DigitalTelephony

WILEY
SERIESINTELECOMMUNICATIONS
ANDSIGNAL
PROCESSING
JohnG. hoakis. Editor
NortheastemUniversity

Introduction to Digital Mobil Communications

Yoshihiko Akaiwa
Digital Telephony, Sril Etlition
John Bellamy
E lements of I rfonuttion Theory
Thomas M. Cover and Joy A, Thomas
Fundame ntals of Telecommunicat ions
Roger L. Freeman
P ractic al Data Communicat ions
Roger L. Freeman
Radio SystemDesign for Telecommunications, Znd Edition
Roger L. Freeman
Telecommunication SystemEngineering, 3rd Edition
Roger L. Frceman
Telecommunications Transmission Handb ook, 4th Etlition
Roger L. Frceman
Introduction to Communications Engineering, 2nd Edition
Robert M. Gagliardi
Optital Communications, Znd Edition
Robert M. Gagliardi and Sheman Ksxp
Active Noise Control Systemt: Algorithm"s and DSP Implementations
Sen M. Kuo and Dennis R. Morgan
Mobile Communications Design Fundamentals, 2nd Edition
William C, Y, Lee
Expen SystemApplications for Telecommunications
Jay Liebowitz
Digital Signal Esilrndtion
Robert J. Mammone, Editor
Digital Communication Receivers: Synchronization, Channel Estimation, and Sigtnl Processing
Heinrich Meyr, Marc Moeneclaey, afld Stefan A, Fechtel
Synchronization in Digital Comntunications, Volume I
Heinrich Meyr and Gerd Ascheid
Business Earth Stationsfor Telecommunications
Walter L. Morgan and Denis Rouffet
Wirele ss I nfo rmat ion N etwo tk
Kaveh Pahlavan and Allen H. lcvesque
Satellite Communicationt: The First Quarter Century of Senice
David W. E. Rees
Fundamentals of TeIecommunicat fun N etw orks
Tarek N. Saadawi, Mos'tafa Ammar, with Ahmed El Hakeem
Meteor Burst Communicalions: Theory and Practice
Donald L, Schilling, Editor
Vector Space Projections: A Numerical Approar:h to Signal and Image Processing, Neural Nets, and,
Optict:
Henry Stark and Yongyi Yang
Signaling in Telecommunitation Networl<s
John C. van Bosse
TeIecommunication C ircuit D esign
Putrick D. van der Puije
Worldwide Telecommunications Guide for the BusinessManager
Walter H, Vignault
Po lynomial Sigrwl P rocessing
V. John Mathews and Ciovanni L. Sicuranza
ADSL, VDSL, and Multicatier Modulation
John A. C. Bineharn
 (( L

DigitalTelephony
Third Edition

JohnC. Bellamy
TX
CoPPell,

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lihrary of CongressCataloging-in-PuhlfuationData:

Bellamy,John,l94l*
Digital telephony/ JohnBellamy.*3rd ed.
p.cm,- (Wiley seriesin t'elecornmunications andsignalprocessing)
"A Wiley-Lrtersciencepublication."
Includesindex,
ISBN0-471-34571-7
l. Digital telephone
systems.I. Title. IL Series,
TK5103.7.844 2000
6?1.385-dc2l 99-34015

Printedin the United Ststesof America

10987654321
To myfather for passingon the enioymentof being an engineer
 CONTENTS

Preface xvll

Acknowledgment xtx

Acronyms xxl

/ chapter 1 Backgroundand Terminology

1.1 Telecommunications StandardOrganizations3
1.? TheAnalogNetworkHierarchY 5
1.2.I Bell SYstem HierarchY 6
I.2.2 PostdivestitureU.S.Network 10
L23 SwitchingSYstems 12
I-2.4 Transmission SYstems l8
"1.2.5 Pair-GainSYstems24
1.2.6 FDM MultiplexingandModulation 26
1.2.7 WidebandTransmission Media 28
1.2.8 Transmission Impairments 33
I'2.9 Powerkvels 4l
1.2.10 Signaling 42
1.2.11 AnalogInterfaces46
1'Z.lZ TheIntelligentNetwork 49
1.2.13 DynamicNonhierarchical Routing 51
I.2.14 CellularRadioTelephoneSystem 52
1.2.15 VoicebandDataTransmission 54
1.3 TheInfioductionof Digits 56
1.3.1 VoiceDigitization 56
I.3.2 Time DivisionMultiplexing 58

VII
 CONTENTS

1.3.3 DataunderVoice 63
1.3.4 DigiralMicrowaveRadio ffi
1.3.5 FiberOpticTransmission 65
1.3.6 DigitalSwitching 65
1,.3.7 Digital NerworkEvolution 67
References69
Problems 7l

Chapter 2 Why Dlgital? 73

2.1 Advanragesof Digital VoiceNetworks 7j
. 2.1.1 Easeof Multiplexing 7j
2.1.2 Easeof Signaling i4
2.1.3 Useof ModernTechnology 75
2.1.4 Inregrationof Transmission
andSwitching 77
2.1.5 SignalRegenerarion78
2.1.6 PerformanceMonitorability79
2.1.7 Accommodation of OtherServices g0
2.1.8 Operabilityat Low Signal-to-Noise/Interference
Ratios 80
2.1.9 Easeof Encryption 8l
2.2 Digital SignalProcessing 8l
2.2.1 DSPApplications Bz
2.3 Disadvantages of Digital VoiceNetworks g4
2.3.1 Increased Bandwidth 84
2.3.2 Needfor Time Synchronization85
2.3.3 TopologicallyResrricred Multiplexing g5
2.3.4 Needfor Conference/Extension Bridges g6
with AnalogFacilities g7
2.3.5 ftrcompatibilities
References88

Chapter 3 Volce Digitizatlon 91

3.I PulseAmplitudeModulation 93
3.1.1 NyquistSamplingRate 94
3.1.2 FoldoverDistortion 95
3.2 PulseCodeModulation 98
3.2.1 QuantizationNoise 99
3.2.2 Idle ChannelNoise l0Z
3.2.3 Uniformly EncodedpCM 103
 CONTENTS iX

3.?.4 Companding 106

3.2.5 EasilyDigitally LinearizableCoding 108
3.2.6 SyllabicCompanding 116
3.2.7 AdaptiveGainEncoding 119
3.3 SpeechRedundancie$121
3.3.1 NonuniformAmplitudeDistributions 122
3.3.2 Sample-to-SampleCorrelation I22
3.3.3 Cycleto-CycleCorrelations 122
Correlations 123
3.3.4 Pitch-Interval-to-Pitch-Interval
3.3.5 InactivityFactors 124
3.3.6 NonuniformLong-TermSpecnalDensities IZ4
3.3.7 Short-TermSpectralDensities 127
3.4 Differential PulseCodeModulation 127
3.4.1 DPCM Implementations 129
3.4.2 HigherOrderPrediction l3l
3.4.3 AdaptiveDifferentialPCM 131
3.5 DeltaModulation 133
3.5.1 SlopeOverload 134
3.6 AdaptivePredictiveCoding 136
3.7 Subband Coding 138
3.8 Vocoders 141
3.8.1 ChannelVocoder 142
3.8.2 FormantVocoder lM
3.8.3 LinearPredictiveCoding 144
3.8.4 Enhanced-ExcitationLinearPredictiveCoding 147
3.9 Encoder/DecoderSelectionConsiderations 151
3.9.1 VoiceQuality 151
3.9.2 Transparency for NonvoiceSignals 152
3.9.3 Toleranceof TransmissionEnors 153
3.9.4 Delay 154
3.10 ITU-T CodingStandards 154
References 155
Problems 158

Ghapter 4 Dlgital Tranemission and Multlplexing 161

4.1 PulseTransmission 162
4.1.1 IntersymbolIntederence 164
4.1.2 Timins Inaccuracies 164
X CONTENTS

4.1.3 InsufficientBandwidthl&
4.1.4 AmplitudeDistortion 165
4.1.5 PhaseDistortion 165
4.2 Asynchronous versusSynchronous Transmission 165
4.2,.1 AsynchronousTransmission 166
4.2.2 SynchronousTransmissionI6i
4.3 Line Coding L7l
4.3.1 LevelEncoding L7I
4.3.2 BipolarCoding 173
4.3.3 Binary N-ZeroSubstirution 176
4.3.4 PairSelectedTernary L19
4.3.5 TernaryCoding 180
4.3.6 DigitalBiphase 181
4.3.7 DifferentialEncoding 183
4.3.8 CodedMark Inversion 183
4.3.9 Multilevel Signaling 184
4.3.10 Partial-Response Signaling 185
4.4 Eror Performance 189
4.4.1 SignalDetection 190
4.4.2 NoisePower 190
4.4.3 Enor Probabilities191
4.5 PerformanceMonitoring198
4.5.1 Redundancy Checks 198
4.5.2 SignalQualityMeasurements201
4.5.3 FramingChannelErrors 203
4.5.4 Performance Objectives 2O3_
4.5.5 ForwardErrorCorrection 2O4
4.6 Time DivisionMultiplexing 207
4.6.I Bit Interleavingver$usWord Interleaving 208
4.6.2 Framing 209
4.6.3 DSI ExtendedSuperframe Zl5
4.7 Time DivisionMultiplex LoopsandRings 216
References 219
Problems 221

Chapter 5 Digltal$witching ZZs

5.1 SwitchingFunctions ZZE
5.2 SpaceDivisionSwitching 227
5.2.1 Multiple-StageSwitchingZ3O
 CONTENTS

5.2.2 BlockingProbabilities:L.eeGraphs 234

5.2.3 BlockingProbabilities:Jacobaeus238
5.2.4 FoldedFour-WireSwitches 242
5.2.5 Pathf,rnding243
5.2.6 SwitchMatrix Control 24
5.3 Time Division Switching 246
5.3.1 AnalogTime DivisionSwitching 246
5.3.2 Digital Time Division Switching 247
5.4 Two-Dimensional Switching 251
5.4.1 STSSwitching 255
5.4.2 TST Switching 257
5.4.3 No. 4 ESSToll Switch 262
5.4.4 System75 Digital PBX 264
5.5 Digital Cross-ConnectSystems 265
5.5.1 ConsolidationandSegregation 267
5.5.2 DCSHierarchy 268
5.5.3 IntegratedCross-Connect Equipment 269
5.6 Digital Switchingin an AnalogEnvironment 27O
Switching 270
5.6.1 Zero-Loss
5.6.2 BORSCHT 272
5.6.3 Conferencing 272
References273
Problems 274

Chapter6 Dlgltal Modulatlon and Radlo Sy$tsms 277

6.1 Digital Modulation 279

6.1.1 AmplitudeModulation 280
6.1.2 FrequencyShift KeYing 284
6.1.3 PhaseShiftKeying 288
6.I.4 QuadratureAmplitudeModulation 30I
AmplitudeandPhaseModulation 309
. 6.1.5 Carrierless
6.1.6 Partial-ResponseQAM 310
6.1.7 Trellis-CodedModulation 311
6.1.8 MulticarrierModulation315
6.2 Filter Partitioning 317
3I7
6.2.1 Adjacent-Channellnterference
6.2.2 OptimumPartitioning 318
6.3 EmissionSpecifications 320
 xll coNTENTS

6.4 RadioSysternDesign 322

6.4.1 FadeMargins jZZ
6.4.2 SystemGain 323
6.4.3 FrequencyDiversity 3.26
6.4.4 SpaceDiversity 327
6.4.5 Angle Diversity 327
6.4.6 AdaptiveEqualization 3ZB
6.4.7 RouteDesign 3ZB
References 329
Problems 332

,,/ Chapter 7 Network Synchronization Controland

Management 335
7.1 Timing 336
7.1.1 TimingRecovery: Phase-Locked
Loop 336
7.1.2 ClockInsrabitity 337
7.I.3 ElasticStores 339
7.1.4 JitterMeasurementsj4Z
7.1.5 SystematicJitter 345
7.2 Timing Inaccuracies 346
7.2.1, Slips 346
7.2.2 AsynchronousMultiplexing 351
7.2.3 WaitingTimeJitter 359
7.3 NetworkSynchronization361
7.3.I Plesiochronous362
7.3.2 NetworkwidePulseStuffing 363
7.3.3 MutualSynchronization3M
7.3.4 NetworkMaster 364
7.3.5 Master-SlaveSynchronization 365
7.3.6 Packetization366
7.3.7 NetworkTiming Performance Measurements366
7.4 U.S.NetworkSynchronization 370
7.4.1 SynchronizationRegions 370
7.4.2 PrimaryReference Sources 372
7.4.3 1996AT&T Synchronization Architecrure j73
7.5 NetworkConhol 373
1.5.1 HierarchicalSynchronization
Processes374
7.6 NetworkManagement 376
 coNrENrs xlll

7.6.1 RoutingControl 376

'7.6.2 Flow Control 377
References380
Problems 382

-€6apter I FiberOptlcTransmisslonSystems 383

Ll FiberOpticTransmission SystemElements 386
8.1.I OpticalFiberFundamentals387
Transducers390
8.1.? Electrical-to-Optical
8.I.3 Optical-to-ElectricalTransducers393
8.2 Line Codesfor FiberOpticTransmission 395
8.2.I mBnBLine Codes 396
8.2.2 Bit InsertionCodes 399
8.3 WavelengthDivisionMultiplexing 401
8.4 FiberSystemDesign 403
8.4.1 FiberConnectors andSplices 404
8.4.2 Protection Switching 404
8.4.3 SystemGain 405
8.5 SONET/SDH 406
8.5.1 SONETMultiplexingOverview 408
8.5.2 SONETFrameFormats409
8.5.3 SONETOperations, Administration,and
Maintenance 4l I
8.5.4 PayloadFramingandFrequency Justification 4I4
8.5.5 Virtual Tributaries 417
8.5.6 DS3PaYload MaPPing 422
8.5.7 E4 PaYIoad MaPPing 423
8.5.8 SONETOPticalStandards 425
8.5.9 SONETNetworks 426
8.6 SONETRings 429
8.6.1 UnidirectionalPath-SwitchedRing 4Zg
8.6.2 BidirectionalLine-SwitchedRing 43I
References 433
Problems 434

Chapter I Digital Moblle Telephony 437

9.1 NorthAmericanDigital Cellular 437

9,1.1 D-AMPSTransmission Format 438
xlv coNTENTS

9.1.2 D-AMPSSpeech Coding 43l.9

9.1.3 D-AMPSControlChannel 439
9.1.4 D-AMPSError Conrrol 440
9.2 GlobalSystemfor Mobile Communications 44I
9.2.1 GSM ChannelStructure Ml
9.2.? GSM Speech Coding M3
'
9.2.3 GSM ChannelCodingandModulation 443
9.2.4 GSM Mobile Station 443
9.2.5 GSM FrequencyHopping 444
9.2.6 GSM ShortMessageService 444
9.3 CodeDivisionMultiple-AccessCellular 444
9.3.1 CDMA ChannelEstablishment 445
9.3.2 CDMA MultipathTolerance MB
9.3.3 CDMA powerConhol M9
9.3.4 CDMA SoftHandoff 449
9.4 PersonalCommunication System 450
9.5 VolcePrivacyandAuthenticarion 450
9.6 Iridium 45I
9.7 TrunkedRadio 45?
9.8 CellularDigiralPacketDara 453
References453
Problems 454

Chapter 10 Data and Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Networks 455
10.I Message Switching 456
10.2 PackerSwitching 458
10.2.1 PacketFormats 460
1O.2.2 StatisticalMultiplexing 461
IO-2.3 RoutingControl 46j
10.2.4 Flow Control 466
10.2.5 X..25 46e
10.2.6 FrameRelay 471
10.2.7 TCP/rP 473
10.3 Asynchronous TransferModeNetworks 474
10.3.1 ATM Cells 474
10.3.2 ATM ServiceCategories474
10.3.3 ATM Connections4i7
 CONTENTS XV

10.3.4 ATM Switching 477

10.3.5 ATM Applications 484
10.4 InternetProtocolTransport 490
References 492
Problems 494

'/Chapter 11 Dlgital $ubscriber Accese 495

I 1.I IntegratedServicesDigital Network 496

11.1.1 ISDN BasicRateAccessArchitecture 497
11.1.2 S/Tlnterface 499
I Ll.3 ISDN U Interface 501
11.1.4 ISDN D ChannelProtocol 503
Il.2 High-Data*Rate loops 503
Digital Subscriber
11.2.1 AsymmetricDigital SubscriberLine 503
rr.2.2 VDSL 507
11.3 Digital Loop CarrierSystems 507
I L3.1 UniversalDigital Inop CarrierSystems 507
11.3.2 lntegratedDigital Loop Carier Systems 508
1l .3.3 Next-GenerationDigital Loop Carrier
Systems 509
11.4 Fiberin theLooP 510
I L5 HYbridFiberCoaxSYstems 5l I
I 1.6 VoicebandModems 512
11.6.1 PCMModems513
II.7 Local MicrowaveDistributionService 515
I1.8 DigitalSatelliteServices 516
References516
Problems 5I7

/Cnapter tZ Traffic Analysis 519

12.1 Traffic Characterization520

12.1.1 ArrivalDiskibutions 5M
12.1.2 HoldingTime Distributions 527
12.2 LossSystems 530
12.2.1 LostCallsCleared 531
12.2.2 Lost CallsReturning 536
12.2.3 LostCallsHeld 539
12.2.4 Lost CallsCleared-Finite Sources 54I
xv| CoNTENTS

12.2.5 Lost CallsHeld-Finite Sources 544

12.3 NetworkBlockinghobabilities 547
12.3.I End-to-EndBlockingprobabilities 549
I2.3.? Over{towTraffic 551
12.4 DelaySystems 552
12.4.1 ExponentialServiceTimes 555
. 12,.4.2 ConstantServiceTimes 559
l?,.4.3 FiniteQueues 561
12.4.4 Tandemeueues 566
References 567
Problems 568

AppendlxA Derlvatlzationof Equations 573

AppendixB Encodlng/Decodlng
Algorlthmsfor
segmgntedPcM 579

Appendk G AnatyticFundamentalsof DigitalTransmisslon 587

AppendixD TrafficTabtes 607
Gloseary 613
Answersto SelectedProblem* 631
lndex 635
 PREFACE

As mentionedin the prefaceof the first two editions,the termdigffaI telephonytefers

to the useof digital technologyin the message path of voice communications net-
works.In thiscasethetetmdlgital refersto a methodof encodingthesignal-that is,
a form of modulation.Hencedigitaltelephonyimpliesvoicetransmission andswitch-
ing applications, not datacommunications. Althoughthe primaryfocus this book
of
is not datacommunicafions, this editioncontainsanexpanded treatmentof datacom-
municationsnetworks,particularlyastheyrelateto providingvoicecommunications
servicesin additionto datacommunications.
This bookcoversall aspectsof digitalvoicecommunications technologyandnet-
works.It is not a technicalbookin thetraditional,analyticalsenseof communications
theory.Sincenumerousbookscoveringcommunications theoryarealreadyavailable,
this book stresses the applicationandoperationalaspectsof communications system
design.Somebasictheoryis presentedin both qualitativeand, when appropriate,
quantitative terms.Themainputpose,however,is to introduceconcepts, terminology,
andhow applications influenceimplementations. [n mostcasestheconceptsaresup-
portedby citingexampleimplementations in theU.S.telephone network,althoughex-
amplesfrom other(ITU) publictelephonenetworksarealsoprovided'
Theprimaryaudiencefor this book aregraduateelectricalengineers.The electrical
engineeringstudentis mostcapableofappreciatingoccasional to corffnu-
references
nicationstheoryandits influenceon the practice.However,becauseanalyticalrigor
is waivedin favorofoperationaldescriptions, lessanalyticallyorientedreadersshould
haveno difficulty understanding theprinciples.Chapter6 (coveringdigitalradioand
modulation)is the mostanalyticalbut is easilyskippedwithoutlosingcontinuityfor
theotherchapters. Similarly,Chapter12(coveringtrafficanalysis)containsnumerous
equationsthat areunneces$ary for understandingthe materialin otherchapters.
Whenthe first editionof Digital Telephonywaswritten (1980)'public telephone
networksaroundtheworld wereprimmily implemented with analogtechnology,but
it wasclearthatdigitaltechnologywasrapidlytakingover'Whenthe secondedition
waswritten (1990),the inlemalportionsof the networkhad,for the mostpart,been
convertedto an all-digitalnetwork.Thenandtoday(1999)the mainremnantsof the

xvll
 xviii PREFAcE

original analogtelephonenetworks are analog subscriberloops and analog telephones

connectedto them.
Although Integrated services Digital Nerwork (ISDN) technology was developed
as a means of replacing analog loops to complete the transformation of the network to
suppofi end-to-end digital connections,ISDN deployment is below expectationsfor
severalreasons.One of thesereasonsis a growing needformore bandwidth than what
is available from a basic rate IsDN subscriberloop (128 kbps). There is currenrly
much activity within the industry to develop new technologiesfor medium- and high-
bandwidth digital subscriberaccess.A new chapter (chapter l1) has been added to
this edition to specifically addressalternative technologiesfor digital subscriberac-
CESS.

Anotherrelativelyrecentapplicationof digital technologyaddedto this edition

involvesdigital cellulartelephones,which first appearedin the marketplacein the
mid-1990s.Digital mobileradio is enabledby the emergence of low-cost,high-
performance digitalsignalprocessing (DSp)technologyfor compressing speechsig-
nals to low bit rates and for providing sophisticatedcoding, modulation,and
equalization
requiredfor digitalradiosin a bandwidth,constrained
mobileapplication.
A completelist of chaptertopicsis;

chapterl: overview of analogtelephonetechnologyfollowedby an inhoduction

of how digitaltechnologyis usedro fulfrll the samefunctions
chapter2; Discussionof advantages anddisadvantages of digital technologyfor
voicecommunications
chapter3: Descriptions of themostcomrnonvoicedigitizationalgorithms
chapter4: Fundamenral$ of digiralwire-linerransmission andmultiplexing
chapter5: Basicconceptsandoperationsof digital switchingmachines
Chapter6: Digital modulationandradiofundamentals
chapter 7; Network synchronization,control, andmanagement requirements
Chapter8: Fiberoptictransmission systemsandSONET
Chapter9: Digital cellulartelephonesystems
Chapterl0: Datanetworks
Chapter1l: Digital subscriber accesstechnology
Chapter12:Fundamentals of traffic analysisfor designingnetworks

Theappendicescoverthederivationofequations,pcM voicecodingrelationships,
fundamentals
of digitalcommunications theory,andtraffic tables.

JoruqC. BeLLnr4y
Coppell,Tems
October1999
j ohncbeIlamy@ieee.org
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Once again I am indebted to Wanda Fox and Alcatel USA for allowing me accessto
the corporate library for researchmaterials for this edition. I also owe a great deal of
gratitude to Gerald Mitchell of the University of Colorado for thoroughly reviewing
and enhancing the last chapter on traffic theory'

J.B,

xlx
 ACRONYMS

AAL ATM adaptation layer

ABR availablebit rate
ACD automaticcall distributor
ACK acknowledgment (Positive)
ADM adaptivedeltamodulation;add-dropmultiplexer
ADPCM adaptivedifferentialPCM
AIN advancedintelligentnetwork
AMPS advancedmobilephonesYstem
ANI automaticnumberidentification
APC adaptivepredictivecoding
APON ATM basedpassiveopticalnetwork
ARPANET advancedresearchprojectsagencynetwork
ARQ automaticrepeatrequest
ATM asynchronous transfermode
ATPC adaptivetransmitpowercontrol
BSZS binary8 zerosubstitution
BER bit-enor rate
BISDN broadbandintegratedservicesdigital network
BLSR bidirectionalline switchedring
CAC connectionadmissioncontrol
CAP competitiveaccessprovider;carrierless modulation
amplitude/phase
CAS channelassociated signaling
CBR constantbit rate(AfUl
ccc clearchannelcapability
CCIS coilrmoncharurelinteroffice signaling
ccn"T ConsultativeCommitteefor IntemationalTelephonyand Telegraphy
(now tTU)
CCS cornmonchannelsignaling;hundredcall seconds
CDMA codedivisionmultipleaccess
CDO communitydial office
CDPD cellular digital packetdata(for AMPS networks)
 xxll AcHoNyMS

CELP codeexcitedlinearprediction
CES circuitemulationservice(ATM)
CGSA CellularGeographic ServiceArea
CLASS cu$tomlocal areasignalingservices
CLEC competitivelocal exchangecarrier
CLP cell losspriority (ATM)
CMI codedmarkinversion
CODEC CODer/DECoder
CPFSK continuousphasefrequencyshift keying
CRC cyclicredundancycheck
CSMA/CD carriersensemultipleaccess/collision detection
CSU channelserviceunit
CTD cell kansferdelay
CTI computertelephonyintegration
D-AMPS digitaladvanced mobilephoneservice
DAVIC digitalaudiovideocouncil
DBS directbroadcast satellite
DCM digitalcircuitmultiplication
DCME digitalcircuitmultiplicationequipment
DECT digitalenhanced cordlesstelephony
DFE decisionfeedbackequalization
DID direct inward dialing
DLC digital loop carrier
DM deltamodulation;degraded minute
DMT discretemultitone
DNIS dialednumberidentificationservice
DPCM differentialpulsecodemodulation
DQDB distributedqueuedualbus
DSI digital signallevel I at 1.544Mbps
DS3 digitalsignallevel3 at,14.736 Mbps
DSI digital speechinterpolation
DSS digital satellitesystem
DTE dataterminalequipment
DTMF dualtonemulrifrequency (signalingtones)
DVB digital video broadcastinggroup
DVD digitalvideodisc
El Europeandigital signallevel I at ?.048Mbps
E3 Europeandigital signallevel 3 at 34.368Mbps
ECMA EuropeanComputerManufacturersAssociation
EMI elechomagneticinterference
ERMES enhanced radiomessage system
ESF extendedsuperframe
ETSI EuropeanTelecommunications StandardsInstitute
FDDI fiber dishibuteddatainrerchange
 ACRONYMS XXIii

FDM frequencydivisionmultiplexing
FEC forward error correction
FEXT far end crosstalk
FIFO first in-first out
FRAD framerelayaccessdevice
FSK frequencyshiftkeying
FTTC fiber to the curb
FTTH fiber to the home
GPS globalpositioningsYstem
GSM globalsystemfor mobilecommunications
HDB3 high densitybipolarof order3
HDLC high-leveldatalink control
HIPPI high performanceparallelinterface
HTTP hypertexttransportprotocol
IDLC integrateddigital loop carrier
IEC InternationalElectrotechnical Commission
IETF internet engineering task force
ILEC incumbentlocal exchangecarrier
IMT internationalmobiletelecommunications
IP internetProtocol
ISDN integratedservicesdigitalnetwork
ISI intersymbolinterference
ISO IntemationalStandards Organization
ITU InternationalTelecommunications Union
M interactivevoiceresPonse
JPEG JointPhotographic ExpertsGroup
LAN local area network
LATA local accesstransPoflarea
LD-CELP low-delayCELP
LEC local exchange carrier
LMDS local microwavedistributionservice
MAN metropolitanareanetwork
MCM multicarriermodulation
MLCM multilevelcodedmodulation
MMDS multichannelmultipointdistributionservice
MPEG Motion PicturesExpertsGroup
MPLS multiprotocollabelswitching
MSK minimumshift keYing
MTIE maximumtime interval enor
MTSO mobiletelephoneswitchingoffice
MULDEM multiplexer-demultiplexer
NAK acknowledgment (negative)
NCP networkcontrolpoint;networkcontrolprotocol(ARPANET)
NEXT nearendcrosstalk
XXIV ACRONYMS

NMT Nordicmobiletelephonesystem
NNI network*to-networki nterface
NRZ nonreturnto zero
OFDM orthogonalfrequencydivisionmultiplexing
OSI opensystemsinterconnection
PABX privateautomaticbranchexchange(alsopBX)
PAM pulseamplitudemodulation
PBX privatebranchexchange
PCM pulsecodemodulation
PCME packetcircuitmultiplicationequipment
PCR peakcell rate (ATM)
PCS personalcommunication system(or service)
PDC personaldigitalcellular(Japan)
PDH plesiochronous digitalhierarchy
PHS personalhandyphone sy$tem(Japan)
PLL phaselockedloop
PON passiveopticalnetwork
POTS plainold telephoneservice
PRC primary referenceclock
PRK phasereversalkeying
PRS partialresponse signaling;primaryreferencesource
PSK phaseshift keying
PSTN publicswitchedtelephonenetwork
PVC permanent virtual circuit
Qos qualityof service
QPRS quadrature partialresponse signaling
QPSK quaternary phaseshift keying(4-PSK)
RADSL rateadaptivedigital subscriber loop
RCC radio commoncarrier
SDH synchronous digitalhierarchy
SDLC synchronous datalink control
SES severelyerroredseconds
SF superframe
SIM Subscriber IdentificationModule(GSM)
SLIC subscriber loopinterfacecircuit
SMDS switchedmultimegabitdataservice
SMR specialized mobileradio
SMS shortmessage service
SNMP simplenetworkmanagement protocol
SOHO small office/homeoffice
SONET synchronous opticalnetwork
SRTS synchronous residualtime stamp
S57 signalingsystemversion7
STM synchronoustransfermode
 ACRONYMS XXV

STS space-time-space digital switchingstructure

STS-n synchronous transportsignal-n
SVC switchedvirnralcircuit
TI TDM transmission systemat 1.544Mbps
T3 TDM hansmissionsystemat 44'736Mbps
TACS total accesscommunications system
TASI time assignment speecbinterpolation
TCM trelli$codedmodulation
TCPAP transmission controlprotocol/internet protocol
TDM time divisionmultiPlexing
TDMA time divisionmultipleaccess
TETRA Trans-European trunkedradio
TMN Telecommunications Management Network
TST time-space-time digital switching$tructure
UBR unspecifiedbit rate
UDP UserdatagramProtocol
UI unit interval
UMTS universalmobiletelephoneservice
UM user-to-networkinterface
UPSR unidirectionalpathswitchedring
URL universalresourcelocator
UTP unshieldedtwistedpair
VBR variablebit rate
VCC virtual channelconnection
VCI virtual channelidentifier
VPC virtualpathconnection
VPCI virtual pathconnectionidentifier
WAN wide areanetwork
WATS wide areatelecommunications services
 1

ANDTERMINOLOGY
BACKGROUND

Beginningin the1960s,telecommunications in theUnitedStatesandaroundtheworld

Uefanundergoingradical changes in several differentareas'First, the conventional
*ulog telephonenetwork was being called upon to provide many new and different
services. mostof which emanated from the dataprocessing industry'Second,themar-
ketplaceandthe regulatory agencies in the United States stimulatedcompetitionin
both old andnew areasof traditionally monopolistic services. Third, digitaltechnol-
ogyemergedto implement many of the fundamental transmission andswitchingfunc-
tions wittrin ttreU.S. telephone network and other networks around the world' The
main purposeof this book is to describe the design, application, and operationalas-
pectsof tfis newdigitalequipment. As background, the technology of the analogtele-
phonenetworkis reviewedto provide a framework for the introduction of digital
equipment.
limust beemphasized thattheintroductionof digitaltechnologyinto thetelephone
networkwasmotivatedby desiresto improvethe quality,addnew features,andre-
ducethecostsofconventionalvoiceservices. Digitizationofthe networkdid notarise
from the needsof the data processing industry for betterdatahansmissionservices'
Indeed,mostof thedigitaltechnology introduced into thenetworkwasinitially inac-
cessibleto datafiaffic, exceptthrough analog channels' Of course,a digitalnetwork
is a naturalenvironmentfor datacommunications services. As moreof the network
becamedigitized,morertupportfor direct use of the facilities became availablefor data
applications. Initially, directdigital access exi$ted only for relatively high-endbusi-
nessapplications. It wasnot until facilitiesrof the Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDtiibecameavailablethatend-to-end{switched digital channels could be usedby
individualsubscribers for bothvoiceand'datp,l ny tfre late 1990s numerous otherap-
proaches roprovidingdigitalaccess to digital facilities became available, primarily for
Intemetaccess. Thesevariousdigitalaccess technologies are described in Chapter 1l'
.A$a pointof historicalreference, Figurel. I has been included to show thattheidea
of integratedvoiceanddatais not new.This figuredepictsa conceptof a Germanin-
ventornamedPhillip Reis [1] to addvoicecommunications to the prevailingmeans
of electricalcommunications at the time-the telegraph' Reis developedthe equip-
ment in tfie 1860sanddied in 1874-two years before Alexander GraharnBell re-
2 BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

ceived his patentfor the telephone.As indicated,the figure implies altemateuseof the
wires for voice or data cornmunications(i.e., integratedtransmission).Reis actually
used the telegraphattachmentto signal infbrmation pertaining to voice tests,an indi-
cation of inadequatevoice quality.
To implement simultaneousvoice and telegraphcommunications,the telephonein
Figure 1.1 would have to have been digital. Becauseof technology limitations at the
time, such an implementation was impossible and telephone systems necessarily
evolved with analog technology. one hundred years later the situation chrurgedsig-
nificantly. Telephoneequipment developersand service providers had an abundance
of new technology, and they were challengedwith how to make effective use of it.
This book describesdigital telephonetechnology from two perspectives.The first
perspectivedescribesindividual equipmentsor subsystemsand technical reasonsfor
transitions from conventional analog equipment to seemingly less natural digital
counterparts.Thus, one purposeofthis book is to describehow digital technology im-
proves and expandsthe capabilitiesof various subsystemswithin voice telephonenet-
works' Another purposeof the book is to describethe ultimate benefits derived when
an entire network is implementedwith digital techniques.A greatdegreeof synergism
exists when individual systemsare designedinto one cohesivenetwork utilizing aigi-
tal implementations throughout. The synergistic effect benefits conventional voice
servicesand newer $ervicessuch as ttre in-G:iiiei.

Flgure 1.1 Back to the future: the first integratedvoice/data communication $vstem.
 1.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONSSTANDAHDORGANIZATIONS3

Most of the equipment descriptions urd design examples presentedin this book
come from material authoredby engineersat AT&T Laboratories(now Lucent Tech-
nologies) and other suppliersfor the public telephonenetwork. The basic principles,
however, are by no meansunique to the public telephonenetwork. The conceptsand
implementation examples are applicable to any communications network: public or
private, voice or data.An inherent attribute of a digital network is that it can,to a large
extent, be designedindependentlyof its application.

Terminals, Transmiesion, and Swttchlng

The three basic elements of a communications network are terminals, tran$mission
systems,and switches.The first part of this chapterprovides an overview of theseele-
ments as implementedin analogtelephonenetworks. Then, the last part of this chapter
provides a,lrief overview of digital implementationswithin the analog network. Fol-
lowing a detailed discussionof the motivation for digital implementationsin Chapter
2, the next four chaptersdescribethe operation and design of the basic elementsof a
digital voice network. Chapter 3 discussesdigital voice tetminals and the most com-
mon algorithms used to convert analog voice signals into digital bit streams.Chapter
4 presentsthe basicsof digital transmissionsy$tems.Fundamentalsof digital switch-
ing follow in Chapter 5. Basic digital modulation techniquesand their application to
point-to-point digital microwave and digital cellular systemsare describedin Chapter
6. A discussionof various synchronizationand control considerationsfor digital net-
works is provided in Chapter 7. Chapter I describesfiber optic transmissionsystems
and the synchronousmultiplexing stiurdard(SONET)' Chapter 9 discussesthe basic
architectureand operation of prevailing digital cellular $ystemsin use in the United
Statesand around the world.
The main emphasisof the first nine chaptersinvolves circuit switching astradition-
ally implementedfor voice telephonenetworks.A circuit-switched network is onp_that
assignsa completeend-to-endconnectionin responseto eachrequestfor service\Each
connection, with its asrrociatednetwork facilities, is held for the duration of the'call. ) l
Chapter l0 describesa different type ofnetwork, generically referred to as a packet-
switched network, that is particularly suitedto servicing datatraffic. Included in Chap-
ter 10 is a discussion of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), a form of a
packet-switchednetwork. Chapter 1l discussesvarious technologiesand systemsfor
achieving direct digital accessto a digital network (voice or data).The last chapterpre-
sentsthe basicsof Faffic theory: the fundamentalmathematicsfor analyzing and pre-
dicting telecommunicationsnetwork performance.

ORGANIZATIONS
STANDARD
1.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS
onJanuary
of theBellSystem
Priortothebreakup stand-
l, 1984,telecommunications
ards in North America were essentially establishedby the dominant equipment de-
signer and supplier to the Bell System: Bell Telephone Laboratories and Westem
Electric. Independenttelephonecompaniesthat provided local service to the 207oof
the country not coveredby the Bell Systemrelied on the U'S. IndependentTelephone
4 encxcRouNDANDTEHMINoLOGY

Association[usITA; larerreferredto asrheu.s. TelephoneAssociation(usTA)] to

formulateand disseminate standards,particularlyfor interconnecting with the Bell
System.
In anticipationof the divestitureof the RegionalBell operating companies
(RBocs) from AT&T, the Exchangecarriers standardsAssociation(ECSA) was
formedin 1983as a nonprofittradeassociation to representthe interestsof all ex-
changecarriers(RBocs and independents). In Februarylgg4 the ECSA sponsored
the establishment of the Tl standards committeeto formulatenew interconnection
standards for theu.s. nationalnetwork.TheTl commifteeis accredited by theAmeri-
can NationalStandards Institute(ANSD to ensurethat standardsapprovalsfollow
principlesof openness. ThusTl committeestandards aredesignated asANSI Tl.nnn-
date(T I standsfor Telecommunications standards entitynumberI ). TableI . I liststhe
majorsubcommittees within Tl andtherespective responsibilities.
Otherorganizations in North Americathat establishstandards relatedto telecom-
municationsaretheElecffonicIndustriesAssociation(EIA), theInstituteof Electrical
and ElectronicEngineers(IEEE), and Bell communicarion$Research(Bellcore).
Bellcorewasan organizationcharteredto establishstandards andqualify equipment
for the RBOCs.Bellcorehassincebeenreorganized asTelcordiaTechnologies. The
IEEE is mostknownfor its datacommunications standards listedin Table1.2but has
alsoestablished numerousstandards for measuringandcharacterizing telecommuni-
cationseguipment.
Most of the world outsideof North Americarelieson internationaltelecommuni-
cations$tandards committees e$tablished undertheauspices of theInternational Tele-
communicationunion (ITU). In the past,two major entitieswithin the ITu were
established:the InternationalTelegraphand TelephoneConsultativecommittee
(ccITT) andtheInternarional Radioconsultativecommittee(ccIR). ccITT estab-
lishedrecommendations for telephone,telegraph,anddatatransmission circuitsand
equipment.ccIR was concernedwith coordinatingthe useof the radio specrrum.
CCITT andCCIR activitiesareno longeridentifiedasbeingdistinctfrom the ITU.
ccITT hasbecomeITU-T andccIR is now ITU-R. In the united states.useof the
radiospectrumis controlledby theFederalcommunicationscomrnission(FCC).
North AmericanstandardsandITU standardshaveoften beenincompatiblein the
past.Notth Americanstandards established by theBell Systemwerethereforeincor-

TABLE1.1 T1 StandardsSubcommltteee

Committee Responsibility
T1A1 Performance andsignalprocessing
T1E1 Interfaces,powerandprotectionfor networks
T1M1 Internetworkoperations,
administration,
maintenance, andprovisioning(IOAM&p)
T1P1 Wireless/mobileservicesandsy$lems
T1S1 Services,architeclures,
andsignaling
T1X1 Digitalhierarchy
andsynchronization
 HIERARCHY
NETWORK
1.2 THEANALOG

Area Nstwork(LAN/MAN)Data
TABLE1.2 IEEELocal Arsa NetworldMetropolltan
'CbmmunlcstionsStandards

802"1 Overview andArchitecture, VirtualbridgedLAN(VLAN)

Bridging,
802.2 (LLC)
LogicalLinkControl
802.3 carriersenseMultiple (cD) (Ethernet)
Access(csMA)withcollisionDetection
802.4 TokenBus(Arcnet)
802.5 TokenRing(lBMBing)
802.6 QueuedPacketSynchronous Exchange(QPSX)
802.7 Broadband
802.8 OpticalFiberTechnologies
802.9 Seryices
Integrated
802.10 Security
80e.11 Wireless
802:12 DemandPriority
802.14 CableTV

poratedinto CCITT recommendations asa subset.Due to the needfor moreinterna-

iional compatibility,theT1 subcommittees andITU-T committees now work closely
together to establishjoint standards. A first major exampleof the joint effort is the
standardfor synchronous fiber transmissionsystemsrefenedto as SONET in the
united statesandsynchronousDigital Hierarchy(sDH) in ITU-T standards.
The InternationalStandards Organization(ISO) is an organizationwith standards
activitiesin a wide rangeof subjectmatters,someof which involvetelecommunica-
tions.Technicalsubcommittees within ISo work closelywith ITU studygroupsin
formulatingITU recommendations, particularlythoserelatedto ISDN protocolsthat
adhere,asmuchaspossible,to theISO datacommunications standaldfor OpenSys-
temsInterconnection (OSI)Reference Model.

1.2 THE ANALOG NETWORKHIERARCHY

Becausethe analogtelephonenetworlLs of theworld evolvedovera periodof almost

100years,a greatarnountof diversityin equipmentimplementations alsodeveloped'
It is a remarkable thatvastnetworks,like theU.S' network,couldaccom-
achievement
modatethemyriadof equipmenttypesandfunctionproperly.In 1980-in theunited
Statesalone.therewere181million telephones [2], almostall of whichcoulddirectly
dial any public telephonenumber andhave a good qualityconnection'This achieve-
mentwa$madepossibleby standardized interfaces andwell-definedfunctionalhier-
archies.As newer digital equipmentwas installed,it necessarilyadheredto the
*Although 1980 is
there is no specific date at which digital technology took over from analog.technology,
repfesents the time frame in which fiber optics emerged to begin displacing analog
significant in that it
portions of the
rirlios for intercity transmission, the last stronghold of analog technology in the intemal
public network.
 6 BecxcRouNDANDTERMtNoLocy

standardizedpracticesof the analog network. The fact that the equipment was imple-
mented with digital technology was transparentto the rest of the network.

1.2.1 BellSystemHierarchy

Alexander
Graham
Bellinvented
thefirstpractical
telephone
in 1876.It soonbecame
apparent,however, ttrat the telephonewas of little use without some meansof chang-
ing connections on an "a$-needed"basis. Thus the flrst switching office was estab-
lished in New Haven, connecticut, only two years later. This switching office, and
othersfollowing, was locatedat a central point in a serviceareaand provided switched
connectionsfor all subscribersin the area.Becauseof their locations in the servicear-
eas,the$eswitching offices are often referred to as cenffal offices.
As telephoneusage grew and subscribersdesired longer distance connections,it
becamenece$saryto interconnectthe individual serviceareaswith trunks betweenthe
central offices. Again, switches were neededto interconnecttheseoffices, and a sec-
ond level of switching evolved. Continued demandfor even longer distanceconnec-
tions, along with improved long-distancetransmissionfacilities, stimulatedevenmore
levels of switching. In this manner the analog public telephonenetwork in the United
states evolved to a total of five levels. Theselevels are listed in Table I .3.
At the lowest level of the network are class5 switching offices, also called central
offices (cos) or end offices (Eos). The next level of the network was composedof
class4 toll offices. The toll network of the Bell Systemcontainedthree more levels of
switching: primary centers,sectionalcenters,and regional centers.
To illushate the structure and motivation for hierarchical networks, a symbolic,
three*levelexample is shown in Figure 1.2. In contrast,Figure 1.3 depicts a different
network structurefor interconnectingall of the firstlevel switches;a fully connected
mesh structure. obviously, the hierarchical network requires more switching nodes
but achievessignificant savings in the number of trunks; the transmission links be-
tween switching offices. Detetmination of the total number of trunk circuits in either
network is necessarilya function of the amount of traffic betweeneachpair of switch-
ing nodes.(Chapter 12 provides the mathematicsfor determining the number of trunk
circuits.) As a first approximation, the trunk costsof a mesh can be determinedas the
total number of connections(trunk groups) N" between switching off,rces:

TABLE 1.3 PubticNetworkHierarchyot the Bell $ystem (1gSA)tgl

Functional No. in No. in

SwitchClass Designation Bell System lndependents Total
I Regionalcenter 10 0 10
2 Sectional
center 52 0 67
Q
Primarycenter 148 20 168
4 Tollcenter 508 425 933
5 Endoffice 9803 9000 18,803
 1.2 THEANALOG HIERAHCHY 7
NETWORK

l)
N"=+N(N- (l'1)

whereN is thenumberof nodes.

