John Flavell Metacognition consist of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive

experience.

Person variables - This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker.
Knowledge about how human

Task Variables – includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as type of
processing demands it will place upon the individual.

Strategy Variables – Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of strategy you

are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective.

Meta attention – awareness of SPECIFIC STRATEGIES SO THAT YOU CAN KEEP

YOUR ATTENTION FOCUSEDON THE TOPIC OR TASK AT HAND

Metamemory – Awareness of memories strategies that work best for you

Metacognition – Highest level of thinking

Expert learners - Employed metacognitive strategies in learning

Novice learners – Have limited knowledge in different subject areas.

14 psychological principles are divided into

a. cognitive and metacognitive
b. motivational and affective
c. developmental and social
d. invidual difference

Cognitive and metacognitive facotrs

1. Nature of learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of on constructing meaning form information and experience

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance and
create meaningful, coherent representation of knowledge.

3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.

4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking
higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operation facilitate
creative and critical thinking

6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,
and instructional practices

Motivational and affective factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
interest and goals, and habits of thinking .

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

the learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute
to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by task of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests and providing for personal choice and interest

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner efforts
and guided practice. Without learners, motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
effort in unlikely without coercion.

Developmental and social factor

10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.

11. Social Influences of learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communications with others.

Individual differences factors

12. Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that
are a function of prior experience and heredity.

13 Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural, and
social background are taken into account.
14 Standards and assessments
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as
well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are
integral parts of the learning process.

Part 2

Jean Piaget- cognitive theory of development – how individual constructs knowledge.

Piagetian task – a research method involved observing small number of individuals as

they responded to cognitive task that has designed.

Genetic epistemology - Piaget general theoretical framework

Interested in how knowledge developed in human organism

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema - refer to cognitive structure by w/c individuals intellectually adapt to and

organize their environment.
Ex. If a child see’sa dog for the first time, he creates his own idea what a
dog is
Assimilation – Process of fitting its new experience into an existing or previous schema
Ex. If the child sees another dog and it is smaller one he is adding new
schema of a dog

Accommodation - a process of creating a new schema

Ex. If a child sees now another animal that looks kike little bit like a dog,
but somehow a different height try fit it into a his schema of a
dog

Equilibration – proper balance of assimilation and accommodation

Cognitive disequilibrium – experience not match to schemata or cognitive s
structure

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive development

Stage 1 Sensori – motor stage – first stage corresponds from birth to infancy.
Ex. Child is gasping sucking reaching more organized

Object permanence – This is the ability of the child to know that an object still
exist even without sight
Stage 2 Pre-Operational stage – The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven
years old
Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature
Ex Can make mental representation/ can use of symbols

Symbolic Function – Ability to represent objects and events.

Develops in the children 2 – 7 years old
Egocentrism – This is the tendency of the child to see only his own point
of view
Centration - refers to the tendency of the child focus on one aspects of
a thing exclude other aspect.
Ex. When a child is presented two identical glassand you
transferred the other glass to a much higher glass,
the child might say that there is much water on the
taller glass than the other
Irreversibility – Preoperational children still has the inability to reverse
thinking.
Ex. Can understand 2+3 = 5 but cannot understand 5-3 = 2

Animism – Tendency of children to attribute human like or characteristic

inanimate objects
Ex. Ask child where is the sun and he will tell reply mr.sun is
asleep

Transductive reasoning – A type of reasoning that is inductive nor

deductive
Ex. A causes b vice versa everyday mommy is at home at 6 and if
ask why is it evening the child will answer because
mommy is home.

Stage 3 Concrete operational stage – the ability of the child to think logically but in terms
concrete object only. For elementary years

Decentering – ability of the child to perceive the different features

of objects and situation.

