, those generally accepted in the natural, philosophical, religious, and historical sciences of the Muslims. The Theologus Autodidactus is, no doubt, an intellectual tour de force, but it is pertinent to observe that the reasoning which Ibn al-Nafis uses in this book is essentially the same as that which led him to his theory of the pulmonary circulation of the blood, There, too, he uses abstract reasoning of a teleological kind, inspired above all by Galen's book De Usu Partium, which seeks to show the usefulness of all the organs. This book was greatly appreciated in the Middle Ages, both in the Islamic East and in the Christian West because its thesis fitted in perfectly with the concepts of the wisdom and providence of the Creator.' It also fitted in with the theological idea of aslah. which had been developed by the Muslims before the works of Galen became known to them. The influences of Greek and of Islamic thought, themselves closely connected, cannot be s~parated from each other in the mind and in the literary production of Ibn al-Nafis, theologian, physician, and philosopher.

The most original parts of Ibn al-Nafis's account of the reasonings of his hero are the chapters relating to contemporary history (sections 4-8 of the Fourth Part of his work). In these chapters he describes how the followers of the last prophet are punished for their sins by being conquered by infidels coming from the north-eastern countries; how a complete victory of the infidels is prevented by a mighty sultan who is able to stem their advance because he comes from a country adjoining theirs; and how the invaders themselves begin to adopt the religion of the Last Prophet, so that the final result is the spread of this religion farther than before, This clearly refers to a time when the Mongols had attacked and overrun the eastern and central parts of the world of Islam; they had taken Baghdad in 656/I258 but were checked in their progress by the Egyptian Mamltik sultans of Turkish origin, and they began to adopt Islam themselves. It remains to be seen whether the sultan to whom Ibn al-Nafis refers was Baybars (658/1260- 67611277) or Kalawun (678/I279-689/I290), both of whom were

, This last detail, it is true, appears already in Ibn Tufayl. On the other hand, Ibn Tufayl emphasizes the state of perfection which his hero reaches in the end. 2 See below, p. 43 n, 1.

816122 D

34

INTRODUCTION

his contemporaries. The question is settled by Part IV, Section 7, where the sultan is described as brownish-red (abmar ila l-sumra) of complexion, whereas the complexion of Kalawun was light (durn),1 and he is described as cruel and exacting heavy taxes from his subjects in order to finance his armies. Now these are exactly the characteristics which are mentioned of Baybars," whereas Kalawun is remembered for his clemency, his justice, and his abolition of excessive taxation.' This is materially confirmed by the fact that the Cairo manuscript of the Theologus Autodidacius (from which, it is true, the Fourth Part has been deliberately omitted) is dated 673/1274, thus before the death of sultan Baybars. The conversion to Islam of some infidels therefore cannot be the conversion of Ahmad, Mongol ruler of Persia, which took place under Kalawun, but it must be that of Berke, khan of the. Golden Horde, who had become a Muslim not later than 651 I I 253 and with whom Baybars was in diplomatic relations from 660/1262 onwards." It is interesting to note that Ibn al-Nafls does not mention, among the adversaries of Islam, the Franks, whom Baybars fought no less strenuously than the Mongols. Ibn al-Nafis gives a detailed description, obviously first-hand, of the physical features and the personal tastes of this sultan, which can only be explained by the assumption that Ibn al-Nafis was his personal physician, although the sources are silent on this. This gives us a detail for the biography of the author which is unfortunately almost completely lacking in concrete facts, and, in addition, a unique portrait of the sultan Baybars by the hand of his physician.

The Professor Baha' al-Din Ibn al-Nahhjis is reported to have said: 'In grammar I am not satisfied with anyone's style in Cairo exceptthat of 'Ala' aI-Din Ibn al-Nafis." Whatever may have been the quality of his style in grammar, his style in the present treatise does not deserve a similarly favourable judgement; on the contrary, it is inelegant and clumsy, and so profuse and repetitious that we

I Ibrahim Ibn Wasif Shah (wrote about the end of the 7thf13th century [sic]), Jawahir al-Buhiir, etc. (GAL', i, 335f.; GAU, i. 409; Suppl, i, 574f.); MS. 1496 (Add. 25731) of the British Museum, fo!' 73"·

• We must, of course, discount the official propaganda in Ibn Shaddad (d, 682/1284), Baypars Tarihi, 133 ff., and elsewhere, which praises his justice, clemency, loyalty, generosity, and good deeds in genera\.

3 See below, pp. 67 f., arid the extracts from the biographies of the two sultans in Ibn Taghribirdi's Manhal al-Sdfi, printed as introductory matters, nos. 3 and 4, in the Arabic part of this publication.

4 See above, pp. 4 f. 5 See above, p. 14·

IBN AL-NAFlS'S THEOLOGICAL NOVEL

35

have translated in full only a few sections, contenting ourselves with a summary of the rest. His language, too, presents several peculiar features." Instead of ta budda an, 'necessarily', he always says ta buddaua-an+ he says min kharij for 'from outside' (P.7) and ilafawf:; for 'upwards' (p. 51); he forms the plural hasanun of bas an used as an adjective (p. 47); he construes dakhala with ila (p. 18) and inbiiza with bi (p. 38). To his lexicographical peculiarities belong the use of sa'iira instead of za'iirra, 'iIlnature', and of barafw for 'inspiring fear' (p, 46). As an extreme example of prolixity, we may quote latifa jiddan kathiran jiddan (p. 53)·

As regards the general plan of the work, Ibn al-Nafis, as mentioned above, refrains from pointing out himself the concordance between the results of the reasoning of his hero and the actual facts, but leaves that to the reader; nevertheless the word Islam escapes him on p. 42, and the word f:;iyiima for resurrection, in the place of which he usually uses ma'iid, on p. 51;3 it is also inconsistent, given his premisses, that he should mention Abraham, Ishmael, Jacob, and Jesus, the Jews, the Christians, and the Zoroastrians, as well as the Banu Hashim, in connexion with the genealogy of the Last Prophet on pp. 14£., Mecca and the Ka'ba on p. 16, and Yemen in connexion with the Last Things on p. 51, apart from other minor facts of this kind. A positive contradiction in the argument, though not in the result, exists between p. 42 and p. 45; in the first context, the people of the north-west are eliminated from playing a certain part on account of their small number and their dispersal on islands, whereas the suitability of their temperaments is admitted; in the second context, the unsuitability of their temperaments is alleged as a reason. There is also a discrepancy between the heading of Part IV, Section 8, and the actual contents of this chapter, which are much more restricted; there is no reason to suppose the accidental omission of the second half of this chapter from the unique

[ The p'lge references in this and in the following paragraph ate to the Arabic text.

2 Therefore we have retained this construction on p. I I n. 6, following the Istanbul copy against the Cairo manuscript. although this last is generally much better. In his commentary on the Anatomy of Ibn SIna, Ibn al-Nafis uses the ordinary construction throughout.

, The term al-nabi, 'the prophet'. however (p. I I and further on), designates not only Muhammad but generically each one in the series of prophets.

INTRODUCTION

manuscript in which it exists, but we must acknowledge ali oversight o~ the pan of the author. Once or twice Ibn al-Nafis lapses from his assumed part as the recorder of the report of Fadil ibn Natik on the reasonings of Ksmil ; he refers to another book'of his ow~ ~nd comm~nts on hi.s contemporaries." Notwithstanding this, we may subscribe to the Judgement of N ajm al- Din al-Safadi.> 'He defends the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prop?ets., the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the translto.nness of the world. And-s-by my life l=-he has produced somethlr:g. won?erful, and this proves his competence, the soundness of his intelligence, and his. capability in the intellectual sciences.'

VI. THE MANUSCRIPTS

ONL y two manuscripts of the Theologus Autodidactus are known, one in Cairo and one in .Istanbul.s The Cairo copy exists in the manuscript 209 maidmi' of the Egyptian Library,« a collection of four treatises the first three of which, all by Ibn al-Nafis,' are writ~en in a neat ~ut very cursive scholar's hand, almost completely lacking punctuation, and dated 673/1274 at the end of the third treatise (fol. 77r); the Theologus Autodidactus is the second treatise oc~upying fo~s. 27r~4~r. Although not an autograph, the manu~ scnpt wa~ wr.ltt~n dunng. the lifetime of Ibn al-Nafis, probably by one of his disciples. This copy unfortunatelycontains only the first thre~ parts Cfann) o.f the book, the fourth, though known by the ~oPYlst to exist, having been omitted on purpose; we read in fact in the short preamble of the author that the book is to consist of ~our parts, but in the description of the contents of the parts wh~ch follows, the fourth part is not mentioned, and at the end the scribe uses a formula which shows that he breaks off deliberately.s

The Istanbul copy is manuscript 461 of the Mustafa Efendi collection, formerly in the Library of 'Ashir Efendi> now pre-

'Below, pp. 43, 47. ' See above, p. 14.

3 GAL" i , 649, § 37, no. 10, and SUjJpl. i. 900, § 37. nos. '·0 and '4 (needs correction) .

• ,4 Fihrist al-Kutub al- 'Arabiyya al-l\1abjiu;:a bil-Kutubkhdna al-Khidiwiyya, VI1. 257£.; Ddral-Kuiub al-Misriyya, Fihris al-Kutub al-l Arabiyya, v, ZOL

: ~os. 21, Z2, an~ 4 of.the list in Section IV, above.

And here we WIll fimsh_ the book' (Arabic text, p. 36).

7 D~ite,.-! Kutubkhalle-i 'ulshir Efendi, Istanbul 1306, p. 30, no. 46r. Here. the bOO~lS called: af~er a notice in a late hand on fol. rr, Rissla ii Takasounm-i Insan al-Kamii [stel. _

THE MANUSCRIPTS

37

served in the Si.ileymaniye Library. This manuscript, of much later date than the preceding one, is written in the pleasing hand of a professional scribe, but is much -less correct than the older manuscript. Apart from the omission of a few single words and some. copyist's errors of no importance in the Cairo manuscript, there are only seven places, two of which are identical, where the Istanbul copy presents a better text. I Nevertheless both copies go back to a common original, other than that of the author as appears from six errors common to them (not counting those which could have happened independently). Parts of fols, 2 I, 23, 26, 28, 32, and 37 of the Istanbul manuscript are more or less illegible, owing to the ink's having affected the paper all around it. Professor H. Ritter, to whom we are indebted for a photograph of this manuscript, kindly had the pages in question copied out for us once again, a copy which we were able to correct from the Cairo manuscript in a number of places. In the first three sections, we only ran ~h~ risk of omitting a few. irrelevant variants of the Istanbul copy; It IS all the more regrettable that, as regards the fourth section (starting on fol. 32v of the Istanbul manuscript), we not only had to rely, for the illegible passages, on a modern copy, but in general had to content ourselves with one late and faulty manuscript; we have therefore been unable to settle the text definitely in a few places.

I Contrary to the first impression, the reading of the Cairo manuscript is preferable to the Istanbul variant at p. 9, notes] and 2, of the Arabic text. As to note t : Kamil having, according to p. 8, come through the period of puberty, therebY,entenng mature' age, and having subsequently gained a number of new rmpressions, one should be inclined to prefer the reading fara~ to /Jarab; but p. 2;6, referring to a later period, informs us that he had only then reached the end of his full manly vigour. As to note 2: the singular 'abdih. is no doubt more logical than the plural 'ibddih, but this last reading is nevertheless to be retained as .one of the instances where the author forgets his fiction that IGimil is an isolated thinker ·out of touch with historical facts (see above, p. 35).

TRANSLA TION

The numbers in the margin refer to the pages of the Arabic text.

THE TREATISE RELATING TO KAMIL ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE PROPHET

by

IBN AL-NAFIS

('I"") IN the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

'Ali ibn Abil-Haram al-Kurashf, the medical practitioner, who is in need of Allah's help and whom may Allah pardon, says:

After the Praise of Allah and the Blessing on the Best of the Prophets and Messengers, Muhammad, and on his Family and Companions, (I say):

My intention in this treatise is to relate what Fadil ibn Nati~ transmitted from the man called Karnil concerning the life-story of the Prophet and the ordinances of religious Law in a concise manner, endeavouring to omit verbosity, abstaining from obscurity, and explaining the points as far as possible 'ltnd in a manner concordant with the size of this book. I have arranged it in four parts:

the first part (fann) explaining how this man called Kamil came to be formed and how he came to know the (natural) sciences and the missions of the prophets;

the second on how he came to know the life-story of the Prophet; the third on how he came to know the ordinances of religious Law;

the fourth on how he came to know the happenings which will take place after the death of the Last of the Prophets-may the Blessings of Allah be on him and on them all.

THE FIRST PART

On how this man called Kamil came to be formed and how he came to know the (natural) sciences and the missions of the prophets

It consists of three sections.

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 39

The First Section: on how the mall called Kamil came to be (i) formed.

Says Fa9il ibn Nati~:

There happened to be a big flood on an island of moderate climate and rich in herbs, trees, and fruits. With this flood became mixed a great quantity of clay of various nature, because the kinds of clay over which the flood had streamed were different. A part of this flood entered a cave situated on the slope of a mountain and filled it. Because the movement of the flood-water was strong, it afterwards brought to the opening of this cave still more clay and herbs which closed it. Then this flood receded and this cave remained full of its contents. This happened in spring, and when summer came the contents of the cave became hot and fermented; they had by then been saturated with the clay contained in them, and they did not cease to boil on account of the heat generated in them until they became mixed and achieved a mixture (temperament, mizaj) very near to equilibrium. Their consistency became viscous and capable of having organs formed from them; their single parts were differentiated because the kinds of clay with which they had been mixed were different. Therefore some of them were hot and dry, similar to the temperament of the human heart; others were hot and moist, similar to the temperament of the human liver; others cold and dry, similar to the temperament of human bones; others cold and moist, similar to the temperament of the human brain; others were similar in temperament to that of human nerves, and others to that of human flesh. To sum up: those parts contained something similar to the temperaments of .all the organs, and other parts were similar in temperament to the aforementioned parts; every part was similar in temperament to the temperament of an organ, and its consistency

was capable of having this organ formed out of it. Therefore these (=) parts were prepared to be transformed into the organs of a man.' Allah in His generosity does not withhold his right from anyone who deserves it, and grants to everyone who is prepared f01" something that for which he is prepared. Therefore He created out of those parts the organs of a man, and out of their whole the body of aman. When this clay had become hot, there. had evaporated from

I This passage follows entirely the ideas of the Greek philosophers and phyuicinna; the most detailed record of-them is found in Galen; De Temperamentis Ub'ri III, ed, Helmreich, Leipzig 1904.