Thusthe meshnetworkof Figure1.3has36 connections' aScomparedto 12con-
thecostcomparisonof
nectionsin Figure1.2.In the caseof fiber optictransmission

Figure 1.2 Three-levelswitchinghierarchy.

network.
Flgure 1.3 Mesh-connected
 BACKGROUND
ANDTERMINOLOGY

the trunks is almost exactly 3 ; I becausea single fiber systemcan provide more voice
capacity than is neededbetweenany two switches.
A lessobvious difference betweenthe networks of Figures 1.2 and 1.3 involves the
method of establishingconnectionsbetweentwo offices. In the hierarchical network
thereis one and only one route betweenany two switching nodes.[n the meshnetwork
most connectionswould be establishedon the direct route between the two offices.
However, if the direct route is unavailable (becauseof a traffic overload or an equip-
ment failure) and the first-level switches can provide trunkto-funk connections
(called tandemswitching functions), the mesh network provides many altemativesfor
establishingconnectionsbetween any two nodes.Hence the reliability of a network
architecturemust be consideredin addition to just the costs.In general,neither a pure
mesh nor a purely hierarchical network is desirable.
Taking these factors into account, Figure 1.4 depicts alternate routing as imple-
mented in the former Bell System.As indicated, the basic backbonehierarchical net-
work was augmentedwith high-usagetrunks. High-usage trunks are used for direct
connectionsbetween switching offices with high volumes of interoffice traffic. Nor-
mally, traffic betweentwo suchoffices is routed through the direct trunks. If the direct
trunks are busy (which may happenfrequently if they are highly utilized), the back-
bone hierarchical network is still available for alternaterouting.
Traffic was always routed through the lowest available level of the network. This
procedurenot only usedfewer network facilities but also implied better circuit quality
becauseof shorterpaths and fewer switching points. Figure 1.4 showsthe basic order
of selection for alternateroutes. The direct interoffice trunks are depicted as dashed
lines, while the backbone,hierarchical network is shown with solid lines.

):*;;;
-t-t- ,F,

\\\\\\\

I
I

l;:;---- f
I

Figure 1.4 Altemateroutingin North Americannetwork.

 1,2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY

In addition to the high-usagetrunks, the backbone network was also augmented

with additional switching facilities called tandem switches.These switcheswere em-
ployed at the lowest levels of the network and provided switching betweenend offices.
Tandem switcheswere not pafr of the toll network, as indicatedin Figure I .5, but were
(and are) pafr of what is referred to as an exchangearea.Generally speaking,an ex-
changeareais an area within which all calls are consideredto be local calls (i.e., toll
free).
Il generalterms, any switching machine in a path betweentwo end offices provides
a tandem switching function. Thus toll switchesalso provide tandem switching func-
tions. Within the public telephonenetwork, however, the term tandem refers specifi-
cally to intermediateswitching within the exchangearea'
The basic function of a tandem office is to interconnectthose central offices within
an exchange area having insufficient interoffice fiaffic volumes to justify direct
trunks. Tandem offices also provide alternateroutes fbr exchangeareacalls that get
blocked on direct routesbetweenend offices. Although Figure 1.5 depictstandem of-
fices as being physically distinct from end offices and toll offices, tandem switches
were often colocatedwith either or both types.Operationally, exchangeareaswitching
and toll network switching in the Bell systemwere always separated.The primary rea-
son for the separationwa$ to simplify tandem switching by avoiding billing and net-
work routing. A toll switch had to measurecall duration for billing purposesbut a
tandem switch did not. Prior to the introduction of computer-controlled switching,
billing functions were a significant consideration.The operationalseparationalso im-
plied that toll-connecting trunk groups were separatefrom tandem trunk groups. The
flexibility of computer-controlled switching has eliminated the need for the separa-
tion.
The separation of exchange facilities from toll facilities had an important effect on
the transmissionand switching equipment utilized in the respectiveapplications.Ex-
changeareaconnectionswere usually short and only involved a few switching offices.
Toll connections,on the other hand, coulcl involve numerous switching offices with

Toll netrrvork

Tandom
office
Di.€ct trunk

Figure 1.5 Exchangeareanetwork.

10 BAcKGRoUNDANDTEHMtNoLocy

relatively long ffansmission links between them. Thus, for comparable end-to-end
quality, individual analog exchangeareaequipment did not have to provide as much
quality as did toll network counterparts.

1.2.2 PostdivestitureU.$. Network

In thedecade
of the1980s
thestructure
of thepublictelephone
networkin theUnited
stateschangedsignificantlyasaresultofchangesin thetechnologyandtheregulatory
environment. Themaintechnological changeswere(1) extensivedeploymentof very
largedigital switchingmachines,(2) theadaptationof computer-controlled switches
to providemultipleswitchingfunctionsin onemachine(e.g.,the integrationof end-
office, tandem,andtoll switchingfunctions),and (3) the deploymentof fiber optic
hansmissionsystemsthatcouldcarryvery largecrosssectionsof traffic. Noticethat
all threeof thesetechnological developments suggesta networkwith fewerandlarger
switchingoffices.Thesetechnologicalinfluenceson the networktopologyare dis-
cussedmorefully in Chapters8-10.
The most dramaticand immediateeffect on the network occurredon Januaryl,
1984,whenthebreakupof AT&T officially tookeffect.Because thebreakupinvolved
divestitureof Bell operatingcompanies(BoCs) from AT&T, the networkirselfbe-
camepartitionedat a new level.The new partitioningis shownin Figure I.6, which
depictsAT&T asoneof severalcompetinglong-distance carriersreferredto a$inter-
exchangecarriers(IXCs) andlocal accessandtranspoftareas(LATAs), which were
originally the exclusivedomainof local exchangecarriers(LECs).In additionto
AT&T, the othertwo main IXCs areMCI andu.s. sprint. The LECs originallyin-
cluded23 Bocs (organized into 7 RBocs), formerindependenr relephone companies
like GTE, contel, and united relecommunications, and some1500mostly small-
town telephonecompanies. Mergerswithin the industryhavesubsequently reduced
thenumberof LECsandRBOCs.
Thenumberof LATAs in theunited stateswasinitially 164,but the numberhas
changedasadjustments in serviceboundaries aresometimes made.Becausea LATA
entailsan areathatincludesmanyexchangeareas,LECscompletetoll callsthatkav-
ersedifferentexchangeareaswithin oneLATA. TheIXCs werenot allowedto carry
intra-LATA traffic. similarly, an LEC wasnot allowedto carrytraffic betweentwo
LATAs evenwhenbothLATAs mightbe serviceareasof a singleBoc. only anIxc
wasallowedto carryinter-LATA traffic.To ensurethattheseservicepartitionswere
adheredto, eachIXC interfacedwith a LATA at a singlepointin theLATA, referred
to asa point of presence (PoP).IXC equipmentat a Pop couldbe a switchingoffice
or merelyajunctionfor collectingtraffic carriedelsewhere to be switched.
A majoraspectof themodifiedfinaljudgment(MFJ)thatspecifiedthedivestiture
wastheconditionof equalaccess, whichmeantthatanLEC (specificallya Boc) was
to treatall IXCs equallyin regardsto exchange access.Theconditionsofequalaccess
meantthat accessto all endofficesin a LATA would be equalin type,quality,and
pricefor all IXCs. The LATA nerworkritructure[4] established to accomplishequal
access is shownin Fieure1.7.
 HIERARCHY 1 1
NETWORK
1.2 THEANALOG

Figure 1.6 U.S, network partitioning.

POP: Poinl ol Ptesence

AT: Accets tandent
TO: Tarrdcnt office
EO: Entl ollice
TIC: Tsndetn inter"LATA connecting
OIG: Direct inter-LATA connecling
TCTC; Tdnderfi connecling

Figure 1.7 LATA hierarchyhndaccessarchitecture'

12 BACKGROUND
ANDTEHMINOLOGY

The design of the LATA network for intra-LATA traffic was left to the discretion
of the LECs. Thus intra-LATA connectionscan involve multiple switching offices be-
tween end offices. However, connectionsbetweenan Eo and a PoP could involve at
most one intermediateswitching office referredto as an accesstandem (AT). with re-
spect to the previous Bell system hierarchy, an AT takes the place of a class 4 toll
switch. However, long-distancebilling functions, which were formerly performed in
class 4 switches, are now performed within the IXC network. Although Figure l.7
shows accesstandem and basic tandem switching functions as being distinct, access
tandem functions can be integratedinto regular tandem switchesif the tandem switch
provides AT features.Foremost among thesefeahrresare the ability to forward auto-
matic number identification (ANI) information to an IXC for billing and the ability to
route calls to different IXC POPsdependingqn presubscriptionor per-call three-digit
carier designations.
In 1997 the FCC issued some rulings with the intent of stimulating competition in
both the local exchange and long-distance networks. under this ruling, LECs that
want to enter the long-distancemarket can do so if they open their local exchangefa-
cilities to long-distancecarriers or other competitive accessproviders. A key aspect
of making the local facilities available to competition is the establishmentof unbun-
dled pricing for local seryices;the separationof the cost of the local loop, the local
switching equipment, maintenance,and ancillary services such as 9ll emergency
calling. Another key requirementis number portability, which allows a subscriberto
changelocal service providers without having to changetelephonenumbers.The in-
troduction of competition for local distribution instigated the use of two tennrr:com-
petitive local exchange carrier (CLEC) for the competition and incumbent local
exchangecarrier (ILEC) for the establi$hedcarrier.

1.2.3 SwitchingSystems

Manual Swltchboards
The first telephone switching equipment utilized operatorsat manual swirchboards.The
operatorsaskeda caller for the number they wanted to call and then establishedthe con-
nection by plugging in a cord between terminal jacks. Although switchboards are no
longer used, a legacy of their existencelives on: the use of the terms "tip and ring." As
shown in Figure 1.8, one wire of a wire pair was connectedto the tip of a plug comector
and the other wire was connectedto the ring. Ever since,one wire of a wire pair is com-

Switdrboard
Switdrboard plug
jacf

Flgure 1.8 switchboardplug with correspondingjack (R, s, andr arering, sleeve,andtip,

(FromFreeman,Fundamentals
respectively). of releconzmunications,wiley, New york.)
 1.2 THEANALOGNETWORKHIEHARCHY 13

monly referredto asthetip andthe otheris referredto asthering, evenon digital wire
pairs,whichhaveneverusedplugsin a swirchboard. On someof theoriginalswitchbomds
would
a thirclconnection be providedby the sleeveconductor shownin Figure1.8.

Automated Switching
In generaltermstheequipmentassociated with anyparticularswirchingmachinecan
be categorizedasprovidingoneof thefollowing functions:

1. Signaling
2. Control
3. Switching

Thebasicfunctionof the signalingequipmentis to monitortheactivityof theincom-

ing linesandforwardappropriatestatusor controlinformationto thecontrolelement
of the switch.Signalingequipmentis alsousedto placecontrolsignalsontooutgoing
linesunderdirectionof theswitchcontrolelement.
Thecontrolelementprocessesincomingsignalinginformationandsetsup connec-
tionsaccordingly.The switchingfunctionitself is providedby a switchingmatrix:an
arrayof selectable usedto completecomectionsbetweeninput linesand
crosspoints
outputlines.Thesebasicconstituents of a switchingmachineareshownin Figure1.9.

Electrcmechanicalswitching. Prior to the introduction of digital electronic

switchingmachinesin thelate 1970s,switchingofficesin NorthAmericaandaround
the world wereequippedwith oneof two basictypesof electromechanical switches;
step-by-step* and crossbar. As shown in Figure 1.10, crosspoints of a step-by-step
switcharewipercontactsthatmovein directresponse to dial pulses.As thepulsesof
they immediately "step"theverticalwiperto a horizon-
thefirst digit entertheswitch,
tal row corresponding to the first digit. After the properrow is selected,the wiper is
rotatedacrossanothersetof contactsuntil an idle line to the next stageof switching
is located.Thenextsetofdial pulses,representing theseconddigit,thenstepsthesec-
ond stagein like mannet. The process continues throughhowevermany stagesare
neededfbr a particular switch size.
As thenameimplies,a step-by-step switchusesdirectprogressivecontrol:Succes-
sivesegmenrs of a paththroughtheswitchareestabli$hed aseachdigit is dialed.Wittr
progressive control,thecontrolelementsof the switch integratedinto the switch-
are
ing matrix.This featureis very usefulfbr implementinga varietyof switchsizesand
allowing relativelyeasyexpansion.A progre$sivecontrol switch,however,has a
numberof significantlimitations;

l. A call maybeblockedeventhoughanappropriate paththroughtheswitchexists

but is not attempted
becauseanunfortunatepathgetsselected in anearlystage.
2. Alternateroutingfor outgoingtrunks is not possible.
That is, the outgoingline
is directlyselected
by incoming dial pulses and cannot be substituted'
*A
step-by-stepswirch is also referred to as a Strowger switciz,in honor of its inventor Almon B. Strowger.
14 BACKGHOUND
ANDTEBMINOLOGY

Figure 1.9 Switchingsystemcomponents.

3. Signaling schemesother than dial pulses (e.g., tone signaling) are not directly
usable.
4 . Number translation is impossible.

In conffast to a step-by-stepswitch, a crossbarswitch is one that used centralized,

coillmon control for switch path selection.As digits were dialed, the conhol element
of the switch received the entire addressbefore processingit. when an appropriate
path through the switch was determined(which may have involved numbertranslation
or alternaterouting), the control element transferredthe necessaryinformation in the
form of control signals to the switching matrix to establishthe connection. The fun-
damentalfeature,and advantage,of a common control switch is that control function
implementation is separatefrom the switch implementation. Common control cross-

SLE E
BANI(

SLE EVE
Ii,IPER

V EF T I C A L
COMMUTATOB
V ER T I C A L I U S E OI N L I N E
LINE W I P EH F I N D ER S I
WIPER W I P ER
CORDS

Figure l.l0 Step-by-stepswitching elemenl (Copyright 1977 by Bell Telephone

Laboratories.
Reprintedby permission.)
 1,2 THEANALOG HIERARCHY 15
NETWOHK

barsystemsintroducedtheability to assignlogicaladdresses (telephone numbers)in-

dependently of physicalline numbers.
The crosspointsof a crossbarswitch(Figure Ll l) aremechanicalcontactswith
magnet$to setup and hold a connection.The term crostbdrarisesfrom the useof
crossinghorizontalandverlicalbarsto initially selectthecontacts.Onceestablished,
the switchingcontactsareheldby electromagnets energizedwith directcunentpass-
ing throughthe established circuit. When the circuit is opened,the loss of current
causesthecrosspoints to be releasedautomatically.
Because of theoperational limitationsof progressivs control,step-by-stepswitches
were used primarily in smaller class 5 switchingoffices. Crossbar switches, on the
other hand, were used predominantly in metropolitan areas and within the toll net-
In
work. $ome cases step-by-step switches wereaugmented with coillmon control by
receivingthe digits into special control equipment.After processing the request, the
controlequipmentgenerated pulsesthat setup a connectionasif the switchwasre-
ceivingdial pulsesdirectly.

l,lt( '- .c'*I. luc,'F-5

cffiEl ErilI

xfrss mlt'f,

Figure LlLll Crossbar switching element. (Copyright 1977 by Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Reprinted by permission.)
16 BACKGROUND
ANDTERMINOLOGY

Stored Program Control. Step-by-step andcrossbarswitchingsysrems usedelec-

tromechanical components for boththe switchingmatrixandthecontrolelements. In
somecasettthe electromechanical controlelementsin theseswitchesrepresented ru-
dimentaryforms of special-purpose digital computers.The hardwiredelectromd-
chanicallogic, however,had limited capabilitiesand was virtually impossibleto
modify.
A majormilestonefor telephonywasestablished in 1965whentheBell Systemin-
stalledits first computer-controlledswitchingsystem:theNo. I ElectronicSwitching
system(Ess).- This switchingsystemusesa stored-program digitalcomputerfor irs
controlfunctions.Thestored-program control(SPC)featureof theNo. I ESSallowed
the introductionof new featuressuchas abbreviateddialing,call forwarding,call
waiting,andthree-waycalling.
Theintroductionof SPCnot only providedsignificantadvantages to endusersbut
alsosimplifiedmanyadministrative andmaintenance tasksfor the operatingcompa-
nies.A largeparl of line administration thatformerlyrequiredmanymanualmodifr-
cations(mainframecross-connects) could insteadbe accomplished with changesin
computerdatatablesof an SPCswitch.Furthermore, physicalline numberswerein-
dependent of thelogical(directory)line numbers,thusmakingnumberchanges easy.
other benefitsenabledby sPc areautomated recordkeeping,lower blockingprob-
abilities,generationof traf-ficstatistics,automatedcall tracing,andmessage unit ac-
counting(per-callchargesasopposedto flat-ratebilling for unlimitedlocalcalling).
The switchingmahix of the No. I ESS(andalsorheNo. 2 ESS,No. 3 ESS,and
No. IA ESS)is implementedwith electromechanical reedrelays.ThusthetermESS
refersin generalto computer-controlled switchingandnot to thenatureof theswitch-
ing makix itself.However,AT&T's No. 4 ESS,which wasfirst installedin 1976.is
a high-capacitytoll switch using computercontrol and digital electronicsfor its
switchingmatrix.Thusthe No. 4 ESSis "electronic"in its controlandits switching
matrix.Fufthermore,thedigital multiplexsystem(DMS) switchesof NorthernTele-
com,theNo. 5 eleckonicautomaticexchange(EAX) of GTE, andthe No. 5 ESSof
AT&T alsoutilize.digital logic circuitsfor thecrosspointmatrix.
("''f't
\
Private Branch Exchanges. In the united statesthe termprivate branchex-
change(PBX) refersgenericallyto any switchingsystemownedor leasedby a busi-
nessor organizationto provideboth internalswitchingfunctionsand accessto the
publicnetwork.Thusa PBX in theunited statesmayuseeithermanualor automatic
control.The term PABX is alsousedin the united States,andparticularlyin other
countries,to referspecificallyto automaticallycontrolledPBXs.
Thehistoricaldevelopment of PBX systemshasfollowedcloselythatof switches
in thepublicnetwork.PBXswith computerized controlbecameavailablein 1963(be-
foretheNo. I ESS)whenAT&T's No. l0l ESSwasfirst installed.sincethattime a

*Computer-controlled
PBXs were available befbre 1965. The No. I E$S represents the first instance of
computer control in the public network hierarchy,
 *rra
?
1.2 THEANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY 17

large numberof independentmanufacturers have developedcomputer-controlled

PBXs.In fact,thePBX markethaslong beenoneof themostcompetitivebusinesses
in telecommunications.
Theuseof computercontrolfor PBXsintroducednumerous newfeaturesfor users.
Not only werecustomized callingfeatures(e.g.,abbreviated
dialing)provided,butnu-
merousfacilitiesfor costmanagement alsobecameavailable.Someof themoreuse-
ful, commonplace featuresin a PBX arethefollowing:

1. Accountingsummaries by individualemployeeor department

2. Multiple classesof servicewith prioritiesandaccessreshictionsto areacodes,
WATS lines.andsoon
3. Least-costroutingto automaticallyselecttie lines,foreignexchangecircuits,
WATS. DDD, andsoforth
4. Automaticcallbackwhencircuitsareavailable
5. Traffic monitoringandanalysisto determinetheutilizationof existingcircuits
blockingprobabilitiesandnetworkcosteffectiveness
or to a$certain

Centr6x. Many of thefeaturesinitially providedby PBXsarealsoofferedby oper-

atingcompanies asCentrexfeatures. As indicatedin Figure1.12,Centrexis abusiness
customerserviceoffering supportedby switchingequipmentin the centraloffice.
Every telephoneor datadeviceat the customerpremiseshasa dedicatedchannelto
the switchin the centraloffice. Originally,eachchannelimplieda dedicatedpair of
wires.It is now morecommonto usemultiplexingtechniques(describedin Section
I.2.5) to reducethehansmission costs.Nevertheless, from thecentraloffice point of
view eachCentrexextensionhasa dedicated appearance at theCO with a uniquepub-
lic networktelephonenumber.A softwarepartitionin thecentralofficetreatstheCen-
trex linesasa closedusergroupto providethefollowingbasicfeatures:

Locll Common Chantel Slgnaling

Sit6 I Sit6 2 Site 3

Figure 1.12 Centrexserviceto multiplesites.

18 BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

l. Directdialingto Centrexextensions from thepublicnetwork.

2. Station-to-stationcallingusingextensionnumbersasopposed to full, 7- (or l0-)
digit publicnumbers.
3. Commonvoiceuserfeaturessuchascall forwarding,call transfer,call waiting,
call pick up, andthree-waycalling.
4. Multiple siteswith transparent numberingplansand features.With citywide
Centrexthe sitescan be supportedfrom multiple offices interconnected by
common-channel signaling(CCS)describedin Section1.2.10.
5. Centralizedattendant/message desk with call origination information for
informedprocessing of forwardedcalls.
6. High availabilitybecause CO equipmentanddirectlyconnected analogphones
arepoweredat theCO with backuppowersources.
7. Virtually unlimitedgrowth.

1.2.4 Transmission Systems

Functionally,thecommunications channelsbetweenswitchingsystemsarereferredto
astrunks.In thepast,thesechannelswereimplemented with a varietyof facilities,in-
cludingpairsof wires,coaxialcable,andpoint-to-pointmicrowaveradiolinks.Except
for specialsituations,tunk facilitiesnow utilizeopticalfibers.

Open Wire
A classicalpictureofthe telephonenetworkin the pastconsistedoftelephonepoles
with crossarms andglassinsulatorsusedto $upportuninsulated open-wirepairs.Ex-
ceptin rura]environments, theopenwire hasbeenreplacedwith multipaircablesys-
temsor fiber. Themain advantageof anopen-wirepair is its relativelylow attenuatiofl
(a few hundredths of a decibelpermile at voicefrequencies).
Hence,openwire is par-
ticularlyusefulfor long,rural customerloops.Themaindisadvantages arehavingto
separatethe wires with crossarmsto preventshortingandthe needfor largeamounts
of copper.(A singleopen-wirestrandhasa diameterthatis five timesthediameterof
a typical strandin a multipaircable.Thusopenwire usesroughly25 timesasmuch
copperasdoescable.)As a resultof copperco$tsandtheemergence of low elecffonics
costs,openwire in rural environments haribeenmostlyreplacedwith cablesystems
using(digital)amplifiersto offsetattenuation on long loops.

Paired Cable
In responseto overcrowdedcrossarmsandhigh maintenartce costs,multipaircable
sy$temswereintroducedasfar backas 1883.Todaya singlecablemay containany-
wherefrom 6 to 2700wire pairs.Figure 1.13showsthe structureof a rypicalcable.
Whentelephonepolesareused,a singlecablecanprovideall thecircuitsrequiredon
the route,therebyeliminatingthe needfor crossarms. More recentlythe preferred
meansof cabledistributionis to bury it directlyin the ground(buriedcable)or use
underground conduit(underground cable).
 HIERARGHY19
NETWoRK
1.2 THEANALOG

Table 1.4 lists the most conrmon wire sizes to be fbund within paired-cablesys-
tems. The lower gauge(higher diameter) systemsare urtedfor longer distanceswhere
signal attenuationand direct-cunent (dc) resisturce can becomelimiting factors. Fig-
ure l . I 4 rrhowsattenuationcurves [5] for the common gaugesof pairedcable as a func-
tion of frequency. An important point to notice in Figure l.14 is that the cable pairs
are capableof canying much higher fiequencies than required by a telephonequality
voice signal(approximately3.4 kHz).
In the past, the exchangeareasof the telephonenetwork used paired cable almost
exclusively fbr short-haul interoffice transmission.Up until the introduction of mul-

Figure 1.13 Multipair cable.(Copyright1977by Bell Telephone Reprintedby

Laboratorics.
permission,)
20 BACKGROUNDAND TERMINOLOGY

TABLE1.4 WireGaugeand Resletance

of Common
PalredCable

Direct-Current
Gauge (in.)
Diameter (fy1000ft)a
Resistance
30 0.010 104
28 0.013 oo
26 0.016 41
24 0.020 26
22 0.0?5 16
20 0.032 10
19 0.036
eNote that the loop resistanceof a pair is
twice the resistanc€of a single
wire given in th€ table.

18
17
18
15
14
13
12
#
#
g
1l
g
r0
t I
E
E I
c
o
tl
7
6
5
4
3
2
I
0
1,000 l.lfr 1,1d 1.100 1.107
Frequercy
(Hz)

Figure 1.14 Attenuation versus frequency of common gaugesof paired cable, (From W. D.
Reeve, ,SuDscriDerLoop Signaling Transmission Handbook, IEEE Press, New york, Fig.
7-16a.)
 1.? THEANALocNETwoHKH|FRARCHY 21

with groundretum,
Figure 1.15 Single-wiretransmission

Figure 1.16 Two-wiretransmission.

tiplexing techniques,describedlater in this chapter,eachvoice circuit (trunk) was car-

ried on a separatepair of wires. Beginning in the early 1960selectronicsbegan to be
used for short-haul interoffice transmissionsystemsusing multiplexing techniquesto
carry multiple channelson a single pair of wires.

Tw*Wire Versue Four-Wire

All wire-linetransmission in thetelephonenetworkis basedon transmission through
pairsof wires.As shownin Figure L15, transmission througha singlewire (with a
groundreturn)is possibleandhasbeenusedin thepast.However,theresultingcircuit
is too noisyfor customeracceptance. Instead,balancedpairsof wiresasshownin Fig-
ure 1.16areusedwith signalspropagatingas a voltagedifferencebetweenthe two
wires.The electricalcurrentproducedby the differencesignalflowing throughthe
wiresin oppositedirectionsis calleda "metalliccurrent.'rIn contrast,currentpropa-
gatingin thesamedirectionin bothwiresis referredto ascommon-mode or longitu-
dinal current.Longitudinalcurrentsarenot coupledinto a circuit outputunlessthere
is animbalancein thewiresthatconvertssomeof thelongitudinalsignal(noiseor in-
terference) into a differencesignal.Thustheuseof a pairof wiresfor eachcircuitpro-
vides much better circuit quality than doessingle-wiretransmission.Someolder
switchingsystemrr usedsingle-wire(unbalanced) transmissionto minimizethenum-
ber of contacts.Unbalanced circuitswereonly feasiblein smallswitcheswherenoise
andcrosstalkcouldbe controlled.
Virtually all subscriber
loopsin thetelephone networkareimplemented with a sin-
glepairof wires.-Thesinglepairprovidesfor bothdirectionsof ffansmission. If users
on both endsof a connectiontalk simultaneously, their conversations
are superim-
posedon thewire pairandcanbeheardattheoppositeends.In contrast,wireJine(and
fiber) transmission overlongerdistances, asbetweenswitchingoffices,is bestimple-
mentedif the two directionsof transmission are separated wire pairs.
onto $eparate
*It
is no* commonplace to use fiber for the tbeder portion of a subscdber loop, but the drop to a te sidence
is a single pair per telephone.
22 BACKGROUND
ANDTERMINOLOGY

Longer distance transmissionrequires amplification and most often involves multi-

plexing. These operationsare implemented most easily if the two directions of ffans-
mission are isolated from each other. Thus interoffice trunks typically use two pairs
of wires or two fibers and are referred to as four-wire $ystems.The use of two pairs
of wires did not necessarilyimply the use of twice as much copper as a two-wire cir-
cuit. After 1960, four-wire systemsincreasingly used some form of multiplexing to
provide multiple channelsin one direction on one wire pair. Thus, a net savingsin cop-
per could result.
Sometimesthe bandwidth of a single pair of wires was separatedinto two subbands
that were used for the two directions of travel. These systemswere referred to as de-
rivedfour-wire systems.Hence, the term/aur-wire has evolved to imply separate
channelsfor eachdirection of transmission,even when wires may not be involved. For
example, fiber optic and radio system$that use separatechannelsfor each direction
are also referred to asfour-wire systems.
The use of four-wire transmissionhad a direct impact on the switching systemsof
the toll network. Since toll network circuits were four-wire, the switches were de-
signed to separately connect both directions of hansmission. Hence, two paths
through the switch were neededfor each connection. A two*wire switch, as used in
older analog end offices, required only one path through the switch for eachconnec-
tion.

Two-Wira-to-Four-Wlre Conversion
At somepointin a long-distance
connection
it is necessary
to convertfromtwo-wire
transmissionof local loops to four-wire transmissionon long-distancetrunks. In the
past,the conversionusually occurredat the trunk interface of the (two-wire) end office
switch. Newer digital end office switchesare inherently "four-wire," which meansthe
two-wire-to-four-wire conversion point is on the subscriber(line) side of the switch
as opposedto the trunk side.A generalizedinterconnectionof two-wire and four-wire
facilities for a connection is shown in Figure I.17. The basic conversion function is
provided by hybrid circuits that couple the two directions of transmissionas shown.
Hybrid circuits have been traditionally implemented with specially interconnected
transformers.More recently, however, electronic hybrids have been developed.Ide-
ally a hybrid should couple all energy on the incoming branch of the four-wire circuit
into the two-wire circuit, and none of the incoming four-wire signal should be trans-
ferred to the outgoing four-wire branch.

Hybrid Hybrid

Figure 1.17 Interconnection

of two-wireandfour-wirecircuits.
 1.2 THEANALocNETWoRKHTERARoHy
eg

When the impedance matching network Z exactly matches the impedance of the
two-wire circuit, near-perfectisolation of the two four-wire branchescan be realized.
Impedancematching usedto be a time-consuming,manual proce$$and was therefore
not commonly used. Furthermore, the two-wire circuits were usually switched con-
nections so ttre impedance that had to be matched would change with each connection.
For thesereasonsthe impedancesof two-wire lines connectedto hybrids were rarely
matched.The effect of an impedancemismatch is to causean echo, the power level of
which is related to the degreeof mismatch. The effect of echoeson voice quality and
the meansof controlling them is discussedlater in this chapter.

Loadlng Coils
Theattenuation curvesshownin FigureI .14indicatethatthehigherfrequencies of the
voicespectrum(up to 3.4kHz) experience moreattenuation thanthe lower frequen-
cies.This frequency-dependent attenuationdistortsthevoicesignalandis referredto
asamplitudedistor"tion.Amplitude distortionbecomesmost$ignificanton long cable
pairs,wherethe attenuationdifferenceis greatest.
The usualmethodof combatingamplitudedistonionon intermediateJength (3-
lS-mile)wire pairsis to insertartificialinductanceinto thelines.
The extrainductance
comesfrom loadingcoilsthatariinsertedat 30fi)-,4500-,or 6000-ftintervals.Figure
1.18showstheeffectof loadingcoils on a 24-gaugeloop.Noticethatthe voiceband
response up to 3 kHz is greatlyimproved,but theeffecton higherfrequencies is dev-
astating.
Prior to the introductionof wire-lineandfiber carriersystems,loadingcoils were
usedextensivelyon exchangeareainterofficetrunks.Loadingcoils arealsousedon
thelonger,typicallyrural,subscriber loops.Here,too,carriersystem$ havedisplaced
mostof the singlepairsof wiresbeingusedon long routes.

gto
E
E,
I
Szo
e
E
EI
E t 0

Frequency (kllzl

tr'lgure1.18 Effectof loadingon 24-gaugecablepair.

24 BACKGROUND
ANDTERMINOLOGY

1.2.5 Pair-GainSystems

Providingserviceto rural subscribers hasalwaysbeenan expensivepropositionbe-

causeof thelengthof theroutesinvolvedandthesmallnumberof households to sup-
pott thecostof boththeinitial installationandthemaintenance. In thepast,a cornmon
meansof reducingthe co$t$wasto usepartylines,whichinvolvedsharingof a wire
pair amongmultiplehouseholds. A partyline is particularlyusefulfor satisfyingnew
servicerequests on routeswith no sparepairsbut is obviouslyobjectionable dueto the
lackof privacyandthelack of availabilityof theline.
A pair-gainsy$temis an alternateapproachto sharingpairs of wires that is much
moreacceptable to theusers.This sectiondescribes two basictypesof pair-gainsys-
--;_ *
tems;concentrators (remoteswirches)andmultiplexers(carriersystems).

Goncentratlon
Thefirst form of a pair-gainsystemin FigureL 19depictsa basicline concentration
system.Whenviewedftom the stationsetendof the system,a pair-gainsystempro-
videsconcentration by switchingsomenumberof activestationsto a smallernumber
of sharedoutputlines.At theotherendof thesystem,deconcentration (expansion)oc-
cursby switchingfromthesharedlinesto individualinputsof theswitchingofficecor-
respondingto theactivestations.Expandingthetraffic backto theoriginalnumberof
stationsensure$thatthesystemis operationallytransparent
to boththeswitchandthe
user.Noticethata definitionof whichendprovidesconcentration andwhichendpro-
videsexpansionis dependent on thepoint of view.

N surrce$

2
3

/l{ chadnels

N $rbchandels

N tource$

Figure 1.19. Pair-gainsystems:concentration

andmultiplexing:(a) concentration
(z > M);
(b) multiplexing.
 1.2 THE ANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY 25

Sincea concentrator is incapableof simultaneouslyconnectingall stationsit serv-

ices,a certainamountof blockingis necessarily introducedby concentration. When
theactivityof individualstationsis low enough,significantamountsof concenffation
canbe achievedwith acceptable blockingprobabilities.For example,40stationsthat
areeachactiveonlyT.SVoofthetimecanbeconcentratedonto 10lineswithablocking
probabilityof 0.001.* Thisis anacceptable degradation in servicesinceanequallyac-
tive calledstationis busy75 timesasoften.
Noticethata concentration systemrequirestheffansferof controlinformationbe-
tweentheconcentrator/expander switchterminals.Whenoneendof thesystemestab-
lishesa newconnectron to oneof the sharedlines,theotherendmustbe informedto
setup theappropriate reversecomection.

Multlplexing
As shownin Figure1.14,theinherentbandwidthof a typicalwire pairis considerably
greaterthanthat neededfor a singlevoicesignal.Thus,multiplexingcanbe usedto
carrymultiplevoicechannelson a singlepairof wires.Theincreasein attenuation im-
pliedby thehigherfrequencies is offsetby amplifiersin themultiplexequipmentand
at periodicpoints in the ffansmissionlines.The particularmultiplexingtechnique
shownin Figure1.I9b is a frequencydivisionmultiplexsystem.Anotherform of mul*
tiplexing,time divisionmultiplexingof digital voicesignals,is the preferredmulti-
plexingapproachfor digitalpair-gainsystemsdiscussed later'
As shownin FigureI . l9b, thereis a one-to-one relationship betweenthecustomer
linesandthe subchannels of the multiplexer.Thus, unlike the system,
concentration
thereis no possibilityof blockingin a multiplexing type of pair-gainsystem.Also,
thereis no needto transferswitchinginformation since the same one-to-one
relation-
shipdefinestheconespondence betweencustomerlinesat oneendandswitchingof-
f,rcelinesat theotherend.A majordrawbackof multiplexingpair-gainsystemsis that
thesubchannels arehighlyunderutilizedif thesourcesarerelativelyinactive.In these
situationsa combinationof concentfation andmultiplexingis normallyjustified.

Time Asslgnment Speech lnterpolation

Time assignment speechinterpolation(TASI) is a pair-gainsystemthat dynamically
assignsa channelto a circuit only whenthereis actualvoiceactivity.Thus,a TASI
sy$temsenses voiceactivityfrom a numberof sources N; assignsactivesources to one
of M channels,whereM is typicallyabouthalf aslargeasN; andsignalsthe far end
abouttheconnections. Normally,eachparticipantin a conversation is activefor only
407oof thetime,whichindicates thatif M = j N,thereissomeamountofsparecapac-
ity to accommodate excessactivityin onedirection.If a sourcebeginsto talk whenall
channelsareutilized,thebeginningofthat speechsegment Setsclippeduntil a channel
becomesavailable.Chapter12providesmathematical formulationsto determinethe
probabilityof clippingasa functionof N, M, andthe voiceactivityfactor'
Initial TASI applicationsinvolved improving the utilization of underseacable
pairs.Theobviousexpense of thesechannelswarranted theuseof arathercomplicated
*A
discussionof traffic analysis is provided in Chapter 12, from which this result can be obtained.
 (')

26 BACKGHOUND
ANDTERMINOLOGY

multiplexingtechniquefor thetime.Thesamebasictechniquehassincebeenusedin
numerousapplicationswith digital speechfor satelliteand landline applications.
Thesesystemsaregenerallycalleddigital speechinrerpolation(DSI) systems[6].

1.2.6 FDM Multlplexingand Modutation

The introductionof cablesystemsinto the transmission plant to increasethe circuit

packingdensityof openwire is oneinstanceof multiplexingin thetelephone network.
Thisform of multiplexing,referredto asspacedivisionmultiplexing,involvesnothing
morethanbundlingmorethanonepairof wiresinto a singlecable.Thetelephone net-
work usestwo otherformsof multiplexing,bothof whichuseelectronics to packmore
thanonevoicecircuitinto thebandwidthof a singletransmission medium.Analogfre-
quencydivisionmultiplexing(FDM) hasbeenusedextensivelyin point-to-pointmi-
crowaveradiosand to a much lesserdegreeon $omeobsoletecoaxial cableand
wire-line$ystems. FDM is alsoutilizedin fiber optic transmission systems,whereit
is referredto aswavelengthdivisionmultiplexing(wDM).- Digitaltimedivisionmul-
tiplexing(TDM) is thedominantform of multiplexingusedin thetelephone nerworks
worldwide.(Eventhe fiber optic system$that utilize wDM commonlyusedigital
TDM within the signalsof a particularwavelength.)

Frequency Division Multlplexing

As indicatedin FigureI.l9b, an FDM systemdividesthe availablebandwidthof the
transmissionmediuminto a numberof narower bandsor subchannels. Individual
voicesignalsareinsertedinto thesubchannels by amplitudemodulatingappropriately
selectedcarrierfrequencies.As a compromisebetweenrealizingthe largestnumber
of voicechannelsin a multiplexsystemandmaintainingacceptable voicefidelity,the
telephone companiesestablished 4 kHz asthe standardbandwidthof a voicecircuit.t
If both sidebandsproducedby amplitudemodulationareused(asin obsoleteNI or
N2 carriersystemson pairedcable),thesubchannel bandwidthis 8 kHz, andthecor-
respondingcarrierfrequencieslie in the middle of eachsubchannel. Sincedouble-
sidebandmodulationis wastefulof bandwidth,single-sideband (ssB) modulation
wasusedwhenevertheextraterminalcostswerejustified.Thecarrierfrequencies for
single-sidebandsystemslie at eithertheupperor loweredgeof thecorresponding sub-
channel,depending on whethertheloweror uppersidebandis selected. TheA5 chan-
nel bankmultiplexerof AT&T usedlower sidebandmodulation.
r...

FDM Htetrarcny
In order to standardizethe equipment in the various broadbandtransmissionsystems
of the original analog network, the Bell system establishedan FDM hierarchy as pro-
vided in Table 1.5. ccITT recommendationsspecify the samehierarchy at the lower
*Optical
technology is customarily defined in terms of the wavelength of the optical signal as opposed to
the corresponding frequency.
'Actually' the usable bandwidth
ofan FDM voice channel was closer to 3 kFIz due to suard bandsneeded
by the FDM separation filters.
 27
1.2 THEANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY

TABLE1.5 FDMHierarchyof the Bell Nstwork

Numberof Voice
Level
Multiplex Circuits Formation Band(kHz)
Frequency
Voicechannel 1 H
Group 12 12voicecircuits 60*10B
Supergroup 60 5 groups 312-552
Mastergroup 600 10 supergroups 56rt--3,084
Mastergroup
Mux 1,200-3,600 Various 31?,564-17,548
Jumbogroup 3,600 6 mastergroups 56,t-17,548
JumbogroupMux 10.800 3 jumbogroups 3,00160,000

levels.Eachlevel of thehierarchyis implementedusinga setof standard FDM mod-

ules. The multiplex equipment is independent of particular
broadband transmission
media.
All multiplexequipmentin theFDM hierarchyusedSSBmodulation'Thus,every
voicecircuit requiredapproximately 4 kHz of bandwidth.The lowestlevel building
block in thehierarchyis a channelgroupconsistingof 12voicechannels.A channel
groupmultiplexusesa totalbandwidthof 48 kHz. FigureI.20 showsa blockdiagram
of an A5 channelgroupmultiplexer,themostcommonA-typechannelbankusedfor
first'level multiplexing.Twelve modulatorsusing 12 $eparate carriersgeneratel2
double-sideband signalsasindicated.Eachchannelis thenbandpass filteredto select
only thelowersideband of eachdouble-sideband signal.Thecompositemultiplexsig-
nal is producedby superposing thefilter outputs.Demultiplexequipinentin a receiv-
ing terminalusesthe samebasicprocessing in reverseorder.
Noticethat a sidebandseparation filter not only removesthe uppersidebandbut
alsorestrictsthe bandwidthof the retainedsigrpl: the lower sideband.Thesefilters
thereforerepresenteda basicpoint in the analogtelephonenetworkthat definedthe
bandwidthof a voicecircuit. SinceFDM was u$edon all long-haulanalogcircuits,

lndividualvoice
channelinputs
I
EL
0 4
rt-r1 1 2
l(x
FI
104 108

l2 Chennel
multiplex output
Fl-r68 -
60 64
60

BdndpEEE
fitter$

Figure 1.20 A5 channelbank multiplexer.

28 BACKGROUNDAND TERMINOLOGY

long-distance connectionsprovided somewhat less than 4 kHz of bandwidth. (The

loading coils discussedpreviously also produce similar bandwidth limitations into a
voice circuit.)
As indicated in Table 1. 5, the secondlevel of the FDM hierarchy is a 60-channel
multiplex refened to as a supergroup.Figure I.2l shows the basic implementation of
an LMX group bank that multiplexes five flust-levelchannelgroups.The resulting 60-
channelmultiplex output is identical to that obtained when the channelsare individu-
ally translatedinto 4-kHz bands from 312 to 552 kHz. Direct translation requires 60
separateSSB systemswith 60 distinct cariers. The LMX group bank, however, uses
only five SSB systemsplus five lower level modules. Thus two-stage multiplexing,
as implied by the LMX group bank, requiresmore total equipmentbut achievesecon-
omy through the use of common building blocks. (Engineersat AT&T Laboratories
also developeda multiplexer that generateda supergroupdirectly [7].)
Because a second-level multiplexer packs individual first-level signals together
without guard bands,the carier frequenciesand bandpassfilters in the LMX group
bank must be maintained with high accurqpy.Higher level multiplexers do not pack
the lower level signalsas close together.Notice that a ma$tergroup, for example,does
not provide one voice channelfor every 4 kHz of bandwidth. It is not practical to main-
tain the tight spacingbetweenthe wider bandwidth signalsat higher frequencies.Fur-
thermore, higher level multiplex signals include pilot tone$ to monitor transmission
link quality and aid in carder recovery.

',.2.7 WidebandTranemission
Medla

Wire pairs within multipair cableshave usablebandwidths that rangefrom a little un-
der I MHz up to about 4 MHz dependingon the length, the wire gauge,and the type
of insulation u$edon the pairs. Multiplexed transmissionson thesewire pairs conse-
quently have capacitiesthat rangefrom ?4 channels(on analogN3 or digital Tl carrier
systems)up to 96 channels(on obsoletedigital T2 carrier systems).In contrast,an ana-

12 Channel
group inputB
t-]
60

n l r
380 408 s28

r-1 t-]
504 552 50* s52

Bandpeac
fltterE

Figure 1.21 LMX groupbankmultiplexer.

 HIERARCHY 29
NETWORK
1.2 THEANALOG

log L5E coaxialcable$ystemwasdeveloped to carry 13,200voicechannels.Optical

fiber systemshavebeendevelopedthatcarryin excessof 100,000voicechannelson
a singlewavelength.Becauseopticaltransmittersflight-emittingdiodes(LEDs) and
laserslfunctionbestin a pulsedmodeof operation,fiber systemsareprimarilydigital
in nature.Digital fiber optictransmission
systemsaredescribed in Chapter8. Thissec-
tion discussescoaxialcableandpoint-to-pointmicrowaveradio systems.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxialcablesystemswereusedpredominantlyto $atisfylong-haulrequirements of
the toll network.The first commercial$y$temwasinstalledin l94l for hansmission
of 480 voicecircuitsover a 200-milestretchbetweenMinneapolis,Minnesota,and
StevensPoints,Wisconsin[7]. To combatattenuation, repeateramplifierswere in-
stalledat 5.5-mileintervals.Consideringthe maximumcapacityof l2 voicecircuits
on openwire or cableat thetime,theintroductionof "coax" wasa significantdevel-
opment.After thefirst installationcoaxialcablecapacitywassteadilyincreased by (l)
usinglargerdiametercables(0.375in.) to r"educe (2) decreasing
attenuation, the dis-
tancebetweenrepeaters, and(3) improvingthenoisefigure,linearity,andbandwidth
of the repeateramplifiers.
A sumnraryof theanalogcoaxialcablesystemsusedin theBell Systemis provided
in Table1.6.Noticethateachsystemreservedonepair of tubesassparesin theevent
of failure,a particularlyimportantconsideration sinceeachtubecanieda high volume
of traffic. Because optical fibers have wider bandwidths,lower attenuation,lower
maintenance, and lower cost,coaxialsystems are obsolete.