Reversibility – During the stage of concrete operations child can

follow that certain operations can be done in reverse

Conservation – Ability to know that certain properties of objects

like number mass or area do not change
even if there is a change in appearance

Seriation – ability to order or arrange according to volume mass

and weight
Stage 4 Operational Stage – Final stage of operations covering 12 and 15 years of age
Thinking is more logical
Hypothetical reasoning – Ability to come up with different hypothesis
about a problem and to gather and weight
data to make a final decision or Judgment

Analogical reasoning - Perceive the relationship in one instance and then

use that relationship to narrow down
possible answer to in another similar situation
or problem
Deductive reasoning - This is the ability to think logically by applying a
general rule to a particular instance or
situation

Erik Erikson – Psycho social theory

5 psychosexual development
Theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud
Cultural and social aspects

Epignetic principle – Principle says that we developed through a predetermined unfolding

of our personalities in eight stage

Psychosocial crisis- two opposing emotional forces

Virtue – psychological strength w/c help us through the stage of our lives

Malignancy – is the worse of the two, and involves too little positive and too much
negative

Maladaptation – not quite bad but too much positive

`Stage I Infancy Virtue- Will

Psychological Crisis - trust vs. power/determination
mistrust
Maladaptation-Sensory Stage III Childhood
maladjustment Psychological Crisis – initiative vs. guilt
Malignancy- withdrawal Maladaptation-Ruthless
Virtue- Hope Malignancy- inhibition
Virtue- courage
Stage II EarlyChildhood
Psychological Crisis – Autonomy vs. Stage IV School age 6-12
shame and doubt Psychological Crisis – Industry
Maladaptation-Impulsiveness vs.Inferiority
Malignancy- Compulsiveness Maladaptation-narrow virtuosity
 Malignancy- inertia
Virtue- competency
Stage V Adolescence 18 – 20
Psychological Crisis – Ego identity vs.
role confusion
Maladaptation-Fanaticism
Malignancy- Repudiation
Virtue- Fidelity
Stage VI Young Adulthood 18 – 30
Psychological Crisis – Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Maladaptation-promiscuity
Malignancy- exclusion
Virtue- love
Stage VII Middle adulthood 25 – 45
Psychological Crisis – Generavity vs.
stagnation
Maladaptation-Stagnation
Malignancy- rejectivity
Virtue- Caring
Stage VIII Old age around 60
Psychological Crisis – ego integrity vs
despair
Maladaptation- presumption
Malignancy- disdain
Virtue- Wisdom

Vygotsky – Socio Cultural

Social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development

Scaffolding - term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner
Accomplish a task Social interaction and language two central factor in
cognitive development

Social Interaction – emphasize that effective learning happens through participation in

social activities, making the social context of learning crucial.

Zone of actual development – when a child attempts to perform a skill alone she may not
be immediately proficient at it. So, alone she may perform a certain level of competency.

Zone of proximal development – zone represents a learning opportunity where a

knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can assist the
child’s development..

Scaffolding – Support assistance that lets child accomplish a task she cannot accomplish
independently

Ex. Leading the straw to the hole and letting child put the straw through the tetra pack
hole is scaffolding

Scaffold and fade-away technique – as learners become more proficient, able to complete
task on their own that they could not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be
withdrawn
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg interested in studying the development of moral reasoning

Utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemma)

Six stages of Kohlberg’s Moral development

Level Stage Description

Pre-conventional Level – Moral reasoning 1 Punishment - One is motivated be
Is based on the consequence/result of the fear of punishment he will act to
Act. Act may be good or bad avoid punishment

2 Mutual Benefit - One is motivated

to act by the benefit that one
may obtain later you scratch mine
I scratch yours

Conventional – Moral reasoning is based on 3 Social Approval One is motivated

the conventions or norms of society include by what others expect in behavior
approval of others , law and order god boy/girl he values what he
appears to others.