40 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFls

it many vapours, some of which were refined and air like and similar in temperament to that of the human spirit (ruM; so human spirit became formed out of them, and in this manner the formation of a man was completed.

This man was different from a man formed in the womb in several respects. Firstly, the formation of this man resembled that of the chicken in the egg, as the cave resembled the shell of the egg, its material contents the yolk and the white of the egg, the parts similar to the temperaments of the organs those parts from which the chicken is formed, and the other parts similar in their temperaments to the aforementioned parts, those from which the chicken feeds during its formation. Secondly, this man had to have a very big body, because the part from which each organ of his body was formed had to be voluminous, in contrast with the particles of sperm from which the organs of the foetus are formed in the womb. Thirdly, this man found the matter from which he fed during his stay in the cave in plenty and abundance, and he equally found the air which gave the spirit (rub) to his heart in plenty. I Therefore he was able to remain in the cave until his organs became strong, and his perception and his movements vigorous. For this reason he was, when he left the cave, like a youth of ten or twelve years in his movements and his perception, unlike the man who is formed in the womb. The coming out of this man from the cave resembled the hatching of a chicken from the egg. It happened that when he moved his hands and feet, wishing to get out of the cave, some of the clay filling the entrance of the cave had crumbled and fallen down; therefore it was easily pierced by the movement of this man, and when it was pierced, this man did not cease to creep and crawl until he emerged.>

( ., ) The Second Section: on how the so-called Kamil came to acquire

sciences and wisdom.

When the so-called Kamil emerged from the cave, he noticed the space, the light, and the trees of that island, heard the voices of the birds, the roar of the sea, the murmur of the river, and the whistling I According to the Arab physicians, following Galen, the vital spirit is created from a mixture of air and refined blood.

2 For the idea of spontaneous generation in the history of Islamic thought, see P. Kraus, ](lbi,· Ibn Hayyan (Memoires de I'Lnstitut d'Egypte, 45), Cairo 1942,97-134 (particularly 121 n. 3, partly containing information supplied by the present authors); F. Rahman, Avice1ma's Psychology, O.U.P. I952, 24, 7I, (note).

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIs 41 of the winds; he smelled the flowers and plants, ate from the fruits which had fallen from the trees, perceived their taste, and felt the heat and cold of the air, and he wondered very much about it. When he closed his eyes, the visible things disappeared from him, and when he opened them afterwards he perceived them again. Likewise, when he stopped his ears with his fingers, the sounds disappeared, and when he opened them he perceived them again. When palatable things entered his mouth, he perceived their taste, and when he removed them he did not perceive it. The same happened to his nose concerning smells, and to palpable things when they came into contact with his skin. This occurred repeatedly and he knew that these parts are the organs for these perceptions, and that perceiving them is a function of these parts.

Likewise he saw that his hands were there for seizing and his feet for walking and so on. In this manner he became acquainted with many functions of the external limbs, and he desired to know the functions of the organs in the interior of the abdomen and the thorax. He saw that he could observe this in others; so he began to split open the abdomens of animals of which he could get hold and which he found dead. He did this with his nails, with sharpedged stones, splinters of reeds, and similar things which he found. In this way he observed the stomach, and that the food is fermented in it, and that the food enters it through the channel which runs to it from the mouth, and that the intestine is connected with the farthest part of the stomach, and that the refuse of the food is rejected from the intestine, as it is connected with the anus. He saw that the pure parts of the food penetrate into the bloodvessels which are connected with the stomach and the intestines and then penetrate into the concavity of the liver, and in the liver are transformed into a mixture (humour, khalt), which then penetrates from there into the vessel which rises from the attracting part (moJdhab) of the liver, and is distributed within the branches of this vessel, until it is discharged into the organs from the pores of

'I hcse branches. So he came to know the functions of these organs. (v) lie also observed the heart within the thorax, its right ventricle

j'ull of blood, its left ventncle tull of spirit, and that this ventricle contracts so that the spint penetrates by the arteries into the organs,

I hen expands again, so that the s irlt returns to it, and at the same

I h&air is attracted from t e lugg, w ich, in Its turn, attracts the

II i I' from outsiCIe, so that it penetrates into the hollow of the lung

-------- -

42 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS from the nose and mouth by the larynx and the wind,:Eipe, and this happens when the lun is extended.' Then the part of ~ air whic IS warm is expelled to the _Q!W;ide, and this bappens when th0~1~ IS m--C;ntraction, The con~~tion and eX1?ansion of the lung IS provoked by its being moved by the diaphragm and the muscles of'fhe thorax,and this is caused by theCoi'ltraction and exp~orax, In this manner respiration and voice are effected, so he knew that those things are the functions of those organs, He continually inquired into every single organ until he became acquainted with a great part of the science of anatomy, Besides this he used to observe the conditions of the animals and saw that some of them are courageous, aggressive, and carnivorous, such as the lion, the leopard, and the wolf; and he saw that others are timid and fly from those who try to devour or catch them; and similar things, until much of the conditions of the animals became clear to him.

Afterwards he began to think about the plants, and observed how the plant grows from the seed, He saw how the pulp of the seed swells when matter from the soil comes into contact with it, how this effects the splitting up of the husk, how a vessel-like shoot comes forth which sucks the matter from the soil, how this sprout shoots off perpendicularly and emerges from the soil. He also observed the leaves of the plants and saw that from the base of the leaf to its tip there extends a thing like an axis from which threads radiate to both sides, in which the nourishment penetrates all parts of the leaf and by which the leaves are supported, He further observed the fruits, and saw that some of them: are openly exposed, as for instance the fig, whereas others are within a cover, be it a husk, as for instance the bean, be it shell-like, as for instance the acorn, be it a membrane, as for instance the grain of wheat, and some in more than one cover, as for instance the nut and the almond; moreover that some fruits have one seed, such as the apricot and the almond, and some many seeds, such as the pomegranate and the pumpkin; moreover that some fruits are single, such as the citron and the nut, and some conglomerated, such as the bunch of grapes, He observed the grapes and found that the seed of a single grape is double, and likewise the seed of all fruits,

I Ibn al-Nafis does not mention here his discovery of the lesser circulation of the blood in the heart and lung, a discovery which he probably made after the completion of the present book,

THEOLOGUS A UTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 43 He understood that this is for the purpose that one of the two parts may accomplish the generation in case a mishap befall the other. Further he saw that on every grape and even on every fruit there is a skin which preserves the position and form of itsParts and preve~ its humillity fro::r: beinK easily eva.E.~ted; moreover that the pulp of the~e has vessels in which the nourishmenttlOWSTrom its Ease, and th~een these vessels there is hUmidIty fillmg up the interstices, and that this is in order to noufisfi the kernerorthe seed. From this h~rstoodthat all par1SOf the animals and plants exist for certain purposes and uses, and that nothing of them is superfluous and useless, I

Then he passed on from the plants and observed the conditions of meteorological phenomena such as rain, cold, and snow; and he reflected about thunder and lightning and the like, Then he passed on to the celestial bodies and observed their movements, their respective positions, and their revolutions and the like, as we have explained in another book.s

By then he had passed the time of puberty, his face had become covered with down, his intellect strong, and his reasoning power excellent, He then reflected whether those beings, showing as they do a soundly and judiciously arranged existence, subsist by themselves or through something else which brings them into existence; and if they subsist by something else, what it may be that brings them into existence, and what its qualities may be, and he desired to know it, He had observed that many bodies exist sometimes and' do not exist at other times, and he understood that neither the existence nor the non-existence of these bodies was (logically) absurd, and this is what we call contingent; he saw that the existence or non-existence of something contingent cannot come about by itself, because then this mode of existence would never

] This is the teleological conception of the universe expressed by Aristotle in philosophy and by Galen in medicine, It found easy acceptance in Islam because the Koran expressed a similar idea in general terms (sura lxxv. 36 and elsewhere). r>cc, for example, H. A. R. Gibb, 'The Argument from Design', Ignace GoldIIJ£her Memorial Volume, i, Budapest 1948, I49-62; G. Vajda, 'La Finalirc de la urcation de l'homme selon un theologien juif du IX' siecle', Oriens, 'Xv (1962); M -8 5. The same concept is discussed by Maimonides in his Medical Aphorisms (lnll,I"'Z M;:'sti fil- Tibb); see J, Schacht and lVI. Meyerhof, 'Maimonides against If"len, on Philosophy and Cosmogony', Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Cairo University, V/I (I939), 53-88 (esp. 70f.).

~ We have not been able to find any other reference to this book of Ibn alNuris.

44 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS

be lacking from it; therefore it must corne from another thing. Moreover, on the problem of whether the agent which determines the existence of the contingent things is (itself) contingent or not, (he saw that) if it is contingent its existence must equally come from another cause, and so on ad infinitum; therefore the things cannot dispense with a cause for their existence which (itself) is not contingent, for otherwise causes and caused things would accumulate ad infinitum, and their sum would still be contingent; therefore the things cannot dispense with a cause of their existence which is different from them, and what is different from the sum of contingent things is (itself) not contingent; therefore it must be absolute. Therefore these beings must necessarily have a cause for their existence which is necessarily existent, and this is Allah." He must necessarily know everything, for otherwise His action

( 9) would not be exact; and He must necessarily take the greatest care of everything, for otherwise everything would not be in its best possible condition. Therefore it became obvious to Kamil that these existing things must have a cause for their existence which is necessarily existing, knows everything, and takes care of everything.

The Third Section: on how the so-called Kamil came to know the existence of prophets.

When the so-called Kamil had reached in his knowledge the degree described by us, whilst his mind had become refined as he approached full manly vigour, he desired to know what are the claims of the Creator on His servants, and he reflected whether it was convenient that the Creator should be worshipped and obeyed, and which was the method of knowing the worship concordant with His Majesty, and he continued to think about this for some time. Then it happened that the winds threw upon that island a. ship in which was a great number of merchants and other people. They stayed there for some time in order to repair the damage .caused to that ship by the strong winds. Its passengers walked about the island in order to get firewood and to collect fruits.

1 This is one of the classical arguments. of Muslim theology for the existence of God. Cf. J..D. Luciani, E/clrchad par Imam el-Harametn, edite et rraduit, Paris 1938, 36£.; H. Stieglecker, Die Glaubenslehren des Islam, Paderbom 1964, §§ 4'-59. See also A. J. Wensinck, The Muslim Creed, Cambridge I932, 274f.; M. Fakhry, 'The Classical Islamic Arguments for the Existence of God', MW,

xlvii (~957), 13z-45·

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIs 45 Kamil saw them and avoided them at first, then went ever nearer to them with caution until they saw him. The size of his body caused them fear, they caned him but he flew from them. They threw him some bread and food which they had with them, and when he ate it he found it very good because he had never eaten prepared food before. Then he became friendly with them; they covered him with clothes, he ate their food and was pleased with them. They endeavoured to teach him their language and he learned much of it. They informed him of the condition of their cities and what was eaten in them. He was astonished at that because he thought that there existed no other country but this island, and he desired to travel with them. So they took him to a city near to that island. He ate of the food of the inhabitants, and put on their clothes and it gave him enormous pleasure. He remembered how miserable his life had been because he was always naked in cold and heat, and had to confine himself to natural foodstuffs and

the animals always attacked and bit him. '

So he knew that man, because he. was lacking a natural weapon (\ • ) and needed artificial food and artificial clothes, could not live well

if he was alone, but that man was in need of being social, so that he

could be with a community some members of which sowed, others ploughed, others made bread, others transported things, others sewed clothes and so on,' Then he reflected and told himself: As man

is in need of all this in order to live well, he is; no doubt, in need of concluding contracts such as sale, hire, and so on, these contracts leading to disputes as everyone thinks that his claims are true and (\ \) his obligations non-existent; therefore man can live well only if

he is with a community who keep between them a law by which all disputes are settled. This is possible only if that law is met with obedience and acceptance, and this is the case only if it is believed

to come forth from Allah, and this is the case only if it emanates

from a person whom they regard as truthful when he informs

them that it comes from Allah. This person cannot be a being

other than a man, because the animals have no speech at all, still

less could they transmit a law, and he cannot be somebody whom

most men are notable to perceive, such as an angel- or a jinn, for

! See Excursus B, below, pp. 77 f.

, Ibn Sa'd, ill. 4, II. '4 f.: 'I am not an angel but the son of a woman from I.~uraysh who used to eat sliced, dried meat (t.,adid), (a saying attributed to the ,1't·(lphet).

46 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS then the majority would not be able to hear the law from him; therefore this person must necessarily be a man.