Mlcrowave Radlo
Much of the impetu.sfor terreshialmicrowaveradio systemscarnefrom the needto
distributetelevisionsignalsnationwide.As the volumeof long-distance traffic in-
creased, radiosystemsalsobecamethemosteconomicalmeansof diskibutingvoice
network.Beginningin 1948,whenthe first systemwas
circuitsin the long-distance
installedbetweenNew York and Boston,the numberof microwaveradio sy$tems
grewto supply607oof the voicecircuitmilesin theU.S.toll networkin 1980[71.It
wasjust a few yearsafterthat that opticalfibersbeganto takeoverfor high-density
interofficeroutesandeventuallyfor thenetworkasa whole.

ln th€BellNetwork
TABLE1.6 CoaxlalCableSysteme
FleDeater
System Pairsper Spacing Capacityper Total
Designation Systeme SignalDesignation (miles) Pair Capacity
L1 3/6 Ma$iergroup I 600 1,800
L3 5/6 Mux
Mastergroup 4 1,860 9,300
L4 9/10 Jumbogroup 2 3,600 32,400
L5 10/11 JumbogroupMux 1 10,800 108,000

the numberof pairs are shown a$ working^otal.

30 BACKGROUND
ANDTEHMINOLOGY

Microwaveradiosystemsrequireline-of-sightnansmission with repeaterspacings

typically 26 miles apart.The majoradvantage of radio systemsis that a continuous
right-of-wayis not required-only smallplotsof land spaced20-30 milesapartfor
towersandequipmentshelters. A majorcostof guidedtransmission, for example,wire
pairs,coax,or fiber,is theright-of-waycosts.In manymetropolitanareas,microwave
routesbecameheavilycongested andcouldnot be expanded with allocatedcommon-
carrierfrequencybands.In thesesituations,findinga right-of-wayfor a coaxor even-
tually an optical fiber systemwas sometime$the only choice for high-capacity
transmission.-
The frequencybandsallocatedby the FCC for common-carrier usein the united
statesarelistedin TableL7. of thesebands,4 and6 GHzhavebeenthemostpopular.
The2-GHzbandhasnotbeenusedextensivelybecause therelativelynarrowallocated
channelbandwidthsdo not permitimplementation of economicalnumbersof voice
circuits.The basicdrawbackof the lI-GHz bandis its vulnerabilityto rain attenu-
ation.However,ll-GHz radioshavebeenusedin some$fiort-haulapplications,,
The microwaveradio systemsof the analogBelt netwoik arelistedin tabte L8.
Noticethateachradiosystemis designed to carryoneof themultiplexhierarchies de-
scribedpreviously.All of theseradiosexceprrheAR-6A usedlow-indexfrequency
modulation(FM) of the signalgenerated by the FDM multiplexerequipment.Thus,
theFM radioshansmitthessB FDM signalasa baseband signalwith a bandwidthas
indicatedin Table 1.5. FM modulationwas chosento permit the use of nonlinear
poweramplifiersin thetransmitters andto takeadvantage of FM signal-to-noise ratio
perforrnance.
Examinationof Tables1.7and1.8indicatesthat 13.3kHz of bandwidthis utilized
pervoicecircuitin TD-2 radiosand 14.3kHz in TH-3 radios.Thus.theuseof FM in-
troduceda significantincrease in the4 kHz bandwidthof theindividualSSBvoicecir-
cuit. In conrrast,the ssB AR-6A radio introducedin lggl provided6000 voice
circuitsin the 30-MHzchannelsat 6 GHz.
Sincea largenumberof voicecircuitsarecarriedby eachradiochannel,microwave
system$usuallyincludeextraequipmentandextrachannelsto maintainservicede-
spiteoutagesthatmayresultfrom anyof thefollowing:

1. Atmospheric-induced
multipathfading
2. Equipmentfailures
3. Maintenance

On someroutes,the most frequentsourceof outagein a microwave radio systemarises

from multipath fading. Figure 1.22depicts a simple model of a multipath environment
arising as a result of atmospheric refraction. As indicated, the model involves two
ray$: a primary ray and a delayed secondaryray. Ifthe secondaryray anives out of
phasewith-respectto the primary ray, the primary signal is effectively canceled.The
*Micruwave
bands with wide-bandwidth allocations at high camer frequencies are available for some I ocal
distribution services and are discussedin Chapter I l.
 1.2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY 31

TAELE1.7 MlcrowaveFrequencieeAllocatedfor
Common-CarrlerUss in the UnltedStates

TotalBandwidth ChannelBandwidths
Band(MHz) (MHz) (MHz)

2110-2130 20 3.5
2160-2180 20 3.5
3700+200 500 20
5925-64?5 500 30
10,700-11,700 1000 40,20

amount of cancelation is dependent on both the magnitude and the phase of the sec-
ondary ray. Quite often only nominal amountsof fading occur and can be accommo-
dated by excess signal power in the transmitter, called a fade margin. In some
instances,however, the received signal is effectively reduced to zero, which implies
that the channel is temporarily out of service.

Frequency Diverelty
Fortunately,exceptionallydeepfadesnormally affect only one channel(carrier fre-
quency)at a time. Thus,a backupchannelincludinga sparetransmitteranda spare
receivercanbe usedto carrythe traffic of a fadedprimarychannel.Selectionof and
switchingto the sparechannelis performedautomaticallywithout a lossof service.
This remedyfor multipathfading is referredto asfrequencydiversity.Notice thatfre-
quencydiversityalsoprovideshardwarebackupfor equipmentfailures'
A fully loadedTD-3 radio systemused 12 channels:10 main channelsand 2
backupchannelsfor protection.This is Lefe-rred to variouslyas2-for-10,1.Q--by12'
or
10X 2 protectionswitching.Someshort-haulsystemsused l-for-l protection
switch-
ingbecauseit i$ $impleft-dimplement.However,sinceonly half of therequiredband-
width is actuallycarryingtraffic, systemswith l-for-l protectionwereonly allowed
in uncongested environments.

TABLE1.8 Bell SystemAnalogMicrowaveFsdios

System Band(GHz) VoiceCircuits Application

TD.2 4 600-1500 Longhaul
TD-3 4 1200 Longhaul
TH.1 o 1800 ShorVlonghaul
TH.3 6 2100 ShorUlonghaul
TM.1 6 600-900 ShorUlonghaul
TJ 11 600 Shorthaul
TL.1 11 240 Shorthaul
TL-2 11 600-900 Shorthaul
AR-6A 6 6000 Longhaul(SSB)
 32 BAcKcHoUNDANDTERMtNoLoGy

Figure1.22 Two-raymodelof multipathpropagation.

( Exceptin maintenance situations,protectionswitchingmustbe automaticin order

to maintainservicecontinuity.A typical objectivewasto restoreservicewithin 30
msecto minimizenoticeableeffectsin the message haffic. A morecritical require-
( ment is to re$toreservicebeforethe loss of signalis interpretedby somesignaling
schemesasa circuit disconnect.Inadvertentdisconnects occurif an outagelastsfor
morethan 1-2 sec.

Space Diversity
since deepfadesonly occurwhena secondary ray arrivesexactlyout of phasewith
respectto a primaryray, it is unlikelythat two pathsof differentlengthsexperience
fadingsimultaneously. Figure 1.23depictsa technique,calledspacediversity,using
differentpathlengthsto provideprorecrionagainstmultipathfading.As indicated,a
singletransmitterirradiatestwo receiveantennas separated by somedistanceon the
tower. Althoughthepathlengthdifferencemay be lessthana meter,this differenceis
adequate at microwavefrequencies, whichhavewavelengths on theorderof tenthsof
meters.
Rain is anotheratmospherically basedsourceof microwavefading.As already
mentioned,rain attenuationis a concemmosflyin higherfrequencyradios(l I GHz
and above).unfortunatelyneitherfrequencydiversity(at the high frequencies) nor
spacediversityprovidesanyprotectionagainstrain fades.

Satellitee
FollowingtheApril 1965launchof the sovietunion's Molniya domesticcommuni*
cation$satelliteandthefirst international
communications satellite,INTELSATI, the
useof satellitesfor internationaltelephonetraffic grewphenomenally. The 1g70sand
early 1980salsoproducedsignificantuseof satellitesin theUnitedStatesfor televi-
sionprogramdistributionandfor corporatevoiceanddatanetworks.Thefirst domes-

==
=::
;:
:::
:::::::::::--;h
H(-.-= Figure 1.23 Spacediversity.
 1,2 THEANALOG
NETWOHK
HIEHAFCHY 33

tic systemin North AmericawastheCanadianArik A in 1972followedby Westem

Union'sWestarsystemfor U.S.servicein 1974[8].
In onesensea satellitesystemis a microwaveradiosystemwith only onerepeater:
thetransponder in outerspace.In fact,somesatellitesystemsusethe same4- and6-
GHzfrequencybandsusedby tenestrialmicrowaveradios.In anothersense, however,
thebroadcast natureof thedownlink offersadditionalopportunities for new services
not availablefrom point-to-pointterrestrialsystems.Distributionof networktelevi-
sionprogrammingis oneapplicationparticularlysuitedto thebroadcast natureof sat-
etlites.Directbroadcastsatellite(DBS) transmission to receive-onlyhomereceivers
is a primeexample.*Two primaryexamples of DBS systemsaretheEuropeanDVB-T
systemt9l andthe North Americandigital satellite$ystem(DSS)systemdeveloped
by HughesElechonicsSystems(HES).
Anotherapplicationthatis well suitedto satellitesis communications with mobile
stations.The internationalmaritimesatellite (INMARSAT) system, for example, be-
gan $upporringthe maritime industry in 1982 and was augmented with digital
Skyphone[10] for aeronautical telephoneservicein 1989.
Onedrawbackto satellitecommunications is theinherentpropagation delayof the
long transmissionpath.For a stationary$atellite,this delay (not includingground
links) is 250msecup anddown.A completecircuitwith satellitelinks for bothdirec-
tionsof travelthereforeimpliesgreaterthana one-half-second round-trippropagation
time.Delaysof this magnitudearenoticeablein a voiceconversation but not prohibi-
tive.Theeffectsof thepropagation delayscanbealleviatedsomewhat by pairingeach
satellitecircuitwith a ground-basedcircuitin theoppositedirection.Thus,theround-
trip delayinvolvesonly onesatellitelink.
As is the casewith point-to-pointmicrowaveradio,fiber optic transmissionhas
displacedthe useof satellitesfor high-density,domesticandinternationaltelephone
communications. Hencethe useof satellitesis primarily directedat thin-routetele-
phoneanddataapplication$, somemobilesy$tems, andbroadcastapplications.

1.2.8 Tranemissionlmpairments

Oneof the mostdiff,rcultaspectsof designingan analogtelephonenetworkis deter-

mininghow to allocatetransmission impairmentsto individualsubsystems within the
network.Using subjectiveevaluations by listeners,certainobjectivesfor end-to-end
fransmissionqualitywereestablished manner[11].Af-
in a relativelystraightforward
ter temperingthe goalswith economicfeasibility,theend-to-endobjectiveswerees-
tablished.However,consideringthe myriad of equipmenttypes and connection
combinations in theolderanalognetwork,designingtheindividualnetworkelements
to meettheseobjectivesin all caseswa$a complexproblem.A greatdealof creditis
duetheBell Systemfor havingcleveloped a nationwideanalognetworkwith thelevel
performance
of consistent it had.
*A
DBS system is designed to use rcceiver antenflas that are about I rn in diameter. The older home satellite
receiver systems that wefe common in the United States used f- to 5-m anteflnasto rcceive (intercept)
commercial program distribution.
34 BACKGROUND
ANDTERMINOLOGY

The major factors to be consideredin establishing transmissionobjectives for an

analog network are signal attenuation,noise, interference,crosstalk, distortion, ech-
oes, singing, and various modulation- and carrier-relatedimperfections.

Signal Attenuatlon
Subjectivelistening testshave shown that the prefened acoustic-to-acousticloss [12]
in a telephoneconnectionshouldbe in the neighborhoodof I dB. A study oflocal tele-
phone connections[l3] demonsftatesthat the typical local call had only 0.6 dB more
loss than ideal. Surveys of the toll network [4] indicated that the averageanalog toll
connection had an additional 6.7 dB of loss. This same survey also showed that the
standarddeviation of loss in toll connectionswas 4 dB (most of which was attributable
to the local loops).
Since trunks within the toll network used amplifiers to offset transmissionlosses,
it would have been straightfbrward to design thesetrunks with zero-decibelnominal
insertion loss. However, as discusrtedlater, echo and singing considerationsdictated
a need for ceftain minimum levels of net loss in most analog trunk circuits.

hterterence
Noise and interferenceare both characterizedas unwanted electrical energy fluctuat-
ing in an unpredictable manner. Interference is usually more structured than noise
since it arisesas unwanted coupling from just a few signals in the network. If the in-
terf'erenceis intelligible, or nearly so, it is referred to as crosstalk.*some of the major
sourcesofcrosstalk are coupling betweenwire pairs in a cable,inadequatefiltering or
carrier offsets in older FDM equipment, and the effects of nonlinear componentson
FDM signals.
Crosstalk,particularly if intelligible, is one of the most disturbing and undesirable
imperfections that can occur in a telephonenetwork. Crosstalk in analog systemsis
particularly difficult to control sincevoice signal power levels vary considerably(i.e.,
acro$sa dynamic range of40 dB). The absolutelevel ofcrosstalk energy from a high-
level signalmustbe small comparedto a desiredlowJevel signal.In fact,crosstalkis most
noticeableduring speechpauses,when the power level ofthe desiredsignalis zero.
Two basic forms of crosstalkof concernto telecommunicationsengineersare near-
end crosstalk(NEXT) andlitr-end crosstalfr(FEXT). Near-endcrosstalkrefersto cou-
pling from a transmitter into a receiver at a common location. often this form of
crosstalk is most troublesomebecauseof a large difference in power levels between
the ffansmitted and received signals. Far-end crosstalk refers to unwanted coupling
into a received signal from a transmitter at a dirrtantlocation. Both forms of crosstalk
are illustrated in Figure 1.24.

Nolse
The most common form of noise iuralyzedin communicationssystemsis white noise
with a caussian (normal) di$tribution of amplitude values. This type of noise is both
-Crosstalk
is also used to characterizesignallike interferencesin nonvoice networks. For cxample, crosstalk
in a data circuit would refcr to an interfering signal being coupled in from another similar data circuit.
 NETWOFK
I.2 THEANALOG HIEHAHCHY 35

Flgure I.24 Near-endandfar-endcrosstalk,

easy to analyze and easy to find since it arisesas thermal noise in all electrical com-
ponents.Battery systemsused to power customerloops are also a sourceof this type
of noise. White noise is truly random in the sensethat a sample at any in$tflntin time
is completely unconelated to a sample taken at any other instant in time. The other
most cornmon forms of noise in the telephonenetwork are impulse noise and quanti-
zation noise in digital voice terminals (Chapter 3). Impulse noise can occur from
switching transientsin older electromechanicalswitching offices or ftom rotary dial
telephones.Step-by-stepswitcheswere the most frequent culprits. More modern elec-
tromechanical switches that use glass-encapsulatedreed relays for crosspointspro-
duce much less noise. Whereaswhite noise is usually quantified in terms of average
power, impulse noise is usually measuredin tems of so many impulses per second.
Impulse noise is usually of less concernto voice quality than backgroundwhite noise.
However, impulse noise tendsto be the greatestconcernin a datacommunicationscir-
cuit.
The power level of any disturbing signal, noise or interf'erence,is easily measured
with a root-mean-square(rms) voltmeter. However, disturbancesat some frequencies
within the passbandof a voice signal are subjectively more annoying than others.
Thus. more useful measurementsof noise or interferencepower in a speechnetwork
take into accountthe subjectiveeffects of the noise as well as the power level. The two
morttcornmon such measurementsin telephony use a C-messageweighting curve and
a psophometric weighting curve, as shown in Figure 1.25. These curves essentially
representfilters that weight the frequency spectrum of noise according to its annoy-
anceeff'ectto a listener. C-messageweighting represent$the responseof the 500-type
telephoneset. As f'ar as perceived voice quality is concerned,only the noise that gets
passedby the telephonesetis imporlant. Notice that disturbancesbetween I and 2 kHz
are most. perceptible. C-message weighting is used in North America while
psophometricweighting is the European (ITU-T) standard.
A standardnoise referenceusedby telephoneengineersis I pW, which is l0-12 W,
or -90 dBm (dBm is power in decibelsrelative to a milliwatt). Noise measuredrela-
tive to this reference is expressedas so many decibels above the reference (dBrn).
Thus, a noise level of 30 dBrn correspondsto -60 dBm, or 10=eW of power' If the
readingsare made using C-messageweighting, the power level is expressedby the ab-
breviation dBrnC. Similarly, psophometrically weighted picowatts are expressedby
36 BACKGROUND
ANDTEBMINOLOGY

c -10
!
tl
fl
d

CE -20

250 500 1000 zilro 40(n

(Hz)
Frequency

Figure 1.25 C-messageand psophometic weighting.

the abbreviation pWp. The relationshipsbetween various noise power measurements

are given in Table L9.
The quality of an analog voice circuit is usually not specified in terms of the clas-
sical signal-to-noiseratio. The reasonis that relatively low levels of noise or interfer-
ence are noticeable during pau$e$in speech,when there is no signal. on the other
hand, high levels of noise can occur during speechand be unnoticeable.Thus, absolute
levels of noise are more relevant than signal-to-noiseratios for speciffing voice qual-
ity.- The objectives for maximum noise levels in the analog AT&T network were 2g
dBrnC for connectionsup to 60 miles in length and 34 dBrnC for 1000-mile circuits.t

Die|p.rtlon
In a previoussectionsignalattenuations
wereconsidered
with thetacitassumption
that a received waveform was identical in shape to a source waveform but merely
scaleddown in amplitude. Actually, a received waveform generally contains certain
distortions not attributable to external disturbancessuch as noise and interferencebut
that can be attributed to internal characteristics of the channel itself. In contrast to
noise and interference,distortion is deterministic; it is repeatedevery time the same
signal is sentthrough the samepath in the network. Thus distortions can be controlled
or compensatedfor once the nature of the distortion is understood.
There are many different type$ and sources of distortion within the telephone net-
work. The telephonecompaniesminimized thosetypesof distortion that most affected
the subjectivequality of speech.Later on they also becameconcemedwith distortion
effects on data transmission. Some distortions arise from nonlinearities in the net-
work, such as carbon microphones, saturating voice-frequency amplifiers, and un-
*It
is a "orn rron pracrice in the industry to specify the quality of a voice circuit in terms of a
test-tone-to-noise ratio. However, the test tone must be at a specific power level so the ratio, in fact,
*specifies absolutenoise power.
'These noise power values
iue related to a particular point in a circuit, called ^ zero-transmission-Ievel
paizt, discussedlater,
 1.2 THE ANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY 37

betweenVariousNoise
TABLE1.9 Relatlonships
Measurement8

To Convert

From To
dBm dBrn Add90 dB
dBm 3 kHzllat dBrnC AddBBdB
dBm 3 kHzflat dBp Add87.5dB
dBrn 3 kHz flat dBrnC Subtract2 dB
dBc dBp Subtract0.5dB
pW 3 kHzflat pwp by 0.562
Multiply

matchedcompandors(Chapter3). Otherdistottionsarelinearin natureandareusually

characterizedin the frequencydomainaseither amplitudedistortionor phasedistor-
tion.
Amplitudedistortionrefersto attenuatingsomefrequencies in thevoicespectrum
morethanothers.TheIoadingcoilsdiscussed earlierrepresent onemeansof eliminat-
ing amplitudedistoltionon long voice-frequency wire pairs.Amplitudedistortion
couldalsobeintroducedby spectrum-limiting filtersin FDM equipment. Ideallythese
filters shoulduniformlypassall voicebandfrequencies up to 4 kHz andrejectall oth-
"roll-offs" be-
ers.Practicaldesigns,however,imply theneedfor gradualattenuation
ginningat about3 kHz. Figure1.26showstheattenuation-versus-frequency respon$e
of a typicalanalogtoll connectionof thepast.
Phasedistortionis relatedto thedelaycharacteristicsof thetransmission medium'
Ideallya transmission sy$temshoulddelayall frequencycomponents in a signaluni-

c
E

a
3
c
o
*E

FreguencylkHzf

Figure 1.26 Insertionlossversusfrequencyoftypical toll connection.

38 BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLoGy

formly so the proper phaserelationshipsexist at the receiving terminal. If individuat

frequency component$experiencediffering delays,the time-domain representationat
the output becomesdistorted becausesuperpositionof the frequency terms is altered
at the output. For reasonsnot discussedherethe delay of an individual frequencycom-
ponent is usually referredto as its envelopedelay. For a good explanationofenvelope
delay seereference[5].
Uniform envelopedelay relatesto a phasere$ponsettrat is directly proportional to
frequency. Thus systemswith uniform envelope delay are also referred to as linear
phasesystems.Any deviation from a linear phasecharacteristicis referred to as phase
distortion. The perceptualeffects ofphase distortion to a voice signal are small. Thus
only minimal attention need be given to the phaserespon$eof a voice network. The
phaserespon$eand correspondingenvelope delay providecl by a typical analog toll
connection is shown in Figure 1.27.
In addition to the distortionsjust mentioned, analog carrier systemssometimesin-
troduced other frequency-relateddistortions such as frequency offsets, jitter, phase
hits, and signal dropouts.The effects ofthese imperfections and phasedistortion were
adequately controlled for voice traffic but presented difficulties for high-rate voice-
band data traffic.

Echoee and Slnging

Echoesandsingingbothoccurasa resultof transmittedsignalsbeingcoupledinto a
returnpathandfedbackto therespective sources.
Themostcommoncauseof thecou-
pling is an impedancemismatchat a four-wire-to-two-wirehybrid.As shownin Fig-
ure 1.28,mismatches causesignalsin theincomingbranchof a four-wirecircuitto get
coupledinto the outgoingbranchand retum to the source.In the older networkwith
two-wireanalogendoffice switches,it wasimpracticalto providegoodimpedance
matchesat thispointfor all possibleconnections
sincethetwo-wiresideof thehvbrid

(kHrl
Fr€quency

Figure 1.27 Envelope delay and phaseresponseof typical toll connection.

 1.2 THEANALOG HIERARCHY 39
NETWOFK

interface.
of echosat two-wire-to-four-wire
Figure 1.28 Generation

could be connectedto many different local loops, eachwith its own characteristicim-
pedance.
"talker echo." [f a second
If only one reflection occurs,the situation is refened to as
"listener echo" results.When the returning signal is repeatedlycou-
reflection occurs.
pled back into the tbrward path to produce oscillations, singing occurs' Basically,
singing resultsifthe loop gain at somefrequency is greaterthan unity' Ifthe loop gain
is only slightly less than unity, a near-singing condition causesdamped oscillations.
Singing and near-singingconditions have a disturbing effect on both the talker and the
listener. Talker echo is usually the most noticeable and ffoublesome.
The degree of echo annoyiunceexperiencedby a talker is dependenton both the
magnitudeof the returning signal and the amount of delay involved U 6' 171' On short
connections the delay is small enough that the echo merely appears to the talker as
natural coupling into his ear. In fact, a telephoneis purposely designedto couple some
speech energy (called sidetone) into the earpiece. Otherwise, the telephone seems
dead to a talker. Near-instantaneousechoesmerely add to the sidetoneand go unno-
ticed. As the roundtrip delay increases,however, it becomesnecessaryto increasingly
attenuatethe echoesto eliminate the annoyanceto a talker' Hence, long-distancecir-
cuits require significant attenuationto minimize echo annoyance'Fortunately, an echo
experiencestwice as much attenuationas doesthe forward-propagatingsignal sinceit
traversestwice the distance.Intermediate-lengthconnections are typically designed
with 2-6 dB of path attenuationdependingon the delay. All transmissionlinks within
the Bell System were designedwith specific amounts of net loss called via net loss
(VNL) that dependedon the length of the link and the position in the hierarchy [17].
In general,the VNL network design establishedend-to-endattenuationin proportion
to the length of the circuit
Connectionsthat producemore than 45 msecof roundtrip delay (representing1800
miles of wire) require more attenuation for echo control than can be tolerated in the
forward path. In thesecasesone of two types of deviceswas used to control the echo:
an echo suppressoror an echo canceller.
As shown in Figure 1.29, an echo suppressoroperateson four-wire circuits by
measuringthe speechpower in each leg and inserting a large amount of loss (35 dB
typically) in the oppositeleg when the power level exceedsa threshold.Thus, a return-
ing echo is essentially blocked by the high level of attenuation.Notice that an echo
riuppressorconvertsa full-duplex circuit into a half-duplex circuit with energy sensing
being the meansof turning the Iine around.
One drawback of echo suPPressors for voice circuits,was that they might clip be-
ginning portions of speechsegments. If a party at one end of a connectionbegins talk-
 40 BACKGROUND
ANDTEBMINOLOGY

Figure 1.29 Echosuppressor.

ing at the tail end of the other parfy's speech,the echo suppres$ordoes not have time
to reversedirections. Echo suppressorswith good performanceare able to reversedi-
rections in 2-5 msec [16]. For the fastest possible releaseof backward attenuation,
split-echo suppressorsare necessary.A split-echo suppressoris one that separatesthe
echo control of each direction so the loss insertion of each direction is closest to the
point of echo occurrence.
A second,and much preferred,form of echo contror is echo cancellation [lg, I ga].
As shown in Figure 1.30, an echo canceller operatesby simulating the echo path to
subtract a properly delayed and attenuated copy of a transmined signal from the re-
ceive signal to remove (cancel) echo components.Thus echo cancellation requires
training to determine how much delay and attenuation are neededto simulate the echo
characteristicsof the circuit. Notice in Figure 1.30 that echoesare canceledclose to
the source so that delays in the echo canceller are minimized. The important feature
of an echo cancelleris that it maintains a full-duplex circuit so clipping doesnot occur.
Satellite circuits with greaterthan 500 msec of roundtrip delay required echo cancel-
lers for acceptableperformance.Becausethe cost of digital signal processing(DSp)
technology has dropped so dramatically, echo cancellersare now usedin any situation
requiring echo control.
Full-duplex voiceband modems (v.32 and rater) incorporate echo cancellers di-
rectly in their receive circuitry. Thus, network-basedecho cancellers are unneces-
sary*-and sometimes undesirablebecausetandem echo cancelling may not work
properly if two echo cancellers do not cooperatein the haining process. Network-
basedecho cancellerscan therefore be disabled by a modulated 2lfi)-Hz tone (echo
suppressor$were also disabled with a 2100-Hz tone) transmitted at the start of a con-
nection[19].
Another method of echo control involves impedancematching of the hybrids to re-
duce the magnitude of the echo. some electronic hybrids provide dynamic balancing
to automatically eliminate or reduceechoes.In fact, a coflrmon way of implementing
the impedancematching is to build an echo cancellerwith near-zerodelay. Thesecir-
cuits eliminate, or greatly reduce,echoesoccurring at the associatedhybrid but do not
eliminate echoesthat may occur elsewherein the network. For a detailed discussion
"If
ttre terminal (e.g., modem) echo canceller has insufhcient delay buffering for very long echoes, the
network echo canceller at the far end of a corurection may be necessary.
 -Tl
I L F
1 -
1.2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIEFARCHY 41

Figure 1.30 Echocanceller'

of all types of echo control, seereference[20]. In general,the proceduresusedto con-

trol echoesalso control singing. On some fairly short connections,however, no echo
conffol is necessary,and singing may becomea problem'

1.2.9 PowerLevels

As indicated in previous paragraphs,voice signal power in a long-distanceconnection

needsto be rigidly controlled. The tlelivereclsignal power must be high enough to be
clearly perceivedbut, at the sametime, not be so strong that circuit instabilities such
as echo and singing result'
To maintain rigid control on the end-to-endpower level of a circuit involving a va-
riety of transmissionsy$tems,telephonecompaniesnecessarilycontrolled the net at-
tenuation and amplification of each analog transmissionsystem.These systemswere
designedfor a certain amount of net loss (VFil-) as describedpreviously.
To administer the net loss of transmissionlinks, the fransmissionlevels of various
points in a transmissionsyrttemare specifiedin terms of a referencepoint- ITU-T rec-
ommendations call this point the zero-relative-level point and the North American
term is a zero-transmission-levelpoint (0-TLP). The referencepoint may not exist as
an accessiblepoint but has long been consideredto be at the sendingend terminal of
a two-wire switch. In North America the sendingend of a four-wire switch is defined
to be a *z-dB TLP. Hence, a 0-dB TLP is only a hypothetical point on a four*wire cir-
cuit. Nevertheless,it is useful in relating the signal level at one point in the circuit to
the signal level at anotherpoint in the circuit.
If a O-dBm (l-mW) test tone is applied at a O-TLP, the power level at any other
point in the circuit is <letermineddirectly (in decibels referred to I mW) as the TLP
value at that point. It should be emphasized,however, that TLP values do not specify
power levels; they specify only the gain or loss at a point relative to the referencepoint.
Signal power levels or noi$e power levels are not normally expressedin terms of
local measuredvalues.Instead,powers are expressedin tetms of their value at the 0-
-70 dBm) is
TLP. For example, if an absolute noise power of 100 pw (20 dBrn or
"0" indicates that the
measuredat a -6-dB TLP, it is expressedas 26 dBrnQ. (The
specification is relative to the O-TLP.) If noise power is measured with C-message
weighting, it is designatedas so many dBmC0. Similarly, psophometric weighted
 42 BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINOLoGY

-zdB _l3dB _4d8

TLP TLP TLP
Figure1.31 TLp valuesfor Example
l.l.

noise is commonly expressedin units of picowattspsophometricallyweighted

(dBm0por pWpO).

Example1.1. using Figure1.31for reference, determineeachof thefollowing:(a)

the signalpowerto be appliedat point B ro determineif pointsA and c are at the
properlevels;(b) the amountof gain (loss)a signalexperiences whenpropagating
from A to c; and(c) theamountof noisethatwouldbe measured at c if zj dbrnc of
absolutenoiseis measured at B andno additionatnoiseoccurson theB-to-c link.

solution. (a) Because pointB is a -l3dB TLp, thepropertesttonelevelis -13 dBm

(0.05mw). (b) BecausetheTLP valuesdropby 2 dBm,thereis 2 dB netlossfrom A to
c. (c) An absolutemeasuremenrof 27 dBmc at B is 40 dBmc0. This is also40 dBmc0
at C. Theabsolutenoisepowermeasured atC wouldbe40 - 4 =36dBmC.

To put signalandnoisepowersin perspective,

a surveyof voicesignalsin theBell
system[21] indicatedrheaveragespeechsignalhas-16 dBm0of power.hr compari-
son,the noisepowerobjectivefor a 1000-mileanalogcircuit was 34 dBrnc0 (-56
dBmCO).Thus,thenoiseis 40 dB belowthe signalpower.

1.2.10 $ignallng

The signalingfunctionsof a telephonenetworkrefer to the meansfor transferring

network-related controlinformationbetweenthevariousterminals,switchingnoaes,
andusersof the network.Therearetwo basicaspectsof any signalingsystem:spe-
cially encodedelectricalwaveforms(signals)andhow thesewaveformsshouldbein-
terpreted.Themostcommoncontrolsignalsto a useraredial tone,ringback,andbusy
tone.Thesesignalsarerefered to ascall progres$tonesandmay neverchange.The
signalingprocedures usedinternallyto the networkarenot constrainedby usercon-
ventionandwereoftenchangedto suit particularcharacteristics of transmissionand
switchingsystems.As a result,the analognetworkuseda wide varietyof signaling
schemes to transfercontrolinformationbetweenswitchingoffices.

Signallng Functlone
signalingfunctionscanbe broadlycategorized asbelongingto oneof two rype$:su-
pervisoryor informationbearing.Supervisorysignalsconveystatu$or conffolofnet-
work elements.Themostobviousexamplesarereque$tfor service(off-hook),ready
 43
NETWORKHIERARCHY
1.2 THEANALOG

to receive address(dial tone), call alerting (ringing), call termination (on-hook), re-
quest for an operator or feature invocation (hook flash), called party ringing (ring-
back), and network or called party busy tones. Information bearing signals include
called pafiy address,calling party address,and toll charges.In addition to call-related
signaling functions, switching nodescommunicatebetween themselvesand network
control centersto provide certain functions relatedto network management'Network-
related signals may convey statussuch as maintenancetest signals, all trunks, busy,
or equipmentfailures or they may contain information relatedto routing and flow con-
trol. Chapter7 discussessomeof the basic considerationsof network managementfor
routing and flow control.

In-GhannelSlgnaling
Signalsaretran;mittedwith oneof two basictechniques: in-channelsignalingor
"per-trunk
common-channel signaling.In-channelsignaling(sometimes referredto as
signaling")usesthe sametransmission facilitiesor channelfor signalingasfor voice'
Common-channel signaling,asdiscussed in thenextsection,usesonechannelfor all
signaling functions of a group of voice channels. In the pastmostsignalingsystems
in thetelephone network were the in-channel variety.
In-channelsignalingsystemscan be further subdividedinto in-bandand out-of-
bandtechniques. In-bandsystemstransmitthesignalinginformationin thesameband
of frequencies usedby the voice signal.The main advantage of in-bandsignalingis
thatit canbe usedon anytransmission medium. The main disadvantage arisesfrom a
needto eliminatemutualinterference between the signaling waveforms anda user's
speech.The mostprevalentexampleof in-bandsignaling was single-frequency (SF)
signaling,whichuseda 2600-Hztoneasanon-hooksignal for interoffice trunks'Al-
thoughnormalspeechrarelyproducesa pure26ff)-Hzsignal,inadvertent disconnects
haveoccurredasa resultof user-generated signals.Two othercommonexamplesof
in-bandsignalingareaddressing by dual-tonemultifrequency(DTMF) signalsfrom
push-button telephones or multifrequency(MF) signalingbetweenswitchingoffices'
ln-channel but out-of-band signalingusesthe samefacilitiesasthe voicechannel
but a different portion ofthe frequency band'Thusout-of-bandsignalingrepresents a
form of FDM within a single voice circuit. The most coilmon instance of out-of-band
signalingis dc signalingasusedon mostcustomerloops.With thisform of signaling,
thecentralofficerecognizes theoff-hookconditionby theflow ofdirect currentin the
line. Othercommonlyusedloop signalsaredial pulsesgenerated by a rotarydial at a
rateof 10 pulsesper secondanda 20-Hzringing voltage from the centraloffice' All
of thesesignalsuselowerfrequencies thanthose generated in speech' Thusthereis no
possibilityofonebeingmistakenfor theother.Themajordisadvantage of out-of-band
signalingis its dependence on thetransmission system'For example, SSB carriersys-
temsfiher out the verylow frequencies associated with eachvoicechannel.Thus,the
on-hooVoff-hooksignalmustbe convertedto somethinglike SF signalingfor FDM
transmission. Out-of-bandsignalingis alsoimplementedwith frequencies abovethe
cut-off frequency of voice separation filters but below the 4-kHz limit of a channel'
CCITT recommends the use of 3825 Hz for this purpose.
44 BACKGEoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

Common-ChannelSignaltng
Instead
of sendingsignaling
information
overthesamefacilitiesthatcarrythemes-
sagehaffic(voicesignals),
common-channel (ccs) usesa dedicated
signaling data
link between the stored-programcontrol elements(computers)of switching systems.
Figure 1.32depicts sucha datalink betweentwo switching offices. Notice that the per-
trunk signaling equipment associatedwith the trunks has been eliminated. The data
link sendsmessage$that identify specific trunks and eventsrelated to the trunks. Thus
the type of ccs shown in Figure I.32 is refened to as "channel-associated"common-
channel signaling. The main advantagesof CCS arel

1. only one set of signaling facilities is neededfor each associatedtrunk group

insteadof separatefacilities for each individual circuit.
2. A single dedicated confrol channel allows transfer of information such as
addressdigits directly between the control elements (computers) of switching
offices. In-channel system$, on the other hand, must have the control
information switched from the common control equipment of the originating
office onto the outgoing channel, and then the receiving office must switch the
incoming control information from the voice channel into its common control
equipment' The simpler procedurefor transferringinformation directly between
switch processorsis one of the main motivations for CCS.
3. since separatechannels are used for voice and control, there is no chance of
mutual interference.
4. Since the control channelof a common-channelsystemis inaccessibleto users,
a major meansfor fraudulent use of the network is eliminated.
5. connections involving multiple switching offices can be set up more rapidly
since forwarding of control information from one office can overlap a circuit set
up through the node. With in-channel systemsthe associatedcircuit must first
be establishedbefore the control information can be transferredacrossit. The
ccs data link can al$o operateat a much higher data rate than common analog
network signaling schemes,implying even faster connection setup.
6. The channel used for ccs does not have to be associatedwith any particular
trunk group. In fact, the control information can be routed to a centralieed
conhol facility where requestsare processedand from which switching offices

PerChanrrel
Signeling

Flgure 1.32 Trunk-group-associated

common-channel
signaling.
 HIERAHCHY45
NETWORK
1.2 THEANALOG

receive their connection control information. Figure 1.33 depicts a CCS

network that is disassociated from the mes$age network structure. One
advantageofcentralized control is its ability to processrequestswith knowledge
of networkwide traffic conditions. Centralized control is also atffactive for
. managing multiple switching offices that are too small to warrant call
processingfacilities of their own. The transition from in-channel signaling to
disassociatedCCS at the network level is analogousto the lower level transition
from direct progressive control switches ($tep-by-step) to common control
switches.

The major disadvantagesof CCS are:

1. Control information pertaining to an establishedcircuit, such as a disconnect,

must be relayed from one node to the next in a store-and-forwardfashion' An
in-channel disconnect signal, on the other hand, automatically propagates
through the network, enabling all nodes involved in the connection to
simultaneouslyprocessthe disconnectand releasethe associatedfacilities.
2. If one node in a common-channel system fails to relay the disconnect
information properly, facilities downstream from the disconnect will not be
released. Thus, a high degree of reliability is required for the common
channel-both in term$ of physical facilities (duplication) and in terms of error
control for the data link.
3. Since the control information ftaver$esa separatepath from the voice signal,
there is no automatic test of the voice circuit as when the voice channel is used
to transfer control information. Initial usageof CCS sy$temsincluded special
provisions for testing a voice circuit when it was set up'
4. In some instancesall trunks in a group do not logically terminate at the same
switch. Figure 1.34 depicts a multiplexed transmissionlink from a PBX to the

_-t
g-
Network
control
c6nter

r/ Control
/' circult

Figure 1.33 Dissociatedcommon-channel signaling network'

 46 BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

ccs DigitEl
(D Channel) Cros*Connect
Systom *""S9#
Local
Serving
Office

Tie Line FBX PBX

Figure 1.34 TDM Iink with multiple destinationsfor the channels.

public network.As indicated,someof the channelscomposea trunk groupto

the local CO but otherchannelsmay representtie lines to otherPBXs or foreign
exchangecircuitsro othercos. The digital cross-connect system(DCs) is a
specializedswitchingsystem(describedin Chapter5) that routesindividual
circuitswithin a trunk groupto individuallocations.If CCSis implemented on
thetrunkgroup(asin anISDN primaryrateinterface,describedin chapterl1),
the signalinginformationfor the laffertwo trunk groupsterminatesat the co.
The CO must then forward the informationto the respectivedestinations
(assuming thosedestinationsareequippedwith CCS).All-in-all rheselanertwo
casesareeasierto handleif thesignalinginformationaccompanies themessage
channelsasit doesautomaticallywith in-channelsignaling.

As a final note,it shouldbe pointedout thatsomesignalingfunctionsoriginating

or terminatingwith an end userinherentlyrequirein-channelimplementations. For
example,dataterminalswishingto disableechosuppressors or echocancellers
in dial-
up connections needto sendspecialtonesthatgetrecognizedby echocontrolelements
in the circuit. In similarfashionautomaticoriginatingfacsimileequipmentgenerate
I 100-Hztonesto allowautomaticrecognitionof theoriginatingequipmenttypeat the
destination.

1.2.11 Analog Intedaces

The design,implementation, andmaintenance of any largeandcomplexsystemre-

quirepaditioningof the systeminto subsystems. Associatedwith eachsubsystem is
an interfacethat definesthe inputs and ouSuts independentof internal implementa-
tions'Well-established interfacesarea fundamentalrequirement to maintaincompati-
bility between old and new equipment.within the u.s. telephonenetwork
 HIERAR0HY47
1.2 rHEANALocNETWoRK

standardized interfaces are particularly necertsaryto support competition among

equipment suppliers and service providers in almost all facets of the network' The
ptiniiput analog interfaces used in the periphery of the network are subscriber loops,
ioop-start trunks, ground-starttrunks, direct-inward-dial trunks, and E&M trunks.

$ubscriher LooP lntartace

Themostcommon interface of indi-
in thenetworkinvolvesthetwo-wireconnection
thesubscriber
linesto endofficeswitches:
vidualtelephone Because
loopintedace.
of the natureof industrystandardtelephones (2500stationsets)andthe electrome-
chanicalswitchesto whichtheywereoriginallyconnected, thisinterfacehasa number
thataredifficult to satisfywith modemintegrated
of characteristics circuittechnology.
The fundamentalcharacteristicsof this interfaceare;

l. Battery:Applicationof dc power to the loop (48 V normally)to enabledc

signalingandprovidebiascurrentfor carbonmicrophones'
2. OvervoltageProtection:Protectionof equipmentandpersonnelfrom lightning
strikesandpowerline inductionor shorts.
3. Ringing:Applicationofa20-HzsignalatS6Vrmsforringerexcitation.Typical
cadenceis 2 secon and4 secoff.
4. Supervision:Detectionof off-hoolq/on-hook by flow/no-flowof dc current'
5. Test:Access to thelineto testin eitherdirection-toward thesubscriberor back
into the switch.

In the caseof a digital endoffice,two morefunctionsarenecessarilyrequired;two-

wire-to-four-wireconversion(hybrtil and analog-to-digitalcoding (and digital-to-
analogdecoding).Takentogether,thesefunctionsarereferredto as BORSCHT' The
basicimplementation of a BORSCHTinterfaceis describedin the context of digital
switchingin Chapter5.

LooP-Start Trunks
A loop-start(LS) h'unkis a two-wireconnectionbetweenswitches(usuallybetween
a centralofficeanda PBX).Fromanoperational pointof view,anLS trunkis identical
to a subscriberloop.Thusan LS interfacein a PBX emulatesa telephoneby closing
the loop to drawcurrentfor call originationandby detectingringingvoltagesfor in-
comingcatls.To sendaddress information,thePBX interfacegenerallywaitsfor a few
secondsandassumes thata dial toneis presentbeforesendingDTMF tonesor gener-
atingdial pulsesby interruptingloop cunent)tsome PBXsprovidedial tonedetection
sofaulty equipmentor connections aremordAasilyrecognizedandaddressing canbe
sentassoonasthe otherendis ready. | 1
Onesignificantdifficulty with two-#ayLS trunksariseswhenbothendsof theline
seizetheline at thesametime (or nearlythesametime)'Because bothendsof theline
think they areoriginatinga call, the line becomeshung.This situationis commonly
referredio asglare.Ifthe PBX detectsa dial tonebeforesendingdigits,it will recog*
nize the glareconditionby timing out on the wait for dial tone andcanthengenerate
 48 BAcKGRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

a disconnect to releasethe glare condition but drop the incoming call. More com-
monly, the PBX blindly sendsthe addressdigits and connectsthe originating pBX sta-
tion to the line. Generally, this meansthe incoming call gets connectedto the wrong
station. For this reason,LS trunks are normally used only as one-way trunks: either
one-way incoming or one-way outgoing.

Ground-StartTrunks
The aforementionedproblem with glare on two-way LS trunks can be largely resolved
by augmenting the call origination proces$to use ground-start(GS) procedures
[22].
When originating a call, the end office applies a ground potential to the tip lead of the
tip and ring pair and waits for the pBX to acknowledgethe seizure by drawing loop
current. when the PBX originates a call, it first applies ground to the ring teao ana
closesthe loop waiting for loop current. (The co doesnot apply battery during an idle
stateas it does in ar Ls interface.) The co acknowledgesthe connect r.quest by up-
plying battery to the tip/ring pair and momentarily applying ground to the tip. (Mai;-
taining low-noise circuits requiresremoval of all pathsto ground during the connected
$tate.) A GS protocol prevents simultaneousseizuresunless the originations occur
within a few hundred milliseconds of each other. In contrast, an LS protocol allows
multiple seizuresto occur with windows up to 4 sec (the silent interval betweenring
bursts).Moreover, a glare condition on GS trunks can be recognizedby the interface
equipment so it can be resolved by redirecting the calls to different trunk circuits.
Another advantageof GS trunks is the ability of the CO to signal network discon-
nectsto the PBX (the co remove$battery). witir I-s trunks the network doesnor gen-
erally provide disconnectsignaling so the pBX must rely on the end user to hang up.
(A situation that often produces hung trunks with data connections.) Furthermore.
when the co placesan incoming call that eventually gets abandoned,becauseno one
answers,a co immediately signals the abandonmentby removing ground from the
tip lead. with LS trunks, abandoneclcalls can be recognized only by the absenceof
ring voltage, which can take 6 sec.