4 law and order Motivated to act in

in order to uphold law and order

Post-conventional – Moral reasoning 5 Social contract - Laws that are

Is based enduring or consistent principle. Wrong can changed/one act is
Not just recognized law but the principle based on social justice

6 universal Principles This is

associated with the
development of one’s
conscience. Having set of
standards derives one to process
moral responsibility to make societal
changes regardless of consequences
to oneself

Just Community - Kohlberg and colleagues came up approach towards promoting moral
development
Community meeting – w/c issues is related to life and discipline in the school are
discussed

STUDENT DIVERSITY

Factors that bring about student diversity

Socio-economic status – the millionaires lifestyle differs from the middle income or
lower income group

Thinking/learning style - Some of you learn better by seeing something or hearing

something

Exceptionalities - In class there maybe one who has difficult spoken language or
comprehension.

How student diversity enriches learning environment

1 student’s self awareness is enhanced by diversity - exposed student w/ diverse

background and experiences also serves to help students focus on their awareness of
themselves
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development gain access to the perspective
of peers and to learn student from other students
3 Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society . the
capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspective and to appreciate all
aspects of diversity
4. student diversity can promote harmony diverse student can be encourage to interact or
collaborate with one another

Some tips of student diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences

2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promotes students multicultural and
cross-cultural awareness

3. Aside from high lightning diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group
differences

4. Communicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups

5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning style

6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts
are relevant to students from diverse background

7. Adapt the students diverse backgrounds and learning style by allowing them personal
choice and decision making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they
will learn it
8. Diversify your method of assessing and evaluating students learning

9. purposely, from small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You

can forms groups of students with different learning style, different cultural background,
etc.

LEARNING AND THINKING STYLES

Learning /thinking styles – refer to preferred way an individual process information

Bipolar dimension- styles are usually considered describe a persons thinking style

Sensory Preferences – individual tend to gravitate towards one or two types of sensory
input and maintain a dominance

Visual learners – these learners must see their teachers action and facial expression to
fully understand the content of the lesson
Ri charde breaks down visual learners into:

Visual iconic - those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery
such as films graphic display or pictures good picture memory

Visual symbolic – Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract
symbolism such as mathematic formulae or the written word

Auditory learners - They learn best in verbal lectures, discussion and talking things
Auditory two categories

Listeners - this is more common type listeners most likely do well good in school

Talkers – they are the one who ones who prefers to talk and discuss

Tactile/kinesthetic learners – person on hands on approach, actively exploring the

physical world around them

Global – Analytic Continuum

Analytic - Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear step-by-step process of learning/ tree
seers
Global – Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole
pattern rather than particle element/ Forest seers

Global analytical continuum left/right brain continuum

Left-brain dominant portrayed as the linear (analytic) verbal math, thinker

Right brain – viewed as global; non-linear and holistic through preferences

Successive processor – prefers to learn a step by step sequential format, beginning with
details leading to a conceptual understanding of skill

Simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with general concept and
going on to specifics

Left brain Analytical right brain global

Verbal visual
Responding to word meaning respond to tone of voice
Sequential Random
Process information linearly process information varied order
Respond to logic respond to emotion
Plans ahead impulsive
Recalls people names recalls peoples faces
Speaks with few gestures gestures when speaking
Punctual less punctual
Prefers from study design prefers sound/music background
While studying
Prefers bright lights while studying prefers frequent mobility in studying

Multiple intelligence

Multiple intelligence - Howard Gardner an ability to or set of abilities that allows person
to solve problem or fashion a product that is valued one or more cultures

Visual/spatial intelligence (picture smart) – learning visually ability to see things in ones
mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem

Verbal /Linguistic (word smart) – learning through spoken and written word

Mathematical/Logical (Number/logic smart) – Learning through interaction with one

environment. It promotes understanding through concrete experience

Musical – (Music smart) – Learning through patterns rhythms and music

Interpersonal (People smart) – learning through interactions with others

Intrapersonal (self smart) – learning through feelings

Naturalist (nature smart) – learning through classification categories and hierarchies. Its
not study of nature but all areas of study

Existential (spirit smart) - learning by seeing big pictures ex. why are we here?

LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

EXCEPTIONAL LEARNERS – learners with disabilities, giftedness, sensory

impairment

Disability - is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with person’s ability

ex. to walk lift, hear or mental condition.

Handicap – is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment

Ex two person in a with hearing impairment one can make sign language and can read
lips, white the other cannot.

Categories of exceptionalities
Learning disabilities – involves difficult in specific cognitive process like perception
language and memory ex. Dyslexia (reading) dyscalculia (number operations) and
dysgraphia (writing)

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – manifested in difficult in focusing and

maintaining attention and recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.

Speech and communication disorders - involves the presence of emotional states like
depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time

Autism – is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and

communication repetitive behaviors and limited interest.

Mental retardation – refers to significant sub average intelligence and deficits in adaptive
behavior.

Physical disabilities and health impairments

Physical and health impairments - involves medical condition like limited energy reduce
mental alertness little muscle control

Severe multiple Disabilities – Refers to the presence of two or more different types of
disability at times a profound level

Sensory impairments
Visual impairments – there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves
Hearing impairments malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves

Giftedness - involves a significantly high level of cognitive development.

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism - focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior

Behavior – mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (reward and
punishment)

Ivan Pavlov known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution he’s
most renowned experiments involved meat dog and a bell

Stimulus generalization – Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it
will salivate other similar sounds

Extinction – if you stop pairing the bell w/food salivation will eventually cease and
response to the bell

Spontaneous recovery – extinguished responses can be recovered after an elapsed time,

but soon will extinguished again if the dog is not presented food

Discrimination – the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and
discern w/c bell would result in the presentation of food and w/c could not

Higher order conditioning – Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
w/food, another unconditioned stimulus such as light may flashed at the same time that
the bell is rung.

Edward Thorndike – connectionism theory

Gave the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology

Theory on connectionism stated that learning has taken place when a strong connection
or bond between stimulus and responsed is form.

Laws of Learning

Law of Readiness
The Law of Readiness means a person can learn when physically and mentally adjusted
(ready) to receive stimuli. Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they
will not learn much if they see no reason for learning. * this states that the more readiness
the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them.

Law of Exercise
The Law of Exercise stresses the idea that repetition is basic to the development of
adequate responses; things most often repeated are easiest remembered. The mind can
rarely recall new concepts or practices after a single exposure, but every time it is
practiced, learning continues and is enforced. *Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus
response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect”

Law of Effect
This law involves the emotional reaction of the learner. Learning will always be much
more effective when a feeling of satisfaction, pleasantness, or reward accompanies or is a
result of the learning process. Learning is strengthened when it is accompanied by a
pleasant or satisfying feeling and that it is weakened when it is associated with an
unpleasant experience. *it is stated that a connection between stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive(reward)and the connection between the
stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative.

Principles derived from Thorndike’s connectionism:

1. learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)

2. a series of S-R connection can be chained together if they belong to the same
sequence (law of readiness)
3. transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations
4. intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson – works at Pavlov’s ideas, American psychologist

He initially involved in animal studies, later became involved in human
behavior research

Burrhus Frederick Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned

behavior.
Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning – based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt
behavior
 FINALS
Neobehaviorism – it has aspect of behaviorism but it also reaches out to the
cognitive perspective

Two theories of reflecting neobehaviorism

Purposive Behaviorism – Edward Tolman

Sign Leaning theory
Often seen as a the link between behaviorism and
cognitive theory

Edward Tolman – believed that learning is a cognitive process, learning involves

forming believes and obtaining knowledgeabout the environment and an then
revealing the knowledge through purposeful and goal directed behavior

Tolman’s Key concept

Learning is always purposive and and goal-directed he believed individuals

do more than merely reepond to stimuli

Cognitive maps in rats his most famous experiments, one group of rats put in
the maze