Then he reflected and said; As this transmitter is a man, he must be distinguished by a quality on account of which the majority and others regard him as truthful when he informs them that what he brings them comes from Allah. This is the case when he is distinguished by a quality which one knows he would not have if he were not in relation with Allah, and trustworthy in what he relates from Him; and this is what is called a miracle.' Therefore this person must perform miracles by which the soul knows that what he brings is not a lie and not vain, but is truth from Allah. A person who has this quality is a prophet. Therefore Karnil knew that the good life of man becomes complete only through the existence of this prophet, and his existence is a great good for man and of general benefit." Allah knows this and therefore, because of His care, the existence of this prophet is necessary (wajib);3 for it is unthinkable that Allah should have omitted to create this prophet although he is of general benefit; if He did not omit to create pubic hair and similar things which are only of little benefit. Therefore Kamil understood that the creation of this prophet was necessary (ia budda m£nhu).4

Then he reflected on the beneficial role of this prophet, and

( \ r) found it threefold. Firstly, he transmits to mankind Allah's law, as we have stated before; secondly, he makes known to mankind the majesty and the other attributes of Allah; thirdly, he makes known the resurrection and the happiness and unhappiness which are prepared for them in the world to come. Then Karnil reflected

, Mu:iiz. Although the author avoids the slightly different term, mu'jixa, of Islamic theology, he uses the classical argument Df the Muslims for the veracity of the Prophet. For lists of miracles relating to l'vfuhammad, before and after his call to prophecy, see Ibn Sa'd, ill. 96ff., II2ff. For the orthodox theory of miracles, see, for example, Luciani, z7b~6; Stieglecker, §§ 25S~6z .

z Ibn Hazm (d. 4561,064) went even further and declared. that man could not have acquired the sciences, such as medicine and astronomy, language, and arts and crafts, by his own unaided efforts, and that this implied the existence of one or more individuals, i.e. the prophets, who had been taught all that by Allah; he found this reasoning confirmed by the fact that the deaf-mute from birth, the inhabitants of the Sudan and of the Slavonic countries, most savage tribes, and the. bedouins had never succeeded and would never .succeed in acquiring a science or craft which thev had not been taught. Kitdb al-Ftsal, i, Cairo 1317, 7'-73; transl. M. Asin PaiaciDs, AbenhdJtam de Cordoba, I, 1927, 161-4·

3 Cf. Stieglecker,§ 278.

4 See Excursus C, below, pp. 78 f.

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFiS 47 and said; These things are accepted only with difficulty by the na:ures of many people, as many admit only with difficulty the ~x~stence. of s?mething which is no body, nor a power in a body, IS III no.dlre~tlOn, and cannot be pointed at,' and many can imagine only WIth. difficulty the circumstances of the prophetic missions and sen~mgs; many can acknowledge only with difficulty the resurrection, the return after death, and the eternal subsistence :either in pleasu~e or in Hell',> and other things which are included III those beneficial functions. Had not men in our time become acquainted with the precepts of the law, and accustomed to its doctrines, they would at once disapprove of it and disbelieve the prophets. As the acceptance of these things is difficult men would if the prophet revealed them at once, without having b~en preceded by other prophets who had brought most of (all) that near to the understanding of man, be very much deterred from him and would strongly declare him to be a liar. Therefore it is fitting that at ~rst some prophets should reveal that part of these things which I~ most easily accepted and most urgently needed for the preserva~ tion and the good life of mankind, namely the transmission of All~h's law to men.s He who appears first reveals those things which are n~ar to the understanding, in order that their accep~ tance be easier and opposition to them less strong. Every time another prop~let comes, ~e g~ves something more than his predecessor, until the law which IS needed is completed. Then, when men have come to know Allah to some degree, and desire to know His qualities and attributes, it becomes easy for them to accept what the later prophets reveal in this respect. Then; when men know t~e .qualitie.sand majesty of Allah, and realize His perfect ~ower, It IS not difficult for them to believe the description of the

hf~ to co~e .and the eternal happiness and unhappiness which it (1 r') bnngs With It. Therefore it becomes easy for them to believe the prophets who bring them this teaching later on.

Kamil for this reason believed that the purpose of prophecy cannot be realized by one prophet, but that there must be several

1 By this the author alludes to the attributes of Allah, according to orthodox Muslim ~octnne; see, for example, Srieglecker, §§ 64-66.

2 Allusion to sura Iii, I7 f.

3 With this idea of development, going beyond the simple chronological ~equence of the prophets, Ibn al-Nafis anticipates the reasoning of Muhammad Abduh. Cf. B. MIchel and M. Abdel Razik, Cheikh Mohammed Abdou, Paris I945, II4-IS·

48 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFl:S prophets of whom the first bring the ( doctrines) which prepare men for the understanding of those (doctrines) which the later prophets bring. Everyone of the later prophets must repeat what his predecessor brought and add to it until the beneficial function of prophecy is completed with the last prophet. Therefore the. last one must know all that his predecessors brought, and must be able to reveal all that his predecessors had revealed. Therefore the prophet who is the Seal of the Prophets must be the most excellent of them' and must fulfil better than any other of them the requirements of prophecy. Likewise it is appropriate that every successive prophet should be more excellent than his predecessors, but only provided no change has taken place in mankind which makes the opposite necessary, because it may happen that a prophet 'coming at any time may nearly approach the degree of him by whom the beneficial role of prophecy is to be completed, and then the people of that period are suddenly swept away, be itby a general deluge or by a general plague or by something similar, so that the people who appear after them are, from the point of view of religion, as if no prophets had ever been sent before their time. For this reason, then, it is necessary to repeat the gradual preparation of men towards an easy acceptance of the truth; this 1S effected, in the first place, by the coming of a prophet who among his people holds a place similar to that of the prophet who had come in the very beginning; thus this prophet must be weaker than his immediate predecessor. In this manner it is not necessary that every prophet should be more excellent than his predecessors, with the exception of the last prophet, who is the Seal of the Prophets. He must in any case be more excellent than the others, because prophecy comes to an end after him. Therefore he must teach everything which is necessary for the completion of the beneficial role of prophecy. Therefore the prophet who is the Seal of the Prophets must be the most excellent of the prophets altogether.

(1~) THE SECOND PART

On how Kiimil came to know the life-story oj the Prophet Our discourse in this part comprises ten sections.

The Pint Section: on the genealogy of this prophet who is the Seal of the Prophets.

I This is the generally accepted Muslim doctrine.

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 49

(Summary) As this prophet must be the most excellent of all the prophets, it is desirable for him to be of the noblest stock ossible-

in order that pe;pren;:~y respect im and adopt his doctrine. The noblest possible genealogy is that going back to the great prophets, especially to one who is held in equally high esteem by all religions,

and that is Ibrahim (Abraham). This prophet must not have belonged first to another religious community, so that he should not (I 0) be considered an apostate by his former co-religionists when he comes forth with his own doctrine. Therefore he ought not to belong to the descendants of Ya'kub (J~b) or a1-'1~,2 as these

had to be Jews or Christians; but he ought to be a descendant of Isrna'Il (Ishmael), and in particular a Hashimite, as these are the noblest among the descendants of Isma'Il,

The Second Section: on the birthplace of this prophet who is the Seal of the Prophets.

(Summary) As this prophet has to be the most excellent and learned prophet, he cannot come from the desert, as the intellect (I.,) of its inhabitants is not well developed, but he ought to come from

the noblest of townspeople. He ought not to come from a miserable

town but from a town the inhabitants of which enjoy all urban facilities; and especially a town which is renowned from the point

of view of religion, i.e. possessing a sanctuary worshipped from

olden times. The oldest sanctuary is the Ka'ba ;' therefore this prophet should be born in Mecca. On the other hand this prophet ought not to die in his birthplace, as the visit to his tomb contri-

butes to maintaining interest in his doctrine, especially as he is the

last of the prophets. Now had he died in Mecca, the visit to his (1 V) tomb would be considered a simple appendix to the visit to the

I See, e.g., Ibn Sa'd, ill. 2, ll. 2 ff.: 'The Prophet said: Among the children of Abraham, Allah has chosen Isma 'Il ; among the children ofIsmu II, He tim chosen the1l'aml KinTna; among tne BanG. Kmana, He has chosen I;;:uraysh; amol$ tRe I~uraysh, He lias chosen the Harm Hash~m, and~He has chosen me among t e J3ai'i"U""Hashim: See also Zad al-Ma'air,t IS ff.

~ or rather 'I~ii, is the usual Arabic name for Esau, but it is evident from the context that the author really means Jesus whose Arabic name is 'ha and who is referred. to under this name in the Arabic text a few lines before. It was perhaps his inclination to cryptic language which led the author into this confusion.

3 According to one version of the Muslim tradition, the Ka'ba was originally built by Adam and reconstructed by Abraham and Ishmael. See Ibn Sa'd, ill. 15. 2S; A. J. Wensinck, alt. Ka'ba, in EI.

815122 E

50 THEOLOGUS A UTODIDAGTUS OF IBN AL-NAFls Ka'ba (and not an independent religious ceremo.ny), .t~e tomb and the prophet himself would be forgotten, and hIS rehgI~us law would come to nothing. Therefore his tomb ought to be situated in another place. The transfer of his residence cannot have bee.n occasioned by any material consideration or have happened of hIS own free will, as this would have meant changing the best possible place for another one; so he must ha:e been fo~ce~ .to it,. not by banishment or defeat in battle, as this would diminish his rank, but as a consequence of a conspiracy of a great number of infidels to kill him.' From this (the number of the conspirators) the meanness of his enemies becomes evident, and the superiority of the prophet and the help of Allah who informed him of the plans made against his life. Afterwards this prophet ough~ to .recapture Mecca, in order to be able to perform the duty of pilgrimage and to prescribe this duty to his adherents.' As to the town to which the Prophet should transfer his residence and in ,,:hich he sh~uld die, it is most fitting that it should be the town In which hIS father had died.! This is Yathrib (Medina), and it is most proper that he should become the ruler of this town.

The Third Section: on what the upbringing of this prophet, who is the Seal of the Prophets, should be.

(Summary) As this prophet is to be the last of the prophets, he should be of the most balanced temperament and character," S9 as to satisfy everyone. Therefore it is appropriate that his father

, Tradition relates that the heathen Kuraysh decided to have the Prophet killed by a group of young men, one from each clan, so that retaliation by his relatives should be impossible; but warned by Gabriel, the Prophet escaped and went to Medina. See, for example, A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad (transl, of the Sira of ibn Ishiik, d. '5'/768), O:U.P. '955,222; F. Buhl, Das Leben Muhammads, transl. H. H. Schaedel', Leipzig '930, '92; W. lVI. Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, Oxford '953, ISO. .

~ This refers to' the famous ly.ijjat al-soada'; the 'farewell pilgrimage' of the Prophet in the year 10/632 .. See, for example, Guillaume, 649-SZ; Huhl, 340-3.

J 'The.father of the Prophet is said to have died on a trade Journey in Medina, See, for example, Ibn Sa'd, 'Ii. 61f.

4 The balanced character of the Prophet is mentioned, with reference to Galen's concept of the balanced temperament, by 'Abd al-Latlf ibn Yusuf HI. Baghdadi (d. 6Z9/l23I) in his Ma/:.dlat al-Tdj fi Sifat al-Nabi, an extract of which is preserved in the manuscript 59 majdmi' of the Egyptian Llbmr;., Cairo, fols, 165v-sv (GALl, i, 4SI, § II, no. 3; Suppl. L 88r, no. J4; both entrtes I·doL" to the same manuscript), On the character of the Prophet 111 general, see, for ~xample, Ibn Sad, i/z. 89 ff.; Stieglecker, §§737 if.

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 51 should die first, then his mother, I that furthermore he should be suckled by another woman outside Mecca,> and that finally after the death of his mother he should be brought up by his near male relatives such as his grandfather and uncles." For the temperament of each person is near to that of his parents, therefore something must happen which makes it more balanced, and to this belongs suckling. Furthermore, his first upbringing should be. outside Mecca, so that the different climate should act as a balancing factor. This nurse should be very devoted to him in order that her milk should agree with him, This is assured when his nursing is a blessing to the nurse. Also he should be brought up from the beginning not by his father but by others, so that his character might become balanced by imitation of the educator; and for this one educator is not sufficient, as the influence of education on the character is' weaker and requires a longer time than modification by nursing. Also, in contrast with educators, nursing by several Women is harmful. The mother of the prophet can live longer than his father, because the influence of mothers on their male children is weaker than that of fathers.

The Fourth Section: on the desires of this prophet.

(Summary) As the temperament of this prophet is well balanced, his desires ought to be balanced, too. His desires in general should be of medium strength, but it is appropriate that some of his desires should be weak, such as the desire for focd.i as eating little

, The death of the father of the Prophet is said to have happened before (or, nccording to another tradition, not long after) he was born (see Ibn Sa'd,. ill. lil f.), and that of his mother when he was six years old (Ibn Sa'd, ill. 73 f.;

ruiJIaume, 73; Buhl, 116). .

II There is a tradition, generally known, that the Prophet was nursed in the eounery during his first two years by a woman of the Banu Sa'd ibn Bakr, YlI.I1ed Halima, who immediately after taking him, and for the whole of the 1~I·l·iod of nursing, experienced a number of material blessings so that she was lOll th to part with him. But we are told, too, that another woman called T'huwayba, ~I freed slave of one of the Prophet's uncles, nursed him for the first few days. ~k .. , for all this, Guillaume, 70-73; Ibn Sad, i/I. 67 fl.; Mutahhar ibn Tahir 11.1 Makdis«, Kitob al-Bad' uiai-Torihh, v. 8; Zdd al-Ivl a'iid, I. 19.

II 'r.;:adition informs us that the Prophet, after the death of his mother, was IlIlIl"., care of first by his grandfather 'Abd al-Muttalib, and when he died in his 1111'11, by his uncle Abu Tiilib. See, for example, Guillaume, 73, 79; Ibn Sa'd, 1/1'. 74ft See also Zad al-Ma'ad, i. 17.

~ 'MaIlY traditions about the frugality of the life of the Prophet are related, e.!'. liy l hn Sa'd, sl z, 108 ff.; see also the following note.

(r I)

52 THEOLOGUS. AUTOJ;JIDACTUS, OF IBNAL-NAFIS

is the characteristic of saints, while eating much is the characteristic of gluttons. Other desires should be strong, such as the desires for perfumes, for worship, and for sexual intercourse.' As to the desire for perfumes, (that is) because their use makes an agreeable impression on those with whom a man comes into contact so that they think highly of him, whereas people of bad smell are detested. As to the desire for sexual intercourse, (that is) because its strength is appreciated in men as a sign of virility.' And as to the desire for acts of worship, this prophet is necessarily in a very near relationship to Allah and perfectly immersed in His worship, so that he derives from it a perfect pleasure. The form of worship which provides this most is ritual prayer (.~aliit), because it gives the most direct access to Allah.

As the desire of this prophet for sexual intercourse is strong, and as it is unthinkable that he should desire persons other than women-because this is a characteristic of bad and dissolute menhe must have taken a number of wives and have-had frequent intercourse with them.!

(1'1')

The Fifth Section: on the outward appearance of this prophet. (Summary) In the outward appearance of this prophet there cannot have been anything calling for disapproval; he cannot have been exceedingly short, for such people are despised, nor exceedingly tall, for such people are considered to be of weak intelligence; nor can there have been in his body any defect, for such people ate disregarded and considered to be of evil omen. There cannot' have been in his face or limbs a deformity or an illness on acco,unt of which people are disregarded and avoided, His limbs cannot have been anything but harmonious because the opposite quality:

I In the section which Ibn Sad (i/2. II2f.) devotes to the Prophet's liking for women and perfumes, he quotes the classical tradition; 'Of this world I have come to like women and perfumes, and my consolation is prayer (,alrit)', as. well as the following; 'The Prophet of Allah used to like of this world three thinga: perfumes, women, and food; he partook of two and abstained from one; he partook of women and perfumes and abstained from food.'

2 Ibn Sa'd (i/2. 96 f.) has devoted a special section to the sexual potency of

the Prophet. . .