Di rect4nward-Dial Trunke
Direct-inward-dial
(DID)trunksareparticularly
simpletwo-wiretrunkinterfacesbe-
cause theyarealwaysone-waytrunts:incomingonlywithrespectto a pBX.As im-
pliedby thename,theyallowa servingco to forwardtheextension numberof
incomingcallssoa PBX canimmediatelyroutethecall to a destination withoutgoing
throughan attendant.In contrastto LS andCS trunks,the pBX endof a DID trunk
providesbatteryvoltagesothe co cansignalanincomingcall by merelyclosingthe
loop to draw current.After the PBX reverse$ batterymomentarily(winks)to signify
it is readyto receivedigits,theco eithergeneratesdial pulsesor DTMF tonesto send
theextensionnumber(two,three,or four digits).Ai'terthedesignated stationanswer$,
thePBX reversesbatteryagainto signifythe connectedstateandhotdsthat statefor
thedurationofthe call.DID trunksarealsoreferredto as..loopreverse-battery $uper-
vision" trunkswith variationsin the signalingprotocoldependingon the typeof co
122t.
 1.2 THEANALocNETwoRKHIERARGHY 49

E&MTrunks
As indicatedin Figure1.35,anE&M trunkis defrnedasanintetfaceto a transmission
sy$temandnot a kansmissionsystemitself.The interfacein Figure1.35hasa four-
wire voicepath,anE leadwith an associated renrmlead(SG),andanM leadwith an
associaledreturn (SB). Thus there are eight wires in this interface(referredto asa type
II E&M interface).Other types of E&M interfaces are defined with as few as four
wires[23] (a two-wire voice path, an E lead, and an M leadwith earthgroundreturns).
In anytype of E&M interface, supervision signaling is alwaysconveyedon theE
andM leadsand not on thevoice pair (or pairs).The PBX signifiesoff-hookby closing
the M-SB loop to draw current while the transmission equipment indicatesoff-hook
by closingthe E-SG loop to draw current. How the transmission equipment conveys
thesupervision is a function of the transmission link. A variety of timing protocolsare
definedfor the$tart of addless signaling, which can be in-channel DTMF tonesor dial
by momentaryopenson therespective E andM leads'
-pulsesgenerated
Althbugh E&M signaling is formally defined as just an interface,they are often
used (withup to four pairsof wires) as directconnections betweenPBXs.Because of
therequirement for multiple pairs, such applications usually occur when thePBXs are
locatedwithin a singlebuildingor campuscomplex.Theavailabilityof extemalcon-
trol leadsallowstheuseof E&M interfaces for specialapplications suchaspagingsys-
tems.wheretheM lead can be used to tum on the loudspeaker'

1.2.12 The IntelligentNetwork

Thefirst commonchannelsignalingfacilitiesof AT&T wereinstalledin thetoll net-

work betweena No. 4A crossbarswitchin Madison,wiSCOnsin, and a No. 4 ESs
switchin chicago,Illinois, in 1976[24].The2400-bps ccs data links betweensPc
switchingofficesreplacedin-channelSFA4Fsignaling facilitiesto reduce costsand
significantlyspeedup long-distance-callconnect times.As more and more of thetoll
switcheswereimplementedwith CCScapabilities, a CCS network evolved that not
only improvedtheperformanceof theexisting network but also established a platform
for theintroductionof newfeatures.As indicatedin Figure1.36,theCCSnetworkbe-

Figure 1.35 TyPelI E&M interface.

 50 BAcKcRouNoANDTERMtNoLocy

Figure 1.36 CCSnetworMntelligentnetworkplatform.

came a disassociatedpacket-switching network that separatedcontrol of the network

from the swirching machinesthemselves.
The packet-switching nodes of the CCS network are referred to as signal transfer
points (srPs). The network control points (NCps) of Figure 1.36 initially represented
network databaseserversthat defined how to route calls, verify credit cards,or process
specialservicessuch as 800 numbers.The samebasic structureis also installed within
the LATAs to extend ccs featuresall the way to the end offices. The original com-
municationsprotocol used betweenccs entities was ccITT signaling system No. 6
(ccs6). In the early 1980sthis protocol was replaced by ccITT signaling
system
No. 7 (SS7). Seereference[25] for a good overview of SS7.
As the capabilitiesof the NCps are expandedfrom being databaseserversro proc-
essingservicerequests,the concept of an intelligent network (IN) 126l begins to take
shape.In its ultimate form advancedservicesof the network are executedin the NCps.
or service control points (sCPs), as they are called in the IN, and not in the switching
machinesthemselves.The switching machinesprovide only the switching fabric; con-
nection commandscome from an SCp. The fundamentalmotivations behind develop-
ing the IN are:

I ' To enable the deployment of network-basedfeatures such as citywide centrex

mentionedpreviously
2. To allow the introduction of new features without having to change the
hardware or software of switching vendors
To speedup thedesign/deployment cycleofnew featuresbecause
onlv thescp
softwareneedsupgrading
4. To allow customizingof servicesby theoperatingcompaniesaccordingto the
needsof theircustomers

The obvious disadvantageof such centralized control is the vulnerability of the net-
work to a failure in the SS7 network or the SCP. For this reasonbasic serviceis likely
to remain with the switching machines.In this case, softwarc in the switching ma-
chines recognizes special service situations as software triggers to involve an scp.
 51
1.2 THEANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY

Leaving basic service processingin the switching machinesalso reducesthe load on

the SS7 links and the processingspeedin the SCPs.

1.2.13 Dynamic NonhierarchlcalRoutlng

The alternaterouting proceduresshownin Figure 1.4for the hierarchicalnetworkof

the Bell Systemwerenecessarilysimpleand straightforwardbecauseof the original
relianceon mechanicalswitchingmachines.Suchsimplicity,however,leadsto the
following limitations:

l. Eventhoughthetopologyof thenetworkwouldallowa largenumberof routing

altematives,consfiaintson how the routeswere selectedlimited the actual
choicesto a relatively small number.
2. The routing patternscould not be changedaccordingto the time of day or
networktraffi c Patterns.
3. The proce$sof progressivesetupprecludedretracinga path to a previous
switchingnode'andtrying a new,untriedroutewhena previouschoiceled to a
nodethatwasblocked'
4. A completedconnectionmay haveinvolveda large numberof intermediate
for oneconnection'
facilitiesusinga lot ofnetwork resources

All of thesedeficienciesresultedfrom usingrelativelysimpledecisionlogic in each

nodewith no knowledgeof the networkstatusas a whole.The introductionof SPC
switchingmachinesandCCSchangedthesituationsothatmoreefficientroutinepro-
cedureswerepossible.Along theselines,AT&T completedthe deploymentof dy-
namicnonhierarchical routing(DNHR) in 1987127,281.Specificfeaturesof DNHR
are:

l. Routingtablesin theNCPslist all possibletwolink routesin the orderof cost

so useof networkresources areminimized.
) Routingis dynamicto take advantageof traffic noncoincidence'
"crankback,"whichallowsselection
Blockingat anintermediate nodeproduces
of untriedroutesfrom the originatingnode.
4. Routesthat producetoo muchdelayfor the echocancellersin the circuit are
excluded.

Reference [28] reportsthatDNHR reducedblockingon ThanksgivingDay fuom34flo

in 1986toSVoin 1987.After installationof DNHR Mother'sDay traffic sawthreeto
four fimesasmanyflir$t-attemptcompletionsasbefore.Theimplementationof DNHR
demonsffates that a network architectureis asmucha function of the softwarein the
networkasof thephysicaltopology.It alsodemonstrates thatcentralizedcontrolof a
networkis morevulnerableto failures.On January15, 1990,an obscurebug in the
52 BA0KGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

CCS software of the No. 4 ESS switchesin AT&T's long-distancenetwork prevented

completion of many calls during a 9-hour period [291.Ironically, the bug occurred in
software intended to isolate the network from a node failure.
The combination of large digital switches,large-bandwidth (fiber optic) rran$mis-
sion links, and developmentof the SS7 network has stimulateda transition from hier-
archical networks to "flat" networks wherein switching nodesare interconnectedin a
functional mesh-switches are either connected directly to each other or through
cross-connectfacilities (DCSs and SONET rings describedlater).

1.2.14 CellularRadioTelephoneSystem

Prior to 1983 mobile telephoneusersin the United Stateswere restricted to using the
servicesof radio common carriers (RCCs) that had limited bandwidth and limited re-
sourcesavailablefor services.The serviceenvironment was necessarilyone of limited
availability and extremecongestion.October 1983 marks a significant datefor mobile
telephony as the time when commercial cellular mobile telephone service started in
chicago, Illinois. As indicated in Figure 1.37, acellular system consistsof a number
of radio basestationsconnectedto a (digital) switching office refened to as the mobile
telephone switching office (MTSO). As a mobile subscribermove$ from one cell to
another, the MTSO automatically switches connectionswith the respectivebase sta-
tions to maintain a continuousconnectionwith the public switchednetwork. The basic
advantagesof the cellular architectureare:

l. The ability to reuse allocatedchannel frequencieswithin a serving area.Using

a combination of antennadirectivity in the basestationsand signal attenuation

Figure 1.37 Cellularmobiletelephonetopology.

 53
1.2 THEANALOGNETWORKHIEHARCHY

from distant cells, the same channel can be reu$edin one of every sevencells
t301.
2. Reducedtransmitpower requirementsfor the mobiles.The power savings
advantagefor automobilesis primarily one of reducing the cost of the
transmitter.For hand-heldunitsthepowersavingsis importantfor batterysize
andtimebetweenrecharges. In fact,widespreadacceptance anduseofpersonal
radio systemsrequiremuch lower transmitpower levels and consequently
smallercells[31].
3. Reducedocclrrencesof multipathpropagation.Shorterdistancesimply less
chanceof signalreflectionscausingmultipathsignaldegradation.
4. Expandability.A systemcan be installedwith comparativelylarge cells to
minimizestart-upcosts.After servicerequirements grow andrevenueis being
received,the capacityof the systemcan be expandedby subdividingthe
congested cells.
5. Reliability.Because thecellsactuallyhavesignificantoverlappingcoverage,if
cells
onecell fails, neighboring can provide until
service repairsaremade.

The FCC in the United Stateshas defined 728 mobile service areasreferred to as cel-
lular geographicservice areas(CGSAs). Each CGSA is allocated 832 radio channels,
which are equally divided between two competing service providers; one a wireline
carrier and the other a nonwireline carier. The wireline carrier provides local tele-
phone servicein the areabut competeswith the nonwireline canier (RCC) for cellular
service. To ensure effective competition, the wireline carrier must not use facilities
that are sharedwith local telephoneservice.Specifically, the MTSOs must be separate
from the local switching offices. Thus, both types of carriers must backhaul all traffic
to their respectiveMTSOs. The service providers can have more than one MTSO in
an areabut cannot interconnectthem by the switched public network. They are typi-
cally interconnectedby leasedprivate lines (fiber) or digital microwave. Cellular net-
works have grown to cover large areas interconnectedby dedicated long-distance
facilities that allow $omecafriers to offer free long-distancecalling when using a cel-
lular phone.
When a mobile unit first activatesitself, it scansthe channelsto determine which
idle channelofapredefined setofcontrol channelshasthe strongestsignal. Using that
channel the unit registers with the system to identify itself and place calls- After the
initialization proce$$,the network continually monitors signals from the mobile and
conffols it to switch channelswhen necessary.To complete calls to a mobile, the cel-
lular network pagesfor the clesignatedsubscriberbeginning with its home cell (unless
the cellular control centeralreadyknows where the subscriberis located).When a sub-
scriber crossesan MTSO boundary, in addition to a cell boundary, a common-channel
signaling network is used to transfer the call to the new cell and the new MTSO. The
connection to the public network is unchanged.Thus, the original MTSO then be-
comes a tandem node to the public network'
Examples of analog cellular system$are Advanced Mobile Phone service (AMPS)
Total Access
[30, 32], developedin the United Statesand deployedin North America;
 54 BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

communications system (TAcs), developedin the united Kingdom and deployed in

several European countries; and the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) sy$tem, de-
ployed in Scandinavia.As discussedin Chapter 9, digital cellular systemshave been
developedto either replace the analog sy$temsor provide service altematives.

1.2.15 Voiceband DataTransmisslon

The primary concern of telephonecompanies,voice service,is sometimesreferred to

as Pors: plain old telephoneservice.In addition to pors, the telephonecompanies
also provide a number of special servicessuch as program distribution of radio and
television, telephoto, teletype, facsimile, and data transmission.In most cases,these
servicesare supportedby adaptingthe sourcesto use the ubiquitous voice-gradetele-
phone channel. An exception is television distribution, which was an initial stimulus
for the nationwide microwave radio network. To a certain extent, wideband FDM
voice signals were designedto conform to the network TV distribution facilities. Na-
tionwide TV distriburion is now primarily by sarellitesand fiber.
one significant aspectofa voicebandtelephonechannelin regardsto nonvoice ap-
plications is the absenceof dc and low-frequency transmission.Although the metallic
circuit provided in customerloops passesfrequenciesdown to and including dc, most
of the rest of the network does not. The equipmentsthat are primarily responsiblefor
blocking the low frequenciesare ffansformers in two-wire to four-wire hybrids, old
FDM separationfilters, and digital voice encodersthat purposely block low frequen-
cies to avoid 60-Hz hum (that arisesfrom power line interference).Becausebaseband
signalsfrom facsimile and most data applicationshave frequency content down to dc,
thesesignals must be modulated for voicebandfransmission.
A second consideration when using the telephone network for data is the band-
width restriction of approximarely 3 kHz originally imposed by FDM separarionfil-
ters, loading coils, and more recently band{imiting filters in digital voice terminals
(Chapter3). The main implication of a resfficted bandwidth is a limitation on the sig-
naling rate, or baud rate, which in turn directly relatesto the datarate. A common sig-
naling rate is 2400 symbols per second using carriers between 1700 and 1g00 Hz.
symbol ratesof 4800 symbols per secondhave arsobern usedin lower sidebandmo-
dems with a carrier at 2850 Hz.
As mentioned, user acceptanceof voice quality does not require stringent conhol
of the phaseresponse(envelopedelay) of the channel.High-speed data transmission,
however, requires comparatively tight toleranceon the phaseresponseto prevent in-
tersymbol interference.Thus analog voice channelsused for high-speeddata trans-
mission sometimesrequired special treatrnent.The special treatunentwas originally
provided at additional monthly rates from the telephonecompaniesin the form of c-
type conditioning for leased lines. C-type conditioning was available in several dif-
ferent gradesthat provided various amounts of control of both phase and amplitude
distortion. As digital signal processingtechnology becamecommercially viable, the
needfor signal conditioning becamelessnecessarybecausemodem equalizersaccom-
plished the samefunction.
 1.2 THEANALOG HIEHARCHY55
NETWORK

Most medium-rate (synchronous)modems include fixed equalizationcircuitry de-

signed to compensatefor the phasedistortion in a typical connection.For higher data
rates,automatically adjustableequalizationis needed.An automaticequalizerfust un-
dergoesa training sequencein which the characteristicsof the transmissionchannel
are determinedby measuringthe responseto known test signals.Then, equalizing cir-
cuitry in the receiver of each modem is adjusted (and continually readjustedduring
hansmission) to provide compensationfor the amplitude and phasedistottions in the
channel. High-speed transmissionover dial-up lines requires automatic equalization
in the modems since the channel characterjsticschangewith each connection.
Another form of conditioning, referredto as a D-type conditioning, provided lower
levels of noise and harmonic distortion than normally provided in leasedlines, even
with C-type conditioning. D-type conditioning usually did not involve special treat-
ment of any particular line. Instead, the telephone company tested a number of differ-
ent circuits until one with suitablequality was found. Sometimesthis meant avoiding
a cable that included pairs from a noisy switching office, Unlike voice, which is rea-
sonably tolerant of impulse noise, a data circuit is more susceptibleto impulse noise
than to the normal background (white) noise. The elimination of older equipment
(e.g., step-by-stepswitches)has eliminated much of the impulse noi$e in the net-
work.
As more and more of the public network becamedigitized, fewer and fewer facili-
ties were analog and, hence,fewer analog impairments were likely to occur in a con-
necrion.By the early 1990svirtually all of the internal portions of the public telephone
network had been digitized. The only remaining $egmentsof a connection that were
analog were the subscriberloops and the interfacesin the associatedend offices. The
principal source of impairment for voiceband modems then became the analog-to-
digiral (A/D) conversionequipmentin the line interfaces.Recognition of this situation
completely eliminated the need for any type of conditioning on leasedlines (which
were often digital and not analog) and allowed for the developmentof V.90 modems
describedin Chapter I l.
An important considerationfor data transmissionover long-distancecircuits in the
analog network was the effect of echo suppressors.As mentioned in Section 1.2'8' an
echo suppressorblocked the signal in a return path when the correspondingforward
path of a four-wire circuit was active. Thus, operative echo suppressorseffectively
precluded a full-duplex operation. Even in a half-duplex mode of operation the echo
suppressor$might require 100 msec of deactivation time to reverse the direction of
propagation.For theserea$onsthe common carriersprovided a meansof disabling the
echo suppressorsby using an in-channel control signal from the data terminals. Echo
suppressorswere disabledby tran$mitting a pure tone between 2010 and 2240Hzfor
400 msec. The echo suppressorsremained disabled as long as there was continuous
energy in the channel. Thus, the modems could switch to signaling frequenciesand
begin full-duplex datatransmissionafter the suppres$orswere first disabled.If the en-
ergy in the channel was removed for 100 msec,the echo suppressor$were reactivated.
Hence, rapid line turnaroundwas required for half-duplex modemsutilizing the entire
bandwidth for each direction of transmission. Contemporary modems have echo can*
 56 BACKGRoUNDANDTEHMINoLoGY

cellers for full-duplex transmissionand thereforeautomatically disable echo suppres-

sors (which are probably nonexistent).

1.3 THEINTRODUCTION
OF DIGITS
Voicedigitization
andtransmission
firstbecame
feasible
in thelate1950swhensolid-
stateelectronics
became available.
In 1962BellSystempersonnel established
thefirst
commercialuseof digitaltransmission whentheybeganoperatinga T1 carriersystem
for useasa trunkgroupin a chicagoareaexchanget331.After theTl systema family
of r-carrier systems(Tl, Tlc, TlD, Tz, T3, T4) weredeveloped,all of which in-
volvedtime divisionmultiplexingof digitizedvoicesignals.
The world's first commerciallydesigneddigital microwaveradio systemwases-
tablishedin Japanby Nippon ElecrricCompany(NEC) in 196g t341.In the earty
1970sdigitalmicrowavesystemsbeganto appearin theUnitedStatesfor specialized
datatransmission services.The first digital microwavelink in the U.S. public tele-
phonenetworkwas suppliedby NEC of Japanfor a New york Telephonelink be-
tweenBrooklyn and North statenIslandin lgTz 1341.Digit€I microwavesystems
weresubsequently developedandinstalledby severalU.S.manufacturers for usein
intermediate-length toll andexchangeareacircuits.
Bell System'sf,rrstcommercialuseof digital fiber optic transmission occurredin
septemberof 1980on a short-haulroutebetweenAtlantaandsmyrna,Georgia[35].
Threeyearslaterthefirst long-haulsystembetweenNew york andwashington,D.c.,
wasput into service.
In additionto ffansmissionsy$tems,digital technologyhasprovento be equally
usefulfor implementingswirchingfunctions.Thefirst countryto usedigitalswitching
in thepublictelephone networkwasFrancein 1970t361.Thefirsr applicationof digi-
tal switchingin thepublicnetworkof theUnitedStatesoccurredin early lg76 when
Bell systembeganoperaringits No. 4ESSt37l in a class3 toll officein chicago.Two
monthslaterContinentalTelephone companybeganoperationin Ridgecrest, Califor-
nia,of a digitaltoll switch[38].Thefirst digitalendoffice switchin theUnitedStates
becameoperationalinJuly of rgii inthesmalrtownofRichmondHill,Georgia[39].

1.3.1 VolceDigitizatlon

The basicvoice-codingalgorithmusedin T-carriersystemsand most otherdigital

voiceequipmentin telephone networksaroundtheworldis shownin Figure1.3g.The
first stepin the digitizationprocessis to periodicallysamplethe waveform.As dis-
cussedat lengthin Chapter3, all of theinformationneededto reconstruct theoriginal
waveformis containedin the samplesif thesamplesoccurat an g-kHzrate.The sec-
ond stepin the digitizationprocessinvolvesquantization;identifyingwhich ampli-
tudeintervalof a groupof adjacentintervalsa samplevaluefalls into. In essence the
quantization processreplaceseachcontinuouslyvariableamplitudesamplewith a dis-
 OF DIGITS 57
I.3 THEINTRoDUCTION

tl
-l
-t
-t
- l
- 5
- 6
- l

Outntiz8tion

ttn ul|l

Coding

Figure 1.38 Voice digitizationProcess'

crete value located at the middle of the appropriate quantization interval. Since the
quantized sampleshave discretelevels, they representa multipleJevel digital signal.
For transmission purposes the discrete amplitude samples are converted to a binary
codeword. (For illustrative purposesonly, Figure 1.38 shows 4-bit codewords.) The
binary codes ale then transmitted as binary pulses. At the receiving end of a digital
transmissionline the binary data stream is recovered,and the discrete sample values
"intelpolate" between Sampleval-
are reconstructed.Then a low-pass filter is used to
ues and re-createthe original waveform. If no transmissionerrors have occurred,the
output waveform is identical to the input waveform except for quantization distortion:
the difference between a sample value and its discrete representation.By having a
large number of quantizationintervals (andhenceenoughbits in a codeword to encode
them), the quantization intervals can be small enough to effectively eliminate percep-
tible quantization effects.
It is worth noting that the bandwidth requirementsof the digital signal increaseas
a result of the binary encodingprocess.If ttre discrete,multiple-amplitude samplesare
transmitted directly, the bandwidth reguirements are theoretically identical to the
58 BACKGRoUNDANDTEHMINoLoGY

bandwidth of the original signal. when eachdiscretesampleis representedby a num-

ber of individual binary pulses,the signal bandwidth increasesaccordingly. The two-
level pulses,however, are much less vulnerable to transmissionimpairments than are
the multiple-amplitude pulses (or the underlying analog signal).

1.8.2 TlmeDivisionMultlplexing

Basically, time division multiplexing (TDM) involves nothing more than sharing a
transmissionmedium by establishinga sequenceof time slots during which individual
sourcescan transmit signals.Thus the entire bandwidth of the facility is periodically
available to eachsourcefor a restrictedtime interval. In contrast,FDM systemsassign
a restrictedbandwidth to each sourcefor all time. Normally, all time slot$ of a TDM
sy$temare of equal length. Also, each subchannelis usually assigneda time slot with
a common repetition period called a frame interval. This form of TDM (as shown in
Figure 1.39) is sometimesreferuedto as synchronoustime division multiplexing to
specifically imply that each subchannelis assigneda certain amount of transmission
capacity determinedby the time slot duration and the repetition rate. In contra$t,an-
other form of TDM (refened to as sfatlstical, or asynchronousrtime division multi-
plexing) is described in chapter 10. with this second form of multiplexing,
subchannelrates are allowed to vary according to the individual needsof the sources.
The backbonedigital links of the public telephonenetwork (T-carrier, digital micro-
wave, and fiber optics) use a synchronousvariety of TDM.
Time division multiplexing is normally associatedonly with digital transmission
links. Although analog TDM transmissioncan be implemented by interleaving sam-
ples from each signal, the individual samplesare usually too sensitiveto all varieties
of transmissionimpairments. In contrast,time division switching of analog signals is
more feasible than analog TDM transmissionbecausenoise and distortion within the
switching equipment are more controllable. As discussedin chapter 5, aralog TDM
techniqueshave been used in some PBXs befbre rtigital electronics becameso inex-
pensive that the digitization penalty disappeared.

T-CarrierSystems
The volumeof interofficetelephone trafficin the UnitedStateshastraditionally
grownmorerapidlythanlocaltraffic.Thisrapidgrowthputsevere strainontheolder

Figure 1.39 Time divisionmultiplexing.

 oF Dlclrs
1,s THEtNTRoDUcTroN 59

interoffice transmission facilities that are designed for lower traffic volumes. Tele-
phone companieswere often faced with the necessarytask of expanding the number
of interoffice circuits. T-carrier systemswere initially developed as a cost-effective
means for interoffice transmission: both for initial inslallations and for relief of
crowded interoffice cable pairs.
Despite the need to convert the voice signalsto a digital format at one end of a Tl
line and back to analog at the other, the combined conversion and multiplexing cost
of a digital TDM terminal was lower than the cost of a comparableanalog FDM ter-
minal. The first T-carrier systemswere designedspecif,rcallyfor exchangeareaffunks
at distancesbetween l0 and 50 miles.
A T-carder systemconsistsof terminal equipment at eachend of a line and a num-
ber of regenerativerepeatersat intermediatepoints in the line. The function of each
regenerative repeater is to restore the digital bit stream to its original form before trans-
mission impairmentsobliteratethe identity of the digital pulses.The line itself, includ-
ing the regenerative repeaters,is referred to as a span line. The original terminal
equipmentwas referred to as D-type (digital) channelbanks,which camein numerous
versions.The transmissionlines were wire pairs using 16- to 26-gaugecable' A block
diagram of a T-carrier systemis shown in Figure 1.40.
The first T1 systemsusedDlA channelbanksfor interfacing, converting, and mul-
tiplexing ?4 analog circuits. A channelbank at eachend of a spanline provided inter-
facing for both directions of transmission.Incoming analogsignalswere time division
multiplexed and digitized for transmission.When received at the other end of the line,
the incoming bit streamwas decodedinto analog samples,demultiplexed, and filtered
to reconsfuct the original signals.Each individual TDM channel was assignedI bits
per time slot. Thus, there were (24X8) = 192 bits of information in a frame' One ad-
ditional bit was addedto each frame to identify the frame boundaries,therebyproduc-
ing a total of 193 bits in a frame. Since the frame interval is 125 psec, the basic Tl
line rate became L544 Mbps. This line rate has been establishedas the fundamental
standardfor digital transmissionin North America and Japan.The standardis referred
to as a DSI signal(for digital signal 1).
A similar standardof 2.048 Mbps has been establishedby mJ-T for most of the
rest of the world. This standardevolved from a Tl-like $y$temthat provides 32 chan-
nels at the samerate as the North American channels.Only 30 of the channelsin the
El standard,however, are used for voice. The other two Areused for frame synchro-
nization and signaling. Signaling and control information for Tl systemsare inserted
into each voice channel (or transmitted separatelyby CCIS facilities). Digital signal-
lnto
ing and conffol techniquesfor both systemsare discussedin Chapter 7'

Figure 1.40 Tl-carrier system,

60 BACKGHOUND
ANDTERMINOLOGY

The greatlyincreased attenuation of a wire pair at thefrequenciesof a DSI signal

(772kHz cbnterfrequency)mandates theuseof amplificationat intermediate points
of a Tl spanline.In contrastto ananalogsignal,however,a digitalsignalcannotonly
be amplifiedbut al$obe detectedandregenerated. That is, aslong asa pulsecanbe
detected,it canbe restoredto its originalform andrelayedto the next line segment.
For this reasonTl repeaters arereferredto asregenerative repeaters.
Thebasicfunc-
tionsof theserepeaters are:

l. Equalization
2. Clockrecovery
3. Pulsedetection
4. Transmission

Equalizationis requiredbecausethewire pairsintroducecertainamountsof bothphase

andamplitudedistoltion that causeintersymbolintederenceif uncompensated. Clock
recoveryis requiredfor two basicpur?o$es; first, to establisha timing signalto sample
theincomingpulses;second, to transmitoutgoingpulsesatthesamerateasattheinput
to theline.
Regenerativerepeatersare normally spacedevery 6000 ft in a T1 spanline. This
distancewas chosenas a matterof convenience for convertingexistingvoice fre-
quencycablesto T-carrierlines. Interofficevoice frequencycablestypically used
loadingcoils that werespacedat 6fi)0-ft intervals.Sincethesecoils werelocatedat
convenientaccess points(manholes) andhadto be removedfor high-frequency trans-
mission,it wasonly nafuralthatthe6000-ftintervalbechosen.Onegeneralexception
is that the first regenerativerepeateris typically spaced3000ft from a centraloffice.
The shorterspacingof this line segmentwasneededto maintaina relativelystrong
signalin the presence of impulsenoisegenerated by olderswitchingmachines.
Theoperatingexperience of Tl systemswasso favorablethattheywerecontinu-
ally upgradedandexpanded. one of theinitial improvements producedTlc systems
that providehighertransmission ratesover Z?-galgecable.A Tlc line operatesat
3.152Mbpsfor 48 voicechannels, twice asmanyasa Tl system.
Anotherlevelof digitaltransmission becameavailablein 1972whentheT2 system
wasintroduced.This systemwasdesignedfor toll networkconnections. In contrast.
T I systemswereoriginallydesigned only for exchange areatransmission.TheTZ sys-
tem providedfor 96 voice channelsat distancesup to 500 miles.The line rate was
6.312Mbps,whichis referredto asa DSZstandard. Thetransmission mediawasspe-
cial low-capacitance 2?-gaugecable.By usingseparate cablesfor eachdirectionof
transmission andthespeciallydevelopedcables,T? systemscourduserepeaterspac-
ings up to 14,800ft in low-noiseenvironments. The emergence of opticalfiber sys-
temsmadecopper-based T2 transmission systemsobsolete.

TDM Hierarchy
In a manneranalogous
to theFDM hierarchy,AT&T established a digitalTDM hier-
archyttrathasbecomethe standardfor North America.Stafiingwith a DSI signalas
 I.3 THEINTBODUCTION
OF DIGITS 61

TAELE 1.10 Dlgltal TDM Signale ol North America and Japan

DigitalSignal Numberof Bit Rate

Number VoiceCircuits MultiplexerDesignation (Mbps) Media
Transmission
DS1 D channelbank 1.544 T1 pairedcable
(24analoginputs)
DSlC 48 M1C 3.152 T1Cpairedcable
(2 DSI inputs)
DS2 96 M12 6,312 T2 pairedcable
(4 DS1inputs)
DS3 672 M13 44.736 Radio,Fiber
(28DS1inputs)
D54 M34 274.176 T4Mcoax,WT4
(6 DSginputs) waveguide,
radio

a fundamentalbuilding block, all otherlevelsareimplementedas a combinationof

somenumberof lower level signals.Thedesignation of the higherlevel digital mul-
tiplexersreflectsthe respective input and output For example,an M12 multi-
levels.
plexercombines four DSl signalsto form a singleDSZ signal..TableI.10 liststhe
variou$multiplexlevels,theirbit rates,andthetransmission mediausedfor each.No-
tice that thebit rateof a high-levelmultiplexsignalis slightly higherthanthe com-
binedratesof the lower level inputs.Theexcessbits areincludedfor certaincontrol
andsynchronization functionsdiscussed in Chapter7. A similardigitalhierarchyhas
alsobeenestablished by ITU-T asan internationalstandard. As shownin Tablel. I I'
this hierarchyis similarto the North Americanstandardbut involvesdifferentnum-
bersof voicecircuitsat all levels.

Dig itaI Pal nGal n Syefems

Followingthesuccessful introductionof Tl systemsfor interofficetrunks,mostmajor
manufacturers of telephoneequipmentdevelopeddigitalTDM system$ for local dis-
tribution.Thesesystemsaremostapplicableto long ruralloopswherethecostof the
electronicsis offsetby the savingsin wire pairs.No matterwhatthe distanceis, un-
expectedgrowthcanbe mosteconomicallyaccommodated by addingelectronics, in-
steadof wire,to producea pair-gainsystem.Thepossibilityof trailerparks,apartment
houses,or Internetserviceprovidersspringingup almostovernightcauses nightmares
in themindsof cable plant Pair-gain
forecasters. system$ provide a networking alter-
nativeto dispelthosenightmares.
Digital pair-gain$ystemsare also usefulas alternativesto switchingoffices in
smallcommunities. Smallcommunities areoftenservicedbysmallautomaticswitch-
ing systemsnormallyunattended andremotelycontrolledfrom a largerswitchingof-
fice nearby.Thesesmallcommunityswitchesarerefenedto ascommunitydialoffices
*Because
T2 transmissionsystemshave becomeobsolete,the Ml2 function exists only in a functional sense
within Ml3 multiplexers, which multiplex 28 DSI signals into I DS3 signal.
62 BACKGHoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

TABLE 1.11 ITU Digital Hierarchy

Numberof Voice Multiplexer

LevelNumber Circuits Designation Bit Rate(Mbps)
El 30 2.048
E2 120 M1? 8,448
E3 480 M?3 34,368
E4 1920 M34 139.264
E5 7680 M45 565.1
48

(CDOs).A CDO typicallyprovidesonly limitedservicefeaturesto thecustomers and

often requiresconsiderable maintenance.Becausedigital pair-gainsystemslower
transmission co$t$for moderate-sizedgroupsof subscribers, theyarea viablealterna-
tive to a CDO: Stationsin the smallcommunityareservicedfrom the centraloffice
by way of pair-gainsystems. A fundamental consideration in choosingbetweenpair-
gain systemsandremoteswitchinginvolvesthe haffic volumesandcallingpatterns
within thesmallcommunity.Thebasictechniques of analyzingtrafficpaftemsandde-
terminingtrunk groupsizesareprovidedin Chapter12.
Thefirst two digitalpair-gainsy$temsusedin theBell Systemwerethesubscriber
loop multiplex(sLM) system[40, 4l] and,its successor, the subscriberloop carrier
(slc-40) system140,421.Althoughthesesysremsuseda form of voicedigitization
(deltamodulation)differentfrom thatusedin T-carriersystem$(pulsecodemodula-
tion), they both usedstandardrl repeatersfor digital transmissionat 1.544Mbps.
Both systemsalsoconvertedthedigitizedvoicesignalsbackinto individualanalogin-
tetfacesat theendofficeswirchto achievesystemtran$parency. FiguresL4l and1.42
showblock diagramsof thesesysrem$. Noticethat the sLM systemprovidedboth
concentration and multiplexing(80 subscribers for 24 channels)while the SLC-40
wasstrictlya multiplexer(40 subscribers
assigned in a one-to-one mannerto 40 chan-
nels).
The sLM andsLC-,{Osystemsuseddeltamodulationvoicecodingbecause it was
simplerthan pulsecodemodulationas usedin Tl systemsand was thereforeless
costlyto implementon a per-channel basis-a desirablefeaturefor modularsystem
implementations. The originalTl systems,on the otherhand,minimizedelectronics
costsby usingcommonencodersanddecoders, which precludedimplementation of

Crofibdr
witch

Figure l.4l Subscriber

loop multiplexer.
 oF DIGITS 63
1.3 THEINTHODUCTIoN

'.*Jill"i,**'
loopcarrier(SLC-40),
Figure1.42 Subscriber

lessthan24 channels(anunnecessary featurein aninterofficeapplication).By thelate

1970slow-cost,integratedcircuitimplementations of standardpulsecodemodulation
becameavailablethatled theway to thefirst (1979)installationof theSLC-96,a sub-
scribercarrierrty$temusingvoicecodingthatwascompatiblewith T1 systemsandthe
emergingdigitalendoffice switchingmachines[43].
The SLC-96system(whichis functionallyequivalentto four Tl lines)caninter-
facedirectlywith a digitalendoffice andnot bedemultiplexed into 24 distinctanalog
interfaces.Thusthis capability,which is referredto asintegrateddigitalloop carrier
(IDLC), greaflyreducestheprove-indistancewherethe digital carrierbecomesless
expensivethan separatesubscriberpairs.Subsequent enhancements of the SLC-96
$y$temincludeuseof fiber transmission, supportfor local switchingfunctionsin the
remotemodule,andconfigurabilityof analoginterfacesfrom the centraloffice [44,
45.1.Many newercopper-andfiber-based digital loop carriersystemshavebeende-
veloped.Thesesystemsarediscussed morethoroughlyin Chapter11in thecontextof
digital subscriber
access.

1.3.3 Data under Voice

After thetechnologyof T-carriersystemshadbeenestablished, AT&T beganoffering

leaseddigitaltransmission servicesfor datacommunications. This service,knownas
DataphoneDigital Service(DDS),usesTl transmission links with specialterminals
(channelbanks)thatprovidedirectaccessto the digital line. An initial drawbackof
DDS arosebecause T-carriersystemswereoriginallyusedonly for exchange areaand
shorrtoll networktrunks.Without someform of long-distance digital transmission,
the digital circuitsin separate exchangeareascould not be interconnected. AT&T's
originalresponse to long-distance digitaltransmission wasthedevelopment of a spe-
cial radioterminalcalledthe 1A radiodigitalterminal(IA-RDT) [46].This terminal
encodedoneDSI signal(1.544Mbps)into lessthan500kHz of bandwidth.As shown
in Figure1.43,a signalof thisbandwidthwasinsertedbelowthelowest'frequency of
a mastergroupmultiplex(Table1.5).Sincethis frequencybandis normallyunused
in TD or TH analogradio systems,theDSI signalcouldbe addedto existinganalog
routeswithoutdisplacinganyvoicechannels. Theuseoffrequencies belowthoseused
for voicesignalsleadsto the designation "dataundervoice"(DUV).
It is importantto pointoutthatDUV represented a specialdevelopment specifically
intendedfor datatransmission andnot for voiceservices. In fact,DUV wasusedonly
to providelong-distance digital transmission facilitiesfor DDS. The emergence of
64 BAcKeRouNDANDrERMrNolocy

E
E
8.9
*E
Ee
I
6
cr

3084
(kHzl
Frequency

Figure 1.43 Data under voice.

long-distance
fiber sy$tem'r
obviouslyeliminatedthe needfor DUV equipment(and
eventhe analogradiosthemselves).

1.3.4 Digital Mlcrowave Radio

In contrastto DUV systems,which piggyback1.544Mbpsonto an analogradiofor

dataservices,a common-carrier digitalmicrowavesystemusesdigitalmodulationex-
clusivelyto transmitandreceivehigherleveldigitalmultiplexsignalsfor voicetraffic.
Digital radiosusethesamefrequencybandsallocatedfor analogradiosaslistedin Ta-
ble 1.7.Thusa primarydesignrequirementof a digitalradiowasthatit mustconfine
its radiatedpowerto preventexcessiveinterferenceinto adjacent,possiblyanalog,
chamels.Moreover,theFCCstipulatedthatthedigitalradioshadto becapableof pro-
vidingroughlythesamenumberof voicecircuitsasexistinganalogradios.TableI .12
liststheminimumnumberof voicecircuitsandtheresultingbit ratethatmustbe pro-
videdby digitalradiosin eachof thecommon-canier microwavebands[47].
Despitethedesignconstraints imposedby compatibilityrequirements with analog
radios,digital radiosprovedto be moreeconomicalthananalogradiosin severalap-
plications.Because of lowerterminalcosrs(multiplexinganddemultiplexing), digiral
radio$ystemsweregenerallylessexpensivethananalogradio systemsfor distances

TABLE1.12 Minimum
VolceClrcuitRequirements
ot DigitatRadlosln the
United States

Equivalent
Frequency
Band Minimum Number Numberof DS1 Resultant
Bit Channel
(MHz) of Circuits Signals Rate(Mbps)a Bandwidth
(MHz)
2110-2130 96 4 6,144 3.5
2160-2180 96 4 6.144 3,5
370H200 1152 48 73.7 20
5925-6425 1152 48 73.7 30
10,700-11,700 1152 48 73.7 40
alhe actualbit rate is usuallyslightlygreater
owingto €xtraframingand synchronizationbits. Furthermore,mosl
radio systemBprovidesignificantlymor6 voice circuitsthan the minimum.
 oFDrclrs 65
r.g rHErNTRoDUcrroN

up to about300milesandon longerroutesrequiringchannelaccess(drop-and-insen)
at intermediatepointsin the route [a8]. The major impetusfor digital radio in the
UnitedStateswastheemergence of digitaltoll switcheslike theNo.4ESS.Theinter-
connectionof digitalradiosignalsto digitalswitchesavoidedcostlylowerlevel mul-
tiplex equipment.

1.3.5 Fiber Optic Transmiesion

Of all the new technologyinhoducedinto the telephonenetwork,fiber hascertainly

had the mo$tprofoundeffect.Prior to its emergence, transmissionengineerswould
haveconsidered thecombinationof exffemelywidebandwidth,extremelylow attenu-
ation,andimmunityfrom interference assomethingakinto perpetualmotion.Low at-
tenuationallowslongrepeaterspacings, whichequates to low maintenance costs-the
reasonfor wholesalereplacement of long-haulanalogradiosystems. On December5,
1986,AT&T completedthelastsectionof a transcontinental fiber system[49].By the
endof thatdecadevirtuallyall of thehigh-densityrouteswereconvertedto fiber.Ra-
dio systemsareand will continueto be usedfor carryinglow-densitytraffic where
right-of-waycostsarea dominantconsideration. However,becausetheseroutesare
relatively$hortspursoff of digital fiber arteries,intetfacecostsimply digital imple-
mentations, thuscompletingtheeconomicfoundationfor theall-digitalnetwork.
As discussed in Chapter8, anopticalfiber is not aninherentlydigitaltransmission
system.However,theinterfaceelectronics(driversandreceivers)andtheapplication
of connectingto digital switcheshavestimulatedtheir useof digital kansmission.*
Furthermore, consideringthe amountof bandwidthavailablethereis little incentive
to useanalogtransmission to conservebandwidth,aswasthe originalsituationwith
microwaveradios.

1.3.6 DigitalSwltching

Theoriginalresearch into digitalswitchingat Bell Laboratories wasrepoftedby Earle

Vaughanin 1959[501.Laboratorymodelsweredeveloped to demonstratetheconcept
of integratingdigitaltime divisionmultiplextransmission systemswith time division
switchingsystems.Unfortunatelythe necessary solid-stateelechonicshad not ma-
turedsufficientlyat thattime socommercialdevelopment of digitalswitchingwa$not
pursued,anddevelopment of theNo. I ESScontinuedalongthelinesof spacedivision
electromechanical technology.Almost l0 yearslater,however,Bell Labsbegande-
velopmentof a digitaltoll switch,theNo. 4 ESS.
Whenplacedin servicein January1976,the No. 4 ESSprovidedseveralnew ca-
pabilitiesfor the toll network.First, it was the first toll switch to be designedfor
stored-program controlat the outset.tSecond,its capacitywasthreetimesthatof the
prevailingelectromechanical switchat the time: theNo. 44 crossbar.The largerca-
*Analog
opticalfiber systemshavebeenwidely usedto carrytelevisionsignalsin feedetssegments of
.CATV systems.
lstored-programconfrol was first implementedin the toll networkbeginningin 1969by retrofitting
crossbarswitches[51].
66 BACKGROUNDAND TERMINOLOGY

pacityof theNo.4 ESSmeantthatmanymetropolitanareascouldconsolidate toll haf-

f,rcinto oneswitchinsteadof several.Third,thedigitaltime divisiondesignof theNo.
4 ESSalloweddirectconnectionto digitalT-carrierlines.This lastfeatureillu$trate$
theoriginalattractionof digital switchingfor toll andtandemofficesof thenetwork.
By 1976,whenthefirst No. 4 ESSwasinstalled,it wasclearthatdigitaltransmission
wasdominatingtheexchange areaandshorterinteftolltrunks.Thussignificantecono-
miesandimprovements in transmission qualityresultedby eliminatingchannelbanks
at theinterfacebetweendigitalkunks anda switchingsystem.
The earlydevelopment of digitalendoffice switchesin theUnitedStareswasun-
dertakenby independent equipmentmanufacturers with theflustsystembeingplaced
in servicein 1977.Thesesystemswereprimarilydesignedfor the smallerswitching
officesof theindependent telephone companies. Digital switcheswereparticularlyat-
tractiveto rural telephonecompaniesbecausethey couldprovidesignificantcopper
savingswhendirectlyconnectedto digital pair-gaintransmission systems.The flust
large digital end office switching sy$temto be introducedinto the North American
networkwasthe DMs-100 providedby NorthernTelecom.Table Ll3 lists digital
switchingmachinesdevelopedfor the North Americanpublic telephonenetwork.
The functionalessence of a digital time divisionswitchingmatrixis illustratedin
Figure1.44.As indicated,all inputsaretimedivisionmultiplexlinks.Theselinksmay
represent digitalpair-gainsystem$, T-carrierinterofficetrunks,or theoutputsof colo-
catedchannelbanksusedto interfaceanaloglines to the digital switch. In any event
the switchingmahix itself is designedro serviceonly TDM input links.
Basically,the switchingmatrix is requiredto transferinformationarriving in a
specifiedtime slot (channel)on an incomingTDM link to a specifiedtime sloton an

TABLE 1.13 Dlgltal Central Oflice Swltchlng Systems of North America

Dateof
Manufacturer Designation lntroduction Application LineSize
AT&T 4 ESS 1S76 Toll 107,000
AT&T 5 ESS 1S83 Local 100,000
C|T-Alcatel E 10-five 1982 Local 100,000
GTE 3 EAX 1S7B Toll/tandem 60,b00
GTE 5 EAX 1982 Local 145,000
LM Ericsson AXE10 1978 Local/toll 200,000
NEC NEAX.61 1979 Local/toll 80,000
ITT System1210 1978 Local/toll 26,000
NorthernTelecom DMS-10 1977 Local 7,000
NorthernTelecom DMS-100 197S Local 100,000
NorthernTelecom DMS-200 1978 Toll 60,000
Siemens EWSD 1981 Local 200,000
StrombergCarlson DCO 1977 Local 32,000
Vidar lTS4 1977 Toll/tandem 7,000
Vidar lTS4/5 1978 Local/toll 12,768
 OF DIGIT$
1,3 THEINTRODUCTION 67

I FRAME

Figure 1.44 Digital time divisionswitchingoperation.

outgoing TDM link. Since an arbitrary connection involves two different physical
links and two different time slots, the switching processrequires spatial translation
(space switching) and time translation (time switching). Thus the basic operation is
sometimes referred to as two-dimensional switching. Space switching is achieved
with conventional digital logic selector circuits, and time switching is achieved by
temporarily storing information in a digital memory or register circuit.
For convenience,the inputs to the switching matrix of Figure 7.44 arc all shown
on the left, and the outputs are on the right. Since the links are inherently four-wire,
each input time slot is paired with the sametime slot on a correspondingoutput link.
Hence, a full-duplex circuit also requires a "connection" in the reversedirection that
is achievedby transferring information from time slot 17 of link N to time slot 3 of
link I in the example shown. Operational and implementationdetails of a large range
of digital time division switches are provided in Chapter 5.