Latent learning learning that remain in the learners until needed

Example. A child sees her dad operate the tv remote control volume, channel is
changed and parents are surprised that the child knows how to operate the
remote control

The concept of intervening variable are variables that are not readily seen but
serve as determinants of behavior. Learning is mediated or is influenced by
expectations and other internal or environmental variables

Reinforcement not essential for learning – it provides an incentives in

performance

Social Learning theory – Albert Bandura

Focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. Iot consider that
people learn from one another including such as concepts as observational
learning imitation and modeling

General principles of social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing

2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior
3. Cognition plays a role in learning
4. Social learning theory can be a bridfge or a transition between behaviorist
learning theories and cognitive learning theories

How environment reinforces and punishes modeling – people are often

reinforce modeling the behavior of others

1. The observer is reinforced by the model

2. The observer is reinforced by the third person
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences
4. Consequences of the models behavior affects the observers behavior
vicariously

Vicarious reinforcement – model is reinforced for a response and then then the
observer shows an increase in that same response.

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and

punishment

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment

have indirect effects on learning

2. Reinforcement and punishment influence that extent to which an individual

exhibits a behavior that has been learned

3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes to

promote learning

Cognitive factors in social learning

Learning without performance; Bandura makes a distinction between learning

through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned

Cognitive processing during learning : Social learning theorists contend the

attention is a critical factor in learning
Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the
consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring

Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the
environment and the person .

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

Attention – the person must first pay attention to the model

Retention- The Observer must be able to remember the behavoirthat has been
observed

Motor reproduction – the third condition is the ability to replicate

Motivation the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur

Gestalt Psychology – was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. it served

as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. Was the initial
cognitive response to the behaviorism. Adheres to the idea of learning taking
place by discovery or insight

Gestalt principles

Law of proximity - elements that are closer together will be perceived as a

coherent object. We perceiove them as belonign together

Law of similarity - elements that are look similar will be perceived as part of the
same form

Law of closure – We tend to fill the gaps or close the figure was perceived

Law of good continuation individuals have the tendency to continue contours

whenever the elements of the pattern established an implied direction

Law pf good Pragrnanz – The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as
possible example good refers to symmetry, simplicity and regularity

Law of figure/ground – we tend to pay attention and perceive things in the

foreground first a stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground

Discovery learning - the important aspects of learning was not reinforcement, but
the coordination of thinking to create new organization
Information processing – is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on
how knowledge enters and is stored and retrieved from our memory

Information processing theory – describes how the learner receives

information(stimuli) from the environment through the senses what takes place in
between determines whether the information will continue to pass through the
sensory register, then the short term memory and the long term memory

Types of knowledge

General vs. specific – this involves whether the knowledge useful in many task or
only in one

Declarative – This refer to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how
things are.

Procedural – this includes knowledge on how to do things

Episodic – This includes memories of life events, like oyur high school graduation

Conditional – Knowing whn and why to apply declarative or procedural strategies

3 stages of information processing theory

1. Encoding – Information is sensed perceived and attended to.

2. Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of

time, depending upon the processes of encoding

3. Retrieval – The information is bought back at the appropriate time and

reactivate for a use of a current task. True measure of effective memory

Sensory register

Capacity – Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is morethan

what our minds can hold and perceive

Duration – The sensory register only holds the information for an extreme brief –
in order of 1 to 3 seconds

Role of Attention

1. To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give

attention to
2. Gate – things that pass through our attention
 3. Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested
in the material

4. Before information is perceived, it is known as precategorical

information this means that until the point, the learner has not
established a determination of the categorical membership of the
information

Short term memory - can hold 5 to 9 chunks of information

Working memory the new information is temporarily placed when it is mentally
processed duration 18 sec.