3 According to the most widely held opinion; the Prophet had nme Wives when he died; altogether he had concluded marriage thirteen times but had not consummated it in two cases : he had also had three concubines. For lists of the wives of the Prophet, see Ibn Hishiim (d. 218/834), 8im, ed. F. Wustenfeld, ii, Gottingen 1859, 1001-5; Kitiib ai-Bad' wal-Tii.rikh, v. 8-'5; Zdd al-)Wa'a<l. Z6-29; Stieglecker, §§ 752 ff.

TH'EOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFis 53 comes from a lack of balance. For the same reason his abdomen cannot have been exceedingly fat, nor his neck exceedingly thick, nor his fingers exceedingly short, nor his face exceedingly long, nor his jaws (exceedingly) big; but he must have harmonious limbs, be of medium colour, neither exceedingly fat nor exceedingly thin, smiling and cheerful, of good and strong digestion, of acute senses and intelligence, and of eloquent tongue; because these are the qualities of people of balanced temperament.'

The Sixth Section: on the condition of this prophet as regards illness and length of life.

(Summary) There are some diseases which cannot happen to this prophet, such as madness and epilepsy, because those who are afflicted by them are considered unfit to be spoken to (or: to address others), let alone to convey the message and the religious law of Allah. Neither can he have white leprosy (bara~'), because people avoid coming into contact with a sufferer from it, nor leprosy (judham), nor can he be crippled nor blind in one eye or both. But hot diseases such as fevers, and those cold diseases which are not hated and detested, such as coryza (zukam) and catarrh (nazla), may well happen to him. This prophet must even have many diseases, but his diseases must be short and easily healed, as people of balanced temperaments respond equally well to external infections (waridat), to which only one-sided temperaments are strongly resistant, and to the action of mild remedies."

As to the length of life of this prophet, he must reach the limit in which to develop fully his intelligence, so that he may be invested with his prophetic mission, and this is the mature age (huhula); but he must not live on to a limit at which there appear in him senility and lack of judgement. Therefore he must die after having reached maturity but before old age has got a hold on him,

I All this agrees with the traditional picture of the Prophet, on which see, for l,""trlple, Ibn Sa'd, i/2,. r zoff.; Kiidb at-Bad' tual-Tdrikh, Y, r f.; A. J. Wensinck, II 11(!ndbook oj Early Muhammadan Tradition, Leiden 1927, s.v, Muhammad; IIHhl, 364 f.; Stieglecker,§§ 815-I7.

" There are. Islamic parallels to the saying, 'Whom the Lord loveth He ,ilmHteneth'. Prophets are said to be the persons most afflicted in this world, and 'A 'lsha reportedly did not know a person who suffered more from pains than the I'Hlphet; see, for example, 'Tirmidhi (d. 279/892.), al-Jam;', chap. 34 (Kitdb til ~lIhd), § 57 (Bab milja' fil-sabr 'alai-bala'v. On the afflictions suffered by the 1'1'llphet, see also M. Asin Palacios, Abenhasam de Cordoba, iv, 193', 74f.

II
I
I
I
(r t")
I
II
I I 54 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFis

and this happens in persons of balanced temperament about the sixty-second or sixty-third year.t

The Seventh Section: on the children of this prophet. (Summary) As this prophet had frequent sexual intercourse, it would have been lack of perfection if he had been childless, and as his temperament was well balanced he had to have both sons and daughters. His sons ought not to survive him because, if they did, they ought to become prophets, as was the case of former prophets whose sons succeeded them; but this was impossible since he was the Last Prophet. His daughters, on the contrary, could live long.>

1ne Eighth Section: on the manner in which this prophet would call for adherents.

(Summary) As this prophet was already highly esteemed when he received his prophetic mission, his mission could not have been to a king, such as that of Moses to Pharaoh, as his dignity would have suffered had he addressed the king in the appropriate reverent manner, and he would have been considered impolite had he not done so. Therefore his mission had to be to the whole of mankind, without distinction.!

His propaganda had. to be done in the beginning by mild and peaceful means, and only later on, when his adherents were more numerous, by force and with the sword.

I According to most traditions, the Prophet died at the age of sixty-three, according to others, at the age of sixty or sixty-five; see, for example, Ibn Se 'd, ii/z. 81-3. When the prophetic vocation carne to him, he was about forty vears

old; see Ibn Sa'd, ill. 126f. ..

• From his first wife, Khadlja, the Prophet had four daughters, Zaynab, Rukayya, Fatima, and Umrn Kulthiim, of whom only Fatima survived him, As to his sons from Khadija, the oldest tradition is unanimous only with regavd to one, al-Kasim, who died before the prophetic vocation of Muhammad. Th; traditions further agree that the Prophet had a son, called Ibrahim, from hl~ Coptic concubine Miiriya, but he, too, died at a tender age. See, On all thill, Guillaume, 83; Ibn Sa'd, i/I. 85 ff.; Kitab at-Bad' uial-Tdrikh, v. 16-20; ZI!d ai-Ma'ad, i. 25; Buhl, 120f, The remark of Ibn al-Nafis about the reason :(1"1 the early death of the Prophet's sons refers not only to cases such as tha.t 01 Abraham and Ishmael, but also to the reported saying of the Prophet, Wl\(I)1 Ibrahim had died: 'Had he lived he would have become a righteous OI1e (#d,IUI) and a prophet' (Ibn Sa'd, ill. 90, ll. Isf . .),

3 According to the doctrine of Islam, the message of Muhammad, in COllt"11~1 with the missions of the former prophets, was addressed to the whole of D.111i1 kind. Ibn al-Nafis does not seem to have realized the inconclusive characror "l his argument.

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFiS 55 The Ninth Section: on the name of this prophet.

(Summary) His name and that of his father and grandfather! could not be a name referring to something despicable, such as Zibla ('manure'), or Kalb ('dog'), or Thawr ('OX'),2 neither could it be a diminutive form, such as Humayd, Sulaym, or 'Ubayd. On the other hand, his name ought not to have an overbearing meaning, such as Shahanshah (Persian: 'King of Kings').»

The Tenth Section: on the Scripture of this prophet.

(Summary) In order not to be inferior to the other prophets

who had Scriptures revealed to them, this prophet ought to have a Scripture, too. On account of the especially strong need for the (r,) preservation of his law, it was particularly important that his book should be remembered. Therefore the style of this book had to be

most perfectly eloquent+

i I

THE THIRD PART

On how Kiimil came to know the religious practice of the Prophet Our discourse in this part comprises two chapters.

Chapter One: on the doctrinal obligations which this prophet Imposes,

The First Section: on the attributes of Allah taught by this prophet.s

[ By Muslim tradition, the name of the Prophet's father was 'Abd Allah, and

that of his grandfather, 'Abd al-Muttalib, .

2 The custom of the Arabs of giving their sons disagreeable names, or of calling them after animals, is well known. Cf. Th, Noldeke, Beitrage sur semitischen Sprachscissenschajt, Strassburg '904, 73 f.; L. Caetani and G. Gabrieli, Onomasticon Arabicum, i, Rome 1915, 64f. The names Kalb and 'T'hawr are actually attested, and although we have not been able to find any bearer of the name Zibla, the dictionaries mention other derivatives of the same root, Zabala und Zubala, as proper names.

,1 On the several names of the Prophet, see Ibn Sa'd, ill. 64-67; Zad alMa'od, i. zo f.

., This has always been the thesis of Muslim orthodoxy, and the fact that the Koran defies imitation, a claim already put forward in the Holy Book itself (sura H. 23; x. 38; xi. 13; xvii. 88; xxviii, 49; Iii. 34), is regarded as the greatest miracle and the final proof'of the veracity of the Prophet. See Luciani, 297-302; fl. Guillaume, The Summa Philosophiae of Al-Shahrastdni, o. U.P. "934, 142-5;

Mlicglecker, §§ 661-90. .

" The whole of this section corresponds to orthodox doctrine ; see, for exampi u, Luciani,] 8 ff. ; Jeffery, 348, 386. The differentiation between common people

, 'I

56 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS

Fadil ibn Natil~ says: When, in his lifetime, the so-called Kamil had come near to the end of his full manly vigour, he reflected on the attributes of the Creator which this prophet ought to teach. He concluded that he ought to teach men that they had a Creator, and that this Creator is possessed of splendour and majesty in an infinite degree, that He must be obeyed and worshipped, and that there is no God but Him, and that there is nothing like Him.! that He is the hearing and knowing one ;> and other qualities which

( r v) are in keeping with Allah's majesty, such as complete power and perfect might. At the same time this prophet would not make it clear that there is behind all that something which he had concealed, and he would not oblige men (to believe) something of which they could not easily become aware and which they could imagine only with difficulty: for instance if he told them that Allah is neither inside nor outside the world, that He is not a body and cannot be perceived by the senses, that He is not in any direction and that one cannot point at Him with a sign perceptible by the senses. Should the prophet explain these and similar things they would be as it were meaningless for those who did not make a (special) study to understand them; and if they made a (special) study to understand them they would become confused and bewildered, and their study would prevent them from seeking their livelihood and following their occupations, and the harmony of them all would be destroyed. This would be contrary to the primary aim of the prophetic mission. Therefore the prophet ought to mention these things only in a general, and not in an explicit, detailed manner; and, moreover, he ought not to make it clear that there is a detailed explanation. Still, he ought not to omit any essential part of the details, but ought to introduce in his speech allegories and allusions sufficient to make the select ones understand all the details, whereas the general public r ernains confined to as much of their outward meaning as they are able to understand.

The Second Section: on the teaching of the Seal of the Prophets concerning the life to come.s

('amma) and learned specialists (khii~,a) is generally made, and it is an essentiul part of the conclusion of the treatise of Ibn 'Tufayl (see above, pp. 30, J.2).

] Sura xlii. II. z Passim in the Koran,

, The problem, already alluded to in the preceding section, of the literal @I allegorical explanation of the text of the Koran and of the sayings of the Propln-u,

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDA(:TUS OF IBN AL-NAFIs 57

(Summary) This prophet must necessarily mention the life to

come and explain it in detail, because this is the most difficult part (" A) of a prophet's teaching which cannot be omitted from the doctrine

of this Last Prophet. He cannot have represented the life to corne

as spiritual because the intellects of most people fall short of appreciating spiritual pleasures and pains.

(Translation) If a common man were told: 'You have performed the worship properly, you have abstained from forbidden pleasures and have acted with justice towards men; therefore Allah will transfer you to a world where you will neither eat nor drink, nor have sexual intercourse, nor be clothed, nor sleep, but continually will praise and glorify; and will not even be recompensed for that nor brought to another condition', then this common man would prefer to miss that happiness. But if he were told: 'If you do those things, you will be transferred to a place where you will eat ap~ petizing meals, and have splendid sexual intercourse, where there are streams of wine, honey, and so forth', that would be quite different. (The prophet) cannot represent the future life as purely corporeal either, because the body without the soul is without feeling, like a piece of wood, as everyone knows; therefore he would have neither pleasure nor pain, and neither happiness nor unhappiness, and the whole future life would be meaningless. Therefore this prophet must represent future life as composed of body and soul.

Then Kamil reflected on the nature of this future life and how it would be, and he told himself: There is no doubt that man is composed of body and soul; the body is this thing which can be perceived, but the soul is that to which ant refers when one says '1'. That to which one refers in this case cannot be the body or its parts, because everyone knows with inevitable certainty (bil(i(ll'ura) that it remains the same from the beginning to the end of his life, whereas the body and its parts are not so, because the

body of man as an infant is different from his body as an old man, (1' 9) und likewise the parts of the body, because both the body and its

parts are continuously in dissolution and reconstruction, and un-

II voidably in constant change. But that to which man refers when

Iw says 'I' is not so, because it remains constantly the same.

1111 '" through the whole history of Muslim dogmatics. Cf, Stieglecker, §§ 1470-6.

','IHI author follows a middle course. .

I, I

S8 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIs

Another argument is that man may often be unconscious ofhis body and its parts, such as the heart, the brain, etc., but it is impossible for him to be unconscious of his soul, which is the thing to which he refers when he says 'I'. Therefore the soul must be something different from the body. The body is, no doubt, material and perceptible by the senses, but not so the soul, which is pure substance because it is impossible that it should be an accident. The body subsists by itself, whereas accidents subsist only by substances .. Therefore the soul must be a substance, and it must be free from corporeal matter; otherwise it would be a body or in a body, and if it were so, the things taking place in it would have a position and a form and could be divided, because everything which takes place in a body or in a power within a body is subject to that. Now, among the things which take place within the soul of man are the perceptions and the notions, and if the soul were a body or had bodily qualities these notions could, in consequence, necessarily become divided and there could be no individual notion at all, which is absurd. Therefore the soul of man must be free of corporeal matter.

If this is S01 it cannot exist before the existence of the mixed matter from which the body of man comes forth, because, if it existed before that matter, it could be neither one nor manifold, and could not possibly subsist at all. It could not be manifold because the individuals of each species are differentiated on account of the matter from which they are dependent; therefore they are not manifold earlier than the genesis of this matter, It could not be single because, if it were single, all the manifold bodies depen-

(1"'.) dent on it would have one single and individual soul (in common), and the notions acquired by everyone of them would be acquired by the whole, and this is absurd. Therefore the soul of man can exist only after the existence of matter mixed in a manner corresponding to (the nature of) man, and the existence of this matter is a prerequisite for the existence of the soul of man.

This matter is generated from sperm and similar things, and when the soul becomes attached to it and then begins to feed anti to produce the organs, the body is generated from it. This matter is called coccyx.' It is absurd that this should become lost as long

I The Arabic term is 'ajb al-dhanab, 'the root of the tail', meaning the extremity of the spine, an organ which is declared by traditions to be the nucleus of the creation of the human body and of its resuscitation as well, and not

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 59 as the soul subsists, because otherwise the soul would be independent of it in its existence and its existence would not be dependent on it, and this is a contradiction. So it is, absurd that this matter should perish as long as the soul of man subsists. The soul of man is imperishable, and it is imperishable because everything that is perishable has a matter in which it may sometimes subsist and sometimes be absent, but as the soul of man possesses no matter it is imperishable. This matter which is the coccpc is imperishable (too). Therefore it remains after the death and decomposition of the body, and the soul with which it remains continues to be perceiving and noticing, and at that time it experiences pleasure or pain; these are the pleasures and pain in the tomb.'