1.3.7 DigltalNetworkEvolutlon

The evolution of the analog telephone network into one that is all digital except for
the accesslines is summarizedin Figure 1.45.The processbeganin the 1960s(a) with
T1 systemsbeing installed on relatively short haul interoffice trunks within the ex-
changeareas.Next, in the early 1970s(b), digital transmissionwas introducedinto the
toll network with T2 systemsfor relatively short routesbetweentoll offices. It was in
the late 1970s (c) that digitization really began to take over. Tl coverageexpanded
greatly, digital loop carier (DLC) systemscame into use,* and digital switches be*
came available at all levels of the network: PBXs (DPBXs), end offices (DEOs), tan-
dem offices, and toll offices (DTOs). Moreover, microwave digital radios (MDRs)
proved to be advantageousto use in both the exchangeareasand the shorter toll net-
work routes due to low interface costs to digital switches. Thus, the late 1970spro-
duced a number of integrated islands where digital switches within a region were
interconnectedby digital transmissionlinks but therewas little digital connectivity be-
tween the islands. (Data under voice was installed as an overbuild to analogroutes for
*Digital
subscribet caffier systemswere actually introduccd in the early 1970s,but these systems utilized
a voice digitization technology (delta modulation) that was incompatible with the rest ofthe network and
therefore did not figure into the integrated network. These early digital loop carrier systems atE now
obsolete.
68 BACKGHOUND
ANDTEHMINOLOGY

Exchangn arta
Toll mtwuk
/ -\ Excharqe
t- O r z--------.-
't}..r-*{",7'g ' arot

1\n/'1" ,i Q o o I
\ T_1 i I ,\r .Tr\

t-/
--"----*l-/
o )\ (- - c
\----

(dl

trz j
I I
I
I (1 I

(Dl

l,
tt*--
\ord
DTO
MDR
oTo
DPEX
o \ - J

(d)

.-**:/\.
I
,) .'i
Fibrt
::-*-]./ '\-----

(d)

Fibrr 7
DLC /
'r) I r '
,'I
I
ISDil P B I

oiix \--' \*-----

t6t

Figure 1.45 Digital networkevolution.

 REFERENoES 6S

limited-capacitydataservices.) digitalnetwork
A fully integratedandinterconnected
becamea realityin the early 1980s(d) whenfiber optictransmission emergedasthe
technologyof choicefor high-densitylong-haulroutes.Digital connectivityto busi-
nesscustomerpremisesequipmentalsooccurredin this time frameasTl becamethe
preferredvoice trunk interfacefor largePBXs.
End-to-enddigital connectivityfor voiceor dataservicesbecamea reality in the
late 1980s(e) wittr theintroductionof ISDN basicrate(ISDN BR, 28 + D) andISDN
primaryrate(ISDN PR,238 + D) digitalconnection$ to thecustomer.In addition,fi-
bertechnologybecamemuchmoreubiquitousasDS3ratesystemseliminatedT2 sys-
temsin thetoll networkandfiber-based systemsbecamethepreferredtechnologyfor
loop carrierandfeedersystems-evenat relativelyshortdistances.

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70 BACKGROUND
ANDTERMINOLOGY

14 F. P. Duffy and T. W. Thatcher,Jr,, "Analog Transmissionperformanceon the

SwitchedTelecommunications Network,"BelI SystemTechnicalJournal,Apr. 1971,
p p .l 3 l t - 1 3 4 7 .
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19 "A TechnicalReporton Echo Cancelling,"ReportNo, ?7, ANSI T14,l.6 Working
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21 F. T. Andrews,Jr. and R. w. Hatch, "Nationa]TelephoneNetwork rransmission
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Present,Ftfitre," IEEEEJoumalon selededAreasin communications, Apr.1994,pp.
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26 J. S. Doyle and C. S. McMahon, '-The Intelligent Network Concept," IEEE
Transactions on Communicafdons, Dec. I988,pp. 1296-130L
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Nonhierarchical andHierarchical Routing,"Bell systemTechnicalrountal, sept.1984,
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29 C. Mason,"SoftwareProblemCripplesAT&T Long-Distance Network,',Telephony,
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 PHOBLEMS71

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33 K. E. FultzandD. B, Penick,
Sept.1965,pp. 1405-1451.
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Tokyo,May 1974.
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35 M. Schwartz,
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"A
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NationalTelecommunitationsConference Record, 1976' pp. 3.2-| -3'2-5.
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4l M, T. Manfred,G. A. Nelson,andc. H. sharpless,
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42 S.J. Brolin,G. E. Harrington,andG. R. t eopold,
GetsEvenBetter,"BeIl labs Record,May1977, pp. ll9-122.
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Engineering Sympo sium,RockwellInternational, Sept.I 978.
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49 R. C. Hansen,
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50 H. E. Vaughan,
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PROBLEMS
l.l Express andmilliwattsof absolute
33 dBmCof noisein termsof picowatts
power.
72 BACKGROUND
ANDTEHMINOLOGY

1.2 Twenty-seven picowattsof noisewith a flat spectrumbetween0 and3 kHz is

how manydBmC?
1.3 A valueof 30dBrnc0 is howmanypicowartsof absolutenoisepowerata -3-dB
TLP?
t.4 An idle-channelnoisepowermeasurement of 2l dBrnc occursat a -7-dB TLp.
Expressthe noisepowerof this measurement in dBrnc0 and determinewhat
powermeasurement thisnoisewouldproduceat anotherpointin thecircuitthat
is designatedasa -2-dB TLP.
1.5 A transmissionlink has14dBrn of absolutenoisepowerat a -13-dB TLp input
testpointand27 dBmof absolutenoi$epowerat a -3-dB TLp outputte$tpoint.
How muchabsolutenoiseis addedon thetransmission link?
r.6 A transmissionlink with a -Z-dB TLp at the rransmitendanda -4-dB-TLp at
thereceiveendis partof a voicecircuitthatproducesthefollowingidle-channel
noisemeasurements: 18 dBrnc0 at the transmitend and20 dBrnc0 at the re-
ceiveend.what is the conrribution(in pwp0) of the transmission link toward
thetotal absolutepowerat thereceiveend?
1.7 why is echocontrolunnece$sary on short-delay voiceconnections? what about
singing?
 WHYDIGITAL?

The first chapterprovides an overview of an analog telephonenetwork and a brief in-

troduction to digital ffansmission and switching technology introduced to replace
older analog equipment.This chapterdiscussesthe basic technical advantagesof digi'
tal implementationsthat stimulated the replacementof the analog systems.

OF DIGITALVOICENETWORKS
2.1 ADVANTAGES
A list of technical featuresof digital communicationsnetworks is provided in Table
2. L Thesefeaturesare listed in the order that the author considersto be their relative
importancefor generaltelephony.In particular applications,however, certain consid-
erationsmay be more or lesssignificant. For instance,the last item, easeof encryption,
is a dominant feature favoring digital networks for the military.
Most of the featuresof digital voice networks listed in Table 2.1 and discussedin
the following paragraphspertain to advantagesof digital hansmission or switching
relative to analog counteryarts.In some instances,however, the featurespertain only
to all-digital networks. Encryption, for example,is practical and generallyuseful only
if the secureform of the messageis establishedat the sourceand translatedback into
the clear form only at the destination.Thus an end-to-enddigital systemthat operates
with no knowledge of the nature of the traffic (i.e., provides transparenttransmission)
is a requirement for digital encryption applications. For similar reasonsend-to-end
digital transmissionis neededfor direct transmissionof data (no modem)-When a net-
work consistsof a mixture of analog and digital equipment, universal use of the net-
work for servicessuch as datatransmissiondictatesconformanceto the leastcommon
denominator of the network: the analog channel.

2.1.1 Ease of Multiplexing

As mentionedin Chapterl, digitaltechniques werefirst appliedto generaltelephony

in interofficeT-carrier(time divisionmultiplex)systems.In essence, thesesystems
tradedelectionicscostsat theendsof a transmissionpathfor thecostof multiplepairs
73
 74 WHYDIGITAL?

TABLE 2.1 Technical Advantages ot Dlgltar communlcations Networks

1. Ease0l multiplexing
2. Easeof signaling
3. U$eof moderntechnology
4. lntegration
of kansmissionandswitching
5. Signalregeneration
6. Performance monitorability
7. Accommodation of otherservices
8. Operability
at lowsignal-to-noi$e/intederence
ratios
L Easeof encryption'

of wires betweenthem.(A hade that is morecost effectiveeveryyear.)Although

FDM of analogsignalshadalsobeenusedto reducecablecosts,FDM equipmentis
muchmoreexpensivethanTDM equipment, evenwhenthecostof digitizationis in-
cluded.After voicesignalshavebeendigitized,TDM equipmentcostsarequitesmall
by comparison. Sincedigitizationoccursonly at thefirst levelof theTDM hierarchy,
high-leveldigitalTDM is evenmoreeconomicalthanhigh-levelFDM counrerpans.
It shouldbe pointedout thatTDM of analogsignalsis alsovery simpleanddoes
not requiredigitizationof rhesamplevalues.Thedrawbackof analogTDM lies in the
vulnerabilityof nanow analogpulsesto noise,distortion,crosstalk,andintersymbol
interference.Thesedegradations cannotbe removedby regeneration as in a digital
system.Hence,analogTDM is not feasibleexceptfor noiseless, distortion-free
envi-
ronments.* In essence theability to regeneratea signal,evenat theexpenseofgreater
bandwidth,is almosta requirement for TDM fransmission.

2.1.2 Eaeeof Slgnating

control information(e.g.,on-hook/off-hook, addressdigits,coin deposits)is inher-

entlydigital and,hence,readilyincorporated into a digitalFansmissionsystem.one
meansof incorporatingcontrolinformationinto a digital transmission link involves
time division multiplexingthe control as a separatebut easilyidentifiablecontrol
channel'Anotherapproachinvolvesinsertingspecialcontrolcodesinto themessage
channelandhavingdigital logic in thereceivingterminalsdecodethat controlinfor-
mation'In eithercase,as far asthe transmission sy$temis concerned,controlinfor-
mationis indistinguishable from message haffic.
In contrast,analogtransmission sy$tems
requiredspecialattentionfor controlsig-
naling.Many analogtransmission systemspresented uniqueandsometimes difficult
environments for insertingcontrolinformation.An unfortunateresultwasthatmany
varietiesof controlsignalformatsandprocedures evolvedfor theanalognetwork.The
controlformatsdependon thenatureof boththetransmission systemundit, terminal
.Aoulog
TDM has been used in a fbw telephone applications. Farinon's SubscriberRadio System
[l ], for
example, used'pulse-width-modulatedTDM. As discussedin Chapter 5 some older PBXs also used analog
TDM.
 VOICENETWORKS 75
OF DIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES

equipment.In someinterfacesbetweennetworksubsystems controlinformationhad

to be convertedfrom one format to another.Signalingon analoglinks thereforerep-
resenteda significantadministrative andfinancialburdento the operatingtelephone
companies.
The moveto common-channel signalingremovedmostof the signalingcostsa$-
sociatedwith interofficetrunksbut did not changethe situationfor individualsub-
scriberlines,which mustcarrysignalingon the samefacility asthemessage channel.
Theuseof digitalsubscriber lines(DSLs) reduces thesignalingcostsrelative to analog
subscriber lines,which helpsoffsetthehighercostof a DSL and a digital telephone'
DSLsarea fundamentalaspectof ISDN, asdescribedin ChapterI l.
In summary,digital systemsallow controlinformationto be insertedinto andex-
ffactedfrom a message streamindependently of thenatureof thetransmission medium
(e.g., cable,fiber, microwave,satellite).Thus the signalingequipmentcan (and
should)bedesignedseparately from thetransmissionsystem.It thenfollowsthatcon-
trol functionsandformatscanbemodifiedindependently of thetransmission subsys-
tem. Conversely, digital transmission systems can be upgraded without impacting
controlfunctionsat eitherendofthe link.

2.1.3 Use of Modern TechnologY

A multiplexer or switching matrix for time division digital signals is implemented

with the samebasic circuits used to build digital computers:logic gatesand memory.
The basic crosspoint of a digital switch is nothing more than an AND gate with one
logic input assignedto the mes$agesignal and other inputs usedfor control (crosspoint
selection).Thus the dramatic developmentsof digital integratedcircuit technology for
computer logic circuits and memory are applicable directly to digital transmissionand
switching fiystems.In fact, many standardcircuits developedfor use in computersare
directly usable in a switching matrix or multiplexer. Figure 2.1 shows the basic im-
plementation of a l6-channel, bit-interleaved, digital time division multiplexer using
common digital logic circuits. As indicated, the multiplexing function involves noth-
ing more than cyclically sampling the 16 input data streams.Such an operation as-
sumesall of the data streamsare synchronizedto eachother. As discussedin Chapter
7, the processof synchronizing the data sffeamsrequires logic circuitry that is much
more complicatedthan that shown. Nevertheless,the implementationof TDM is much
less expensivethan analog FDM.
Even greateradvantagesof modern technology have been achievedby using large-
scaleintegrated(LSD circuits designedspecifically for telecommunicationsfunctions
such as voice encoding/decoding,multiplexing/demultiplexing, switching matrices,
and special-purposeand general-purposedigital signal processing(DSP). Digital sig-
nal processingfunctions are describedin Section 2'2.
The relative low cost and high performanceof digital circuits allows digital imple-
mentationsto be used in some applicationsthat are prohibitively expensivewhen im-
plemented with comparableanalog components.Completely nonblocking switches,
for example, are not practical with conventional analog implementations, except in
 76 WHYDIGITAL?

f;TATA*l

.rr BA F a t t BA

4 Bit Gounter

Figure 2.1 Sixteen-to-one

TDM multiplexer.

small sizes.In a modern digital switch the cost of the switching matrix itself is rela-
tively insignificant. Thus, for medium-size applications,the size of the switch matrix
can be increasedto provide nonblocking operations,if desired.The automaticcall dis-
tributor developedby collins-Rockwell [2] is an early exampleof a digital switch op-
erating in an analog environment. A digital implementation was chosen largely
becauseit could economically provide a nonblocking operation.
The benefits ofmodern device technology arenot confined to digital circuits alone.
Analog integrated circuits have also progressed significantly, allowing traditional
analog implementationsto improve appreciably.one of the primary requirementsof
an analog component, however, is that it be linear. It appears,if only becauseof re-
searchand developmentemphasis,that fast digital componentsare ea$ierto manufac-
ture than linear analog counterparts.In addition, digital implementations appear to
have an inherent functional advantageover analog implementations.This advantage
is derived from the relative easewith which digital signals can be multiplexed. A ma-
jor limitation with the full use of LSI componentsresults from limited availability of
external connectionsto the device. with time division multiplex techniques,a single
physical pin can be used for multiple-channel accessinto the device. Thus the same
technique usedto reducecostsin transmissionsystemscan also be usedwithin a local
module to minimize the interconnectionsand maximize the utilization of very large
scaleintegration. In the end, a "switch on a chip" is possibleonly if a great number of
channelscan be multiplexed onto a relatively small number of external connections.
The technological development to have the most significant impact on the tele-
phonenetwork is certainly fiber optic transmission.Although fibers themselvesdo not
favor digital transmissionover analogtransmission,the interface electronicsto a fiber
 VOICENETWORKS 77
OFDIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES

systemfunction primarily in an on-off (nonlinear)modeof operation.Thus digital

dominates
transmission fiberapplications, althoughanalogopticaltechnologyis com-
monlyusedin analogvideodistribution.

2.1.4 Integratlon of Transmis$lon and $wltching

Traditionallythe analogtransmission and switchingsystemsof telephonenetworks

weredesignedandadministered by functionallyindependentorganizations.In theop-
eratingtelephonecompanies, thesetwo equipmentclassesarereferredto as outside
plant and inside plant, respectively.Theseequipmentsnecessarilyprovide stand-
ardizedintdrfaces,but,otherthanthat,transmission equipmentwasfunctionallyinde-
pendentof switchingequipment.
When TDM of digital voice signalswas introducedinto the exchangeareaand
communications engineersbeganconsideringdigital switching,it becameapparent
thatTDM operationswerevery similarto time divisionswitchingfunctions.In fact,
as describedin laterchapters,the first stagesof digital switchesgeneratefirst-level
TDM signalsby nature,evenwheninterfacedto analogtransmission links.Thusthe
multiplexingoperationsof a transmissionsystem can be easily integrated into the
switchingequipment.
Thebasicadvantage of integratingthetwo systemsis shownin Figure2.2.Thede-
multiplexingequipment(channelbanks)at the swirchingofficesis unnecessary, and
first-stageswitchingequipmentis eliminated.If bothendsof thedigitalTDM trunks
are integratedinto a digital switch, the channelbanksat both endsof the trunk are
eliminated.In a totally integratednetworkvoice signalsaredigitizedat or nearthe
sourceandremaindigitizeduntil deliveredto their destination.Furthermore,all inter-
office trunksandintemallinks of a switchingsystemcarryTDM signalsexclusively'
Thusfirst-level multiplexinganddemultiplexingarenonexistentexceptat theperiph-
ery of the nerwork.Althoughintegrationof DSI signalsinto $witchingmachinesis

Figure 2.2 Integration of transmission and switching: (a) nonintegrated nansmission and
swirching, (b) integrated time time division switching and transmission.
 78 WHYDIGITAL?

commonplace, integrationof higherlevel signalsis complicatedby higherlevelmul-

tiplexingformats(pulsestuffing)describedin chapter7. A newermultiplexingfor-
mat (soNET) describedin chapter 8 has someoperationalmodesthar are more
amenable to directinterconnection into a switchingsy$tem.
Integrationof transmissionand switchingfunctionsnot only eliminatesmuch
equipmentbut alsogreatlyimprovesend-to-endvoicequality.By eliminatingmulti-
ple analog-to-digitaland digital-to-analog conversionsand by using low-error-rate
transmissionlinks, voicequaliryis determined only by theencoding/decoding pnxesses.
In summary,theimplementation benefitsof a fully integrateddigitalnetworkare:
I' Long-distance voicequalityis identicalto local voicequality in all aspectsof
noise,signallevel,anddistortion.
2. since digital circuits are inherentlyfour-wire,network-generated echoesare
eliminated,andtruefull-duplex,four-wiredigitalcircuitsareavailable.
3. Cableentrance requirement$ andmainframedistributionof wire pairsis greafly
reducedbecause all trunksareimplemented assubchannels of a TDM signal.

2.1.5 Signal Regeneration

As described morefully in thenextchapter,therepresentation of voice(or anyanalog

signal)in a digitalformatinvolvesconveftingthecontinuousanalogwaveforminto a
sequence of discretesamplevalues.Eachdiscretesamplevalueis represented by some
numberof binarydigitsof information.when transmitted,eachbinarydigit is repre-
sentedby only oneof two possiblesignalvalues(e.g.,apulseversusnopulseor aposi-
tive pulseversusa negativepulse).The receiver'sjob is to decidewhich discrete
valueswereffansmittedandrepresentthe message asa sequence of binary-encoded
discretemessage samples.If only smallamountsof noise,interference. or distortion
areimpressed uponthesignalduringtansmission,thebinarydatain thereceiverare
identicalto thebinarysequence generated duringthedigitizationor encodingprocess.
As shownin Figure2.3,thetransmission process,despitetheexistence of certainim-
perfections, doesnot altertheessential natureof theinformation.Of course,if theim-
perfections causesufficientchanges in thesignal,detectionerrorsoccurandthebinary
datain thereceiverdoesnot represent theoriginaldataexactly.
A fundamentalattributeof a digital systemis that theprobabilityof transmission
errorscanbemadearbitrarilysmallby insertingregenerative repeatersat intermediate
pointsin the transmission link. If spacedcloseenoughtogether,theseintermediate
nodesdetectandregenerate the digital signalsbeforechannel-induced degradations

H:gmretiw Ftfttratiw
rGg€dt€r rlPcrtcr

Figure 2.3 Signal regenerationin a digital repeaterline.

 OFDIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES NETWORKS79
VOICE

becomelarge enoughto causedecision effors. As demonshatedin Chapter4, the end-

to-end error rate can be made arbitrarily small by inserting a sufficient number of re-
generationnodesin the transmissionlink.
The most direct benefit of the regenerationprocessis the ability to localize the ef-
fects of signal degradations.As long as the degradationson any particular regenerated
segmentof a transmissionlink do not causeerrors, their effects areeliminated. In con-
trast, signal impairments in analog transmissionaccumulatefrom one segmentto the
next. Individual subsystemsof a large analog network must be designed with tight
controls on the transmissionperformance to provide acceptableend-to-end quality.
An individual subsystemof a digital network, on the other hand, need only be de-
signed to ensurea certain minimum error rate-usually a readily realizable goal.
When an all-digital network is designedwith enough regenerationpoints to effec-
tively eliminate channel errors, the overall ffansmissionquality of the network is de-
termined by the digitization process and not by the transmission systems' The
analog-to-digital conversion process inherently introduces a loss of signal fidelity
sincethe continuousanalogsourcewaveform can only be representedby discretesam-
ple values.By establishingenoughdiscretelevels, however, the analog waveform can
be representedwith as little conversion error as desired.The increasedresolution re-
quire$ more bits and consequentlymore bandwidth for transmission.Hence, a digital
transmission sy$tem readily provides a trade-off between transmission quality and
bandwidth. (A similar trade-off exists for frequency-modulatedanalog signals.)

2.1.6 PerformanceMonitorability

An additional benefit of the source-independentsignal structurein a digital transmis-

sion systemis that the quality of the received signal can be ascertainedwith no knowl-
edge of the nature of the traffic. The transmission link is designed to produce
well-defined pulseswith discretelevels. Any deviation in the receive signal, other than
nominal amount$planned for in the design,representsa degradationin transmission
quality. In general,analog systemscannot be monitored or testedfor quality while in
service since the transmitted signal sfucture is unknown. FDM signals typically in-
clude pilot signals to measurechannel continuity and power levels. The power level
of a pilot is an effective meansof estimatingthe signal-to-noiseratio-only in a fixed-
noise environment.Hence, noise and distortion are sometimesdeterminedby measur-
ing the energy level in an unusedmessageslot or at the edge of the signal passband'
In neither case,however, is the quality of an in-service channel being measureddi-
rectly.
One common method of measuring the quality of a digital transmissionlink is to
add parity, or cyclic redundancycheck (CRC), bits to the messagestream.The redun-
dancy introduced to the data streamenablesdigital logic circuits in a receiver to read-
ily ascertainchannel error rates. If the error rate exceedssome nominal value, the
transmissionlink is degraded.
Another technique for measuring in-service transmission qualiry is used in T-cartier
lines. This techniqueinvolves monitoring certainredundanciesin the signal waveform
 80 WHYDIGITAL?

itself' Whentheredundancy patternat thereceiverdeviatesfrom normal.decisioner-

rorshaveoccurred.A completedescriptionof theline codingformatusedin T-carrier
$ystems is providedin Chapter4. Othermethodsof measuringtransmissionqualityin
digital systemsarediscussed in Chapters4 and6.

2.1.7 Accommodatlon of Other Services

It waspreviouslypointedoutthata digitaltransmission systemreadilyaccommodates

conffol(signaling)information.This factis representative of a fundamental aspectof
digital transmission:any digitally encodedmessage(whetherinherentlydigital or
conveftedfrom analog)presentsa coillmonsignalformatto thetransmission system.
Thusthetransmission systemneedprovideno specialattentionto individualservices
andcan,in fact, be totally indifferent to the natureof the traffic it carries.
In an analognetworkthetransmission standard is the4-kHzvoicecircuit.All spe-
cial servicessuchasdataor facsimilemustbetransformed to ,,looklike voice."In par-
ticular,datasignalsmustbeconvertedto ananalogformatthroughtheuseof modems.
Thestandard analogchannelwa$necessarily optimizedfor voicequality.In sodo-
ing, certaintransmissioncharacteristics (suchas the phaseresponseand impulse
noise)receivedlessattentionthanmorenoticeablevoicequalityimpairments.Some
lessemphasized considerations, phasedistortionin particular,arecriticalfor high-rate
dataservices.Useof an analognetworkfor nonvoiceservicesoftenrequiresspecial
compensation for variousanalogtransmission impairments.If the analogchannelis
toopoor,it maybe unusable for a particularapplication.In contrast,themainparame-
ter ofquality in a digital systemis theerrorrate.Low-error-ratechannelsarereadily
obtainable.Whendesired,theeffectsof channelerrorscanbe effectivelyeliminated
with errorcontrolprocedures implemented by theuser.
An additionalbenefitof the commontransmission formatis ttrattraffic from dif-
ferenttypesof sources canbeintermixedin a singletransmission mediumwithoutmu-
tual interference. The useof a commonffansmissionmediumfor analogsignalsis
sometimes complicated because individualservicesrequiredifferinglevelsof quality.
For example,televisionsignals,whichrequiregreatertransmission qualitythanvoice
signals,werenot usuallycombinedwith FDM voicechannelsin a widebandanalos
transmission system[3].

2.1.8 Operabillty at Low Slgnal-to-Noiee/tnteileronceRailos

Noise and inted'erence in an analogvoice networkbecomemost apparentduring

speech pauseswhenthesignalamplitudeis low. Relativelysmallamountsof noiseoc-
curing duringa speechpausecanbe quiteannoyingto a listener.The samelevelsof
noiseor interferencearevirtuallyunnoticeable whenspeechis present.Henceit is the
absolutenoiselevelof anidle channelthatdetermines analogspeechquality.Subjec-
tive evaluationsof voice quality t4, 5l led to maximumnoiselevel standards of 2g
dBmcO(-62 dBm0)for short-haulsystemsand34 dBrnc0 (-56 dBm0)for long-haul
systems.For comparison, the powerlevel of an activetalkeris typically -16 dBm0.
 2.2 DIGITALSIGNALPBOCESSING 81

Thusrepresentative end-to-endsignal-to-noise ratiosin analognetworksare46 and

40 dB for short-andlong-haulsystems, respectively. Signal-to-noise ratioson indi-
vidualhansmissionsystemsarenecessarily higher-
In a digital systemspeechpause$are encodedwith a particulardatapatternand
transmittedat thesamepowerlevelasactivespeech. Becausesignalregeneration vir-
tuallyeliminatesall noisearisingin thetransmission medium,idle channel noise is de-
terminedby the encodingprocessandnot thetransmission link. Thusspeech pauses
do not determinemaximumnoiselevelsastheydo in an analogsystem.As discussed
in Chapter4, digitalfansmissionlinks providevirtuallyerror-freeperformance at signal-
to-noiseratiosof 15-25 dB, dependingon thetypeof line codingor modulationused'
The ability of a digital transmission systemto rejectcrosstalkis sometimes more
significant rhan its ability to operatein relativelyhigh levelsofrandom noise. One of
themosttroublesome considerations in the design and maintenance of the analog net-
work was the needto eliminatecrosstalkbetweenconversations. The problemwas
mostacuteduringpauseson one channel while an interferingchannel was at maxi-
mum power.At thesetimesrelativelylow level crosstalk would be noticeable. The
crosstalkwas particularlyundesirableif it was intelligible and therefore violated
someone'sprivacy.Again, speechpau$esdo not producelow-amplitudesignalson
digitaltransmission links.Thetransmission links maintaina constant-amplitude digi-
tal signal.Thus,low levelsof crosstalkareeliminatedby theregeneration processin
a digital repeateror receiver.Evenif thecrosstalkis of sufficientamplitudeto cau$e
detectionerrors,theeffectsappearasrandomnoiseand,as$uch,areunintelligible-
Consideringthe fact that a digital systemtypically needsa greaterbandwidththan
a comparableanalogsystemandttratwider bandwidthsimply greatercrosstalkand
noiselevels,the ability to operateat lower SNRsis pafily a requirementof a digital
systemandpartlyan advantage.

2.1.9 Ease of Encryptlon

Althoughmost telephoneusershavelittle needfor voice encryption,the easewith

which a digitalbit $treamcanbe scrambledandunscrambled [6] meansthata digital
network(or a digitalcellularsystem)providesan extra bonus for userswith sensitive
conversations.In contrast,analogvoiceis muchmore difficult to encryptandis gen-
erally not nearlyassecurea$digitally encryptedvoice.For a discussion of common
analogvoiceencryptiontechniques, seereferences [7], [8], and[9]. As mentionedpre-
viously,easeof encryptionstimulatedearlyuseof digital voicesystemsby themili-
tary.

2.2 DIGITALSIGNAL PROCESSING

The precedingparagraphsemphasizethe advantagesof digital technologyin imple-

mentingthetansmissionandswitching$ystems of a network.Anothersignificantap-
plication of digital technologyis the areaof signalprocessing.Basically,signal
 82 WHY DIGITAL?

processingrefers to an operationon a signal to enhanceor transform its characteristics.

Signal processingcan be applied to either analogor digital waveforms. Amplif,rcation,
equalization, modulation, and filtering are cofilmon examples of signal processing
functions.
Digital signal processing(DSP) refers to the use of digital logic and arithmetic cir-
cuits to implement signal processingfunctions on digitized signal waveforms. some-
times analog signals are converted to digital representationsfor the expresspurpose
ofprocessing them digitally. Then the digital representationsofthe processedsignals
are converted back to analog. These operationsare illustrated in Figure 2.4, where a
sine wave comrpted by noise is digitally filtered to remove the noise. The main ad-
vantagesof digitally processingsignal waveforms are listed in Table 2.2.
It is important to point out that DSP in this context refers to the technology usedto
condition, manipulate, or otherwise transform a signal waveform (a digitizert repre-
sentationthereof). In another context signal processingrefers to the interpretation of
conffol signalsin a network by the control processorsof switching $ystems.In the lat-
ter casethe logical interpretationofa control code is processedand not an underlying
signal waveform

2.2.1 DSPApplications

The following four sectionsidentify applications of DSP that either representlower

cost solutions to functions that have beentraditionally implementedwith analogtech-
nology or are functions that have no practical implementationcounterpartwith analog
technology.

Echo Cancellers
The cost and pedormanceof DSP echo cancellershave improved to the point that they
can be justified for any long-distancecircuit, thereby providing full-duplex circuits
(no echo suppression)and no artificial attenuation (no via net loss). A particularly
critical needfor echo cancellationoccur$in high-speed,full-duplex data modemsthat
incorporate near-end echo cancellation-an unnece$saryrequirement for voice cir-
cuits. Furthermore, low-cost echo canceling enablespacket-switchedvoice applica-
tions that inffoduce artificial delays that are not accommodatedin normal analoe

Anrlog Anelog Dieitd Digit l

input
Anrlog
to dFrl to ouFut
digitrl procarEof fido0

Figure 2.4 Digital signal processingof an analog signal.

 srcNALPHocE$slNG 83
a.a DrcrrAL

TABLE2.2 DigltalSlgnalProceeslngFeatures
The immunityof digitalcircuit$to smallimperfections
Reproducibilitltr and parasiticelements
imiliesthatcircuitscanbe pioducdd withconsistent operational characteri$tics withoutline
adjustments or agingtolerances.
Programmability A single basicstructurecanbe usedfor a varietyof signaltype.sand
-changing
applications by'merely an algorithmicor parameilic specification in a digitalmemory.
Timesharing'. A singledigitalsignalprocessing circuitcanbe usedfor multiple signalsby
storingtemforaryretuftsbfeachprocessin random-access memoryandprocessing each
signalin a cyclic(time-divided)lashion.
Automatic fesfiSincethe inputsandoutputsof a digitalsignalprocessing circuitaredigital.
data,testscanbe perlormed routinely by comparing testresponses to datapatterns storedin
memory.
Because
versatititr. of thedecision-making capahilitiesof digitallogic,digital.signal
processing canporformmanyfunctions thatareimpossible or impractical withanalog
implementations.

intedaces. The aclaptationlogic and delay requirementsof a switched network echo

canceller virfually preclude any type of analog implementation.

Tone Receivers
Detectionof DTMF, MF, SF,or otheranalogtonesis easilyandeconomicallyrealized
by convertingthe analogsignalsto digitalrepresentations for the explicitpurposeof
detectingthe tone.Of course,a DSPimplementation is evenmoreeconomicalwhen
thetonesarealreadydigitized,whichis thecasewithin a digitalswitch.Theprogram-
mability featureof a DSPcircuit is particularlyusefulfor tonereceiversbecauseone
hardwareimplementation canbeusedfor multiplefunctionsby selectingdifferentfil-
ter options(programs)dependingon the application[10].

Hlgh-Spead Modems
Reliableoperation(low bit errorrates)of high-speed(e.g.,?8.8-kbps)voicebandmo-
dems[tI] over the switchedtelephonenetworkrequiressophisticated modulation
techniques(describedin Chapter6) anttsophisticated signalconditioningreferredto
asadaptiveequalization.Theonly practicalway to implementthesefunctionsis with
DSPcircuitry.Referenceil21 describesan earlyapplicationof DSPto a 14,400-bps
modem.Reference[13] describes the useof DSPfor adaptiveequalizationof a 400-
Mbps digital radio.Previousdigital radiosusedanalogadaptiveequalizersbecause
they werecheaper.Very-high-ratedigital radiosrequiremoresophisticated equaliz-
ers,whichareeasierto implement(perhapsonly possible)with DSP.

Low-Bit-Rate Voice E ncodi n g

The realizationof low-bit-ratevoiceencodingalgorithmsdescribedin Chapter3 in-
volve$extensivenumericalprocessingto removeredundancyin the digitizedvoice
samples.DSPtechnologyis the only economicalmeansof implementingthesealgo-
rithmson a real-timebasis.References [14], [15], and[16] describeDSPimplemen-
tationsfor32-,16-, and4.8-kbps voicecoders, respectively. [17]describes
Reference
moreof the general theoryand applicationof DSP to voicecompression'
84 WHYDIGITAL?

2.3 DISADVANTAGES
OF DIGITALVOICENETWORKS
The first pafr of this chapterdiscussed the basictechnicaladvantages
of digital net-
works.To balancethe discussion, this sectionreviewsthe basictechnicaldisadvan-
tagesof digitalimplemenrarions aslistedin Table2.3.

2.3.1 IncreaeedBandwidth

In thebrief introductionto voicedigitizationpresented in Chapter1,mentionis made

thattransmission of samplesof ananalogwaveformrequiresno morebandwidththan
theunderlyingwaveform(at leastin theory).Thebandwidthexpansioncomeswhen
thesamplesareencodedintobinarycodesandffansmittedwith anindividualpulsefor
eachbit in the code.Thus a Tl systemrequiresapproximatelyeight timesas much
bandwidthasdo 24 analogvoicechannelssinceeachsampleis represented by an8-bit
codewordandeachbit is transmittedasa separate discretepulse.Althoughmoreso-
phisticateddigitizationalgorithmscanbe usedto encodevoiceat a lowerbit ratethan
thatusedon Tl systems(64 kbps),eventhemostsophisticated algorithms(described
in chapter3) cannotprovidecomparable voicequalitywithoutat leasta rwo-to-one
bandwidthpenalty.
In someportionsof theanalognetwork,suchasthelocalloops,thebandwidthin-
creasedid not represent muchof a penaltysincethe inherentbandwidthwas(andis)
underutilized. In long-haulradiosystems, however,bandwidthwasat apremium,and
digital systemswererelativelyinefficientin termsof the numberof voicechannels
provided.one mitigatingaspectof a digital radio systemis its ability to overcome
higherlevelsof noiseandinterference, which sometimes providescompensation for
the bandwidthrequirements, particularlyin congestedtransmissionenvironments
wheremutualinterference canbecomea limiting consideration [3]. The inherentro-
bustnessof a digital systemwith respectto interference is oneimportantattributeof
digitalcellularsy$tems describedin Chapter9.
Thebandwidthpenaltyimposedby voicedigitizationis directlydependenr on the
form of transmission codingor modulationused.With greatersophistication in the
modulation/demodulation equipment,greaterefficiencyin termsof the bit ratein a
givenbandwidthis achievable. Basically,greatertransmission efficiencyis achieved
by increasingthenumberof levelsin theline code.With limitedtransmitpower.how-
ever,thedistances betweendiscretesignallevelsin thereceiverarereduceddramati-

TABLE2.3 Dlsadvantagesof Digitallmplementatlona

1. Increasedbandwidth
2. Needfortimesynchronization
3. Topologically
restricted
muttiplexing
4. Needfor conference/extension
bridges
5. Incompatibilities
withanaloglacitities
 OFDIGITAL
2.3 DISADVANTAGES NETWORKS85
VOICE

cally. Thus, the transmitted signal is no longer as immune to noise And other imper-
fections as it is with lower information densities
Using a combination of advanceddigital modulation, lower rate digitization, and
error-correcting codes,point-to-point digital radios could provide voice channel effi-
ciencies comparableto or even better than analog microwave systems.Full develop-
ment along these Iines never occuffed, however, becausethe emergenceof optical
fiber transmission eliminated the incentive to do so.

2,3.2 Needfor TimeSynchronlzation

Wheneverdigitalinformationis transmittedfrom oneplaceto another,a timing ref-

erence,or "clock," is neededto controlthehansfer.Theclock specifieswhento sam-
ple the incomingsignalto decidewhich datavaluewas transmitted.The optimum
iampletimesusuallycorrespond to themiddleof thetransmittedpulses.Thus,for op-
timumdetection,the sample clock mustbe synchronized to thepulsearrivaltimes'In
general,thegeneration ofa local timing reference for detecting thedigitalsignalis not
aimcutt. Chapter4 discusses some of the design considerations neededto establish
propersampleclockingin the receiver of a digital transmission linft'
More subtleproblemsanse,however,whena numberof digitaltransmission links
andswitchesareinterconnected to form a network. Not only must the individualele-
mentsof thenetworkmaintaininternalsynchronization, but also certain networkwide
synchronization procedures mustbe established beforetheindividualsubsystems can
interoperate properly.Chapter7 discusses these basic network synchronization re-
quirements andimplementations.
Theneedfor someform of synchronization is not uniqueto digital nefivorks'Single'
sideband FDM transmission systemspresentsimilarrequirements for carriersynchro-
nization in analog networks.In analog sy$tems,however, the synchronization
requirements arelesscriticalby abouttwo ordersof magnitudeI I 8] '

2.3.3 Topologically Restricted Multlplexing

To the generalpublic,themostapparentuseof multiplexingis broadcastservicesfor

radioandtelevision.In thesesystemstheairspaceis sharedby usingFDM of individ-
ual broadcastchannels.With this systemthereare no operationalrestrictionsto the
geographic locationof transmittersandreceivers.As long asthetransmitters confine
theii emissionsto their assignedbandwidthandeachreceiveruses a sufficientlyse-
lective filter to passonly the desiredchannel,the networkoperates without mutual in-
terference.On the other hand, TDM is not nearly as amenable to applications
involvingdistributedsource$anddestinations. Sincethe time of ardvalof datain a
time slot is dependent on the distanceof havel, distributedTDM systemsrequirea
guardtime betweentime slots.FDM systemsalsorequireguardbands betweenthe
channelsto achieveadequate channelseparation. Thewidth ofthe FDM guardbands,
however,is not dependent on the geographiclocationof the transmitters.In a TDM
$ystemtheguardtimesmustbe increased asthegeographic separationbetweentrans-
 86 WHY DIGITAL?

mitters increases.Furthermore,eachtime division sourcemust duplicate the synchro-

nization and time slot recognition logic neededto operatea TDM $ystem.For these
reason$,TDM has been usedprimarily in applications(e.g., interoffice trunks) where
all of the information source$are centrally located and a single multiplexer controls
the occurrenceand assignmentof time slots.
Time division multiple access(TDMA) satellites and cellular systemsare exam-
ples of applicationsof TDM for distributed sources.These systemsuse sophisticated
synchronizationtechniquesso that each ground station or mobile unit times its hans-
mission to arrive at the satelliteor basestation at precisely defined times, allowing the
use of small guard times between time slots. Notice that these applications involve
only one destination; a satellite or a base station. If an application involves multiple,
distributed solurcesand destinatians (with transmissionin more than one direction),
larger guard times are unavoidable. Figure 2.5 shows such an application but uses
FDM insteadof TDM. The main engineeringconsiderationfor this systemis to ensure
that the FDM channelshave sufficient isolation to allow a high-powered sourceto be
adjacentto a receiverwith the worst-casereceivelevel. obviously, adequateFDM iso-
lation require$a certain amount of bandwidth overhead,but it is usually fairly easyto
design filters with adequateisolation for a large rangeofsignal levels so distancecon-
siderationsare minimized.

2.3.4 Needfor Conference/Extension

Brldges
The processof combining multiple analog signals to form a conferencecaII or func-
tion as multiple extensionson a single telephoneline can be accomplishedby merely
bridging the wire pairs togetherto superimposeall signals.Nowhere is this more con-
venient than when multiple extensions share a single two-wire line, as indicated in
Figure 2.6. When digitized voice signalsare combined to form a conference.either the
signals must be converted to analog so they can be combined on two-wire analog
bridges or the digital signals must be routed to a digital conferencebridge, as shown
in Figure 2.l.The digital bridge selectively adds the (four-wire) signals together (us-
ing digital signal processing)and routes separatesumsback to the confereesas shown.

FDM srbchrnnels

Multipoint
trmcni$ion
line

Figure 2.5 Frequencydivisionmultiplexingon distributedmultipointline,

 VOICENETWORKS 87
OF DIGITAL
E.3 DISADVANTAGES

to two-wireline'
connected
Figure 2.6 Analogtelephones

When conferencing is implemented in associationwith a switching system, the

needfor a digital conferencebridge is not much of a disadvantageand in fact can sig-
nificantly improve the quality of a conferenceby eliminating echoesand signal loss
causedby power division. However, when digital extensionsneedto have their signals
combined so multiple extensionscan be active in a conversation,the need for a cen-
tralized bridge can be an onerousproblem. Residentialtelephonewiring typically fol-
lows a daisy-chain pattern, as indicated in Figure 2.6. Thus the need to rewire all
outlets and install a centralizedconferencebox is a significant impediment to the de-
ployment of digital station equipment in residential applications'

2.3.5 Incompatibllltieswith Analog Faclllties

Whendigital equipmentwas first usedin privateandpublic telephonenetworks,it

necessarilyprovidedstandard analoginterfacesto therestof thenetwork.Sometimes
theseinterfacesrepresented a majorcostof the digitat subsystem. The foremostex-
ampleof thissituationarosein digitalendoffices.Thestandard analogsubscriber loop
interfacedescribed in Chapter1 is particularlyincompatiblewith electronicswitching
machines (analog or digital).Anotheraspectof digital switchingthatcomplicates its
usein analogenvironments is the aftificial delayinserted by a typical digital mahix'
Both of theseaspectsof digital switchingarediscussed in Chapter5'
Oneway to eliminatethe problems with the analoginterface is to usedigital sub-
scriberloopsanddigital telephones. Unfortunately, the overwhelming investmentin
the loop plantfor analogtelephones complicates a widespread deployment of digital
subscriLer equipment.Most notableof thelong-established Practices that complicate

Digital
Conference
Bridge

bridgefor digitaltelephones.
Figure 2.7 Useof conference
 88 WHYDIGITAL?

a transitionto digital loopsaresinglewire pairs,loadingcoils,bridgedtaps,-high-

resistance or intermittentsplices,and wiring gaugechanges.The digital subscriber
loop systemsdescribedin ChapterI I accommodate mostof the aboveimpediments
but do sowith very sophisticatedDSp circuip.