Maintenance rehearsal – it is using repetition to keep the information is active in

STM

Long term memory – Final or storing housefor memory information

Executive control process – involve the executive processor or what is reffered

as the metacognitive skill

Forgetting – id the inability to retrieve or access information was needed

Decay – information is not attended to and eventually fades away

Interference – new or old information blocks access to the information in question

Methods for increasing retrieval of information

Rehearsal – repeating information verbatim , either mentally or aloud

Meaningful learning – making connection between new information and prior

knowledge

Organization – it is making connection among various pieces of information

Elaboration - this is adding additional ideas to new information based on what

one already knows

Visual imagery – forming picture of the information

Generation – things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear

Context – remembering the situation helps recovers information

Personalization – it is making the information relevant to the individual

Other memory methods

Serial position Effect (recency and primacy) - You will remember the beginning
and the end of list most readily

Part learning – Break up the list or chink information to increase memorization

Distributed Practice - Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the
info in at once (massed practice)
Mnemonic aids – memory techniques the learners may employ to help them
retain and retrieve information more effectively

Jerome Bruner – first proponents of constructivism A major theme in the theory

of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learner construct new
ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge

Bruner’s Main Concepts

Representation

Enactive representation – At the earliest ages, children learn about the world
through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions.

Iconic representation – Second stage learning can be obtained through busing

models and pictures

Symbolic representation – third stage, learners has developed the ability to think
in abstract terms. The most common symbols are language and mathematical

Spiral curriculum

Spiral Curriculum – teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching by the same
content in different ways depending on students developmental levels.

Principles of instruction Spiral

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experience and contexts that make
the students willing and able to learn (readiness)

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily graspedby the

student (spiral organization)

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the

gaps (going beyond the information given)

Discovery learning
Discovery Learning – refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself teachers plans
and arranges activities in such a way that students search , manipulate explore
and investigate

Four major concepts of Bruner’s theory of instruction

Predisposition to learn – introduced ideas of readiness for learning

Structure of knowledge – ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured

so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner.

Categorization – a fundamental process in structuring of knowledge

Effective sequencing – No none sequencing will fit every learner but in general,
the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty Sequencing or lack of it can
make learning easier or more difficult

Reinforcement - rewards and punishments should be selected and paced

appropriately

Categorization

Categorization – are rules that specify four things about objects

Construction of cognitive maps

Rules of categorization

1. Criterial attributes – required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a

category
2. Second rule prescribes citerial attributes are combined
3. Third rule assign weights to various properties
4. Fourth rules sets acceptance limits on attributes

Kinds of category

Identity category – includes objects based on their attributes and or features

Equivalent categories – provide rules for combining categories equivalence can

be determined b y affective criteria which render object equivalent by emotional
reactions, fuinctional criteria based on related function
Coding system - are categories that serves to recognize sensory inputs.

Ausubel’s theory knowledge is hierarchically organized; the new information is

meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already unknown

Focus of Ausubels theory

1. the most important factor influencing learning
2. Meaninful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in
some sensible way to ideas that the learners already possess

Subsumption – a process by which new material is related to relevant idea the

existing cognitive structure what we learned is based on what is already known

Meaningful learning can take place through four process

Derivative Subsumption – describes the situation in which the new information

you learn in\s an example of a concept that you have already learned

Correlative subsumption – valuable learning than that of derivative subsumption

since it enriches the higher level conc ept

Superordinate learning - a child already knew a lot of exmples of the concept,

but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to her.

Combinatorial learning – newly acquired knowledge combines with prior

knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts
Its different it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another
idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy , but the same level.

Advance Organizer – is a major tool proposed by Ausubel facilitate learning by

helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive structure. Help you link the
new learning to your existing scheme

Benefit of Advance organizer

1. you will find it easier to connect new information with what you already
know about the topic
2. you can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each
other.

Types of advance organizer

Expository – describes new content

Narrative – presents the new information in the form of story to students
Skimming – is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview
Graphic Organizer – Visual to set up or outline the new information
Progressive differentiation – increase th stability and clarity of anchoring ideas.