Then when the time for resurrection (ma'ad) comes, the soul stirs again and feeds this (nucleus of) matter by, attracting other matter to it and transforming it into something similar to it; and therefrom grows a body a second time. This body is the same as the first body inasmuch as this (nucleus of) matter in it is the same, and the soul is the same. In this way the resurrection takes place. After that the soul never ceases to feed, and therefore the body never becomes non-existent again, be it in the pleasure (of Paradise)-this is evident-or in Hell; because every time this hellfire burns.the new ly produced parts in this body, this soul generates again another body from the matter from which this (nucleus of) matter is fed. These bodies surround, as it were, that (nucleus of) matter and are therefore called skins.' These skins replace each other during the sojourn in Hell.

~\),bject to decomposition in common with therest of the body. Cf. A. J. Wensinck,

r:oncordance et indices de la tradition musulmane, s.v, dhanab. '

, " A current feature in Muslim d~gmatics; see, for ,:xample, J effery, 349; i:ltteglecker, §§ 1344~55; A. J. Wensinck and A. S. T'ritton, art. ' 'Adhab alT~llbr', in E12.

• This is an allusion to the wording of sura xli, 19 ff.: 'And the day when the ('l\omies of Allah are gathered unto the fire; they are driven on (20) until, when IllOY come to ,it, their hearing and their eyes and their skins testify against them II~ 'to what they used to do, (21) and they say to their skins: Why have you restiJled against us? They reply: Allah, Who gives speech to everything, has given li~ speech •.. (22) and you could not hide yourselves lest your hearing and-your 4\y '8 and your skins should testify against you.' Also to sura iv. 56: '. , . As often Ilil their skins are well done, We will exchange them for fresh.skins, so that they III!I)' taste the torment', and to sura xxii. 20: 'Whereby that which is in their IllIlIIus, and their skins (too), will be melted.' One of the traditional explanations

II I' these passages is that 'skins' here means 'bodies'. .

t)

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60 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS

. Chapter Two: on the practical obligations which this prophet imposes.

The First Section: on the duties concerning worship which this prophet prescribes.

(Summary) When Karnil had reached nearly forty years of age, he reflected that this prophet, being the Last Prophet, had every reason to provide for his doctrine's being remembered until the end of time. He ought to assure this by prescribing that he, his function, and his doctrine should be often remembered, this remembrance being prescribed either directly or in connexion with another thing;. and if directly, then independently or as part of the duty of wor.shIp, Examples of these different kinds of remembering are fastI~g, alms-tax, ritual prayer and pilgrimage, and the profession of faith. Therefore the religious system of this prophet ought to be b~sed on fi~e things, I either words only, such as the profession of fa!t~, or actlOn~ of the body only, such as ritual prayer (~aliit),2 or bodily abstentions such as fasting, or financial obligations such a~ th~ alms-tax, or a join! bodily and financial obligation such as pilgrimage. Some of these obligations are very exacting and should therefore be prescribed once in a lifetime only. Others are very easy to accomplish and may therefore be fulfilled several times every day, such as worship, and this, therefore reminds man more directly of Allah and His Prophet. Others stand between the two extremes, such as fasting and the alms-tax, and are therefore pre~cribed ~nce. a y.ear: But the belief in (the truth of) the profession of faith IS faith Itself, and faith must be permanent. .

THEOLOGUS AUTOD!DACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 6r Therefore everything which prevents the individual from being useful to the community should be prohibited, such as usury, pimping, etc., all of which nullify the production of useful work.

He ought to show them a way which they might follow to avoid disputes, be it about the transfer of useful goods, either by necessity, as in the case of inheritance, or by choice, as in the case

of sale or lease, or about the permanent setting up of useful goods,

as in the case of way, or about the abandonment of the possession

of useful goods, as in the case of manumission; and for all these

cases he ought to establish a just procedure. He ought to make the

share in the. inheritance: of the males bigger than that of the females, because the males, although mote easily able to earn, have ('" f) to provide for their wives.'

The Third Section: on the rules which the prophet ought to introduce with respect to domestic economy (tadbir al-manzil), and provision for spouses, slaves, and relatives. ,

(Summary) As there are so many human beings," and as spontaneous generation can happen only by exception, sexual intercourse is necessary in order to produce most of the human beings. Therefore this prophet should encourage it, but in a way which guarantees a numerous progeny; therefore he ought to prohibit male and female homosexuality. Normal intercourse should happen in a way that leaves no doubt about paternity; therefore the prophet should prohibit adultery and fornication, although this might multiply the progeny, because it has as a consequence making heirs of those who ought not to inherit, and precluding from inheritance those who have a right to it. Therefore, too, he ought to make marriage a public contract, so that there can be no doubt about paternity; and this should be done by the calling of witnesses.

As polyandry leads to uncertainty of paternity, the prophet ought to prohibit it, but not polygamy. As a man and wife may

find life together impossible, provision should be made for separation, especially as their temperaments may differ in such

a manner that they can have no children from their union, whereas

this might well happen if either of them were married to another partner. The power to pronounce a separation should be given to (\'" Q )

[ Similar reasonings are often found in the works on the religious law of Islam. a It ought to be remembered that Kamil has Seen human society on another island.

(rr)

The. Second Section: on the transactions which this prophet

prescribes, .

(Summary) Society and intercourse of mankind can come to perf~ction ~nly .if their transactions are just, if nobody is harmed, an.d. If nothing IS allowed which leads to the neglect of common utility or contentrnent with laziness; for in human society everyone must fulfil a useful part, except those who are prevented by illness."

r The traditional five main duties or 'pillars' of Islam. .

, ~ The author has. emphasized the spiritual significance of ~aldt above, p. 52; It 1S therefore surprrsmg that he should define ~alat here as mere movements of the body. Individual prayer (du~d') does not figure among the official main duties of the religious law of Islam.

3 See Excursus B, below.vpp. 77 f.

62. TI-lEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS

the more reasonable partner, who at the same time incurs financial obligations by marriage, and that is the man. But the wife should not be completely denied the right to divorce; for instance, if the husband is unable to provide for her. As men are better able to earnmoney, and women to manage the household, the man should have to provide for the wife, and the wife to stay in the house of the husband.

As slaves are under the guardianship of their masters who provide for them, the masters should have the right to demand service of them to the degree of their 'ability.

Relatives who are in need ought to be provided for by their wealthy relatives. I

The Fourth Section: on the punishments which the prophet ought to introduce.

, (Summary) Since some men are inclined to WIckedness and not restrained by their knowledge alone that the divine law has forbidden something, but restrained only by a major force which everyone obeys, such as a king, there should be in every town a king or his representative; but the kings should not be left to their whims as they are often inclined to tyranny, and therefore there should be a ruler over them who is the caliph.»

The Prophet ought to forbid everything which is conducive to a bad state of the soul, of material goods, and of intelligence. Therefore he should prohibit murder, theft, usurpation, and drunkenness, and should lay down for everyone of these and' other crimes a punishment deterring the people from it. Therefore he ought to prescribe retaliation for deliberate murder; but in the case of accidental manslaughter retaliation would be unjust, and leaving it completely unpunished would mean that blood could be shed with impunity; therefore he ought to prescribe something like blood-money in this case.i The punishment indicated for theft would be something like cutting off the hand. So for every mischief the appropriate punishment should be fixed, for adultery and fornication as well as for drinking wine, because drunkenness

I All this corresponds to the rules of the religious law of Islam, except for the assumption that it is the wife's duty to run the household; this, however, reflects actual practice.

z This reflects not the original but the later political organization of the Muslim world.

3 This reflects the categories of Islamic law.

TFlEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 63 makes reason cease and is a source of mischief. I Furthermore, he should be intent on raising the prestige of his religion, and should introduce a treatment of his opponents in accordance with the (degree of) badness of their belief; those who are strongly opposed to his divine law should be ordered to be killed, but those who are nearer to truth he should oblige only to pay poll-tax,> The produce of this tax taken from the infidels, as well as the alms-tax taken from believers, he should devote to purposes which are useful to the community, such as providing for the soldiers who protect the country, for the imams and muezzins.s for the poor and the needy, for travellers, and so on.s

THE FOURTH PART

On how Kami! came to know the events which were going to happen after the death of the Last Prophet

Ol~r discourse in this part comprises ten sections.

The First Section: on how Kamil came to know the struggle for the caliphate between the companions of this prophet after his .death,

(Summary) As the Last Prophet came forth on his mission only (rv) after his fortieth year and died at something more than sixty, his message could not have reached all men. As there can be no other prophet after him, there must, in order to extend the call to his religion to all mankind, be after him a successor (caliph), and this

at all times in order to preserve his religion. This caliph must necessarily be highly esteemed by the people; and therefore he should come from among his companions in the period immedi-

ately following this prophet's death. Had the prophet designated

any single person from among his companions as his successor,

this would have given rise to jealousy among his other followers,

and he would have been held responsible for the errors of this :caliph; therefore that prophet could not designate his presumptive (1'" A)

I This is the classical rational justification of the Koranic prohibition of wine. Z This reflects the distinction, made by Islamic law between two classes of infidels: the heathens and the followers of former revealed religions.

3 This and the .preceding item reflect actual practice in later times, whereas the two following items are taken from the relevant passages of the Koran.

4 Here ends the, Cairo manuscript.

64 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFis successor explicitly," As men are inclined to love power, there must needs arise a struggle, even amounting to a fight, for the caliphate among his companions, not immediately after his death, as this would have led to the victory of the infidels and the disappearance of his religious law, but somewhat later, while there were still suitable candidates. Z

The Second Section: on how Kamil came to know the struggle and fight after the death of this prophet.

(Summary) It was unavoidable that every claimant to the caliphate should gather around himself a faction which was fervently biased in his favour and opposed to his adversaries, so that there were many partisanships and fights. Therefore provision had to be made for the law of this prophet to be remembered, and this could be done only by the scholars of his community who drew their knowledge not from revelation like the prophets, but from thought and personal opiniori.s As the natures of men are different, the rise of many opinions concerning the religion of this prophet was inevitable, and everyone out of his love of authority and originality- had to try his best to make his view prev~i~. Th~refore the community of this prophet had to become divided Into sects which differed with regard to the principles and details of his religion, and were hostile to one another.! In order to gain

I This is one of the main points of contention between.the Sunnis, whom the author follows of course, and the Shiites who claimed that the Prophet had expressly desi~nated 'Ali as his successor. There are ~lany.indicat,ions in Sunni traditions for the indirect, more or less conclusive, designation by the Prophet of Abu 'Bakr as his successor; see, for example, Ibn Sa'd, iii/I. 126-8.

2 The fight for the caliphate started with the assassination of 'Uthman, the

third caliph, in 35/6 S6. ...

3 ra'y, a technical term much discussed during the systematrc elaboration of

Islamic religious law. .

4 The ambition of the specialists in religious law has often been described and castigated, e .• g. by Shafi'i (d. '104/820), Umm, vii. 250 (Kitab Jima' aZ-'Ilm);by Ibn Kutayba (d. 276/889), Kitab Ta'wil Muhhtalij al-l;ladith, 16; by Ghazall (d. 50S/IIII) in the introduction of his Ihyri"; by Averroes (d. 595/ 1198; cf. L Goldziher, in ZDlVlG, xli (1887), 85 n. 2); and by Ibn 'Arabi (d. 638/1240), an admirer of Ghazalj, in his Futtl'pit al-IYIakkzyya (ef. Goldziher, Streitschrift des Gazal, gegen die Batinijja-Sehte,. Leiden 19I?, 3I n. 3).,

S Although the conciliatory view, expressed in a tradition declaring t~at 'differences of opinion in my (i.e. Muhammad's) corr.mumty are a concession (from Allah)', had prevailed in Islam long .before the author's trme, there still existed in practice a great deal of keen cornpetrtron between the several schools of religious law. It is remarkable that the author explicitly acknowledges the element of professional jealousy entering Into tha t compctrtion,

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 65 adherents, the followers of each head of a school (imam) had to com- (r' ~) pose many books and to build colleges (madiiris) and places which

were reserved for the adherents of that particular doctrine, and

to provide for material advantages for the inhabitants of these academies.'

As this prophet was the last of the prophets, every attention had to be paid to preserving his words and his acts,> and his holy book, and also their explanation; therefore there would be need for the science of tradition (l;.adith) and for the science of interpretation (ta/sir) and other religious sciences; and this would necessitate the composition of many books some considerable time after the death of the prophet.s

The Third Section: on how Kamil carne to know the sins which had to be committed in the community of this prophet.

(Summary) As this prophet had prohibited the drinking of wine, and the appearance of women in public in the. presence of strangers, because' jealousy is a noble and praiseworthy quality, two consequences were inevitable: firstly, the transgression of the prohibition of wine, because the soul strongly desires it, apart from its

being indispensable as a remedy for preserving health and fighting (~ • ) many diseasesr- secondly, an increase of homosexuality in his community, because many people were unable to marry at all or to

take their wives with them when travelling.s

The Fourth Section: on how Kamil came to know the punishment 'which was to befall the community of this prophet on account of their sins.

(Summary) It was inevitable that those sins should be punished, so that men should not think lightly of transgressing the prescriptions of this prophet nor omit to repent. This punishment could

I The author alludes to the creation of pious foundations for the benefit of the professors and students of some particular doctrine 'Or other, and even uses the technical term icaka],

2 The Traditions, reports on the model behaviour of the Prophet, are often arranged according to whether they refer to his words (a(,wal) or his acts (af'al). 3 There was a theoretical objection, though not correspondir.g to the facts, to writing down T'raditions in the early period of Islam.

4 Personally, Ibn al-Nafts objected to the use of wine as a remedy; see above,

p. 13·

5 The. author ignores, of course, the institution of temporary marriage (milt 'a), admitted by the Shiites.

815122

F

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66 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFlS

not be a catastrophe, such as being swallowed up by the earth or being destroyed by a deluge, as this would prove the violent wrath of Allah against this community and be in contradiction with the dignity of this prophet. Therefore this punishment could only be by bloodshed, and this had to be done by way of attack from infidels, as internal political strife within the community would not have provoked penitence and reform. I This at the same time would give believers who took part in the struggle the opportunity of gaining religious merit.

The Fifth Section: on how Kamil came to know the condition of the infidels who had to punish this community.