REFERENCES

I sft-15-76subscriberRadio,TechnicalDescription,
FarinonsR systems,euebec,
Canada,1977.
2 R. J. Hirvela,"The Applicationof computerconkolled pcM swirchingto Automatic
call Disfibution," IEEE communicafions ,sysfernsand Technology conference,
Dallas,TX, May 1974.
3 M. R. Aaron, "Digital communicarions-The silent (R)evorution?"IEEE
Communications Magafine,Jan.197g,pp. 16_26.
4 I. Nasell,"The lg62 survey of Noise and Loss on Toll connections."Bel/,svsrern
TechnicalJoumal,Mar. 1964,pp. 697-718.
5 Technical staff, Bell relephone L,aboratories, Transmission systems
for
communications, westem Electriccompany,winston-salem,North carolina. Feb.
1970.
6 H. J. Hindin, "LSI-BasedDataEncryptionDiscourages the Data Thief,,,Electronics.
June21, 1979,pp. 107-120.
7 N. S.Jayant,B. J. McDermott,s. w. chrisrensen, andA. M. Quinn,.-AComparison of
Four Methods for Analog speech Encryption," Intemational communication,
Conference Record,1980,pp. 16.6,l-16.6.5.
I A. GershoandR. steele,Ed., "specialIssueon Encryptionof Analogsignals,"rEEE
fournal on Selected Areasin Communicariorrs, May 19g4.
9 H. J. Bekerand F. Piper,"speechscrambring,"speechTechnology,Mar,/Apr. r9g7,
pp.40-45.
l0 A. Fukui andY. Fujihashi,"A single-chip,4-channelMFATFC/PBReceiver,"IEEE
GlobecomConference Remrd, 1987,pp. I 2.6.I - I 2.6.4.
II "A Modem
operatingat DatasignalingRatesUp to 2g,gfi)bpsfor use on rheGeneral
switchedTelephoneNetwork and on Leasedpoint-to-point2-wire Telephone_Type
Circuits,"ITU-T Rec.V.34, Geneva,Switzerland,Sept.1994.
12 T. Kamitake,K. uehara,M. Abe, and s. Kawamura,"rrellis coding 14.4kb/s Dara
ModemImplemented with a single-chip High-speedDigital signatilocessor,"rEEE
GlobecomConferenceRecord,I 987,pp. I 2.9.I - I 2.9.6.
13 H. Matsue,T. shirato, and K. watanabe,"256 eAM 400 Mb/s MicrowaveRadio
system with DSP Fading countermeasures," IEEE International conferenceon
Communications, I 988,pp.41.5.l-41.5.6.
14 J' L. so' "Implementarionon an NIC (Nearly Insrantaneous companding) 32 kbps
-
Transcoderusing the TMS320cz5 Digital signal hocessor," IEEE Globecom
ConferenceRecord,1988,pp. 43.4.1-43.4.5.
A bridg+'d tap is an unused pair of wires connected at some point to an in-use pair as alother
extension or
for possible future reassignment of a cable pair.
 REFEHENCES89

"softwareConsiderationsin theDesignof a 16
l 5 J. L. Dixon. V. Varma,andD. W. Lin,
kbps Speed Coder for a TDMA PortablePhone,"IEEE Globecom ConferenceRemrd,
1988,pp. 26.7.1-26.7 '5.
,.4.8kbit/s speechcodecusing AdvancedDigital signalhocessors
l 6 K. Irie ands. Iai,
(DSSP),'IEEE GlobecomConJbrente Record,1987,pp' 20'4't-20'4'5'
t7 M. E. Frerking, Digital signal in communitationssysterns,
Processing van Nostrand
Reinhold,New York, 1994'
l 8 J.E. Abate,E. W. Butterline,R. A. Carley,P' Greendyk,A' M. Montenegro, C' D' Near'
'?T&T's New Approachto thesynchronization of
s. H. Richman,andG. P. Zampetti,
Networks,"IEEE Comruunications Magazine, Apr. 1989' pp.
Telecommunication
35-45.
 VOICEDIGITIZATION

Becauseof the interestingnatureof the subjectandits usefulness in a varietyof ap-

plications,thefield of voicedigitizationhasbeen and continues to be anareaof intense
iesearch.This research hasproducedmanydifferent types of voice digitization algo-
rithms.Thechoiceof a particularUpe is primarily dependent on the implementation
costandtheperformance requirements impliedby theapplication.Thealgorithmcho-
senfor T1 ,yst*rn, (companded PcM) provides excellentqualityfor all typesof input
signals(e.g.,voiceor data)at a moderatedata rate (64 kbps)at whatwasoriginallya
*ia"tutt iost. The algorithmsusedin the first-generation digital PBXs usedlower
costcodingtechniques (higherratePCM or delta modulation) because, at thetime,a
switchingapplicationwasmoresensitiveto digitalconversion cost and less sensitive
to qualityorhatu rate.For example,the first digitalPBX in the United States, intro-
auceOUy Rolm Corporationin 1975,useduncompanded PCM at a data rate of 144
kbpsbecause it wasiheaperthancompanded PCM at thetime [1]. Subsequent adYan-
tagesderivedfrom integratingtransmissionand switchinganda dramatic"switching- drop in the
"o*t of Tl-.ompatibledigitalvoicecodershavemade obsolete the useof
only" voicedigitizationalgorithms.Because of high-volumeproduction, Tl-compatible
coder/decoder integratedcircuits(ICs) (codecs)canbe used in switching applications
withouta costpenalty.In fact,if thedigitalnetworkwere to be designed today, a more
complicatedbut economicallyviablecodecwith a dala rate significanfly below 64
kbpswouldprobablybe utilized.
Transmissions applicationswith strict bandwidthlimits suchas high frequency
(HF) or digitalcellularradiorequiremuchmoresophisticated voicedigitizationalgo-
rithmsto achievedatarateson theorderof 8-16 kbps'As a help in reducingthedata
rate,the performancerequirementsof theseapplications are also relaxedasmuch as
the applicationallows.
enotttet applicationfor digitizedvoice is voice storagesystems-eitherfor re-
cordedannouncements or for voicemessaging' Digital storageis particularlyapPro-
priatefor recorded€Innouncements becausethe playbackquality doesnot deteriorate
*ittt ti*" andindividualannouncements storedin memoryor on a compactdisc(CD)
canbe randomlyaccessed. SpeechStorage with limited memoryis an exampleof an
applicationthatcanu$every low ratedigitizationalgorithmswith significantquality
sl
 92 votcEDtctlzATtoN

reductions. The original speak-and-spell learning machine developed by Texas

In_
struments,for example, stored words with a few hundred bits per word, representing
a datarate of about 850 bps [z]. In a similar example requiring better quality rhe
same
encoding algorithm (LPC) was used in the voice Aleft sysrem of chrysler automo-
biles to store 20 secof speech(40 words) in 32,000 bits of read*only memory-a
data
rate of 1600bps [3].
The main reasonvoice messagingsystemsusedigital storageis to have random ac_
cessto the individual messages.To minimize $toragespace,these systemstypically
use 8*32-kbps data rates.
At the upper end of digital storageapplicationsarehigh-fidelity recordingsof voice
and music. Many of the sameadvantagesof digital transmission,as opposedto analog
transmission,also apply to digital recordings.Foremostamong theseadvantagesis
the
abiliry of defining the fideliry at the rime of recording and maintaining the quality
in_
definitely by periodically copying (regenerating)the digitally stored Informarion
be-
fore inevitable deterioration produces bit errors. Thus a high-quality (high-bit_rate)
digital recording of Bing crosby, Ervis presley, or Luciano pavarotti (depending
on
your taste in music) can be savedfor posterity. This feat could not be
accomplished
with analog recordings no matter how well cared for or preserved.As an example
of
high-fidelity audio recording, compact disc players [4] record two channelsof
audio
at 705 kbps each.
Speechanalysisand synthesismake up anotherareaofwidespread researchclosely
relatedto voice digitization. [n fact, some of the lowest bit rate voice encoders
and de-
coders use certain amounts of analysis and synthesisto digitatly representspeech.
In
its ultimate form, however, analysisand synthesishave unique goals ana
applications
fundamentally different from those of general voice digitization. Basically, goals
of
analysis and synthesis are to recognize words [5] or produce machine-generated
speech(e.g.,text-to-speech)[6].
one approachto analyzing speechis to processwaveforms with the intent
of rec-
ognizing speechphonemes-the basic units of speechfrom which spokenwords
are
constructed.once the phonemeshave been identified, they are assignedindividual
codewordsfor storageor transmission.A synthesizercan then genera:tespeechby re-
creating the combinations of phonemes.Analysis of this techniqueindicates that
the
information contentof speechcan be transmittedwith a datarate of 50 bps
[7]. It must
be emphasized,however, flrat what is hansmiftedis the information content
a$sociated
with the words themselves,not the more subjective qualities of speechsuch as
natu-
ralness,voice inflections, accents,and speakerrecognizability. Thus suchtechniques,
by themselves,are not applicable to general telephony, which customarily includes
qualities other than the messagecontent of spokenwords.
Efficient encoding of facsimile images presentssimilar opportunities and limita-
tions. Facsimile machinestypically scanat 200 dots per inch, which implies there
are
3.T4millionbitsofrawinformationonaB.5x ll-in.pieceof paper.If thepapercon-
tains only recognizabletext charactersat l0 charactersand 6 lines per inch,
the same
information can be encodedas 5610 ASCII characters,ot 3g,27obits, a savings
of al-
most 100 to I. Besidesbeing restricted to text-oriented messages,character-oriented
 3.1 PULSE
AMPLITUDE 93
MODULATIOru

encoding and decoding produces the same output character font independent of the
$ource (which could conceivably be hand written). Facsimile machines achieve one
significant level of coding efficiency without sacrificing tfansparencyby encoding
rhit" ,pu*" into run length codes. Although this does not reduce the number of bits
in a worst-case(random-dot) image, it greatly reducesthe number of bits in the aver-
age image of interesr. similar processing is possible in voice applications by effi-
ciently encoding silence. However, the voice problem is more complicated because
reat-time voice requires reconstructingthe temporal aspectsof the source,restricting
silence encoding to relatively large intervals'
Another level of speechanalysis involves the actual recognition of spokenwords.
High levels of successhave been achieved,with the two main restrictionsthat the sys-
tem is trained on the speakers and the speakers are trained to speak with isolated
goal
words. As an example of one implementation [8] that tries to achievethe ultimate
of speakerindependence,continuous speech,and large vocabularies,7l-96$o recog-
nition accuracyis possibledependingon the level of the grammar specified.(A gram-
mar defines allowed $equencesof words.)
Voice digitization techniquescan be broadly categorizedinto two classeslthose
digitally *n*ding analog waveforms as faithfully as possible and those processing
waveforms to encode only the perceptually signihcant aspectsof speech and hearing
processes.The first category is representativeof the general problem of analog-to-
iigitut *O digital-to-analog conversionsand is not restricted to speechdigitization.
The three most common techniquesused to encodea voice waveform are pulse code
modulation (PCM), differential PcM (DPCM), and delta modulation (DM)' Except
in special cases,telephoneequipment designedto transparenflyreproducean analog
waveform used one of thesetechniques.Thus, when studying these common wave-
form encoding techniques,we are, in fact, sfudying the more generalrealm of analog-
to-digital conversion [9].
The secondcategory of speechdigitization is concernedprimarily with producing
very low datarate speechencodersand decodersfor narrowbandtransmissionsystems
o. digitul storagedivices with limited capacity. A device from this special class of
techrr:iquesis commonly referred to as a'*vocoder" (voice coder)' Very low data rate
1e.g.,t-ZOO-Ups) vocoder techniquesgenerally produce unnatural or synthetic sound-
gen-
ing speech.As such, low-data-ratevocodersdo not provide adequatequality for
eral telephony.
A great deal of effort has been expendedto develop medium-rate (e.g.' 8-kbps)
voice coders with natural speechqualities, primarily for digital cellular applications'
These coders are implemented as a combination or hybrid of the low-bit-rate tech-
niques and the waveform coders. Thus, these techniquesrepresenta third class of
voice digitization algorithm.

MODULATION
3.1 PULSEAMPLITUDE
is to establish
waveform
Thefirst$tepin digitizingananalog timesat
a setof discrete
which the input signal waveform is sampled. hevalent digitization techniques are
 94 votcEDtetTtzATtoN

basedon theuseof periodic,regularlyspacedsampletimes.If thesamples occuroften

enough,the original waveformcan be completelyrecoveredfrom the samplese-
or "smoothout,"betweenthesampleval-
quenceusinga low-passfilter to interpolate,
ues. Thesebasic conceptsare illustratedin Figure 3.1. A representative analog
waveformis sampledat a constantsamplingfrequency/,= IIT andreconstructed us_
ing a low-passfilter. Notice that the samplingprocessis equivalentto amplitude
modulationof a constant-amplitude pulsetrain.Hencethe techniqu"representedin
Figure3.1 is usuallyreferredto asa pulseamplitudemodulationqr,lvlr.

3.1.1 Nyqulst Sampting Rate

A classicalresulrin samplingsysrems
wasestablished
in 1933by HarryNyquistwhen
he derivedthe minimumsamplingfrequencyrequiredto extractall informationin
a
continuous,time-varyingwaveform.This result-the Nyquistcriterion-is defined
by therelation

l, > (2xBw)
wheref = samplingfrequency
BW = bandwidthof inpursignal

Thederivationof this resultis indicatedin Figure3.2,whichportraysthe$pectrumof

theinputsignalandtheresultingspectrumof thepAM pulsetrain.ThepAM spectrum
canbe derivedby observingthata continuoustrainofimpulseshasa frequencyspec-
ffum consistingof discreteterm$at multiplesof the samplingfrequency.The input
signalamplitudemodulatesthesetermsindividually.Thusa double-sideband spec-
trum is producedabouteachof the discretefrequencytermsin the spectrumof the
pulsetrain. The originalsignalwaveformis recoveredby a low-passfilter designed
to removeall but theoriginalsignalspectrum. As shownin Figure3.2,thereconstruc_
tive low-passfilter musthavea cutoff frequencythat lies betweenBW andf, - Bw.
Hence,separation is only possibleiff, - Bw is grearerthanBW (i.e.,iffr > zBw).

PAM samplet

Irtllt,,,,,

Lour-Fa$
filter

Figure 3.1 Pulseamplitudemodulation.

 MODULATIOI'I 95
3.1 PULSEAMPLITUDE

Inpultpectrum
/ | \

Output filter

B w \ t ,
/.-sw

Figure3.2 Spectrumof PAM signal.

3.1.2 FoldoverDietortion

If the input wavefonnof a PAM systemis undersampled (f, < zBw), the original
waveformcannotberecovered withoutdistortion.As indicatedin Figure3.3,thisout-
put distortionarisesbecausethe frequencyspectrumcenteredaboutthe samplingfre-
qo"o"y overlapsthe original spectrumand cannot be separatedfrom the original
"folded" backon
spectrumby filtering. Sinceit is a duplicateof the input specffum
top of thedesiredspecrumthatcausesthedistortion,this typeof $amplingimpairment
"foldoverdistortion'"
is oftenreferredto as
In essence,foldoverdistortionproducesfrequencycomponent$ in the desiredfre-
quencybandthatdid notexistin theoriginalwaveform.Thusanothertermfor thisim-
prrrn""t is "aliasing."Aliasing problemsare not confinedto speechdigitization
pr*rrr"r. Thepotentialfor aliasingis presentin anysampledatasystem.Motionpic-
iuretaking,for example,is anothersamplingsystemthatcanproducealiasing.A com-
mon exampleoccurswhenfilming movingstagecoaches in old Westems-Oftenthe
samplingprocessis too slow to keepup with the stagecoach wheelmovements, and

Distortionenergy

-BW BW -3f" -2f

Input
tpeclrum

Figure 3.3 Foldoverspectrumproducedby undersamplingan input,

 96 VOICEDIGITIZATION

2 . 5k H z

Figure 3.4 Aliasingof 5.5-kHzsignalinto a 2.5-kHzsignal.

spuriousrotation ratesareproduced.If the wheel rotates355" betweenframes,it looks

to the eye as if it has moved backward 5".
Figure 3.4 demonstratesan aliasing processoccurring in speechif a 5.5-kHz signal
is sampled at an 8-kHe rate. Notice that the sample values are identical to those ob-
tained from a 2.5-kHz input signal. Thus after the sampled signal passesthrough the
4-kHz output filter, a 2.5-wlz signal arisesthat did not come from the source.This
exampleillustratesthat the input must be bandlimited, hefore sampling, to remove fre_
quency terms greater than j,[, even if thesefrequency terms are ignored (i.e.,
are in-
audible) at the destination.Thus, a complete pAM system,shown in Figure 3.5, must
include a bandlimiting filter before sampling to ensurethat no spuriousor source-re-
lated signals get folded back into the desired signal bandwidth. The input filter of a
voice codec may also be designedto cut off very low frequenciesto remove 60-cycle
hum from power lines.
Figure 3.5 shows the signal being recoveredby a sample-and-holdcircuit that pro-
duces a staircaseapproximation to the sampled waveform. With use of the staircase
approximation, the power level of the signal coming out of the reconstructivefilter is
nearly the same as the level of the sampled input signal. The respon$eof the recon-
structive filter, in this case,must be modified somewhatto account for the spectrum
of the wider "staircase" samples.(The modification amountsto dividing the..flat" fil-
ter spectrumby the spectrumof the finite width pulse. SeeAppendix C.)
The bandlimiting and reconstructivefilters shown in Figure 3.5 are implied to have
ideal characteristics.*Since ideal filters are physically unrealizable,a practical imple-
mentation must consider the effects of nonideal implementations.Filters with realiz-
able attenuation slopes at the band edge can be used if the input signal is slightty
oversampled.
As indicated in Figure 3.2, when the sampring frequencyf is somewhargreater
than twice the bandwidth, the spectralbandsare sufficiently separatedfrom eachother
-An
id-ul filter is one with a frequency-independent time delay (linear phase), no attenuation
in the
passband(except as might be desired for pulse shaping),an arbitrarily
steepcutoff, and infinrte attenuation
everywhere in the stopband.
 g.t puLSEAMPLITUDE
MoDULATtotrt 97

,++ , r l l r , ,,,\ A=

SEmFle
cl(sk

PAMsYstem.
Figure3.5 End-to-end

canbe used.As an example,sampled

thatfilters with gradualroll-off characteristics
voicesystemstypicallyusebandlimitingfilterswith a 3-dBcutoffaround3.4kHz and
a samplingrateof 8 kHz.Thusthesampledsignalis sufficientlyattenuated attheover-
lap frequencyof 4 kFIzto adequatelyreducetheenergylevel of thefoldoverspectrum.
Figure3.6 showsa filter templatedesignedto meetITU-T recommendations for out-
of-bandsignalrejectionin PCM voicecoders.Noticethat 14dB of attenuation is pro-
videdat 4kllz.

'/L

-r0
6'
.= -tl
t'

-t0

''ff.t::.:!:i
-tl
-lo

.10 r-
1.00 {000
rnqurrrcy (Hz)

for PCM
Figure 3.6 Bandlimiting filter templatedesignedto meetITU-T recommendations
voicecoders.
 98 VOICE DIGITIZATION

As mentioned in chapter l, the perceived quality of a voice signal is not greatly

dependentupon the phaseresponseof the channel(the relative delay of individual fre-
quency components).For this reason the phaseresponsesof the bandlimiting filters
in the encodersand the smoothing filters in the decodersare not critical. Nonlinear
phaseresponsesin thesefilters, however, do impact high-rate voiceband data signals
when digitized. Hence a somewhatparadoxical situation ariseswhen voicebanddata
are transmittedover a T-carrier line: the processof converting the voicebanddata sig-
nal (28,8ffi bps typical maximum) to a virtually error free 64-kbps digital signal
causesdistortion in the lower rate data signal. However, becauseofregeneration the
transmissionprocessitself does not add to the signal degradation.
By interleaving the samplesfrom multiple sources,pAM systemscan be used to
sharea transmissionfacility in a time division multiplex manner.As previously men-
tioned, PAM systemsare not generally useful over long distancesowing to the vul-
nerability of the individual pulses to noise, distortion, intersymbol interference,and
crosstalk.* Instead, for long-distance transmission the pAM samples are converted
into a digital format, thereby allowing the use of regenerative repeaters to remove
transmissionimperfections before errors result.

3.2 PULSECODEMODULATION
The preceding section describespulse amplitude modulation, which uses discrete
sample times with analog sample amptitudesto extract the information in a continu-
ously varying analog signal. Pulse code modulation (pcM) is an extension of pAM
wherein eachanalog samplevalue is quantizedinto a discretevalue for representation
as a digital codeword. Thus, as shown in Figure 3.7, a pAM systemcan be convefied
into a PCM system by adding an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter at the source and
a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter at the destination. Figure 3.9 depicts a typical
quantizationprocessin which a set ofquantization intervals is associatedin a one-to-
one fashion with a binary codeword. All sample values falling in a particular quanti-
zation interval are representedby a single discrete value located at the center of the
quantization interval. In this manner the quantization process introduces a certain
amount of error or distortion into the signal samples.This error, known as quantiza-

PAM rampler

Digitally
encoded

Sdmple to
clock digital

Figure 3.7 Pulsecodemodulation.

'As
discussed in Chapter I 1 the emergence of sophisticated DSP equalization algorithms in V,90 modems
enablesPAM ransmission on analog subscriberloops.
 3.2 PULSECODEMODULATION 99

of analogsamples'
Figure 3.8 Quantization

tion noise,isminimized by establishinga large number of small quantizationintervals.

Of course, as the number of quantization intervals increases,so mu$t the number of
bits increaseto uniquely identify the quantization intervals.

3.2.1 QuantizationNoise

A fundamental aspectof the design and developmentof an engineeringproject is the

need for analytical measuresof systemsperformance.Only then can a systembe ob-
jectively measuredand its cost effectivenesscomparedto alternatedesigns.One of the
measuresneededby a voice communicationengineeris the quality of speechdelivered
to the listener. Measurementsof speechquality are complicated by subjective aftrib-
utes of speechas perceivedby a typical listener. One subjectiveaspectofnoise or dis-
tortion on a speech signal involves the frequency content, or spectrum, of the
disturbancein conjunction with the power level. Theseeffects of noise as a function
of frequency are discussedin Chapter I with the introduction of C-messageand
psophometricweighting.
Successivequantizationerrors of a PCM encoderare generally assumedto be dis-
tributed randomly and uncolrelated to each other. Thus the commutative effect of
quantizationerrors in a PCM systemcan be treatedas additive noise with a subjective
effect that is similar to bandlimited white noise. Figure 3.9 shows the quantization
noi$e as a function of signal amplitude for a coder with uniform quantizationintervals'
Notice that if the signal has enough time to change in amplitude by several quantiza-
tion intervals, the quantization errors are independent.If the signal is oversampled
(i.e., sampledmuch higher than the Nyquist rate), successivesamplesare likely to fall
in the sarneinterval, causing a loss of independencein the quantizationerrors'
The quantization elror or distor"tioncreatedby digitizing an analog signal is cus-
tomarily expresseda$ an averagenoise power relative to the averagesignal power.
Thus the signal-to-quantizing-noiseratio (SQR, also called a signal-to-distortionratio
or a signal-to-noiseratio) can be determinedas
 100 votcEDtctlzAloN

o
o

lnput amplitude
Ouantization
error

Figure 3.9 Quantizationelror as a function of amplitude over a range of quantization

intervals.

sQR=
Etfu)l (3.1)
-r(r)12}
E{Ly(r)
whereE{.} = expectation or averaging
x(t) = srulo* input signal
y(t) = decodedoutputsignal

In determiningtheexpectedvalueofthe quantization
noise,threeobservations
are
necessary:

l. The errory(r) - x(r) is limited in amplitudeto 4/?, whereq is theheightof the

quantizationinterval.(Decodedoutput samplesare ideally positionedat the
middleof a quantizationinterval.)
2' A samplevalueis equallylikely to fall anywherewithin a quantization interva1,
implyinga uniformprobabilitydensityof amplitudel/q.
3. signal amplitudesare assumedto be confinedto the maximumrangeof the
coder.If a samplevalueexceedstherangeof the highestquantizationinterval,
overloaddistortion(alsocalledpeaklimiting) occurs.

If we assume(for convenience)
a resistance
level of I o, the averagequantization
noisepoweris determinedin AppendixA as

noir"po*er= d
Quantization (3.2)
fr
 3.2 PULSECODEMODULATIOT'|101

thequanti-
If all quantizationintervalshaveequallengths(uniformquantization),
zationnoise is independent of the values
sample and the SQRis determinedas*

lorogrot-+)
sQR(db)=

=10.8
+201"s,. (3.3)
FqJ
wherev is therms amplitudeof theinput.In particular,for a sinewaveinputtheSQR
producedby uniformquantization is

=rorogl,1w#)
(dB)
sQR

=7.78
+ro"*,. (3.4)
[+J
whereA is the peakamplitudeof the sinewave'

Exampte3.1. A sinewavewith a l-V manimumamplitr'rdeis to be digitizedwith

a minimumSQR of 30 dB. How many uniformly quantization
spaced intervalsare
to
needed,andhow manybits areneeded encodeeach sample?

Solution. Using Equation3.4, the maximum size of a quantizationinterval is

determinedas

q = (l)10{3F7'78)/20

= 0,078V

Thus 13 quantizationintervalsareneededfor eachpolarity for a iotal of 26 intervals

in atl. Thenumberof bitsrequiredto encodeeachsampleis determinedas

trl = lo9r(26)= 4.7 = 5 bits per sample

Whenmeasuringquantizationnoisepower,the spechalcontentis oftenweighted

in the samemannerasnoisein an analogcircuit.Unforhrnately,spectrallyweighted
do not alwaysreflect the h.ueperceptualquality of a voice en-
noise measurements
.The
SeRs commonly compaxe unfiltered decoder outputs to unfiltered quantization errors. In actual
practice, the decoder output filterreduces the power level ofboth the signal and the noise. The noise power
ixperiences a greater feduction than the signal power, since the uncorrelated noise samples have a wider
spectrum than the corelated voice samples. Thus filtered signal-to-noise ratios are usually higher thal the
values calculated here by l-2 dB'
 102 votcEDlctlzATtoN

coder/decoder.If the spectraldistribution of the quantization noise more or less fol-

lows the $pectralcontent of the speechwaveform, the noise is masked by the speech
and is much less noticeable than noise uncorrelatedto the speech[l0l. on the other
hand, ifthe quantizationprocessproducesenergy at voicebandfrequenciesother than
those contained in particular sounds,they are more noticeable.
High-quality PCM encodersproduce quantization noise that is evenly distributed
acrossvoice frequenciesand independentof the encodedwaveforms. Thus quantiza-
tion noise ratios defined in Equation 3.4 are good measuresof pcM performance.In
some of the encoders discussed later (vocoders in particular), quantization noise
power is not very useful. Referencestgl, I I I l, and I I z] describeother measuresof en-
coder speechquality providing bettercorrelationsto quality asperceivedby a listener.

3-2.2 ldle ChannelNoise

Examination of Equations 3.3 and 3.4 reveals that the SeR is small for small sample
values.In fact, as shown in Figure 3.10, the noise may actually be greaterthrurthe sig-
nal when samplevaluesare in the first quantizationinterval. This effect is particularly
bothersomeduring speechpausesand is known as idle channelnoise. Figure 3.I t de-
picts one method of minimizing idle channel noise in pCM systemsby establishinga
quantizationinterval that straddlesthe origin. In this caseall samplevaluesin the cen-
tral quantization interval are decodedas a constantzero output. pCM systemsofthis
type usean odd number of quantizationintervals sincethe encodingrangesof positive
and negative signals are usually equal.
The quantization characteristicsrequired to produce the output waveforms shown
in Figures3.10 and 3.ll are shown in Figures3.12 and 3.13, respectively.The first
characteristic(midriser) cannot produce a zero output level. The secondcharacteristic
(midtread) decodesvery low signalsinto constant,zero-level outputs. However, if the
signal amplitude is comparableto the size of the quantization interval or if a dc bias
exists in the encoder,midtread quantization will produce about as much idle channel
noise as midriser quantization.
As mentioned in chapter l, noise occurring during speechpausesis more objec-
tionable than noise with equivalent power levels during speech.Thus idle channel

2.0

r.0

-1.0

-2.O

Figure 3.10 Idle channelnoiseproducedby midriserquantization.

 3.2 PULSECODEMODULATION 103

Figure 3.ll Elimination of idle channel noise by midtread quantization.

noiseis specifiedin absolutetermsseparate from quantizationnoise,whichis speci-

fied relativeto the signallevel.For example,Bell systemD3 channelbankspecifica-
tionslist themaximumidle channelnoiseas23 dBmCO[13].

3.2.3 Uniformly Encoded PCM

An encoderusingequal-length quantizationintervalsfor all samplesproducescode-

wordslinearlyrelatedto the analogsamplevalues.Thatis, the numericalequivalent
of eachcodewordis proportionalto the quantizedsamplevalueit represents. In this
mamera uniformPCM sy$temusesa conventional converterto gen-
analog-to-digital
eratethe binarysamplecodes.The numberof bits requiredfor eachsampleis deter-
minedby the maximumacceptable noisepower.Minimum digitizedvoice quality
ratioin excessof 26 dB [ 14].For a uniformPCM systemto
requiresa signal-to-noise
achievea sQR of 26 dB, Equation3'4 indicatesthat4*o = 0' l23A' For equalpositive
andnegativesignalexcursions(encodingfrom -A to A), this resultindicatesthatjust
over l6 quantizationintervals,or 4 bits per sample,arerequired.*

Flgure 3.12 Midriserquantizercharacteristic.

.This
SeR objective is for minimum acceptable perform$nce and assumesall degadations occur in a sin gle
encoder, If additional sigrral impairments occur (such as multiple A/D conversions), the encoder must use
more bits to ptovide noise margin for other elements in the network.
 104 votcEDtctTtzATtoN

Figure3.13 Midtread
quantizer
characteristic.

In additionto providingadequatequalityfor smallsignals,a telephonesystemmusr

be capableof transmittinga largerangeof signalampritudes,referredto asdynamic
range.Dynamicrange(DR) is usuallyexpressed in decibelsastheratio of themaxi-
mum amplitudesignalto the minimum amplitudesignal:

DR=
to**,.fts] ffirn
\_ /

=zorog,oti"_il (3.s)

A typicalminimumdynamicrangeis 30 dB tt4l. Thussignalvaluesas largeas 3l

timesA mustbe encodedwithoutexceedingthe rangeof quantizationintervals.As-
sumingequallyspacedquantizationintervalsfor uniformcoding,thetotalnumberof
intervalsis determinedas496,whichrequires9-bit codewords.*
Theperformance of ann-bit uniformPCM systemis determinedby observingthat
M*^*
q =-T - (3.6)
whereA.u* is the manimum(nonoverloaded)amplitude.
substitutingEquation3.6into E4uation3.4producesthepcM performance
equa-
. tion for uniformcoding:

seR=116+6.ozn+
2olog,o (3.7)
t^*l
This rcsult is derived with the assumption of minimum performance requirements. Higher performance
objectives (less quantization noise and grcater dynamic range) require as many as I 3 bits per sample for
uniform PCM systems. This coding performance was established when it was likely that multiple
conversions would occur in an end-to-end connection. Now that the possibility of multiple ArD and D/A
conversionshas been eliminated, end-to-endvoice quality is much better than it was in the analog network,
 3.2 PULSE
CODE 105
MODULATIoN

Thefirst two termsof Equation3.7providetheSQRwhenencodinga full-rangesine

wave.Thelasttermindicatesa lossin SQRwhenencodinga lowerlevelsignal.These
relationships in Figure3.14,which showsthe SQRof a uniformPCM
arepresented
sy$temasa functionof thenumberof bits per sampleandthe magnitudeof an input
sinewave.

Example3.2. What is the minimumbit rate that a uniform PCM encodermust

provideto encodea high-fidelityaudiosignalwith a dynamicrangeof 40 dB?Assume
the fidelity requirements dictatepassageof a 20-kHz bandwidthwith a minimum
signal-to-noise sinusoidalinput signals'
ratio of 50 dB. For simplicity,as$ume

Solutinn. To preventfoldoverdistortion,the samplingratemustbeat least40 kHz.

Assuminganexcesssamplingfactorcomparable to thatusedin D-typechannelbanks
(4000/3400),we choosea samplingrateof 48 kHz as a compromisefor a practical
bandlimitingfilter. By observingthata full-amplitudesignalis encodedwith an SQR
of 40 + 50 = 90 dB, we canuseEquation3.7to determinethenumberof bitsn required
to encodeeachsample:

90 - 1.76
'"
n - G
6.02

= 15 bits

Thustherequiredbit rateis
(15 bits/sampleX48,O00 = 720kbps
samples/sec)

e
[ *
so
t
EI
.E 40
E
F

o
Teo
o
c
a

- 40 -30 -20 - l0
A/A6.\ (dB)

Figure 3.14 SQRof uniformPCM coding.

106 vorcEDlcrrzATroN

3.2.4 Companding
In a uniform PCM systemthe size of every quantization interval is determinedby the
SQR requirement of the lowest signal level to be encoded.Larger signals are also en-
coded with the same quantization interval. As indicated in Equation 3.7 and Figure
3.14, the SQR increaseswith the signal amplitudeA. For example, a Z6-dB SeR for
small signals and a 30-dB dynamic range producesa 56-dB SQR for a maximum-
amplitude signal. In this manner a uniform PCM system provides unneededquality
for large signals.Moreover, the large signalsarethe leastlikely to occur. For theserea-
sonsthe code spacein a uniform PCM systemis very inefficiently utilized.
A more efficient coding procedureis achievedif the quantization intervals are not
uniform but allowed to increasewith the sample value. When quantization intervals
are directly proportional to the sample value, the SQR is constantfor all signal levels.
with this technique fewer bits per sample provide a specified seR for small signals
and an adequatedynamic rangefor large signals.When the quantizationintervals are
not uniform, a nonlinear relationship exists between the codewords and the samples
they represent.
Historically, the nonlinear function was first implemented on analog signalsusing
nonlinear devices such as specially designeddiodes [15]. The basic processis shown
in Figure 3.15, where the analog input sample is f,rrstcompressedand then quantized
with uniform quantizationintervals.The effect of the compressionoperationis shown
in Figure 3.16. Notice that successivelylarger input signal intervals are compressed
into constant-lengthquantizationintervals. Thus the larger the samplevalue, the more
it is compressedbefore encoding. As shown in Figure 3.15, a nonuniform PCM de-
coder expandsthe compressedvalue using an inversecompressioncharacteristicto re-
cover the original samplevalue. The processof first compressingand then expanding
a signal is referred to as compandlng. when digitizing, companding amounts to as*
signing small quantization intervals to small samplesand large quantization intervals
to large samples.
various compression-expansion characteristics can be chosen to implement a
compandor.By increasingthe amount of compression,we increasethe dynamic range
at the expenseof the signal-to-noiseratio for large-amplitude signals. one family of
compression characteristicsused in North America and Japan is the p-law charac-
teristic, defined as

Compressed
digital
codewords
Compre$ion Lin6ar Linear Expansion
PCM PCM
encoder decoder

Figure 3.15 Companded

PCM with analogcompression
andexpansion.
 g,E PULSE
coDEMoouLATtoN 107

rot t
E

E t*rt
9 E
E",,'8
oro$

Input sfirple vrlus

Figure 3.16 Typicalcompression

characteristic.

..ln(l+ULtl)
Fr(r)=sen(x) (3.8)
ffi[y
wherex = input signalamplitude( -1 {x { 1)
sgn(x) = polarity ofx
F = pllrameter used to defirneamount of compression

Becauseof the mathematicalnatureof the compressioncurve, compandedPCM is

sometimes referred to as log-PCM. A logarithm compression curve is ideal in the
sensethat quantizationintervals and, hence,quantizationnoise are proportional to the
sample amplitude. The inverse or expansioncharacteristicfor a p-law compandor is
defined as

F'r(v):'s"0) +p;rrr-
1, (3.e)
[iJr(1
where ) = thecompressedvalue,=Fp(x)(-l < y < l)
-
$gn(y) polarityofy
F =' compandingparameter
Thefirst T-carrjersystemsin theUnitedStatesusedDl channelbanks[16], which
approximated Bquation3.8 for F = 100.The compression and expansionfunctions
wereimplemented with thespeciallybiaseddiodesmentionedpreviously.Figure3.17
depictsa blockdiagramof a Dl channelbank.Noticethatthetimedivisionmultiplex-
ing anddemultiplexingfunctionsareimplemented on analogPAM samples. Thusthe
compandingandencoding/decoding functionsweresharedby all 24 voicechannels.
108 vorcEDtetT|zATtoN

-+E Tl transmirsion
line

Analog I
a
Inpuli t

Bandlimiting
filterB

Figure 3.17 Functionalblock diagramof Dl channelbank.

The ability to sharethis relatively expensive equipment was one of the reasonsthat
PCM was originally chosenas the meansof digitally encoding speech.subsequentde-
velopment of integratedcircuit PCM codecsdiminished the need to sharethis equip-
ment, Thus later generation$ystemscould use per-channelcodecsand provide more
flexibility in implementing various $ystemsizes.when most of the cost of a channel
bank is in the common equipment,as in the original channelbanks,lessthan fully pro-
visioned sy$temsare overly expensive.
Each sample produced by a Dl channel bank was encodedinto 7 bits; I polarity
bit and 6 compressedmagnitude bits. In addirion, I signaling bit was added to each
channel to produce an 8-bit codeword for eachtime slot. since the sampling rate was
I kHz, a 64-kbps channelresulted. Even though the Dl channel banks have been su*
percededby newer channel banks utilizing a different coding format, the 64-kbps
channel rate has persistedas a standard.

3.2.5 Eaeily Dlgltally LinearlzabteGoding

The success of the flrst Tl sy$temsfor interofficeexchangeareatransndssion paved

thewayfor fuftheruseof digitaltimedivisionmultiplexsystems. As it becameappar-
ent that digital transmission wasusefulwithin the toll network,it alsobecameclear
thattheform of PCM encodingusedin theDl channelbankswasinadequate. In con-
trastto the exchangearea,an end-to-endconnectionthroughthe toll networkcould
haveconceivablyinvolvedasmmy asninetandemconnections. Sincedigitalswitch-
ing wasnot in existenceat the time that T-carier systemsfor the toll networkwere
beingdeveloped,eachof thesetandemconnection$ implied an extraDiA and A/D
 3,2 PULSE MODULATION109
CODE

conversion. Thus the quality of each conversion had to be improved to maintain the
desired end-to-endquality" The D2 channel bank [ 7] was therefore developedwith
improved digitized voice quality.
When the D2 channelbank was being developed,digital switching was recognized
as a coming technology, implying that channel banks would be paired on a dynamic
basis, as opposedto the one-to-onebasis in T-carrier systems.Thus a greater degree
of uniformity in companding characteristicswould be required to allow pairing of
channelbankson a nationwide basis.The main featuresincotporatedinto the D2 chan-
nel bank (and ensuingchannelbanks suchas D3, D4, and D5) to achievethe improved
quality and standardization are:

L Eight bits per PCM codeword

2. Incorporation of the companding functions directly into the encoder and
decoder
3. A new companding characteristic(p255)

TheDl channelbanksuseI bit pertimeslotfor signalingand7 bitsfor voice.Thus

a signalingrateof 8 kbpswasestablished, which wasmorethannecessary for basic
voiceservice.To providea higherdataratefor voice,signalingbetweenD2 andall
subsequent channelbanksis insertedinto the leastsignificantbit positionof 8-bit
code-words in everysixthframe.Thuseverysixthp255PCM codewordcontainsonly
7 bits of voiceinformation,implying that the effectivenumberof bits per sampleis
actually7f bits insteadof 8. Theuseof 1 bit in everysixthframefor signalingis often
referredto as"robbedbit signaling."Whencommon-channel signalingis utilized,the
associated T-carriersystemsno longerneedto carrysignalinginformationon a per-
channelbasisanda full I bits of voicecanbe transmittedin everytime slot of every
foame.
The compression andexpansioncharacteristics of theDl channelbankswereim-
plementedseparatelyfrom theencodersanddecoders.The D2 charurelbankincorpo-
ratesthe companding operationsinto theencodersanddecoders themselves. In these
channelbanksa resistorarrayis usedto establisha sequence ofnonuniformlyspaced
decisionthresholds. A samplevalueis encodedby successively comparingtheinput
valueto thesequence ofdecisionthresholds until theappropriatequantization interval
is located.Thedigitaloutputbecomes whatevercodeis usedto represent theparticular
quantizationinterval.(SeeAppendixB for a detaileddescriptionofthe directencod-
ing procedure usedin theD? channelbanks.)By incotporatingthecompanding func-
tions directly into the encodersand decoders,D2 channelbanks avoid certain
problemsassociated with parametervariabilityand temperature sensitivityof com-
pandingdiodesin Dl channelbanks.
The D2 channelbanksalsointroducedimprovedperformancein termsof theeffect
of channelerrorson thedecodedoutputs.Of paramountconcernin a PCM systemis
theeffectof a channelenor in themostsignificantbit positionof a codeword.Bit er-
rorsin otherpositionsof a codewordaremuchlessnoticeableto a listener.A channel
errorin themostsignificantbit of a codewordproducedby a Dl channelbankcauses
anoutputerrorthatis alwaysequalto one-halfof theentirecodingrangeof thecoder'
11O Vo|cEDIGITIZATIoN

The D2 channel bank, on the other hand, usesa sign-magnitudecoding format. With
this format, a channel error in the polarity bit causesan output error that is equal to
twice the samplemagnitude (i.e., the polarity is inverted). In the worst casethis enor
may correspondto the entire encoding range.Maximum-amplitude samplesare rela-
tively rare, however, so most channel error$ in a D2 coding format produce outputs
with error magnitudeslessthan one-half the coding range.Thus, on average,the sign-
magnitude coding format of the D2 and ensuingchannelbanks provide superior per-
formance in the presenceof channel enors I I 7].
In addition to a need for improved voice quality, it also became apparentthat as
more of the network beganusing digital techniques,it would be necessary,or at least
desirable,to implement many signal processingfunctions directly on digital signals
and not convert them to an analogformat for processing.Most signal processingfunc-
tions (such as attenuating a signal or adding signals together) involve linear opera-
tions. Thus before processinga log-PCM voice signal, it i$ necessaryto convert the
compressedtransmissionformat into a linear (uniform) format.
To simplify the conversion process,the particular companding characteristicwith
F =255 was chosen.This compandingcharacteristichas the property of being closely
approximatedby a set of eight straightJine segmentsalso refened to as chords. Fur-
thermore,the slopeof eachsucces$ivesegmentis exactly one-half the slopeof the pre-
vious segment.The flust four segmentsof a p255 approximation are shown in Figure
3.I8. The overall result is that the larger quantization intervals have lengths that are
binary multiples of all smaller quantizationintervals.Becauseof this properly, a com-
pressedcodeword is easily expandedinto a uniform representation.Similarly, the uni-
form representationis easily converted into a compressedrepresentation.*In fact,
commercially availablePCM codecsdigitally compressuniform codewordsinsteadof
using direct compressedencoding, as in the D2 channel banks. These techniquesuse
a uniform encoderwith a relatively large number of bits to cover the entire dynamic
rangeof the signal. As describedin Appendix B, the leastsignifrcantbits of large sam-
ple values are discardedwhen compressingthe code. The number of insignificant bits
deletedis encodedinto a specialfield included in the compressed-codeformat. In this
mannerdigital compandingis analogousto expressinga number in scientific notation.
As shown in Figure 3.18, each major segmentof the piecewise linear approxima-
tion is divided into equally sizedquantizationintervals. For 8-bit codewordsthe num-
ber of quantization intervals per segment is 16. Thus an 8-bit p255 codeword is
composedof I polarity bit, 3 bits to identify a major segment,and 4 bits for identifying
a quantizing interval within a segment.Table 3.1 lists the major segmentendpoints,
the quantization intervals, and tlre corresponding segment and quantization interval
codes.
The quantization intervals and decodedsample values in Table 3. I have been ex-
pressedin terms of a maximum-amplitude signal of 8159 so that all segmentendpoints
and decoderoutput$are integers.Notice that the quantizing stepis doubled in eachof
'The
inexorable advance of semiconductor technology has obviated much of the ingenuity that weflt into
selecting EDL coding fbrmats. Brute-force table look-up conversion between codes using read-only
memories (ROMs) is now the most cost-effective approach,
 3.2 PULSE
coDEMoDULAToN 111

o
.9
ll

$
E
ET
E

31 95 223 478
Lineartignal

Flgure 3.18 First four segmentsof straight-line approximation to p255 compressioncurve.

eight successive linearsegments. It is this propertythat facilitatesthe conversionto

and from a uniform format.A completeencodingtableis providedin AppendixB
alongwith a detaileddescriptionofthe conversion processto andfrom uniformcodes.
The straight-lineapproximationof the p255 compandingcurvei$ sometimes re-
ferredto as a lS-segmentapproximation. The 15 segments arisebecause,although
thereare8 positive$egments and8 negativesegments, the2 segments nearesttheori-
gin arecolinearandthereforecanbe consideredas l. Whenviewedin this manner,
the middlesegmentcontains3l quantizationintervalswith I segmentstraddlingthe
origin (from -1 to +1 in Table3.1).Codewordsfor this middlequantizationinterval
ariseasa positivevaluelessthan+1 or a negativevaluegreaterthan-1. Thereare,in
effect,a positivezeroanda negativeeero.As represented in Table3.1,thesevalues
areencodedas00000000and 1ffi00000,respectively.However,p255 PCM codecs
invert all codewordsfor transmission. The smalleramplitudesignals,with mostly0
bits in the segmentcode,aremostprobableandwouldthereforecauseles$than50%
pulseson thetransmission line. Thedensityof pulsesis increased by inversionof the
transmitteddata,which improvesthe timing and clock recoveryperformanceof the
receiving circuitry in the regenerativerepeaters.Thus the actual transmittedcode-
wordscorrespondingtoapositivezeroandanegativezeroarerespectively 111111I1
and01111II 1, indicating strong timing content for the line signalof an idle channel.
ln the interestof ensuringclock synchronization in the Tl repeaters, p255 PCM
codecsaltertlrc ffansmitteddatain oneotherway.As indicatedin Table3.1,a maximum-
'
amplitudenegativesignalis all I s, whichwouldnormallybe convertedto all 0's for
I 12 vorcEDrcrrzATtoN

TABLE 3.1 Encodlng/Decoding Table for p2SSPCMd

Input
Amplitude Segment Quantization Decoder
Range Step Size Code S Code Q Code Varue Amplitude
0-1 0000
1-3 0001 2
3-5 000 0010 4
;
29-31 1111 30
31-35 0000 33
; 001
91-95 1111 9;
95-103 0000 99
010 :
21F.223 1111 219
2?3-239 0000 231
16 011
463479 rrir 471
479-511 0000 495
32 100
oEo-ool 1111 975
991-1 055 000 1023
64 101
r ss1-ZOrS 1111 1983
201ts2143 0000 2079
110
3935-4063 1111 111 3999
4063-431I 0000 112 4191
256 :
7903-8159 1111 127 8031
this tabledisplaysmagnitud€ Bncoding
only.Polarity a "0"forpositiveenda ,'1"fornegatlve.
bitser6a8signed
h transmissionell bitsareinverted.

transmission. Instead, for the all-0 codeword only, the second least significant bit is
setto I sothat00000010is transmitted. In effect,anencodingerroris producedto pre-
cludeanall-Ocodeword.Fortunately, maximum-amplitude samples areexffemelyun-
likely sothatno significantdegradation occurs.(If theleastsignificantbit wereforced
to a 1,a smallerdecodingerrorwouldresult.However,in everysixthframethisbit is
"stolen"for signalingpu{poses
andthereforeis occasionallysetto 0 independently of
thecodeword.To ensurethat "all-zero"codewordsarenevertransmitted. thesecond
leastsignificantbit is forcedto a I whennecessary.)

Example3.3. Determinethe sequenceof codewordsfor a p255 PCM encoded

channelbankformatrepresenting
a half-maximum-power
l-kHz digital signal.
 3,2 PULSE MODULATION113
CODE

Solution. Since the samplingrate of the standardp255 PCM channelbankis 8 kHz,

a sequenceof eight samplescan be repeatedin cyclic fashion to generatethe l-kHz
waveform. For convenience,the phasesof the samplesare chosento begin at 22.5o.
Thus the eight samplescorrespond to 22.5", 67 .5", II2.5o , l5'l .5", 202.5", 247.5",
292,.5",and 337.5o.With thesephases,only two different magnitudescoresponding
to 22.5oand 67.5' are required. The maximum amplitude of a half-maximum-power
sine wave is 0.707 x 8159 = 5768. Thus the two amplinrdescontained in the sample
sequencesare

.5")= 2207
(5768)sin(22 = 5329
(5768)sin(67.5o)

Using the encodingtablein AppendixB, we determinethe codesfor thesesample

magnitudes to be 1100001and1110100, Thesequence
respectively. of eightsamples
cannow be establishedasfollows:
SamplePhase
(deS) Polarity Segment Quantization

2 2 . 5 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
6 7 . 5 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
112.5 0 1 1 1 0 1 U 0
157.5 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
2 0 2 .1 51 1 0 0 0 1
247.5 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
2 9 2 .1 51 1 1 0 1 0 0
3 3 7 .1 51 1 0 0 0 0 1

Note: This sequence defines a 1-kHz test signal at a power l€v6l of 1 mW at the transmissionlevel
point (0 dBmo). However,the actualtransmltteddata patternis the complementof lhat provid6dabove.
because only two amplitudesamples are requiredto produce the test ton6, this tono does not test all
encoding/docodingcircuitry. In general, a 1004-Hztone is a better t6st tone since it is not harmonically
relatedto an 8000-Hzsamplingrate and will thereforeexerciseall encoder and decoder levels.

Pertormanceof ap255 PGM Encoder

As mentioned, the main motivation for changing the encoding algorithm of the Dl
channelbank was to provide better speechquality for digital toll network transmission
links. The SQR for a maximum-amplitude $ine wave in the first segmentof a p255
codec is determinedeasily from Equation 3.4 as

SQR(A: 31)= 7.78+ 20t"*r. [*l

\.- /

= 31.6dB

The SQRsfor largeramplitudesinusoidsare not as easyto calculatesincethe

lengthsof the quantizationintervalsvary with the samplesize.Thusa generalcalcu-
lationof thequantizingnoisepowerinvolvesfindingtheexpectedvalueof thepower
of the quantizationerrors;
114 VotcEDtctlzATtoN

7
. l _ (3.10)
power=;lW?
noise
r'4

wherep; = probabilityof a samplein ith segment

4; - quantizationsizefor segmenti, =!i+t for segmented
p255coding

UsingEquation3.10,we determinethe SQRpowerfor a full-rangesinusoidas

SQR(A= 8159)= 39.3dB

For comparison,if all quantizationintervalshadthemaximumlengthof 256asin

theuppersegment,trquation3.4providesan SQRof 37.8dB. Thedifferenceof only
1.5dB reflectsthefactthata full-scalesinewavespends67Voof thetime in theupper
segmentwherethequantizationintervalsaremaximum(i-e.,pt = 0.67).A voicesig-
nal,on theotherhand,hasa higherpeak-to-average ratiothana sinewave.Theaver-
agequantizationerroris smaller,but sois the averagesignalpower.Hencethe SQR
is approximatelythe same.
Thedynamicrangeof a segmented PCM encoderis determined asthesignalpower
differencebetweena low-levelsignaloccupyingtheentirerangeof the first segment
anda high-levelsignalextendingto thelimits of thecode.Thusthedynamicrangeof
a segmented 255coderis determinedas

DR(A= 3I toA = 8159)= 20log,o(8159/31)

= 48.4dB

In summary,an 8-bitp255PCM codecprovidesatheoreticalSQRgreaterthan30 dB

acrossa dynamicrangeof 48 dB. For comparison, Equation3.4or Figure3.14reveals
that a uniform PCM encoder/decoder requires13 bits for equivalentperformance.
(Theextraqualityof uniformencodingat high signallevelsis unneeded.)
Thetheoreticalperformance of an 8-bit segmented F255coderis shownin Figure
3.19asa functionof theamplitudeof a sinewaveinput.Also shownis thetheoretical
performance of an unsegmented p255 coderand a 7-bit plfi) coderusedin the Dl
channelbank.Noticethatthe 8-bit codersprovideabout5 dB improvementoverthe
7-bit coderfor high-levelsignalsandevenmoreimprovementfor low-levelsignals.
Theperformance shownfor the 8-bit codersdoesnot includetheeffectofusing only
7 bits for voice codingin everysixth frame.Whenthis effectis included,the B-bit
coderslose I.76 dB in performance.
Thescallopedeffectofthe segmented coderoccursbecause thequantizationinter-
vals changeabruptlyat the segmentendpointsinsteadof continuouslyasin analog
companding.AIso as shownin Figure3.19,notethe requiredperformance of a D3
channelbankandcodecsdesignedto meetthis specification[13]. This specification
assumesall noisemeasurements are madeusing C-message weighting.C-message
weightingreducestheeffectivenoiselevelby 2 dB andthereforeimprovestheSQR.
Thusan ideal 8-bit p255 coderactuallyexceedsthe specif,rcation by morethanthat
 3.2 PULSEcoDE MoDULATIoN 115

Full load rignal

= +3d8m0

:.E
g
o
,t
Unfiltered
E
o
pieccYviBe
'n linEdrI-258

E
3 Unfiltered
6 B-bir#-?55
-!
il
c
.gl
th

-50 -40 -30 -20

(dBm0l
Signalporrnrof rinewave

Figure 3.19 SQR of pJaw coding with sine wave inputs.

shownin Figure3.19.rilhen the leastsignificantbit of everysixth frameis usedfor

signaling,however,theSQRis reducedby a comparable1.76dB.

A-Law Compandlng
The compandingcharacteristic recommended by ITU-T for Europeandmost of the
restof the world is referredto asanA-law characteristic.This characteristic hasthe
samebasicfeaturesandimplementation advantagesasdoesthe p-law characteristic.
In particular,theA-law characteristic canalsobe well approximatedby shaight-line
segmentsto facilitatedirect or digital compandingandcanbe easilyconveltedto and
from a uniform format.ThenormalizedA-law compression characteristicis definedas

flSsn(Jl a u I|
. . |f------- 0<rxr<f
l" [1+ln(A)l
Fa(x)= i - ( 3 . 1l )
| . It+tntt.ll
i s-s n'( x- )[l -1- + l n ( A )| _ J
l. f*r*r<r
is definedas
Theinverseor expansioncharacteristic
116 votcEDtctlzAlor\

*entrluT@ o<ryr<*fu
F;t(v) = (3.12)
'*olT pFl(1+|fl(A)l-l

*fustvt(l
where y = F.A($ and A = 87.6.
Notice that the first portion of the A-law characteristicis linear by def,rnition.The
remaining portion of the characteristic(l/A < lxl < I) can be closely approximatedby
linear segmentsin a fashion similar to the trr-lawapproximation. In all, there are eight
positive and eight negative segments.The first two segment$of eachpolarity (four in
all) are colinear and thereforeare sometimesconsideredas one straight-line segment.
Thus the segmentedapproximation of the A-law characteristicis sometimesrefened
to as a "13-segment approximation." For easein describing the coding algorithms of
the segmentedcompanding characteristic,however, a ld-segment representationis
used,just as in the caseofthe segmentedp-law characteristic.
The segmentendpoints,quantization intervals, and correspondingcodesfor an 8-
bit segmentedAlaw characteristicare shown in Table 3.2. The values are scaled/o a
maximum value of 4096 for integral representations.Figure 3.?0 displays the theoreti-
cal performance of the Alaw approximation and compares it to the performance of a
p-law approximation presentedin Figure 3.19. Notice that the A-law characteristic
provides a slightly larger dynamic range.However, theAJaw characteristicis inferior
to the p-law characteristicin terms of small-signal quality (idle channel noise). The
difference in small-signal performanceoccurs becausethe minimum step size of the
A-law standardis 2/4096 whereasthe minimum step size of the p-law is 2/8159. Fur-
thermore, notice that the A-law approximation does not define a zero-level output for
the first quantizationinterval (i.e., usesa midriser quantizer).However, the difference
between midriser and midtread performanceat 64 kbps is imperceptible tl8l.

3.2.6 SyllabicCompandlng
A significant attribute of the companding techniquesdescribed for pcM systems is
that they instantaneou$lyencompassthe entire dynamic range of the coder on a sample-
to-sample basis. Thus p-law and A-law companding is sometimesreferred to as in-
stantaneouscompanding. However, because the power level of a speech signal
remains fairly constantfor 100 or more 8-kHz samples,it is wasteful of code spaceto
be able to encode very low level signals adjacentto very high level signals.In other
words, it is unnecessaryto allow for instantaneouschangesin the dynamic rangeof a
signal. One techniqueof reducing the amount of transmissionbandwidth allocatedto
dynamic range is to reduce the dynamic range of the signal at the source before en-
coding and then restorethe original dynamic range of the signal at the receiver while
decoding. when the adjustmentsto the dynamic range occur on a periodic basisthat
more or lesscorrespondsto the rate of syllable generation,the techniqueis referred to
as syllabic companding.Becausethe dynamic range adjustmentsoccur only every 30
msec or so, there is very little bandwidth neededto communicatethe adjustments.
 3.2 PULSECODEMODULATION 117

TABLE 3.2 $egmented A-Law Encodlng/Decoding Tablea

Input
Amplitude Segment Ouantization D€coder
Range StepSize CodeS CodeQ CodeValue Amplitude
r2 0000 1
24 000 0001 3

3G-32 2 1111 3;
32-34 0000 33
: 001
62-64 1111 63
64-€8 0000 66
i 4 010
124-128 1111 126
12B-136 0000 132
: I 0 11
248-256 1111 252
25tsl272 0000 264
: 16 100
496-512 1111 504
512-544 0000 528
i 3e 101 :
992*1024 1111 95 1008
1024-1088 0000 96 1056
: 64 110 ;
1984-2048 1111 111 2016
?048-2176 0000 112 2112
i 128 111
3968*4096 1111 127 4032
alntransmission,
everyoth6rbitis invened.

Syllabic companding was first developed for use on noisy analog circuits to im-
prove the i<lle channel noise. As shown in Figure 3.21, the power level of low-level
syllables is increased(compressingthe dynamic range) for transmissionbut attenu-
atedupon reception (expandingthe dynamic range).The processofattenuating the re-
ceived signal restoresthe low-power syllable to its original level but attenuatesany
noise arising on the transmissionlink. Thus the receiver signal-to-noiseratio (SNR)
is improved for low-level signals.The amount of amplification applied at the source
is dependenton the short-term (syllabic) power level of the transmitted signal. Simi-
larly, the compensatingattenuation applied at the receiving terminal is determined
from the short-term power level of the received signal.
Syllabic companding on digital systemsprovides the samebasic improvement in
SQRs as it doeson noisy analog transmissionlinks. When the digital encodersand de-
1 18 VOICEDIGITIZATIoN

6
E

:.E
a
q 30
fl
g
E
o
.E
.E
c

€
I

.F
6

-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 _lo

Siqnelpowr of rinswrve (dBm0l

Ftgure 3.20 SQR of A-law PCM coding with sine wave inputs.

Input porv€r Output povt/€t

level(dBm) level(dBm)
*to[-'" *7.5-.r0
TrEnsrfiitt€d
l6vBl

* ' J * f f i u u,rr\s-a,
(//w^c.*oi*'
{dBm}

Expanrion
\\
--sH Varieble\ --59
Variable
attenuetion

Ponnr Power
ftreasurom€nt meesuteftent

Figure 3.21 Syllabic companding of an analog signal.

 3.2 PULSECODEMODULATION 1 19

coders are consideredas part of the transmissionlink, the processof amplifying low-
level signalsbefore encoding and attenuatingthem after decoding effectively reduces
the quantization noise with no net changein signal level. In practice, syllabic com-
panding as implementedin digitized voice terminals doesnot amplify the signal at the
sourceand attenuateit at the destination.Instead,an equivalentprocessof controlling
the step sizesin the encoderand decoderis used. As far as the transmitted bit stream
is concerned,it makes no difference if the signal is amplified and encodedwith fixed
quantization or if the signal is unmodified but encodedwith smaller quantization in-
tervals.Thus syllabic compandorsin digital voice terminalstypically reducethe quan-
tization intervals when encoding and decoding low-power syllables but increasethe
quantization intervals for high-power syllables'
Although syllabic companding can be used in conjunction with any type of voice
coding, the techniquehasbeen applied most often to differential sy$temsdescribedin
the following sections.In many of the applications,the adaptationtime has been re-
duced to 5 or I0 msec,which is somewhatshorterthan the duration of a typical sylla-
ble (approximately 30 msec). The technique is still generally referred to as syllabic
companding, however, to distinguish it from the instantaneousvariety.
To adjust the step sizes in the decoder in synchronism with adjustmentsmade in
the encoder.some mean$must be establishedto communicatethe step size informa-
tion from the sourceto the destination.One method explicitly transmits the step size
information as auxiliary information. A generally more usefirl approach is to derive
the step sizeinformation from the transmittedbit stream.Thus, in the ab$enceof chan-
nel erTors,the decoderand the encoderoperateon the sameinformation. This proce-
dure is analogousto syllabic compandedanalog systemsin which the receiver determines
its attenuation requirementsfrom the short-term power level of the received signal. In a
digital system the bit streamis monitored for certain datapattems that indicate the power
level of the signal being encoded.Indications of high power level initiate an increasein
the step size, whereasindications oflow levels causea decrea$e.
Determining the step size information from the transmittedbit streamis generally
better than explicitly transmitting the step sizes for the following reasons.Because
there is no explicit transmissionof step size, the transmissionof sampled speechin-
formation is never intemrpted, and the speechsamplerate is equal to the transmission
rate. Also. the bit sheam does not have to be framed to identify step size infbrmation
separatelyfrom the waveform coding. Furthermore, if the step size adjustmentsare
made on a more gradual basis,the individual incrementsare small enough that occa-
sional incorrect adjustmentsin the receiver causedby channel errors are not critical'
However, on transmissionlinks with very high error rates (one error in a hundred bits
or so), better decodedvoice quality can be obtained ifthe step size is transmitted ex-
plicitly and redundantly encodedfor error correction [19].

3.2.7 AdaptiveGain Encoding

In thesyllabiccompanding of Figure3.21thedynamicrangeof a signalis

example
reduced signalhas36dB of dy-
by a factorof 2 (in dBm).Thus,if anuncompanded
120 votcEDtctIzATtoN

namic range, the encoder seesonly 18 dB. The 18-dB reduction implies three fewer
bits are neededfor dynamic rangeencoding.In the limit, if the power level of alt input
signals is adjustedto a single value, no bits ofthe encoderneed to be allocatedto dy-
namic rangeencoding.A processthat adjustsall signalsto a standardvalue is referred
to as automatic gain control (AGC). AGC is traditionally usedon carrier transmission
systemsto adjust all received signalsto a standardvalue, thereby removing variations
in propagation attentuation.AGC cannot be applied to a sourcevoice signal without
allowancesfor speechpauseswhen there is no signal present.Otherwise, idle channel
noise would be amplified to the averagelevel of active voice. Notice that with AGC
there is no residual information in the power level of the encodedsignal as there is in
syllabic companding.To ascertainthe original power level, AGC must be augmented
with adaptive gain encoding (AGE), as indicated in Figure 3.22.
There are two basic modes of operation for gain encoding dependingon how gain
factors are measuredand to which speechsegmentsthe factors are applied. one mode
of operation,as implied in Fi gureS.ZL,involvesmeasuringthe power level of one seg-
ment of speechand using that information to establisha gain factor for ensuingspeech
segments.obviously, this mode of operationrelies on gradually changing power lev*
els. This mode of operation is sometimesreferred to a$ "backward estimation."
Another mode of operation involves measuring the power lever of a speechseg-
ment and using the gain factor thus derived to adapt the encoderto the samesegment.
This approach,referredto as "forward estimation," hasthe obvious advantage,Ihatthe
encoderand decoderuse gain factors specifically related to the speechsegmentsfrom
which they are derived.The disadvantageis that eachspeechsegmentmustbe delayed
while the gain factor is being determined.Although the availability of digital memory
has made the cost of implementing the delay insignificant, the impact of the delay on
echoesand singing in a partially analog network must be considered.(As long as the
subscriberloops are analog, the network is partially analog.)
Adaptive gain control with explicit kansmission of gain factors is not without
shortcomings.First, when the periodic gain information is inserted into the transmit-
ted bit stream,some meansof framing the bit streaminto blocks is neededso gain in*
formation can be distinguished from waveform coding. second, periodic insertion of
gain information disrupts information flow, causinghigher transmitterclock ratesthat
might be inconveniently related to the waveform sample clock. Third, correct recep-

adiustment

Flgure 3.22 Adaptive gain encoding.

 3.3 SPEECH 12I
HEDUNDANcIES

tion of gain factors is usually critical to voice quality, indicating a needto redundantly
encodegain information.
Reference[20] describesa modified form of PCM using forward estimationof gain
factors that is referred !o as nearly instantaneously companded PCM' The need for
transmitting speechsegmentsin blocks is not a disadvantagein the application men-
tioned (mobile telephone)becauserepetitive bursts with ertor checking are used as a
meansof overcoming shortJived multipath fading. This systemprovides a bit rate re-
duction of 30Vowith respect to conventional PCM. Another example of the use of
AGE is the subscriberloop multiplexer (SLM) system developedby Bell Labs [21].
The SLM systembecameobsoletewhen low-cost PCM codecsbecameavailable and
the subscribercarrier systemscould be integrated into digital end offices (with SLC
96 and later DLC systems).All of the encoding algorithms describedin the following
sectionsuse syllabic companding or AGE in some form to reduce the bit rate'

3.3 SPEECHREDUNDANCIES
Conventional PCM systemsencodeeach sampleof an input waveform independently
from all other samples.Thus a PCM system is inherently capableof encoding an ar-
bitrarily random waveform whose maximum-frequency component does not exceed
one-half the sampling rate. Analyses of speechwaveforms, however, indicate there is
considerableredundancyfrom one sampleto the next. In fact, as repofted in reference
t101,the correlation coefficient (a measureof predictability) between adjacent$-kHz
samples is generally 0.85 or higher. Hence the redundancy in conventional PCM
codes suggestssignificant savings in transmissionbandwidths are possible through
more efficient coding techniques.All of the digitization techniquesdescribedin the
rest of this chapter are tailored, in one degree or another, to the characteristics of
speechsignals with the intent of reducing the bit rate.
In addition to the correlation existing between adjacent samples of a speechwave-
form, severalother levels ofredundancy can be exploited to reduceencodedbit rates.
Table 3.3 lists theseredundancies.Not included are higher level redundanciesrelated
to context-dependentinterpretationsof speechsounds (phonemes),words, and sen-

TABLE3.3 SpeechHedundancles
Time-domain redundancies
1, Nonuniform amplitudedi$tributions
2, Sample-to-samplecorrelations
3. Cycle-to-cycle correlatians(periodicity)
4. Pitch-intervalto pitch-interval
conelations
5. lnactivityfactors(speechpauses)
Frequency-domain
redundancies
6. Nonuniform
long-termspectral
densities
7. Sound-specific spectral
shorl-term densities
122 vorcEDrcrrzATroN

tence$.Thesetopicsarenot coveredbecausetechniquesthat analyzespeechwave-

forms to extractonly informationcontenteliminatesubjectivequalitiesessentialto
generaltelephony.

3.3.1 Nonuniform Amplltude Dietrlbutlons

As mentionedin theintroductionto companding, lower amplitudesamplevaluesare

morecommonthanhigheramplitudesamplevalues.Most low-levelsamples occuras
a resultof speechpau$e$ in a conversation.Beyondthis,however,thepowerlevelsof
activespeechsignalsalsotendto occurat the lower endof the encodingrange.The
compandingproceduresdescribedin the previoussectionprovideslightly inferior
quality(i.e.,lower signal-to-noise
ratios)for smallsignalscomparedto largesignals.
Thusthe averagequalif of PCM speechcould be improvedby furthershortening
lower level quantizationintervalsand increasingupperlevel quantizationintervals.
The amountof improvementrealizedby sucha techniqueis minimal andprobably
would notjustify the additionalcomplexities.Themosrbeneficialapproachto proc-
essingsignalamplitudesin orderto reduceencoderbit rate$involvessomeform of
adaptivegaincontrol,asdiscussed earlier.

3.3.2 Sample-to-SampleCorrelatlon

Thehighcorrelationfactorof 0.85mentionedin Section3.3indicatesthatanysignifi-

cantattemptto reducetransmission ratesmustexploitthe correlationbetweenadja-
centsamples.In fact, at 8-kHz samplingrates,significantcorrelationsalsoexist for
samplestwo to threesamplesapafr.Naturally,samplesbecomeevenmorecorrelated
if the samplingrateis increased.
Thesimplestway to exploitsample-to-sample redundanciesin speechis to encode
only thedifferences betweenadjacentsamples. Thedifferencemeasurements arethen
accumulated in a decoderto recoverthe signal.In essence
thesesystemsencodethe
slopeor derivativeofa signalat thesourceandrecoverthesignalby integratingat the
destination.Digitizationalgorithmsof this type arediscussedat lengthin later sec-
tions.

3.3.3 Cycle-to-Cycle Correlatlons

Althougha speechsignalrequiresthe enrire300-3400-Hzbandwidthprovidedby a

telephonechannel,at anyparticularinstantin time certainsoundsmay be composed
of only a few frequencies within the band.when only a few underlyingfrequencies
exist in a sound,the waveformexhibitsstrongcorrelationsover numeroussamples
corresponding to severalcyclesofan oscillation.Thecyclic natureofa voicedsound
is evidentin thetime waveformshownin Figure3.23.Encodersexploitingthecycle-
to-cycleredundancies in speecharemarkedlymorecomplicated thanthoseconcerned
only with removingtheredundancy in adjacentsamples.In fact,theseencodersmore
 REDUNDANCIES123
3.3 SPEECH

Flgure 3.?3 Time wavefbrmof voicedsound.

or lessrepresenta transition from the relatively high rate, natural-soundingwaveform

encodersto the relatively low rate, synthetic-soundingvocoders.

Gorrelations
3.3.4 Pitch-lnterval-to-Pitch.lnterval

Human speechsounds are often categorized as being generatedin one of two basic
"voiced" soundsthat arise as a result
ways. The first category of soundsencompasses
of vibrations in the vocal cords. Each vibration allows a puff of air to flow from the
lungs into the vocal hact. The interval between puffs of air exciting the vocal tract is
referred to as the pitch interval or, more simply, the rate of excitation is the pitch. Gen-
erally speaking,voiced soundsarise in the generationof vowels and the latter portions
of some consonants.An example of a time waveform for a voiced sound is shown in
Figure 3.23.
"unvoiced" sounds.Frica-
The secondcategoryof soundsincludes the fricatives, or
tives occur as a result of continuous air flowing fiom the lungs and passingthrough a
vocal tract constricted at some point to generateair turbulence (friction). Unvoiced
soundscorrespondto certain consonant$such asf j, s, and x' An example of a time
waveform of an unvoiced sound is shown in Figure 3.?4. Notice that an unvoiced
sound has a much more random waveform than a voiced sound.
As indicated in Figure 3.23, not only doesa voiced soundexhibit the cycle-to-cycle
redundanciesmentioned in Section 3.3.3, but also the waveform displays a longer
qtre of
lgtn rEpetitive pattern poffesponding to the duration of a pitch interval. $11p
the glo$t Afficient ways of encoding the voiced portions 9f speechis to encode one
p,te4+Jp*41--1vpv9{pyr+ that encoding,asa templatefor each successivepitch
an"d.use
i[GwU"in th.eqamesound,-fi!9,!r in1-elvalstyp,i[a]ly-last gom 5 to 20 mpes f,or men and
flrqp 2.5 to 10 msegfor.yomen*"Sincea.typica] voiced.sogndf4ptsfo,rapprq4i5nately
100msec, there may be as many as 20-40 pitch intervals in a single sound. Although
iitdh inierval encoding Can provide significant reductions in bit rates, the pitch is
sometimesvery difficult to detect. (Not all voiced soundsproduce a readily identifi-

Figure 3.24 Time waveform of unvoiced sound.

124 VOICEDIGITIZATION

able pitch interval as in Figure 3.23.) rf the pitch gets encodeclerroneously, straxge
soundsresult.
An interestingaspectof pitch interval encodingis that it provides a meansof speed-
ing up speechwhile maintaining intelligibility. By deleting some percentageof pitch
intervals from each sound (phoneme),the rate of sound generationis effectively in-
creasedin a manner analogousto more rapid word formation. The pitch of the sounds
remains unchanged.In conffast, if the rate of reconstruction is merely increased,all
frequenciesincluding the pitch increaseproportionately. Moderate speedupsproduce
obvious distortion while greaterspeedupsbecomeunintelligible. Devices designedto
simulate faster word formation have demonstratedthat we are capableof assimilating
spokeninformation much faster than we can generateit.

3.3.5 InactivityFactor$

Analyses of telephone conversationshave indicated that a pafiy is typically active

about4OVaof a call duration. Most inactivity occurs as a result of one personlistening
while the other is talking. Thus a conventional (circuit-switched) full-duplex connec-
tion is significantly underutilized. Time assignmentspeechinterpolation (TASD de-
scribedin Chapter I is a techniqueto improve channelutilization on expensiveanalog
links. Digital speechinterpolation (DSI) is a term usedto refer to a digital circuit coun-
terpart of rASI. DSI involves sensingspeechactivity, seizing a channel,digitally en-
coding and transmitting the utterances,and releasingthe channel at the completion of
each speechsegment.
Digital speechinterpolation is obviously applicable ro digital speechsrorage$ys-
tems where the duration of a pausecan be encodedmore efficiently than the pauseit-
self. In recorded me$sage$,however, the pauses are normally short since a
"half-duplex"
conversationis not taking place. DSI techniqueshave been used to ex-
pand the voice channel capacity of digital TDM links. The inputs are standardPCM
signalsthat are digitally processedto detectspeechactivity. The DSI operationis often
combined with speechcompressionalgorithms to implement digital circuit multipli-
cation (DCM) equipment.when a 2 : I voice compressionalgorithm is combined with
a2.5 : I DSI concentrationfactor, an overall 5 : I circuit expansionis achieved.De-
pending on the quality of speechdesired,even greater concentrationfactors are pos-
sible. The use of such equipment in a network must be carefully managedto ensure
that voiceband data and digital data channelsbypassthe DCM operations.

3.3.6 NonunlformLong-TermSpectralDenslties

The time-domain redundanciesdescribed in the preceding sections exhibit charac-

teristics in the frequency domain that can be judiciously processedto reduce the en-
coded bit rate. Frequency-domain redundancies are not independent of the
redundanciesin the time domain. Frequency-domaintechniquesmerely offer an alter-
nate approachto analyzing and processingthe redundancies.
 REDUNDANCIES 125
3.3 SPEECH

a
I
E -ro
t

T
o
EL
.H -20
o
-6
E

-30

Ftequeilcy (Hrl

Flgure 3.25 Long-termpowerspectraldensityof speech.

A totally random or unpredictablesignal in the time domain producesa frequency

speckum that is flat acrossthe bandwidth of interest.Thus a signal that producesun-
correlatedtime-domain samplesmakes maximum use of its bandwidth' On the other
hand, a nonuniform spectraldensity repre$ent$inefficient use of the bandwidth and is
indicative of redundancyin the waveform'
Figure 3.25 showsthe long-term spectraldensity of speechsignalsaveragedacross
two populations: men and women [22]. Notice that the upper portions of the 3-kHz
bandwidth passedby the telephonenetwork have significantly reducedpower levels.
The lower power levels at higher frequencies are a direct consequenceof the time-
domain sample-to-samplecorrelationsdiscussedpreviously. Large-amplitude signals
cannot change rapidly because,on average,they are predominantly made up of lower
frequency components.
A frequency-domain approach to more efficient coding involves flattening the
spectrumbefore encoding the signal. The flattening processcan be accomplishedby
passingthe signal through a high-passfilter to emphasizethe higher frequenciesbe-
fore sampling.The original waveform is recovered by passing the decoded signal
through a filter with a complementary, low-pass characteristic.An important aspect
of this processis that a high-passfilter exhibits time-domain characteristicsof a dif-
ferentiator and a low-pass filter has time-domain characteristicsanalogousto an inte-
grator. Thus the spectrum-flatteningprocessessentiallymeansthe slope of the signal
is encodedat the $ource,and the signal is recoveredby integrating at the destination-
the basic procedure describedpreviously for sample-to-sampleredundancyremoval
in the time domain.
In studying Figure 3.25 it is natural to think that the remarkably low levels of signal
energy at the higher frequencies(2-3.4 kHz) meansthat more bandwidth is being al-
located to a voice signal than is really necessary.The error in such a conclusion,how-
ever. lies in the distinction between energy content and information content of the
voice frequency speckum. As any beginning computer prograflrmer soon leams,- the
*I
am assuming that beginning prograflmers still encounter older languages or file systems with
seven-character name limitations.
 I ' H ( \ a
lrHtl rPUq lrllsds

126
 PULSECODEMODULATION 127
3.4 DIFFERENTIAL

meaningof a programvariablecan often be retainedeventhoughit is shortenedby

deletingall of the vowels.In speechthe vowelsrequiremostof the energyandpri-
marily occupythe lowerportionof the frequencyband.Theconsonants, on theother
hand,containmostof theinformationbut usemuchlesspowerandgenerallyhigher
frequencies. Hencemerelyreproducinga high percentage of the originalspeechen-
ergyis an inadequate or storagesystem.
goalfor a digital speechtransmission

3.3.7 Short-Term Spectral Densitiee

Thespeechspectrums shownin Figure3.25represent long-termaverages of thespec-

hal densities. Over shorterperiods of time thespectral densities vary considerably and
exhibitsound-specific structureriwith energypeaks (resonances) at some frequencies
andenergyvalleysat others.Thefrequencies at whichtheresonances occurarecalled
formantfrequencies,or simply formants. Voiced speech sounds typically contain
threeto four identifiableformant$.Thesefeaturesof the short-term spectraldensityare
illustratedin thespectogram ofFigure3.26.A spectogram is a displayofspeechspec-
tral energyas a function of time and frequency.The horizontalaxis representstime,
the verticalaxisrepresents frequency,andthe shadingsrepresent energylevels.Thus
thedarkerportionsin Figure3.26indicaterelativelyhigh energylevels(formants)at
particularinstantsin time.
Frequency-domain voicecodersprovideimprovedcodingefficienciesby encoding
the mostimportantcomponents of the spectrumon a dynamicbasis.As the sounds
change,differentportions(formants)ofthe frequencybandareencoded.The period
betweenformantupdatesis typically 10-20 msec.Insteadof usingperiodicspectrum
measufements, somehigherquality vocoderscontinuouslytrackgradualchangesin
thespectraldensityat a higherrate.Frequency-domain vocodersoftenprovidelower
bit ratesthan the time-domaincodersbut typically produce lessnaturalsounding
speech.

3.4 DIFFERENTIALPULSECODE MODULATION

Differentialpulsecodemodulation(DPCM)is designed specificallyto takeadvantage

of the sample-to-sample redundancies in a typicalspeechwaveform.Sincetherange
of sampledffirences is lessthan the rangeof individual samples,fewer bits are
neededto encodedifferencesamples. Thesamplingrateis oftenthesameasfor a com-
parablePCM system.Thusthe bandlimitingfilter in the encoderandthe smoothing
filter in thedecoderarebasicallyidenticalto thoseusedin conventional FCM system$.
A conceptualmeansof generatingthedifferencesamplesfor a DPCM coderis to
storethepreviousinputsampledirectlyin a sample-and-hold circuitanduseananalog
subtracter to measurethechange.The changein the signalis thenquantizedanden-
codedfor transmission. The DPCM structureshownin Figure3.27is morecompli-
cated,however, becausethepreviousinputvalueis reconstructed by a feedbackloop
that integratesthe encoded sample differences. In the
essence, feedback signalis an
128 vorcEDtctrtzAnoN

gandlimiting
filter

Prsvioiti
input
CBtimate Aftumulrtor

Flgure 3.27 F\rnctional block diagram of differential pCM.

estimateof theinputsignalasobtainedby integratingtheencodedsampledifferences.

Thusthefeedbacksignalis obtainedin thesamemannerusedto reconstruct thewave-
form in thedecoder.
Theadvantageof thefeedbackimplementationi$ thatquantizationerrorsdo not ac-
cumulateindefinitely.If thefeedbacksignaldrifts from theinputsignal,asa resultof
an accumulationof quantizationerrors,the next encodingof the differencesignal
automatically compensate$for thedrift. In a systemwithoutfeedbacktheoutputpro-
ducedby a decoderat theotherendof theconnectionmightaccumulate quantization
errorswithoutbound.
As in PCM sy$tems,the analog-to-digital conversionprocesscanbe uniform or
companded. someDPCM systemsalsouseadaptivetechniques(syllabiccompand-
ing) to adjustthequantizationstepsizein accordance with theaveragepowerlevelof
the signal.(Seereference[9] for an overviewof varioustechniques.)

Example3.4. speechdigitizationtechniquesaresometimesmeasuredfor quality

by useof an 800-Hzsinewavea$a representative
test signal.Assuminga uniform
PCM systemis availableto encodethe sine wave acrossa given dynamicrange,
determinehow manybitsper samplecanbe savedby usinga uniformDpcM system.

solution. A basicsolutioncanbe obtainedby determininghow muchsmallerthe

dynamicrangeof the differencesignal is in comparisonto the dynamicrangeof the
signalamplitude.Assumethemaximumamplitudeof the sinewaveis A, sothat

"r(f)=A sin(2n'800t)

Themaximumamplitudeof thedifferencesignalcanbeobtainedby differentiating

andmultiplyingby thetime intervalbetweensamples:

= e?n)(A0o) '8oor)
cos(2n
#
 PULSECODEMODULATIOru 129
3.4 DIFFERENTIAL

A(2nX800)
lAx(t)l*u*= = 0'628A
[,#l
\ /
The savingsin bits per samplecanbe determinedas

t r \
loc,| 0628l=0.62tits
\ /
that a DPCM sy$temcanuseJ bit per samplelessthan
Example3.4 demonstratetl
a PCM systemwith the samequality.Typically DPCM systemsprovidea full l-bit
reductionin codewordsize.The larger savingsis achievedbecause,on average'
speechwaveformshavea lower slopethanan 800-Hztone(seeFigure3.25).

3.4.1 DPCM lmplementatlons

DifferentialPCM enCoders anddecoders canbeimplemented in a varietyof waysde-

pendingon how the signalprocessingfunctionsarepartitionedbetweenanalogand
digitalcircuitry.At oneextremethedifferencingandintegrationf'unctionscanbe im-
plementedwith analogcircuitry,while at the otherextremeall signalprocessingcan
be implementeddigitally using conventionalPCM samplesas input. Figure 3.28
showsblock diagramsof tfueedifferentimplementations with differing amountsof
digital signalprocessing.
Figure3.28adepictsa sy$temusinganalogdifferencingandintegration.Analog-
to-digitalconversion is performedon thedifferencesignal,andD/A conversion fot the
feedbackloopis immediatelyperformedon thelimited-rangedifferencecode.Analog
$ummationandstoragein a sample-anrl-hold (S/H)circuitis usedto provideintegration.
Figure3.28bshowsa systemthat perfbrmsthe integrationfunctiondigitally. In-
steadof immediatelyconvertingthedifferencecodebackto analogfor feedback,the
differencecodeis summedand storedin a dataregisterto generatea digital repre-
sentationof thepreviousinputsample.A full-scaleD/A converteris thenusedto pro-
ducethe analogfeedbacksignalfor differencing.Noticethat the D/A convertersin
Figure3.28bmustconvertthefull amplituderangewhereas theD/A converters in Fig-
ure 3.28aconvert the more limited difference signal.
Figure3.28cshowsa sy$temwhereall signalprocessing is performedby digital
logic circuits.TheA/D converter produces full-amplitude-range samplecodes,which
are comparedto digitally generated approximations of the previous amplitudecode.
Noticethat theA./Dconvefter in this case must encode the entire dynamic rangeof the
input whereasthe A/D convefters in the other two versions operate on only the differ-
encesignals.
Dueto theavailabilityof digitalsignalprocessing components, someof whichcon-
tain intemalA./Dconverters, digital processing (as in Figure 3.28c) is generallythe
mosteffectivemean$of implementinga DPCM algorithm. In fact, most DPCM ap-
plicationsinvolve processingspeechsignalsthat have already been digitized into
standard64-kbpsPCM formats.ThustheDPCM implementation usually requires no
 130 votcEDtGtlzATtoN

analogprocessing. As an aid in processing

log-PCMsignals,someDSp components
provideinternalp-law andA-law conversionfunctions.
Thedecoders in all threeimplementationsshownin Figure3.28areexactlylike the
feedbackimplementations in theconesponding encoder.This reinforcesthefact that
thefeedbackloopgenerates anapproximation of theinputsignal(delayedby onesam-
ple).Ifno channelelrorsoccur,thedecoderoutput(beforefiltering)is identicalto the
feedbacksignal.Thusthecloserthefeedbacksignalmatchestheinput,thecloserthe
decoderoutputmatchesthe encoderinput.

Decoder

Encoder

Oecoder

Encoder

(t)

Figure 3.2t DPCM implementations:(a) analog integrarion; (b) digital integration; (c) digital
differencing.
 pulsEcoDEMoDULATIoN 131
s.4 DTFFERENTTAL

3.4.2 HlgherOrder Prediction

A moregeneralviewpointof a DPCM encoderconsiders it asa specialcaseof a linear
predictorwith encodingandtransmission of thepredictionerror.Thefeedbacksignal
of a DPCM sy$temrepresents first-orderpredictionof thenext samplevalue,andthe
sampledifferenceis a predictionelror.Underthis viewpointtheDPCM conceptcan
be extendedto incolporatemorethanonepastsamplevalueinto the predictioncir-
cuitry. Thus the additionalredundancyavailablefrom all previoussamplescan be
weightedandsummedto producea betterestimateof the next input sample.With a
betterestimate,the rangeof the predictionerror decreases to allow encodingwith
fewerbits. For systemswith constantpredictorcoefficients,resultshaveshownthat
mostof therealizableimprovementoccurswhenusingonly thelastthreesampleval-
ues.Thebasicimplementation of linearpredictionusingthe lastthreesamplevalues
is shownin Figure3.29.For conceptualpurposesthis implementation showsanalog
differencingandintegrationasin Figure3.28a.The mosteffectiveimplementations
usedigital memory,multiplication,andadditionin a DSP componentin lieu of the
analogprocessing shown,particularlybecause mostapplications involvealreadydig-
itized (PCM) signals.
As mentionedin Section3.4,analysisof differentialPCM systemswith first-order
predicationtypicallyprovidesa 1-bit-per-sample reductionin codelengthrelativeto
PCM systemswith equivalentperformance. ExtendedDPCM sy$tems utilizingthird-
orderpreclictioncanprovidereductionsof f -2 bitsper sample[23]. Thusa standard
DPCM systemcanprovide64-kbpsPCM quality at 56 kbps,andthird-orderlinear
predictioncan provide comparablequality at 48 kbps. However,somesubjective
evaluationshaveindicatedthatsomewhat higherbit ratesareneededto match64-kbps
PCM quality.

3.4.3 Adaptive Differential PGM

of DFCM canprovidesavingsof I -2 bits

implementations
Relativelystraightforward
per samplewith respectto standardPCM encoding.Even greatersavingscan be

Decoder

Encoder

Figure 3.29 Extensionof DPCM to third-orderprediction.

 132 votcEDtctlzATtoN

achievedby adding adaptationlogic to the basic DPCM algorithm to create what is

refened to as adaptive differential PcM (ADpcM). Many forms of ADpcM have
been investigatedand used in various applications.Two of the most prevalent appli-
cations are voice messagingand DCM equipment for increasingthe number of voice
channelson a Tl line. with respectto the latter application, ITU-T has establisheda
32-kbps ADPCM standard(RecommendationG.721) [24]. This algorithm has been
extensively testedand characterizedto not significantly degradetoll quality voice cir-
cuits when insertedinto the internal portions of the network. Design considerationsof
the standard are:

1. Multiple tandem encodings and decodings berween both pcM and analog
interfaces
2. End-to-end signal quality for voice, voicebanddata, and facsimile
3. Effects ofrandom and bursty channel errors
4. Performanceon analog signals degradedby loss, noise, amplitude distortion,
phasedistortion, and harmonic di$tortion
5. Easy transcodingwith p-law and Alaw pCM

The 32-kbps rate implies a 2 : I savingsin channelbandwidth with respectto standard

PCM. A significant impairment inffoduced by implemenrarionsof the ADpcM stand-
ard is the comrption of modem signalscarrying data ratesgreaterthan 49fi) bps
[24].
Voiceband data at rates of 4800 bps and below are adequatelysupported.
The G.721 ADPCM algorithm is conceptually similar to rhat shown in Figure 3.29
but more sophisticatedin that it usesan eighth-orderpredictor, adaptivequantization,
and adaptive prediction. Furthermore, the algorithm is designedto recognize the dif-
ference between voice or data signals and use a fast quantizer adaptationmode for
voice and a slow adaptationmode for data.