(Summary) These infidels should not belong to any religious community, because in this case their success would be regarded as the success of their religion, and that would be contrary to the aim of this punishment. This condition is fulfilled if the message of the prophet has not yet reached those infidels, that is to say, if they live on the outskirts of the inhabited world, far from the civilization of the temperate zone. They could not live in the utmost southern parts because the people there are weak of heart on account of the great heat, so they would not have strength enough to shed the blood of this community. Therefore they must come from the northernmost parts, because the people there are courageous, strong of heart, and merciless on account of the cold. Butthey could not come from the north-west, because the inhabitants there are few and distributed over islands, Z separated by many seas; therefore they are divided and cannot unite sufficiently to overcome the people of this community. Those infidels must come, moreover, from open plains because townspeople are less courageous. They must have broad chests and big heads, slender lower limbs, narrow eyes, and big buttocks; their upper limbs must be big because heat is prevalent inside their bodies on account of the intense cold of their climate; and therefore their lower limbs must be somewhat slender; this also

1 See Excursus D, below, p. 79.

~ On the opinions of the Arab geographers concerning the islands of the north, see O. J. Tallgren-Tuulio and A. M. Tullgren , Idrisi, La Finiande et les autres pays baitiques orientaux (Giographie, VU, 4), Helsingfors Ina; H. Birkeland, Nordens historie i middelalderen etter arabiske hilder, Oslo I954. The idea goes back to classical antiquity, and is found in Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, and Tacitus.

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFiS 67 because it is a quality of courageous beings, as can be observed in the lion. That their eyes are narrow comes from the excessive moisture of their brains, generated by the lack of its dissolution on account of the cold; for the same reason their noses are inclined to be flat. The size of their buttocks is due to the fact that they ride horses from childhood, as there are many horses in those regions and they transport themselves often on horseback. I

These infidels cannot occupy the whole of the countries of Islam, because this would lead to the destruction of this religion, but only some, especially those in which the sins mentioned above have become prevalent, and they are the countries which are near

to them. Therefore these infidels should occupy the northern (~'I"') countries (of the religion of the Last Prophet). After occupying

them, they should abstain from provoking a change of religion

there, because they themselves have no religion; on the contrary,

they should feel inclined to adopt this religion and to be counted among its adherents, and not only their original countries but the countries of other infidels which they might conquer should be

added to the area of this religion, and therefore this religion should spread even without the help of military power.>

The Sixth Section: on how.Kamil came to know the condition of the countries which those infidels could not conquer.

(Summary) Once the countries which (originally) were far from those conquered by the infidels had become as it were their neighbours, it would be necessary that their people should go into battle and defend themselves against them. This requires two things: firstly a big army, and secondly a courageous sultan; these are indispensable prerequisites for a successful fight against those powerful and numerous infidels. Formerly those people had not been in need of a big army; therefore the army of these border countries had to become much stronger than before. This implies

a much greater expenditure on it. As this expenditure cannot be (~i) covered by the ordinary revenue of the country, the additional amount must be taken from the possessions of its inhabitants by

force, and this is possible only if the sultan of that country is

I The author clearly describes the Mongols, See Excursus E, below, pp. 80f. • For the historical facts alluded to in this section, see above, pp. 3 ft. juwayni, too, points out the advantages which accrued to Islam from the Mongol invasion (Tarikh-i Jahan-Guslui, i. 9-II; transl, i. 13-16; cf, C. d'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols, i, xxi-xxiii),

I

I

68 THEOLOGUS A UTODlDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS obeyed implicitly, as no one would lend himself to it voluntarily. I This confiscation, whilst serving to defend that country, also serves as a means of purifying the inhabitants, because their sins are not so considerable as to necessitate their being killed, but only their being deprived of part of their possessions. This has the consequence that the country is impoverished, the number of poor persons is increased, and the resources of livelihood are restricted. This in its turn produces an increase in thefts and a bad state of affairs.»

The Seventh Section: on how Kamil came to know the condition of the sultan of the country who protects this community which adjoins the empire of those infidels.

(Summary) This sultan must doubtless be very much inferior to those infidels as regards his country, his army, and his means, because the infidels have occupied the greater part of the territory of the community of this prophet and have, in addition, control over other countries. If this sultan were not so very courageous as to confront, singlehanded, a whole army in battle, he could not oppose the infidels and prevent them from occupying his country. Therefore he must be very courageous, and acknowledged as courageous by his people, which will be the case if heroic deeds are known of him. He must be stout-hearted, and be cruel and merciless.s Therefore he must order many punishments such as cutting off limbs, crucifying (~alb), and nailing (tasmir),4 and this accords with the fact that, as stated previously, thefts and other crimes

I The army in Egypt, which under al-Malik al-Kamil Muhammad (see above,

p. 9) had consisted of IO,OOO horsemen, was quadrupled in size by Baybars, their equipment was much more elaborate, and the drain on the treasury considerable (Ibn Taghribirdi, Nujiim, vii. I95). The annals of Baybars (and of his predecessor Kutuz) are punctuated by reports of illegal exactions (illegal from the point of view of Islamic religious law), and of the unavailing protests of religious scholars. Two of the more notorious episodes are the confiscatiori of the gardens of the people of Damascus in 666/1268 which led to the temporary banishment of the famous Shafi'i scholar Nawawi (see W. Heffening, in El, s.v.; idem, in Der Islam, xxiv (1937), 131-50), and the imposition of taxes in breach of a formal promise given to the same Nawawi in 676/1277, the last year of the life of Baybars (Ibn al-Furat, Tririkh, vii (r 942.), 85).

2 This description fits the condition of Egypt and Syria under Baybars,

3 The historian Dhahabi, quoted by Ibn 'Taghribirdi (Nujian, vii. 178; alManhal al-86fi, extract printed on p. -' of the Arabic part of this publication), though naturally admiring Baybars as a great champion of Islam, says of him: 'He deserved to be king, only he had a streak of cruelty in him.'

4 See Excursus F, below, pp. 8r f.

THEOLOGUS AUTODlDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 69 deserving such punishments are prevalent in this country. Therefore this sultan cannot come from townspeople who have not got such a hard character, but from the people of the open country; therefore he must come from the north, and especially from the north-east, as the people of the north-west are weak and their character is not in agreement with the afore-mentioned qualities. For the same reason the sultan must come from the country of those infidels or from a country near to them.' Therefore he must have narrow eyes, a broad chest, a big skull, broad shoulders, slender legs, not very dark eyes.> and not too narrow a nose. His body must not be very big, as in this case his spirits would expand and disagree with the heat of his heart and his character. His body cannot be too small either, because then he would have little determination and be of no firm resolution and would be unfit to rule the country and to fight the infidels. His temperament must incline to heat, otherwise he could not be very courageous. His complexion must be brownish-red, and his hair not very scarce but, on the contrary, thick. He cannot be bald unless he uses a medicine which causes this, because he comes from a very cold country. His body must be compact and solid; therefore, on account of the heat of his temperament, the smoky vapours which rise in his body are not easily dissolved. Therefore he must be of a harsh character, nay, an evil and threatening one. He must make much swift movement and hate rest, loving movement, especially in the sun; he must like sweating, hate the cold, and like to wrap himself in many covers, although liking to breathe cold air; must like cold and heavy food and hate eating very hot dishes ;> feel well in winter and when sleeping in a cool place, and although liking to cover himself heavily must expose his feet to the cool air. He must blink rarely with his eyelids and have no hair on his back, but rather on his chest and abdomen though it be very little. His sleep cannot be very deep or long; he would often rouse himself suddenly from his sleep and often have frightening dreams. His appetite for food would not be very strong, and his sexual intercourse not very frequent. Most of his children would be sons. He would mostly

(h)

I The author alludes to the Turks from whom the Mamluks were recruited.

See Excursus G, below, p. 82.

Z The blue colour of the eyes of sultan Baybars is actually mentioned in the sources.

3 This refers to the medicinal property of the dishes and not to the temperature at which they are served.

70 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFiS enjoy sour dishes and sometimes prefer sweets, but not be much inclined to tasteless dishes, and he would like fruit. He would be subject to frequent fits of nausea, and it would be easy to purge him.'

(i v)

The Eighth Section: on how Kamil came to know the condition of the assistants of the above-mentioned king whose (territory) borders on (that of) the infidels, and of his helpers and neighbours among the kings of the community of the prophet.

(Summary) As the king must be famous among his people for his energy, impetuosity, and power, he must necessarily keep them in fear and fright, and they on their part must obey his orders. Therefore he must treat them outwardly in the best possible manner.s This king differs from the other kings in that he is busy fighting those infidels; therefore he has to move to their country often in order to impress them with his might, and to fight those who are within his reach. 'This necessitates many absences from his capital; therefore he needs a man to replace him, and this deputy of his must also be very courageous and interested in good administration because he often has to run the country by himself.! Therefore he, too, must inspire fear and be obeyed. He must also keep very closely to the prescriptions of the religious law and therefore must be knowledgeable concerning them,s so that they may not be transgressed in his country which would lead to deserved killing and conquest by the infidels. This minister- must be patient in collecting the taxes needed for the upkeep of the army in a way compatible with the religious law, and least harmful to the inhabitants. Therefore he must be of a balanced character and possess as much clemency and compassion as impetuosity and force. He

r All these details, for which Ibn al-Nafjs does not adduce any a priori reasoning, are obviously derived from his observations as personal physician of Baybars.

• The author refers perhaps to the arrangements which Baybars made for the feeding of the poor dur.ing the famine of the year 66z/ 1264. See Ibn Taghribirdi, Nujiim,vii, <\I3 f.

3 The choice of their deputy was always a matter of concern for the Mamluk sultans. Frequent absences on campaigns Were not peculiar to the reign of Haybars ; they were frequent in the reign of Kalawun, too.

• This implies that this was not the case of the sultan himself.

5 wazir, 'vizier'. This is not to be taken literally (unless the author amalgamated. two different offices), because it would not agree with the functions attributed to a deputy who in the same context is called lpikim and Vitili, 'gavel" nor'. Baybars had two viziers in succession; see Ibn Taghribirdi, op. cit" 179.

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS 71 must enjoy the confidence of this sultan, of Allah, of the subjects, and of the army.'

II

I

I

The Ninth Section: on how Kamil came to know what was going to happen in the upper world after the death of the Last Prophet.

(Summary) Kamil observed the movement of the sun, and found that the sun, together with the moon and the other planets, has, in addition to its daily movement from east to west, a lateral deviation to the north and south. The daily east-western movement must be produced by the highest sphere, which possesses a very quick movement and makes all the lower spheres partake in it. The poles of the different spheres cannot be identical, as in this case the movement of the highest sphere would not be transmitted to the lower spheres. Then he observed that the lateral deviation of the sun is continually decreasing, until it becomes nil, so that the sun is moving in the largest circle, even if it is not in the equinox. This has several consequences: (I) the lateral deviation of the moon from the sun must become much greater, as the latitude of the moon is constant; (2) the poles of the second sphere, below the highest one, must coincide with those of the highest sphere; and the movements of the highest sphere will not be transmitted any more to the lowest sphere, so that the movement of the planets (including sun and moon) from west to east becomes apparent; therefore the sun is bound to rise one day in the west; (3) the days and nights will be of equal length in all countries; only the night preceding the rise of the sun in the west will be longer; (4) there will be no difference between the seasons, and

I On his numerous absences from Cairo, Baybars appointed various Mamluk ~mirs as his deputies (see, e.g., Ibn Taghribirdi, op. cit. II4 for the year 658/ t260; 14' f. for the year 665/r267; 166 for the year 673/1275). From 664/Iz66 onwards, however, he appointed his son, who was to be his ephemeral successor with the title of al-Malik al-Sa'Id, and whom he had appointed sultan in his own lifetime, as his shadow deputy, whereas the real power was to be held by one of the emirs. This is why Ibn Taghribirdi (op, cit. 138 for the year 664/ !~66) can say that Baybars appointed al-Malik al-Sa'id his deputy in Egypt, with the army and the vizier under his command, whereas Makrlzi iKitdb al- 8ul171>, i/3, Cairo '939, 550), referring to the same year, can speak of a Mamluk euiir as the deputy of the sultan in Egypt. (See also Ibn Taghribirdi, op. cit. 166 rll" the year 673/1275.) Whereas the qualities mentioned by the author are not lificribed to al-Malik aI-Sa'id in the contemporary sources, they were certainly ubaent from the Marnluk emirs appointed as the sultan's deputies, and it is at hlll~t possible that the description of the author applies, as a pious wish, to 1I1·IVhdil< al-Sa·rd.

7z THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS

the regions far from the equator will become exceedingly cold, and those near it intensely hot; this will make the climate unsuitable for the human temperament. The characters of men will change, and crimes and troubles will become prevalent.'

The Tenth Section: on how Kamil came to know what was going to happen in the lower world after the death of the Last Prophet.

(Summary) In consequence of the diminution and disappearance of the lateral deviation of the sun, it will constantly remain in the zenith on the equator. The countries near to the equator will therefore become intensely hot, and those of any appreciable latitude intensely cold, so that most localities will deviate very much from equilibrium. Therefore the temperaments of men in most countries will become evil and bad, their hearts will become weak, and they will often die suddenly. So their characters and relationships will become bad, and evil deeds and litigation will prevail. Their characters will also become widely different as the natures of their climates will be widely different, and this will cause many wars, troubles, and bloodshed; the bad people will be to the fore and the good people in the background. As bad temperaments produce bad intelligence, the intelligence of those people will become bad, too, and they will be little inclined to science and wisdom; sciences will therefore become very rare.

When the lateral deviation of the sun becomes nil, the heat in the regions near the equator will become very intense and there will be many fires, especially in those countries which are cavernous and sulphurous. Then a fire will start in Yemen and spread over all the regions near the equator. There will be much smoke and this will produce unhealthy winds, thunderstorms, and terrific lightning, and there will be many frightening signs in the air. On account of the abundant smoke the air will become hazy and opaque, and in consequence of this the soil there will lose many of its earthy and watery parts and its substance will be very much reduced, so that the soil in the regions near the poles will become very heavy in comparison. Therefore great parts of the surface of the earth will break down, the mountains and will collapse and become flat, and water will become very scarce, as it will flow near to the equator on account of the subsidence there, and will evaporate by the power of the heat. Consequently many trees will become dry,

I See Excursus H, below, pp. 8z f.

THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIs 73 and the (surface covered by) soil will be reduced because a great part of it will evaporate and go up. Therefore the hidden treasures of the earth will become manifest.

When the absence of a lateral deviation of the sun has continued for some time, the deviation from equilibrium will become excessive, and the temperaments of animals and plants will become corrupt. Then the last day will arrive. Before that, there must be many earthquakes and subsidences (of the soil) on account of the winds and smoke in the interior of the earth. In the very hot regions this will be because the heat is moving the earthy parts upwards, and in the very cold regions, because the surface of the earth becomes thick and excessively solid, so that the smoke and winds cannot find a way out.

On account of the difference in the temperaments of men their appearance will be different, too, and their looks ugly. Therefore there may possibly appear a man who is able to speak to his fellow men but has the external appearance of (a composite of) beasts. I On account of the many wars many men will be killed, and women will be in the majority. Therefore they will become lustful and lecherous as they cannot find enough men to satisfy them, and there will be much female homosexuality. Fruit and crops will become very scarce, in the hot regions on account of the diminution of matter inside the earth, because the cold which retains it for the purpose of ripening is lacking; and in the cold regions because the heat which attracts matter and makes it ripen is lacking. The regions of balanced climate will be few, fruit and crops will be very scarce; the means of livelihood will be restricted, and prices will rise. For this reason there will be many thefts, robbery, and waylaying, and similar things which happen in times of drought and dearth.

When the lateral deviation of the sun is nearly or completely eliminated, the first climate and the adjoining regions will become exceedingly hot, and the seventh climate and the adjoining regions exceedingly cold, and both conditions will make health and life impossible. Therefore the inhabitants of those two climates will be forced to emigrate, those of the first climate, who arethe Sudanese, to the north, and those of the seventh climate, who are the Turks, the Tatars, the Russians, and (the tribes) Ya'juj and

I On this "Beast of the Earth', see Excursus H, below, p. 83, and A. Abel, nrt, 'Dabba' in EP.

74 THEOLOGUS AUTODIDACTUS OF IBN AL-NAFIS Ma'juj,' to the south, with their kings, armies, and mounts. Therefore the inhabitants of the near temperate zones which lie between both will fight and try to repel them, but they will conquer part of those zones and there, too, prices will rise and fortunes become small as is bound to happen when people are crowded together.

After the lateral deviation of the sun has become nil another deviation must come into existence, as those fixed points continue their very slow movement from the north to the south. When this

( C 1") movement becomes appreciable, the earth will return to its first condition and the air become fit again for animal life. As there will be many rains in winter and the earth will become full (of water), so that it becomes mixed with dust, and as fermentation takes place on account of the heat of the sun, this mixture becomes capable of being the base of the formation of bodies of men and other animals. Then the soul is able to feed that small part which is the coccyx, to which, as we mentioned, the human soul is attached.> and so this clay becomes an aliment for (that) exceedingly fine matter, and from this complete human bodies come into being and are resuscitated as they were before. This is the rising of the dead=-praise be to Allah the Powerful and All-Knowing.

Herewith we conclude the book, seeking help from Allah alone and praising his Best Prophet, Muhammad, his Family, his Companions, and his Elect ones.

End of the Treatise relating to Kamil on the Life-History of the Prophet. May Allah bless our Lord Muhammad and his Family and give them peace,

1 On the tribes Ya'juj and Ma'juj (Gog and Magog), see Excursus H, below,

p. 83, and Stieglecker, §§ 1363-5. 2 Above, p. 59.

EXCURSUS A

(for pp. 12-[7)

(a) 'All ibn Abil-Ha-am, and not Hazm, is the form of the name explicitly stated (with full vocalization and ihmiil sign) in the photographic copy of the parallel biography of "Umari, and the z is not pointed in any other old manuscript, especially not in the copy of three of Ibn al-Nafts's works which was written during the lifetime of the author (see above, p. 36). The proper name Haram is mentioned in Firuzabadi's !.(iimus. Several authors vocalize the nisba al-Karshi, for instance the commentator Nans ibn "Iwad al-Kirrnani (9th/15th century}, who derives the name from a village al-Karsh in Egypt. But such a village is not known, and Ibn al-Nafis was born not in Egypt but in Syria, where there existed a village al-Kurashiyya near Damascus (Yakut, Geographisches Worter~ buch, ed .. F. Wustenfcld, iv. 57). Cf. R. Dussaud, Topographic historique de la Syrie, Paris 1927, 153 f. The word is also expressly vocalized with a damma twice (fols, 25v and 49') in the contemporary manuscript mentioned in the preceding note. The manuscript of fAU in the ,?ahiriyya Library in Damascus (above, p. 10 n. 4) vocalizes al-Karashi, and states that Karash is a place near Damascus, but this is unknown to the works on geography which we have been able to consult.

(b) This is Sharaf aI-DIn al-Rahbi, the first director of the medical school founded by Dakhwar (above, p. 10). The nisba al-Rahbl is corrupt both in Safadr and in "Umari (as well as in some other sources), and Ibn al-Tmad (Shadhariii al-Dhahab, v, 147, year 63I) asserts that it should be al-Rukhkhi, after Rukhkh, a quarter of Nisabur in Eastern Persia; but lAU (ii. 193) explicitly states that his family came from Rahba, a village near Damascus (Ya~ut, Wortcrbuch, ii. 763).

(e) The name of this 'Son of the Cadi of Baalbeck' was Badr al-Din alMuzaffar, He was a distinguished practitioner, was appointed Chief Physician and professor at the Madrasa al-Dakhsudriyya in 637/U39, and at his own expense had the Nurl Hospital in Damascus rebuilt, enlarged, and supplied with running water. See lAU, ii. :444 f., :459-63; Gregorius Abul-Faraj, Barhebraeus, Tarlkh Mukhta~ar al-Duuial, ed. $alil;tanf, Beyrouth 1890, 480.

(d) His name was Muhammad ibn Ibrahim; his father was a HispanoMoorish Muslim who came to Damascus and settled there. He acquired such an intimate knowledge of the first part of Ibn Stna's I;:aniln, contnining the general principles (kulliyyat) of medicine, that he finally knew it by heart and received the surname al-Kulli, (See lAU, ii. 263.) He lived, according to the Manhal al-$iif'i of Ibn Taghribirdi (G. Wiet, Las Biographies, no. 1984), from 575/1179 to 675/1276.

(tI) according to the parallel text in "Umarf, this was Abul- Thana' al-

EXCURSUS A

Halabi ; see on him below, paragraph x. A similar story is related by Burhan al-Din Ibrahim al-Rashidi, below, paragraph k.

(j) M<;!al aI-Din Muhammad ibn Niimwar ibn 'Abd al-Malik al-Khunaji (sometimes spelt al-Khawinji), of Persian origin, was a cadi in Cairo, where he died rn 646/1249. See GAL', i, 607; S'Uppl. i. 838.

(g) Athi'r ai-Din al-Mufaddal ibn "Umar al-Abhari (sometimes speltalAbahri) was a philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician at the court of the ruler of Mosul, where he died in 663/1265. He is the author of a much famed 'Introduction' (lsaghujf, after the work of Porphyry) to logic. See GAV, i. 608-IO; Suppl. i. 839-4+

(h) Baha' al-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Nahhas was a Syrian philologist who came to Cairo, where he was appointed professor at the Mansuriyya School. He died in 698/1299. See GAV, i, 363; Suppl.1. 527; see also above, p. 1 I.

(i) 'Trnad aI-DIn Muhammad ibn 'Ali: ibn Muhammad al-Nabulusi, d. 7II/13II, is mentioned by Ibn al-Tmad (Shadharat, vi. 27 f.) as a pious traditionist but not as a medical man.

(j) We have been unable to find another reference to this person.

(h) A many-sided Shafi'! scholar, successor of Athir al-Dln Abu Hayyan in one of his teaching posts, whose full name was Burhan al-Din Ibrahim ibn Lajin ibn 'Abd Allah al-Rashidi; he died in Cairo in 749/1349. See Shadhardi, vi. r 58; Manhal at-$tifi (Wiet), no. 88.

(l) Najm al-Din Hasan ibn Muhammad al-$afadi, Friday-preacher in $afad in Palestine; he died there in 7'23/1223, more than eighty years old. See Shadhar/it, vi. 6r; Manhal aI-$af; (Wier), no. 918.

(m) See above, paragraph h.

(n) A Jewish physician who became one of the practitioners at the couru of the Mamluk sultan al-Malik al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Kalawun (693/1293-741/1341, with interruptions), According to the Manhai al-$a/'i (Wiet), no. I054, he died in 740/1339, but according to $afadii, who knew him personally, in 743/1342, very old. See B. R. Sanguinetti, 'Notices biographiques de quelques medecins, tirees d'un ouvrage arabu d'Assafady' [i.e. his Waff bil- Wafaytit] , JA, 5th series, tome ix (1857), 392-443 (pp. 4rof.).

(0) His full name was Jamal aI-Din Muhammad ibn Salim ibn Wa§il al-Hamawi. He taught Shafi'1 law, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy in his home town, Hama in Syria. In 659/1'261 Sultan Baybars ser,ll him as an ambassador to the court of King Manfred of Sicily, where he stayed some considerable time. (See F. Gabrieli, 'Le Ambascerie ell Baibars a Manfredi', in Studi Medievali in onere di Antonino de Stefano, Palermo 1956, 219-25.) After his return he became chief cadi and pre» fessor in Hama, where he died in 697/1298. He is best known as an his. torian of the Ayyub id sultanate and author of Mufarri] al-Kuriib [t AkhMt

EXCURSUS A

77

Bani Ayyub (ed. Jamal al-Din al-Shayyal, 3 vols., Cairo 1953-60). See GAL', i. 393; Suppl. i. 555; G .. Levi Della Vida, in Orientalia, IV (1935), 356; Shadhariit,v. 438 f.

(p) A son of a distinguished disciple of al-Dakhwar, Rashid aI-DIn Abu Hulayka, On the father, see IAU, Ii. 123-30; Ibn al-Furat, Tiirikh, vii. H2; on the son, see ibid. viii. 22-25.

(q) A hitherto unknown physician.

(r) He is. the previously mentioned Ibn ~a<;li Ba'Iabakk (above, paragraph c).

(s) Abul-Faraj ibn Ya'kub ibn Ishak ibn al-Kuff, a Christian from Karak, was also a disciple of Ibn Abr Usaybi'a, who devoted to him the last biography in his 'work (IAU, ii. 2.73 f.) He lived from 630/1233 to 685/ 1286. He composed a treatise on surgery, al-'Umdafil-Jiriil;w, which has been printed (Hyderabad 1356, '2 vols.). Cf. GAL", 1. 649; Suppl. i. 899.

(t) Heis al-Sadid al-Dumyati, as explicitly stated in "Umari ; see above, paragraph n,

(11) Not mentioned in "Umari ; see above, p. 24 n. 3.

(v) An otherwise unknown Egyptian physician. "Urnart calls him AbulFaraj al-Iskandarl, and adds Abul-Faraj Ibn Saghir to the list of the disciples-an obvious mistake.

('ou) His full name was Fath aI-DIn Abul-Fath Muhammad ibn Muharnmad ibn Ab! Bakr al-Ya'rnuri ; he was a traditionist and man of letters, belonging to a reputed family of scholars; born in Seville, he settled in 01111'0 and died there in 734ir334. See Taj al-Dln al-Subki, TabaJy_at al- 8hlifi'iyya, vi. 29-31; Manhal al-Safi (Wiet), no. 2387.

(11'1) Shihab al-Din Mahmud ibn Salman al-Hanball, of Damascus, historian, poet, and man of letters; he was an official in Cairo and in Dom3scus, and died in Damascus in 725/1325. See GAO, ii. 54; Suppl. 1.I,42f.

i

, I

I

II

EXCURSUS B

(for p. 45 n. I)

lIy II note in Biehr Fares, "Mahdrirn ul-Af;laq' (in Rendiconti della R.

Ir'f,udemia Nazionale dei Lineei, Scienze Morali, series 6, vol. xiii, Rome III1H, 420 n. 4; reprinted in the same author's lVlabtil;ith "Arabiyya, , ulro 1939, 48 n. 47), our attention was drawn to a treatise preserved in j hu munuscript 1353 tasaunouf of the Egyptian Library in Cairo (a second "IIPY, 994 tasaunvuf, is copied from this very manuscript but adds a 1I101\lse introduction), which contains a close parallel to this passage (see nil' ttllct in the Arabic part of this publication, p. I " note}. The title of lil, treatise in question is given at the beginning of manuscript 1353 as t 'Nib 'Mahiirim al-Ahhlii~ wal-Siyiisa, 'Book on the Eminent Virtues and

EXCURSUS B

on the Conduct of Policy', and at the end with the following addition: ioal-Zuhd zoa-ma ashbah dhtilik, 'and on Abstemiousness and Kindred Subjects'. Its attribution to al-Tustari (i.e. Shams aI-DIn Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn "Uthman al-Tustari al-Madani, d. 785/1383; see Ibn Hajar al-'Aslj:alanI, al-Durar al-Kdmina, iii. 338; Shadharat, vi. z88 f.) seems to be erroneous, as Tustarf's Kitiib alAkhltj,~ is quoted at the beginning; in any case, the treatise must be earlier than 858/145·4, the date of MS. 1353.

The whole reasoning that civilized life is possible only in an organized society built on collaboration, where everyone has his specified task to perform, and which is governed by a religious law (shari'a) which protects the individual and at the same time assigns to him his duty, is based on Greek thought. AI-Fiirabi (d. 339(950), in discussing his Model State, stressed the necessity of society, ill which alone the individual could attain physical and moral satisfaction. 'By his very nature man is not equipped to attain all that is necessary for his heeds without the help of others .... If man is ever to achieve the perfection of his nature, he must belong to a society (qawm) and co-operate with his fellow men' ial-Madina al-Fddila, ed. Dieterici, 53). In another treatise ai-Farabi argues that not only man but certain species of the animal and vegetable kingdoms cannot sustain life without living together in groups (jamii' a; Kitab al-Siyasat al-madaniyya, Hyderabad I346, 38f.), A contemporary of Ibn al-Nafis, Nasir al-Dm al-Tus! (d. 67z/1274), in his Akhlii1!-i Ndsiri expresses similar reasoning (A. K. S. Lambton, Islamic Society in Persia, London 1954,3 n. I). Ibn Khaldun (d. 808/1406) calls man 'social by nature' (madanf bil-tab"). The social function of the prophets is again emphasized by Muhammad 'Abduh.

EXCURSUS C

(for p. 46 n.l)

Whereas the school of the Mu'tazila considers that realizing the 'most proper' thing (a~lab) is necessarily incumbent upon Allah (see 1. Goldziher, Vorlesungen fiber den Islam, Heidelberg 1910, 105; znd ed., Heidelberg 1925, 99; Luciani, 255~65; Al-Shahrastanl, The Summa Philosophiae, ed. and transl. A. Guillaume, O.D.P. 1934, 405-10; Albert N. Nader, Le System» Philosophique des Mutasila, Beyrouth 1956, 77 f., 81; Stieglecker, §§ 213, 217), orthodox doctrine makes a point of differentiating between the two, and denies that Allah Can be properly bound to do anything; but whereas the school of the Asharls affirms that both contingencies are completely equal in the sight of Allah, that of the Maturidjs recognizes that the aslah corresponds to divine wisdom, and can therefore be termed, in a certain sense, wiijib (necessary). Ibn al-Naffs was brought by the whole trend of his argument to adopt the Maturidi opinion, which is that followed by the Hanaf i school of religious law, although he himself belonged to the Shrtfi'I school which generally followed the Ash'ari doctrine. Shilfi'l himself did not hesitate to use the expression kdna

EXCURSUS C

79

ma'kiilan 'an Allah 'it is reasonable to suppose of Allah (Umm, vii. 272., ll. l4., 16,2.4). In his opinion, too, that man can come to know of the existence of Allah unaided Ibn al-Naffs follows the opinion of the Maturidls against that of the Ashans. On the Islamic doctrine of aslah, see W. M. Watt, in EJz, s.v.; L. Massignon,Al-Hallaj, ii, Paris 1922, 617; M. Asln Palacios, Abenluizam de Cordoba, iv, 1931, 62-89; L. Gardet, La Mesure de notre liberte, Tunis 1946, 4S~48; G. Vajda, 'La Finalite' (above, p. 43 n. I), 72 ff.; and on the modernist theologian Muhammad "Abduh, B. Michel and M. Abdel Razik, Cheikh Mohammed Abdou, Paris 19Z5, 37- 41; C. C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt, London 1933, l40.

For a detailed discussion of a/lab, wiijib, and related concepts from the point of view of the Mu'razila, see I$,ac;H "Abd al-jabbar (d. AlS/I02S), al-Mughni, xiv, Cairo 1385/1965, 7-180.

EXCURSUS D

(forp. 66 n, r)

Sura vi. 65 reads: 'Say: He is the one who is able to send punishment upon you from above or from beneath your feet, or to bewilder you with (dissension of) parties and make you taste the violence one of another.' Punishment from above is generally interpreted as destruction by stones falling from the sky or by a deluge, punishment from below as being swallowed up by the earth. Although the verse is, on the face of it, addressed to unbelievers, it has given rise to a group of traditions which make it apply to the community of Muslims, too. One well-known version makes the Prophet say: 'I asked Allah not to send upon my community punishment from above or from beneath their feet, and he granted me that; then I asked Him not to subject them to violence between themselves, but he refused me that, and Gabriel informed me that my community would perish by the sword.' This group of traditions and the commentators of the Koran regard bloodshed caused by civil war as less serious than natural catastrophes. (See, e.g., Tabarl, Tafsir, ad loc., and for further variants of the traditions, Wensinck, Concordance, s.v, ba's and "adhab, where, however, several references are wrong.) Both Ibn al-Nafls and his contemporary, the historian juwayni (d. 68r/ I z 83) in his Tiirzkh-i Jahiin~ Gusha (ed, M. M. Qazwini, Leyden and London 1912; trans!' J. A. Boyle, Manchester 1958), applied this tradition, by giving it a new interpretation, to the bloodshed which accompanied the invasion of the Mongols. Juwayni, too, intends to show that the devastation of many Islamic countries by the Mongols was a necessary evil (i. 8 ff.; transl, i. I r ff.}; in connexion with this, he quotes the tradition, in the version translated above, from Zamakhshari's commentary on the Koran (i, I'2.; trans!' i. 17), and relates that Chingis Khan reputedly described himself in a speech as 'the scourge of God sent to men as a punishment for their sins' (i. 81; trans!' i. 105). (See also the summary, still useful, in C. d'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols, Hague and Amsterdam l834, i, xxi+xxiv.)

80

EXCURSUS E

(for p. 67 n. I)

The Mongols (or Tatars) were more or less identified with the Turks by the Muslim authors of the middle ages; see D. Ayalon, 'The EuropeanAsiatic Steppe; a major reservoir of power for the Islamic world', in Trudy XXV Mezhdunarodnogo Kongressa Vostokovedov, Moscow 1963, ii, 47-52. This was also done by Ibn al-Nafis (see above, p. 69), and by Juwayni (TarI/~h-iJahan-Gushii, i. II, transl. i. 16; d'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols, i, xxiii). One of the rare exceptions is the physician and scientist 'Abd al-Latif ibn Yusuf al-Baghdadi (d. 629/r2,31), quoted by Dhahabi in his Tiirikh at-Islam (year 605/1208-9; see J. von Somogyi, 'Ein arabischer Bericht tiber die Tataren', Der Islam, xxiv (1937), 105-30), but Dhahabi himself, in his short extract called Kitab Dusoal al-Islam, makes no such distinction (on Dhahabi, see above, pp. 17 f.).

The most detailed reference to the Turks in ancient Arabic literature occurs in Jal;i~ (d. 255/868), Risala f'i Mana~ib al- Turk, in G. van Vloten, Tria opuscula auctore ... al-Djahiss, Leiden I903, 47 ff.: it contains praise of the warlike character and ability of the Turks, but no physical description. There is a description of the small eyes and the broad faces of Turks in the Kdmil of Mubarrad (d. 2,85/898; ed. W. Wright, Leipzig 1874 ff., 361, 1.5), in a saying attributed to 'Ali ibn 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas: 'This power will, by Allah, certainly stay with my descendants until they are ruled by their slaves, (persons) with small eyes and broad faces, whose faces are like doubly-covered shields.' A similar description of the Turks in a comparable context was put into the mouth of the Prophet; this version is secondary to the preceding one, although it is attested considerably earlier in collections of traditions, starting with the Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241/855), v. 348 f. (cf. A. J. Wensinck, A Handbook oj Early Muhammadan Tradition, Leiden 19<:7, s.v. Turks). Masudi (d. 345/956) writes in the Muriij al-Dhahab (ed. C. Barbier de Meynard, iv, Paris 1864, 32,f.): 'The uniform character which is noticeable in the appearance of the Turks comes from the uniformly cold character of the climate of their country; therefore their appearance is uniform and similar .... Because cold is prevalent among the Turks and the heat is insufficient to absorb the moisture of their bodies, the Turks become very fat and soft in their bodies, similar to women in many of their characteristics. Their desire for intercourse is weak and they have few children, because their temperament is cold and moisture is prevalent in them. The weakness of their lust comes also from the frequency of their riding horses. In their women, too, the plumpness and moisture of (the temperament of) their bodies weakens the power of attracting the sperm into their genitals. Their red complexion comes from the cold, as we have mentioned, because if persistent cold is applied to a white complexion it becomes red, witness the tips of the fingers, the lips, and the nose, which become red if severe cold is applied to them.' (On the relation of climate and body with regard to heat and cold, see also

EXCURSUS E

J. Schacht and M. Meyerhof, The Medico-philosophical Controversy between Ibn Butlan of Baghdad and Ibn Ridwan of Cairo, Cairo 1937,95.)

A detailed physical description of the Tatars by a contemporary of Ibn al-Nafrs is found in U. Monneret de Villard, Il libro della peregrinazione nelle parti d'Oriente di Frate Ricaldo da Montecroce (dated 1289-90), Rome 1948, 41; , "habent magnas et latas facies et oculos parvos, quasi fissuras quasdam per transversum in media facie, et parvam barbarn, ita quod multi eorum similes sunt simie, et maxime series." ... Temono il gran freddo, che ritengono provocato da uomini. E allora se incontrano persone ben coperte di pellicie, ne spogliano, accusandole di essere state loro a provocarlo con le loro coperture ed i panni superflui. Stimano l'ubbriachezza ed il vomito che questa procura come un onore che e dato dal ban.'

See also 1. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, Halle 1889-90, i. 2,70 f.; ii. 127 n. 2,; E. Mainz, 'Die Turken in der klassischen arabischen Literatur', Der Islam, xxi (1933), 2,79-85.

EXCURSUS F (for p. 68 n. 4)

Cruel methods of execution were commonplace during the Mamluk. period, and Baybars is commonly credited with having introduced them. They are considered strictly forbidden (I:zaram) by the Muslim scholars, e.g. by Ibrahim aJ-Bajiiri (d. 1276/1860) in his Hdshiya on the Fatb alKarib of Ibn al-Kasim al-Ghazzi (d. 9I8/ISI2) (Kitab al-hudiid, Fasl fi al;kiim al-bugluit ; quoted by C. Snouck Hurgronje, Verspreide Geschriften, ii, Bonn and Leipzig 1923, 198). The usual method of execution was tasosi], 'cutting into half' at the waist, sometimes accompanied by nailing to a wooden contraption in the form of a St. Andrew's cross, which was also used as an independent method of putting to death. (See W. M. Brinner, A Chronicle oj Damascus I389-I397 by ... ibn Sasrd, University of California Press I963, i (trans1.), 12 n. 77; for descriptions of executions, see pp. 83f., I39-42, 158, 293-5.) The traveller Ibn Fadlan (310/922; GAL', i. 261) describes iasosi] as a mode of execution customary among the Oghuz and the Bulgars of the Volga (see M. Canard, in AIEO, xvi (1958), 106 n. 238).

It so happens that toust; is not prominently reported in the annals of the reign of Baybars, but nailing (tasmir) is. Nuwayrl (d. 732/r332) in the :<18th part of his Nihdyat at-Arab Ii Funiin. al-Adab, among the events of the year 665/1266-7, devotes a special section to the executions by tasmir which were carried out in Cairo (MS. Paris, Arabe I578, 36'), among them that of a Mamluk who pretended to be a prophet, and of an administrator who had become too powerful, together with his Christian associate. Abu Shilma (d. 665/1267) in his Dhayl al-Rauidataytt (ed. Kawthari, Cairo 1366/X947, 221 f.) describes in detail the execution by tasmir, in 661/1262.,

81~122 G

82

EXCURSUS F

of a robber and murderer; he remained alive on the wooden contraption during two nights and one day and was strangled on the second day; his wife and accomplice, who had enticed his victims to him, had been strangled and hung in a sack from the contraption to which he was nailed. The tasmir of a group of mass murderers and robbers in 662/I264 is reported by Mal.;:rizi (d. 845/1442.) in his Kitdb ai-Suliik, i/3, 5U.

Another method of execution was by 'splitting lengthwise' (shaM)· This was the way in which a former favourite eunuch was put to death (Nuwayri, op. cit. 55v).

There was, finally, burning to death. This was the punishment awarded to the Christian secretary Badr ibn al-Nafis, who was found drinking wine with a Muslim woman, by the governor Husam al-Din in Damascus in 687/12.88, not under Baybars, it is true, but under Kalawun. The woman had part of her nose cut off and was released. (On Husam al-Din Lajin alMansrrri, see H. Laoust, Les Gouverneurs de Damas sous les Mamlouks et Ies premiers Ottomans, Damascus X952, 6.)

Cutting off limbs and crucifying belong, of course, to the Islamic hadd punishments for theft and highway robbery.

EXCURSUS G

(for p. 69 n, r)

The respect which the Muslims of Arabic language felt for the Turks from an early period onwards is attested by an alleged saying of the Prophet: 'Leave the Turks alone as long as they leave you alone, because they are very valiant', a saying applied by Juwayni to the Mongols (Ttirf.kh-iJahan Gushti, i. II, trans!' i. 16; d'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols, i, xxiii). In the generation of Ibn al-Nafis it is expressed in a celebrated passage of Abii Shama in the Dhayl al-Rauidatayn, year 658/1260 (ed, Kawtharl, 208): 'his remarkable that the Tatars were broken and destroyed by their own kinsmen, the Turks, Concerning that event, I composed the

following verses: .

The Tatars conquered the lands, and there came to them From Egypt a Turk, unmindful of his life,

In Syria he destroyed and scattered them.

To everything there is a bane of its own kind.'

The idea of fighting like with like is expressed in Arabic proverbs; cf. MaydanI,Amthtil, ed. Freytag, i. 520; ed. BCtli'il::: 1.284,·i. 252.; Harnadhanr, MalJafnat, ed, Muhammad 'Abdu,znd ed , 95 (al-Malp'ima alJ:[a;;rwiniyya) ,

From a different angle, Ibn Khaldiin (d. 808/1406) is of the opinion that the Turkish Mamluks were the saviours of Islam, thanks to their strong and virile natures (Kitab al-i Ibar, BuW,: 1284, v, 371).

EXCURSUS H

(for p. 7?- n. r )

The Islamic ideas of the Last Things, which the author seeks to derive by reasoning a priori, in part go back to the Koran. Perhaps the best account of these ideas in English is still that in T. P. Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, London I896, s.v. 'Resurrection', Prominent among them are the sun rising in the west, prevalence of evil, wars, troubles,and bloodshed, fire spreading from Yemen, smoke and winds, mountains collapsing and seas drying up, the earth giving up its treasures, the appearance of the talking 'Beast of the Earth' and of the tribes Ya'juj and Ma'juj (Gog and Magog) from the north, finally torrential rains and the reconstitution of the human bodies, starting with the coccyx, for the resurrection, For the Muslim these events are, of course, real in the same sense in which events of past history are real, and they provide a natural conclusion for the treatise. The historian, jurist, and traditionist Ibn Kathir (d, 774/1373), too, concludes his Kitab al-Bidiiya. uial-Nihdya, 'Account of the First and Last Things', which starts with the creation of the world and is essentially a history of Islam, with a section on the end of the world and the bloody events which will accompany the resurrection. This last section has not been included in the printed edition, presumably because it was regarded as lacking in sufficient immediate interest; cf, H. Laoust, in Arabica, ii (1955), 64 11, L

The naturalistic explanation of seemingly supernatural events which Ibn al-Nafis provides is in no way incompatible with Islamic orthodoxy; on the contrary, it fits in with the thesis of Islamic theology which denies the existence of 'laws of nature' (d. Stieglecker, §§ 161, 253).

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