4
*q 4

v, -*o*****__=-
3 3 $r
2 2
# PCM
---* ADPCM
1 t
2 3 4 5 I 7 I 2 3 4 E g 7 I
Numbsrof Encodlner Numbsrof Encodl4r
(el tbl
Figure 3.30 AverageMOS versusnumberof encodingsfor PCM and ADPCM: (a) linear
microphone;(b) carbonmicrophone.
 g.s DELrA 133
MoDULATtoN

subjectiveevaluation[25] of the G.721algorithmusingthe meanopinionscore

(MOS) methodof evaluatingspeechquality is shownin Figure 3.30. The MOS
methodusestrainedlistenersto evaluatethe speechqualityon a scaleof I : 5. Figure
3.30showstheaveragescoresof 32-kbpsADPCM and64-kbpsPCM asa functionof
thenumberof analogtandemencodings. The speechqualityassociated with multiple
(to
digitaltranscodings and from PCM) does not degrade beyond the first transcoding
aslong asthereareno digital transmissionimpairments such aschannel errors or slips
(Chapter7). Theperformance of ADPCM (or any other coder)used to be an important
consideration whenthepublicnetworkwascomposed of mixturesof analoganddigi-
tal equipment.Becausetheinternal porxions of the network areall digital, performance
with multiple analogconversionsis no longer a consideration. (Multiple PCM-to-
ADPCM conversionscan still occurwhen multiple DCM systems are encountered
within a network.)
BecauseADFCM at 32 kbpsprovidesgoodqualityat a moderatecostandpower
consumption, it is usedin severalcordlesstelephoneor low-tier-digitalcellularsys-
tems:

PersonalAccessCommunications System(PACS)(NorthAmerica)
SecondGeneration CordlessTelephones (CT2) (Europe)
Digital EuropeanCordlessTelephones(DECT)(Europe)
PersonalHandyphone System(PHS)(Japan)

3.5 DELTA MODULATION

Deltamodulation(DM) is anotherdigitizationtechniquethat specificallyexploitsthe

sample-to-sample redundancy in a speechwaveform.In fact,DM canbe considered
asa specialcaseof DPCM usingonly I bit per sampleof the differencesignal.The
singlebit specifiesmerelythe polarity of the differencesampleandtherebyindicates
whither thesignalhasincreased or decreased sincethelastsample.An approximation
to the input waveformis constructedin the feedbackpathby steppingup onequanti-
zationlevel whenthedifferenceis positive("one")andsteppingdownwhenthedif-
ferenceis negative("zero").In this way the input is encodeda$a sequence of'trps"
and"downs"in amannerresembling Figure3.31showsaDM approxima-
a staircase.
tion of a typical wavefonn.Noticethat the feedbacksignalcontinuesto stepin one
directionuntil it crossesthe input,at whichtime thefeedbackstepreversesdirection
until the input is crossedagain.Thus,whentrackingtheinput signal,theDM output
"bounces"backandforth acrossthe input waveform,allowingthe input to be accu-
ratelyreconstructed by a smoothingfilter'
Since each encoded samplecontainsa relativelysmallamountof information(1
bit), DM $ystems requirea highersamplingratethanPCMor multibitDPCM systems.
In fact,thesampling rateis muchhigherthantheminimum(Nyquist)sam-
necessarily
*A
low-tier cellular system utilizes simple, Iow-power mobile units, and small cells and only suppofts
pedesfrian speeds,
134 VoIcE DIGITIZATIoN

Figure 3.31 Waveformencodingby deltamodularion,

pling rate of twice the bandwidth. From anotherviewpoint, "oversampling" is needecl

to achieve better prediction from one sample to the next.
The main attraction of DM is its simplicity. Figure 3.32 shows a basic implemen-
tation of a DM encoderand decoder.Notice that the A/D conversion function is pro-
vided by a simple comparator. A positive-difference voltage produces a l, and a
negative-differencevoltage produces a 0. Correspondingly, the D/A function in the
feedback path, and in the decoder,is provided by a two-polarity pulse generator.In
the simplest form the integrator can consist of nothing more than a capacitorto accu-
mulate the charge from the pulse generator.
In addition to theseobvious implementation simplicities, a delta modulator also al-
lows the use of relatively simple filters for bandlimiting the input and smoothing the
output [26]. As discussedin section 3.1, rhe speckum producedby a samplingprocess
consist$of replicasof the sampledspectrumcenteredat multiples of the sampling fre-
quency. The relatively high sampling rate of a delta modulator producesa wider sepa-
ration of these spectrums, and, hence, foldover distortion is prevented with less
stringent roll-off requirementsfor the input filter.

3.5.1 SlopeOverload
The conceptualoperationof a delta modulator shown in Figure 3.3 I indicatesthat the
encoded waveform is never much more than a step size away from the input signal.
sometimes a delta modulator, or any differential system such as DpcM, may not be
able to keep up with rapid changes in the input signal and thus fall more than a step

Pul*
gf,ndtbr

Eruodr

Figure 3.32 Delta modulation encoder and decoder.

 3.5 DELTAMODULATION 135
"slope
size behind. When this happens,the delta modulator is said to be experiencing
overload." A slope overload condition is shown in Figure 3'33.
Basically, slope overload occurs when the rate of changeof the input exceedsthe
maximum rate of changethat can be generatedby the feedbackloop' Since the maxi-
mum rate of change in the feedback loop is merely the step size times the sampling
rate, a slope overload condition occurs if

l#l'* (3.13)

wherex(t) = input signal

q = stePsize
f; = samplingfrequencY

Thedesignof a DM (or DPCM)necessarily involvesa trade-offbetweentwo types

of distortion:the moreor lessrandomquantizationnoise,sometimesreferredto as
granularnoise,and the slopeoverloadnoise.As indicatedin Figure3-33,granular
noiseis a predominant for slowlychangingsignals,whereasslopeover-
consideration
loadis dominantduringrapidlychangingsignals.Obviously,granularnoiseis small
if stepsizesaresmall,but smallstepsizesincreasethe likelihoodof slopeoverload'
TheoptimumDM stepsizein termsof minimizingthetotalof granularandslopeover-
loadnoisehasbeenconsidered UyAbate[271.
The perceptualeffectsof slopeoverloadon the quality of a speechsignalare sig-
nificanitydifierentfrom the perceptualeffectsproducedby granularnoise'As indi-
catedin iigure 3.33,theslopeoverloadnoisereaches its peaksjustbefore theencoded
signalreachesits peaks.Hence,slopeoverloadnoisehassfiong components identical
irifrequencyandapproximatelyin phasewith a majorcomponent "masked'byof the input' Dis-
tortionthatis correlatedin thismannerto thespeechsignal is effectively
"uncorrelated"distortion.In
the speechenergyandthereforeis lessnoticeablethan
fact, overloadnoiseis muchlessobjectionable to a listenerthanrandomor granular
noiseat an equivalentpowerlevel [28]. Hence,from the point of view of perceived
speechquality,the optimummix of granularandslopeoverloadnoiseis difficult to
determine.

Figure 3.33 Slope overload and granular noise of delta modulation system.
 136 vorcEDtcllzAloN

slope overload is not a limitation of just a DM system, but an inherent problem

with any system, such as DPCM in general, that encodesthe difference in a signal
fiom one sampleto the next. A difference systemencodesthe slope of the input with
a finite number ofbits and hencea finite range. Ifthe slope exceedsthat range, slope
overload occurs. In contrast, a conventional pcM systemis not limited by the rate of
changeof the input, only by the maximum encodableamplitude. Notice that a differ-
ential systemcan encodesignalswith arbitrarjly large amplitudes,as long as the large
amplitudes are attainedgradually.
Many versionsof DM for voice encoding were investigatedin the 1960sand 1970s
[29, 30]. All of theseefforts focused on ways of implementing adaptive delta modu-
lation (ADM) to improve the performance at a given bit rate. The intense interest at
that time was relatedto the simplicity, good toleranceof channelerrors,and relatively
low cost implementation.The cost factor is no longer relevantbecauseeven relatively
complicatedcoding algorithms now have insignificant costscomparedto mosr system
costs.ADM is still used in some old pBXs, in some military securevoice radio sys-
tems, and as a mealls of encoding the residual error signal of some predictive coders
describedin the following sections.

3.6 ADAPTIVE
PREDICTIVE
CODING
Thedifferential
sysrems
described
in theprevious (DpcM,ADpcM,ADM)
sections
operatewith lowerdataratesthanpcM systemsbecause theyencodea differencesig-
nal thathasloweraverage powerthantheraw inputsignal.Theratioof theinputsignal
powerto thepowerof thedifferencesignalis referredto asthepredictiongain.Simple
DPCM system$(firsr-orderpredictors)provide about 5 dB of prediction ga1n.
ADPCM providesgreaterlevelsof predictiongaindependingon thesophistication of
the adaptationlogic andthe numberof pastsamplesusedto predictthe nextsample.
Thepredictiongainof ADpcM is ultimatelylimited by thefact thatonly a few
fast
samplesareusedto predictthe input andthe adaptationlogic only adaptsthe quan-
tizer,not thepredictionweightingcoefficients(thec's in Figure3.zg).
Adaptivepredictivecoding(Apc) t3l, 3zl providesgreaterlevelsof prediction
gain by adaptingthe predictioncoefficientsto individual speechsegmentsand,
in
mostcases,usinghigherordersof prediction(e.g.,up to 12).If thecoefficientsarede_
terminedfrom pasthistoryandusedto predictsubsequent speechsegments (backward
estimation),l3 dB of predictiongainis possible[10]. If speectrsegments aredelayed
so predictorcoefficientscanbe usedon the samespeechsegments from which they
werederived(forwardesrimation), 20 dB of predictiongainis possible[33].
A blockdiagramof a basicApc encoder/decoder is shownin Figure3.34.Thein-
put to the encoderandthe outputfrom the decoderareassumed to be uniformpcM,
most likely representing conver$ionsfrom and to log pcM. The transmitteddata
$treamis necessarily composedof blockscontainingthreetypesof information:(l)
the encodeddifferencesignal(residual),(z) a gainfactor,and(3) rhepredicrorcoef-
ficients.Themostsignificantdifferencebetweenthis coderanda'DpcM or ADpcM
coderinvolvesthe periodicdeterminationand transmissionof the predictorcoeffi-
 =
(J
G
E
o
.E
f

tr
o
:E
- E t
s t g

i&l 'GE c
t-'
F
o o at

E EI
L o
F

E
o
iJ
4)
ts

9J

q)
F

E
4
+
ca?

.E
,9
{)
o!
H FFT
E
o
.g

E
G

E
(J
r
E
=oF
3

137
 138 votcEDtctlzATtoN

cients' Notice that the integratedresidual signal at point A is identical to the input sig-
nal delayed by one sample (except for residual quantization error). Thus the corre-
sponding point in the decoderis the reconstructedpCM output.
Explicit transmissionof a gain factor, as opposedto deriving a gain factor from the
transmitted residual, is useful in this application becausea block-structuredtransmis-
sion format is required for transmitting the predictor coefficients anyway. Residual
encoding may use any of the waveform algorithms describedpreviously. Arbiharily
accuratereconstructionof the input can be achievedif enoughbits are usedin encod-
ing the residual. of course,the purpose of the adaptiveprediction is to achievea low
data rate. single-bit PcM thar conveys only the polarity ofthe residual provides ade-
quatepedormancefbr low-data-rateapplications
[33]. Notice that becauseof the feed-
back path, single-bit encoding ofthe residual essentiallyproducesa delta modulator
with very sophisticatedfeedbacklogic that is periodically changedto match the shape
and energy level of corresponding(forward-estimated)speechsegments.
A large variety of algorithms have been investigatedfor calculating the predictor
coefficients, most of which involve extensive computation. If the apflication is for
voice responsesystems,the computations do not have to occur in rial time
and are
therefore sometimes done on a large mainframe computer. Real-time encoding re-
stricts the algorithm to one that can be realized with a DSp or special-purposeIC de_
signed to implement a specific coefficient determining algorithm. A linear predictive
coding (LPC) algorithm as describedin Section 3.8.3 is a common algorithm because
it provides good performance and is available in custom parts. The u.s. defense
de-
parHnentadoptedan APC algorithm using a fourth-order LPC coefficient analysis
as
a government standardfor secure voice transmission at 9.6 kbps
[34]. This system
transmitsblocks of 240 bits containing I 80 one-bit samplesof the residual, 54 bits for
parametersand gain factors,5 bits for error correctionsof critical most significant
bits,
and I framing bit.

3.7 SUBBANDCODING
A subbandcoder is one form of coder using a frequency-domainanalysisof the
input
signal insteadof a time-domain analysisas in previously described.od"r*. As shown
in Figure 3.35, the coder first divides the input spectrum into separatebandsusing
a
bank ofbandpassfilters. The signal passingthrough eachofthe rilatively nanow sub-
bands is individually encoded wirh separateadaprive ApcM, pcu, or enpcM
en-
coders.After each subbandis encoded,the individual bit streamsare multiplexed
for
transmissionto the decoder,where they are demultiplexed, decoded,and combined
to
recon$tructthe input.
separatelyencodingeachsubbandis advantageousfor severalreasons.First, by us-
ing separateadaptationfor each band, the quantization step sizescan be adjustedac-
cording to the energy level in each band. Those bands with relatively high energy
levels can be encodedwith relatively coarsequantization.In this mannei the spectrum
of the quantization noise is matched to the short-term $pectrum of the signal. This
propefly is very desirablein a perceptualsensebecauseit allows the
speechsignal to
 CODING
3.7 SUBBAND 139

BandpErB AdaPtive
filters PCM

Figure 3.35 Subbandcoder.

mask the quantization noise. (The human ear perceives speechby measuring the short-
term energy level of individual frequency bands.Hence,relatively low noise in a band
with no speechenergy is perceptually more significant than greater noise in a band
with significant speechenergY.)
A secondadvantageof subbandcoding is that the bit rate (quality) assignedto each
individual
band can be optimized according to the Perceptualimportance of each
band. In particular, a relatively large number of bits per sample can be used for low
frequencies where it is important to preserve the pitch and formant Structure voiced
of
,ound*. At higher frequencies,however, fewer bits per sample can be used because
noiselike fricatives do not require comparablequality in reproduction'
As reported in reference [10], subbandcoders provide significant bit rate reduc-
tions compared to the more coilrmon and simpler coding algorithms: adaptive delta
modulation and adaptive differential PCM. Specifically, subbandcoders at 16 kbps
are reported to be perceptually equivalent to ADFCM coders at ?2 kbps. A subband
coder at 9.6 kbps is reportedto be eguivalentto an ADM coder at 19.5kpbs. Extensive
in reference
description and performance analysis of subband coding are available
t351.
A particularlysignificantexampleof subbandcodingis the ITU-T recommenda-
nonl.7}Zfbr widebandspeechcodingt36, 371.This standard providesfor encoding
7-kHz speechbandwidthwith 64 kbps.Thusit providesa meansof significantlyim-
proving voice fidelity whenend-to-enddigital channelsare available.Applications
thatcanbenefitmostfrom thehigherfidelity areteleconferencing andspeakerphones'
Becauseit is not intendedfor internalequipment of the network, it doesnot have
to proces$voicebanddata signalsor supporttandem analog conversions. Tran-
scodingsto and from uniform PCM are required in support of conference bridge
affangements.
As shownin Figure3.36[36], theG.722algorithmdividestheinput speechband-
width from 50 to 7000Hz into two approximately equal-sizedsubbands'Both sub-
bandsareencodedwith ADPCM:theIowersubband at48 kbpsandtheuppersubband
 140 votcEDlctTlzATtoN

l4 blt|
l6kHr
I

I 04 kbps
oulput

Lowr ilbbEnd
ADPCM dftoder
(3 vrrirntl

Mode indic8tion

Figure3.36 G.7227-kIIzaudiocodec,
(Fromreference
t361,p. 10.)

at 16kbps.Theupperbanddoesnot requireashigh a dataratebecause it is not asim-

portantperceptuallyand has significantlyless energy.The algorithmpermits
the
lowerbandto be encodedat 40 or 32 kbps,whichallowsg or 16kbpsfor anauxiliary
datachannelin teleconferencing applications
or for theuseof56-kbpschannelswhen
64 kbpsis not available.Figure3.37showstheMos performance olthe G.222atgo-
rithm for speechandmusicat threebasicrates[3g].

S i g n sB
l 8ndwidth=7kHz
Excellcnt 5

Good 4
Sprech
t
6
! Muric
o Fair 3
,s Hsiearch
E
{ Gorl for
7-kHu Sp€ech
Poor 2
o 24& l$ps PCM
r G722:64-.kbps$B-ADPCM
Bed I
4$
Bit RErB(kbps)

Figure3.37 AverageMosversusbitrateotG.lzzk-kHzaudiocodec.(Fromreference[3g],
p. 15.)
 3.8 vocoDEHS 141

3.8 VOCODERS
For the most part, the encocling/decodingalgorithms describedpreviously have been
possible'
concernedprimarily with reproducing the input waveform as accuratelyas
of the nature of the signal they process and
Thus they u**u-* little or no knowledge
are basically applicable to any signal occurring in a voice channel. Exceptions occur
when subbandcoding and adaptivepredictive coding are designedfor particularly low
to
bit rates (20 kbps or iess). At thesebit ratesthe encodershave been closely tailored
the statisiics of a speechsignal and cannot provide comparable quality for other sig-
nals. Differential systems,such as DPCM and DM, also exhibit a certain amount of
deficiencies
speech-specificproperties by virtue of their high-frequency encoding
(slope overload).
The digitization procedures described in this section very specifically encode
speechsignatsand speechsignals only. For this reasonthese techniquesare referred
"vocOders,"an acronym for vOiCecoderS.Since theseteChniquesare
to collectively as
public
designedspecificatly for voice signals,they are not applicableto pottions ofthe
(such as modem signals) must be ac-
telephonenetwork in which other analog signals
commodated.-
The basic goal of a vocoder is to encodeonly the perceptuallyimportant aspectsof
can be
speechwith fewer bits than the more general waveform encoders.Thus they
cannot.
used in limited-bandwidth applicationswhere the other techniques"wrong
Some of the main applications for vocoders are recorded (e.g., number")
digital cellular te-
message$,encryptedvoice transmissionover niuT0wbandHF radio,
Iephony, digital circuit multiplication, computer output, games,and telephony over
provided multiple
tnl fnternet. A particularly interesting,early use of an LPC vocoder
voice channels over a single voice frequency leasedline' Using a well-conditioned
time division
leasedline to obtain a 9600--bpscircuit, four 2400-bpsvoice signalswere
(early 1980) where
multiplexed into a single line [39]. This is one of the first cases
digitization was usedto actually decreasethe bandwidth of a voice signal' This system
pr*ovidedintelligible voice, but the overall quality was below telephone standards'
This particular systembecameobsoletewhen long-distanceleased-linecosts dropped
to the point that the sacrifice in voice quality was unjustified'
vo-
This sectiondescribesthree of the most basic vocoding techniques:the channel
and vari-
coder, the formant vocoder, and the aforementioned LPC. Many other forms
some of the
ations of vocoders have been proposed and studied. For a discussionof
other techniques and an extensive bibliography on the subject, see reference [10]'
the
Most commercial applications for vocoders have concentratedon adaptationsof
LPC algorithm, particularly for digital cellular and voice over data networks'

Phtaselnsensitlvltq
preserving
A fundamental requirementfor maintaining good speechquality involves
the shot"t-termpower specffum of the signal. The phaserelationship between individ-
*Vocoders to detect the
can be insefted into internal portions of a network if the interfaces are equipped
presencc of voiceband modem or fax signals and process them accordingly'
 142 votcEDtGtlzATtoN

tin {611
T

cln{?.drl

Einl0rrl
+ -
lin(?or+fl

Figure3.38 Effectof phase

shiftin thesuperposition
of twotones.

ual frequencycomponents is perceptually

muchlessimportant.one of thebestexam-
plesof theear'sinsensitivityto phaseis demonstrated whentwo notesareplayedsi-
multaneously,or nearly simultaneously,on a piano. The compositeJound, as
perceivedby a listener,is seeminglyno differentif onenoteis struct<stightlylaterthan
theother.In essence,theearsenses how muchenergyis presentat variousfrequencies
in the speechspectrumbut doesnot sen$ethe phaserelationshipbetweenindividual
frequencycomponents.
Theeffectof a phaseshiftin onecomponent of a compositesignalis shownin Fig-
ure 3.38.The first compositewaveformis producedwhentwo individualfrequenry
component$ haveidenticalstartingphases.The secondcompositewaveformoccurs
whenthetwo frequencytermshavestartingphasesshiftedby-90owith respectto each
other.Noticethat the compositewaveformsaremarkedlydifferenteventhoughthe
differenceis imperceptibleto the ear.For thesereasonsthe time waveformproduced
by a vocodergenerallybearslittle resemblance to the originalinput waveform.In_
stead,theemphasisof a vocoderis in reproducingthe short-term
fower specrumof
theinput.

3.8.1 ChannelVocoder

channel vocoderswere firsr developedin l92g by Homer Dudley

[40]. Dudley's
originalimplementation compressed speechwaveformsinto an *utog signalwith a
total bandwidthof about300 Hz. Basedon the originalconcept,digital channelvo_
codershavebeendevelopedoperatingin therangeof l_? kbps.
A majorpart of the encodingprocessof a channelvocoderinvolvesdetermining
the short-termsignalspectrumas a functionof time. As indicatedin Figure3.3g,;
bankofbandpassfilters is usedto separate the speechenergyinto subbands that are
full wave rectifiedand filtered to determinerelativepower levels.The individual
powerlevelsareencodedandtransmittedto thedestination. Noticethatthis muchof
a channelvocoderis very similarto the subbandcoderdiscussed previously.A sub_
bandcoder,however,typically useswider bandpass filters, whicir necessitatesam-
pling the subbandwaveformsmoreoften (determininga waveforminsteadof just
a
powerlevel)' Sincea subbandcoderencodeswaveforms,it alsoincludesphase
infor-
mationthatis ignoredby a channelvocoder.
In additionto measuringthesignarspectrum, modemchannelvocodersalsodeter-
mine the natureof speechexcitation(voiceor unvoiced)andthe pirch frequencyof
s€
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 144 votcEDtctlzAloN

voiced sounds.The excitation measurementsare used to synthesizethe speechsignal

in the decoderby passingan appropriatelyselectedsourcesignal through a frequency-
domain model of the vocal tract transfer function. Voiced excitation is simulatedby a
pulse generatorusing a repetition rate equal to the measuredpitch period. unvoiced
excitation is simulated by a noise generator.Owing to the synthesizednature of the
excitation, this form of a vocoder is sometimesreferred to as a pitch-excited vocoder.
As indicated in Figure 3.39, a decoder implements a vocal tract transfer function
as a bank of bandpassfilters whose input power levels are determined by respective
subbandpower levels in the encoder.Thus outputs of each bandpassfilter in the cle-
coder conespond to outputs ofrespective bandpassfilters in the encoder.superposing
the individual bands re-creates,in a spectral sense,the original signal.
Maly variations in the basic channel vocoder have been developed involving the
nature of the excitation and the meansof encoding the power levels. Recentadvances
in digital technology have introduced the useof digita-lsignal processingto determine
the input spectrumby way of Fourier transform algorithms in lieu of the bank of ana-
log filters. All forms of vocoders that measurethe power spectraldensity are some-
times referred to collectively as spectrum channel vocodersto distinguish them from
time-domain vocoderssuch as the LpC describedlater.
The most difficult aspect of most vocoder realizations involves determining the
pitch of voiced sounds. Futthermore, certain sounclsare not clearly classifiable as
purely voiced or purely unvoiced. Thus a desirableextensionofthe basic vocoder in-
volves more accuratecharacterizationof the excitation. Without accurateexcitation
information, vocoder output quality is quite poor and often dependenton both the
speakerand the particular soundsbeing spoken.Some of the more advancedchannel
vocodershave produced highly intelligible, although somewhat synthetic sounding,
speechat 2400 bps [231.

3.8.2 FormantVocoder
As indicated in the spectogram of Figure 3.26, the short-term spectral density of
speech is rarely distributed across rhe entire voice band (200-3400 Hz). Insread,
speechenergy tends to be concentratedat three or four peakscalled formants. A for-
mant vocoder determinesthe location and amplitude of thesespectralpeaksand trans-
mits this information insteadof the entire $pectrumenvelope.Thus a formant vocoder
produceslower bit ratesby encoding only,the most significant short-termcomponenrs
in the speechspectrum.
The most important requirement for achieving useful speechfrom a formant vo-
coder involves accurately tracking changes in the formants. once this is accom-
plished, a formant vocoder car provide intelligible speechar less than 1000 bps
tl0l.

3.8.3 LinsarPredlctiveCodlng
A linearpredictive
coderis a popularvocoderthatextracts
perceptually
significant
featuresof speechdirectly from a time waveform rather than from frequency specrra,
as does a channel vocoder and formant vocoder. Fundamentally, Lpc analyzes a
 3.8 vocoDFRS 145

Analvsis Synthesis
relationship'
andsynthesis
Figure3.40 Basicmodelof LPCanalysis

speechwaveformto producea time-varyingmodelof the vocaltractexcitationand

transferfunction.A synthesizerin thereceivingterminalre-creates thespeech by pass-
ing the specifiedexcitationthrougha mathematical model of the vocal hact' By peri-
odicallyupdatingtheparameters of themodelandthe specification of the excitation,
thesynthesizer adaptsto changes in either.Duringanyonespecification interval,how-
ever,thevocaltractis assumed to represent a lineartime-invariant process.
The analysis-synthesis relationshipbetweentheencoder/decoder is shownin Fig-
ure 3.40.Theanalysisprocessdetermines the coefficientsof the A(z) matrixto mini-
mizetheerrore(n)with a givensetof speechsamples x(n)' If the decoder knowsboth
A(z) and e(n),it canre-create(synthesize) the input samples x(n). In the mostbasic
form of LPC e(n)is not transmitted to thedecoder.Instead,e(rr) is indirectly specifled
asthe excitationof a vocalhact model.Noticethat e(n)is the excitation of the syn-
thesizerin Figure3.40.
A blockdiagramof thebasicmodelfor speechgeneration is shownin Figure3.41'
which is alsoa modelof the mostbasicfbrm of LPC decoder/synthesizer' The equa-
tion of thevocaltractmodelshownin Figure3'44 is definedas:

Pirch
period
,l
@ "Voiced"
{

Excitationmodel Vocal tract model

Figure 3.41 Speechgenerationmodel of linear predictive coding.

 146 votcEDtctlzAloN

y(n)=Eooy@*k)+Gx(n) (3.14)
FI

where)(n)= zth outputsample

er = lcthpredictorcoefficient
fi = gain factor
x(n) * input at sampletime n
p = orderof the model

Noticethatthespeechoutputin Equation3.14is represented asthepresentinputvalue

plus a linearcombinationof the previousp outputsof the vocaltract.The modelis
adaptivein thattheencoderperiodicallydetermines a newsetof predictorcoefficients
corresponding to successive speechsegments. BasicLpC doesnot measureanden-
codedifferencewaveformsor errorsignals.Instead,the errorsignalsareminimized
in a mean-squated sensewhenthe predictorcoefficientsaredetermined. The ability
to avoid encodingthe predictorerrorscomesfrom the fact that LPC usesprediction
parametersbasedon the actualinput segmentsto which the parametersare applied
(forwardestimation).In confiast,mostof thepredictivecodersmentionedpreviously
base their prediction on past measurements only (backwardestimation).Rapid
changesin the vocaltractor excitationcausemodelsbasedon pastmea$urements to
be lessaccurate.Thenegativeaspectof forwardestimationis thedelayit insertsinto
theencodingprocess,which,depending on theapplication,mayor maynotbe a con-
sideration.
The information that a LPC encoder/analyzerdeterminesandtran$mitsto the de-
coder/synthesizerconsistsof

l. Natureofexcitation (voicedorunvoiced)
2. Pitch period (for voiced excitation)
3. Gain factor
4. Predictor coefficients (parametersof vocal tract model)

The natureof the excitationis determined,as in other vocoders,by determining

whetherstrongperiodiccomponents exist in the waveform.pitch is determinedby
measuringperiodicitywhenit exists.In additionto measuringpitch with techniques
similarto thoseusedby othervocoders,anLpc encoder/analyzer hasparticularprop-
ertiesthataid in pitch determination[41].
Thepredictorcoefficientscanbe determined usingoneof severaldifferentcompu-
tationalprocedures. All proceduresuseactualwaveformsamplesasthe desiredout-
puts of the synthesizer. using thesesamplevalues,a setof p linearequationsin p
unknowncoefficientsis produced.Thusthecoefficientsaredeterminedby inverting
a p-by-pmatrix.sincetheorderof p may varyfrom 6 to rz, dependingon the *peecir
quality desired,straightforward matrix inversionrepresentsa significantamountof
computation.Dependingon specificassumptions madein the model,however,the
 3.8 vocoDEHS 147

matriceshave specialpropeltiesthat greatlysimpliff the solutionof the equations

t4lI.
Althoughlinearpredictivecodersprocesstime-domainrepresentations of speech,
their operationis suchthat they provide good estimates of the peaks of the speech
spectrum.Furthermore,an LPC is capable of effectively tracking gradual changes in
thespectrumenvelope.Theoverallresultis thatLPCs provide more natural sounding
speechthanthe purely frequency-domain-based vocoders[23]. Most LPC research
hasconcentrated on encodingspeechin therangeof 1.2-2.4kbps'
The u.s. Departrnent of Defenseestablished a 2400-bps,I0th-orderLPC (LPC-
l0) as a standald for secure communications over dial-uptelephonelines [42' 431.
This systemtransmitsblocks of 54 bits every 22.5msec. The 54 bits areallocatedas
7 bitsfor pitch,5 bitsfor energylevel (gain factor),41 bits for 10coefficients(voiced
excitation),and I bit for framing.
The performance of the coderwith respectto naturalspeechis providedin Table
3.4.A diagnosticrhymetest(DRT) tul4lis a meansof determiningthe intelligibility
of a speechsystemasa percentage of correctword recognitionsfrom a standardized
list of pairsof rhymingwords(e.g.,goatvs. coator thick vs. tick). The DRT-with-
noisetestmeasures the word recognitionpercentage whenbackgroundnoiseappro-
priateto the applicationis addedto the test words before encoding.The diagnostic
acceptabilirymeasure(DAM) [45] ratesintelligibility and subjectiveacceptabilityus-
ing procedures thateliminatemuchofthe dependence on personal preferences ofthe
listeners.The scoresarenormalizedfrom 0 to 100'

3.8.4 Enhanced-Excitation Llnear Predlctive Codlng

The basicLPC afgorithmdescribedin theprevioussectionsynthesizes speechin the

decoderusinga very simplemodelfor theexcitationthatrequiresonly aboutlOToof
the aggregatedatarate.Becausevoicedsignalsaremodeledby a simplepulsegener-
ator. an LPC coder is sometimesreferredto as a pulse-excitedlinear prediction
(PELP)coder.The simplicityof the modelinevitablyproducessyntheticsounding
speech. To overcomethis shottcoming,numeroustechniques havebeendevelopedto
enhancethe excitation.Threeenhanced-excitation algorithmsare multipulseLPC
(MPLPC),residualexcitedlinearprediction (RELP), mixed-excitationlinearpredic-
tion (MELP),andvariousversionsof code-excitedlinearprediction(CELP). Because
the enhanced-excitationLPC algorithmsinvolveencodinga residualpredictionerror

TABLE3,4 Performance of Natural

Comparlson andLPC'10
SPeech
NaturalSpeech(3.6kHz) LPC-10

DHT 95o/" 90o/o

DRTwithnoise 92"/" 82"/"
DAM 65 48
 148 VoIcEDIGITIZATIoN

in some form or another, these algorithms are often referred to as hybrid codecs; a
combination of vocoding and waveform coding.

Multlpulse LPC
As shownin Figure3.42,whereit canbecompared
withaconventional
Lpc system,
MPLPC[46]is a conceptuallysimpleexrension
of conventional
Lpc. whereLpc
usestheresidualto determinethepitchperiodof voicedsignals,MpLpC usesthere-
sidualto determinea sequence of pulsesto morecloselymatchtheresidual.In thesim-
plestcaseMPLPCusesa fixed numberof pulsesin a pulsekain anddetermines only
the startingphaseof the train andthe amplitudesandpolaritiesof eachpulsewithin
the train. A significanrside benefitof MPLPC is that it doesnot havero identify
whethera speechsegmentis voicedor not andconsequently determinethepitchpe-
riod of voiced signals.Instead,the multipulsedeterminationin eachanalysissegment
automaticallyadaptsto thenatureof theactualexcitation.MPLPCat 96fi) bpsis usedin
AT&T's l4A Arurouncement systemfor reco'rdedmessagesto telephoneusen [46].
MPLPC is also the algorithmchosenfor the skyphoneAeronauticalTelephone
serviceusing9.6-kbpschannelson the INMARSAT maritime$atellite[47]. Another
applicationof an MPLPC algorithmis the panEuropean digital mobileradio system
(GsM) [48] thatallocatesa l3-kbpsdatarareto voiceencoding.Thespeechcodecthar
hasbeenstandardized by CEPTfor this applicationis referredto asregular*pulseex-
citationLPC with long-termprediction(RpE-LTp) [4g]. This sysremtransmits260
bit blocksconsistingof 72 bits of predictionparametersand188bitsof excitationen-
coding.Becausethe codecdoesnot $upportvoicebanddataratesat 1200bps and
above,the systemhasprovisionsfor databypassofthe codec.

Mlxed-Excltation LPC
As the nameimplies,mixed-excitation Lpc (MELP) [50] usesa moresophisticated
model for the excitationthan either LPC or Mpl-pc. An MELp algorithmhasbeen

ENCODER DECODEH

Volcsd/unvolced ffil* 4*q'Fs

Cocfficirntr

Input I Vocsl
#n'l -'5;*

Figure 3.42 Multipulse linear predictivecoding. comparisonof Lpc (a) and Mpl-pc
(D)encoder/decoder.
 3.8 vocoDEFs 149

selectedby the U.S. govemment for $ecurevoice applicationsat 2.4 kbps [51]. Devel-
opmsnt of this algorithm has paid particular attention to background noise (as might
arise in a tank). Enhancedexcitation featuresof this version of LPC are;

1. Mixed pulseandnoiseexcitation
2. Periodicor nonperiodicpulsegeneration
3. Adaptivespectralenhancement (to improveformantreproduction)
4. Pulsedispersion(spreading theimpulsesacrossmoreof a pirchinterval)
5. Fourieranalysisof residual(to improvepitchdetermination)

ResidualExclhd LPC
The APC algorithm describedin Section 3.6 transmits the encodeddifference signal
(prediction error or residual) determinedin the encoderso the decodercan integrateit
to recover the original input. Notice that the decodedresidual waveform in the APC de-
coderof Figure3.34actsasthe excitationof the predictionloop.If thepredictionloopuses
an LPC formulation, APC essentiallybecomesresidual-waveform excited LPC.
The formal term residual excited IIC (RELP) refers to a structure that is identical
to the APC block diagram shown in Figure 3.34 but differs in the mannerin which the
residual is encoded.An RELP encoderdoes not encodethe residual directly but pre-
processesit to allow transmissionat a lower datarate.The fundamentalpremiseof the
preprocessingis that the residual consistsof a fundamental frequency and multiples
(harmonics)of the fundamental.Thus, an RELP encoderencodesonly the fundamen-
tal. The decoderreconstructsthe residual (in a frequency-domainsense)by decoding
the fundamental and adding in the harmonics.In the sensethat the processof extract*
"residual encoding" and that of decoding and
ing and encoding the fundamental is
"residual decoding," the diagram in Figure 3.34 servesas a basic
adding harmonicsis
diagram of RELP.
As commonly implemented, an RELP encoder [5?] extracts the fundamental by
low-pass filtering the residual and down sampling to reduce the sampling frequency
to the Nyquist rate. As an example,if a (DSP-based)low-passfilter has a cutoff of 8ff)
Hz, only every fifth sample of the filtered residual is neededto meet the 1600-Hz
Nyquist rate. In this manner, an RELP decoder is excited by samplesoccurring at a
1600-Hz rate-approximately the samerate as in MPLPC. Thus the residual decoder
in an RELP receiveris similar to the pulse generatorof an MPLPC synthesizer.In fact,
the regular pulse excitation LPC of the Europeandigital mobile systemdeterminesits
pulse excitation by testing each of four sequencesobtained by taking every fourth
sample of a filtered residual and selectingthe sequencewith maximum correlation to
the residual sequence.Thus even the encoding algorithms of MPLPC and RELP are
sometimessimilar. In a comparison of three specific coders (subband,MPLPC, and
RELP), MPLPC codersprovided the best performance [53].
RELP encoding has been used in various mobile radio and satellite applications.
An example of the latter is a 9.6-kbps RELP codec designedto supportconversion of
analog FM voice channelsto digital voice channels[54]'
 150 vorcEDrGtTtzATtoN

Mux

Figure 3.43 CELp encoderblockdiagram.

Code-ExcitedLPC
code-excited
LPc (CELP)[55]is yetanother
example
of enhanced-excitation
Lpc
whosebasic block diagram can be loosely representedby Figure 3.34. As indicated in
the GELP specific block diagram of Figure 3.43, cELp usesa codebookfor encoding
residuals.Instead of encoding a residue waveform on a sample-by-samplebasis and
using that as excitation in the decoder,CELP a$$umesresidualsare not random wave-
forms with independentsamplesbut rather that a block of residuesamplescan be rep-
resented by one of a manageable number of waveform templates. ,,Excitation
encoding" in this caseinvolves selectinga codeword in a codebookthat minimizes the
overall error in the reconstructed(synthe$ized)signal. "Residual decoding" in this
context implies using the received codeword as an index into the table of codewords
to obtain the residual sequencechosenin the encoder.Becausea block ofresidue sam-
ples can be consideredas a residue vector, this form of coding is also referred to as
vector quantization (VQ) excited LPC t561.
Maximum coding efficiency is achievedby encoding long sequences(i.e., vectors
with many dimensions),which, of course,implies large codebooks.Thus, much of the
researcheffort of this class of codecsinvolves establishinga large enough set of vec-
tors in the codebook that all residue vectors can be adequatelymatched.Next, an ef-
ficient procedure for searching the codebook is determined to find the vector with the
best match. Because the number of vectors is necessarily large, tree-structured
searchesare required, which implies the enhies in the codebook are grouped into hi-
erarchical families of vectors.
BecauseGELP coders provide good quality at low bit rates, an extensive amount
ofresearch has been undertakento produce a variety ofCELp algorithms. A parlicu-
larly efficient implementationdeterminesthe excitation codeword as a sum of sequen-
tially determined codewords called vectors. Thus, this technique is referred to as
vector sum excited LPC (VSELP) [56]. The following list identifies prominent ver-
 151
3.9 ENCODER/DECODERSELECTIONCONSIDERATIONS

sionsof VSELP andCELPin North Americanapplications.Otherver$ionsof CELP

codersareincludedin thelist of ITU standardcodingalgorithmsin Section3.10.

VSELP(vectorsumexcitedLPC);usedin NorthAmericandigitalcellularsystems
(IS-54/IS-136)
at 7.95kbps[57]
QSELP (Qualcomm vector $um excitedLPc): usedin CDMA digital cellular
systems(IS-95)at l3 kbPs
DoD-CELPFederalstandard(FS-1016)at 4.8 kbps[58]

SELECTIONCONSIDERATIONS
3.9 ENCODEH|/DECODER

This chapterhasdescribedseveraltechniques for digitizingvoicesignalsandhasin-

dicatedthatmanyothervariationsarepossible.This sectioncompa.res thevariousal-
gorithmsin termsof (l) voice quality, (2) transparency for nonvoicesignals,(3)
effors,and(4) delay.
toleranceof transmission

3.9.1 Volce Quality

Voice codingapplicationsand corresponding quality levelshavebeentraditionally

classifiedas broadcastquality, toll quality, communications quality, and synthetic
quality. Thesecategoriesand their respectiverangesof dataratesare qualitatively
shownin Figure3.44asobtainedfrom referencetl 11.Therelativelynewcategoryof
hybrid coding(e.g.,MPLPCor cELP) hasbeenadded.Table3.5,obtainedfrom ref-
erences[38] and[59],compares variouscodersin termsof thequalitymeasures: DRT
t441,DAM [45], andMos t9, 11, 181.Noticethatthe low-rate coders do reasonably
well on intelligibility(DRT) but fall off significantlyin termsof subjectivemeasure$.
Anotherpresentation of speechqualityof variouscodersis shownin Figure3'45' ob-
tainedfrom referencet60l (whichcontainsa goodoverviewofITU standardcoding
algorithms).This figureessentiallycontainsspecificMOS ratingsof specificcoders.'
Additionalcomparisons of low-ratecoders(APC,RELP,LPC) areavailablein refer-
ences[61] and [62].
The caregoryof toll quality,which is traditionallyusedfor public telephonenet-
work voicequalityobjectives, is no longera well-definedcategory.Toll qualityin the
analognetwork could be quantifiedin terms of parameterslike frequencyresponse
andnoiselevel.Becausenew,low-ratecoders(e.g.,CELPs)do not reproducewave-
forms,a quantitativeanalyticalmeasureof qualityis notpossible.Suppliersof highly
compressed voicefor applications like digitalcellularandvoiceovertheIntemetcom-
"toll quality"underidealhans-
monlyuseDRT or MOS scoresto supporttheclaimof
missionenvironments (e.g.,no bit errorsor packetloss).This practicehascontributed
to a relaxationof a "toll quality" standard'
*MOS
sco.e* pay vary by 5% ot so from one study to another'
152 vorcEDtetlzATtoN

Waveform coding

)
Broadcast
quality
MOS
4
Toll quality

yntheticquhlity

8 1 6 3 2 6 4
Data rare(kbps)
Figure 3.44 Generalspeechquality versusffansmissionrate.

3.9.2 Transparency for Nonvoice Slgnals

Theseparation betweencommunications qualityandtoll qualitycodersin Figure3.44
also separatesthosealgorithmsthat do not perform well on nonvoicesignalsfrom
thosethatdo. Thelowerdataratesof communications qualirycodersareachievedby
tailoringthe algorithmsto the specificsof voicesignals,therebysacrificingmodem
and facsimile performance.For a comprehensivetheoreticaltreatmentof voiceband

TABLE3.5 SpeechOualityComparleons
of Common
Goders

64-kbpsPCM 95 4.3
14.4-kbpsOCELPls 4.2
3Z-kbpsADPCM(c.721) 94 68 4.'l
(c.728)
16-kbpsLD-CELP 94 70 4.0
6.4kbpsMP-MLO(c.723.1) 3.9/3.44
13-kbpsRPE-LTP
(GSM) 3.5
9.6-kbps
MPLPC(Skyphone) 3.4
9.6-kbps
OCELP 3.4
8-kbp$CELP 93 68 3.7
4,8-kbps
DoD-CELP 99 67 3,0
Z.4-kbps
LPC 90 54 2.5
the lowerperformance to 3qlopacketloss.
corrosponds
 CONSIDERATIONS153
3.9 ENCODERiDECODERSELECTION

S.6cft
AJdly

lxrcfn$ffi

"ThreeNew
Figure 3.45 Speechqualityof standardencodingalgorithms.(FromR. V. Cox,
SpeechCodersfrom the ITU Cover a Range of Applications,"IEEE Communications
Magazine,September1997.)

data signal digitization, see reference [63]. As end-to-end digital channels become
more available, there will be less need to suppolt nonvoice applications as analog
voiceband signals. (Seethe discussionof V.90 PCM modems in Chapter I I ')
In addition to end user applications, coders installed in the intemal portions of a
network must provide acceptablequality for network-related signaling tones such as
DTMF, MF, and SF. DTMF tones,in particular, must be accuratelyreconstructedbe-
causethey are used for end-to-endcontrol by users.G.729 at I kbps has special pro-
visions for carrying DTMF tones. Support for MF and SF signaling is less of a
problem becausetheir use is confined to specific transmission links that have been
mostly replaced by newer transmission Systemsusing common-channel signaling.
An additional considerationfor voice quality is the performanceof fiomevery low
bit rate vocoders in the presenceof audio background noise. If a coder is tuned too
tightly to processvoice signals and voice signals only, it can go off into left field when
speech is superimposedon background sounds such as loud music. The low-bit-rate
codersusedin digital cellular applicationshave to be pafticularly sensitiveto this sinaation.

3.9.3 Toleranceof TransmlssionErrors

Of the waveform coders,the differential systems(DPCM, ADPCM, DM) are the most
tolerant of transmissionelror$ and PCM the least. The threshold of perceptibility of
random error$ on delta modulation is 10-3. For PCM the threshold is 104. Delta
modulation i$ intelligible at random error rates as high as lOVo,but PCM is unintelli-
154 vorcEDrcrrzATtoN

gibleat l7d elror rates.In bursterrorenvironmentsthetolerances of PCM anddiffer-

entialsystemsaremorenearlythesame.(If the most significantbit of a pcM code-
word is in error,it doesnot matterif the leastsignificantbits arealsoin error.)
Thoseparameters of syntheticqualitycodersthatarecriticalfor voicereconstruc-
tion areusuallyredundantlyencoded. Errorcorrectionofcritical parametersin digital
mobilesystemsallowsintelligiblevoiceat errorratesashigh as l Zo.

3.9.4 Delay
The effectof encodinganddecodingdelayof a voicedigitization/compression algo-
rithm mustbeconsidered in thecontextof theparticularapplication.If theapplication
involvesinsertingartificial delayof morethan 10 msecinto local (analogrconnec-
tions,echo/singing controlwill haveto beadded.Furthermore, if a significantamount
of delayis addedinto a long-distance circuit,existingechocancelersmay not have
enoughdelaycapacityto accommodate thedelayinsertion.
Experience wittr satellite-ba.sed
voiceconnectionsindicatesthatroundtripdelaysonthe
orderof 2ff) mseccanbe toleratedwitlroutsifficant userdissatisfaction. As indicated
in the following, coding/compression algorithms,in themselves,do not approach
this limit.

ADPCM (G.726) 0.125msec

LD-CELP(G.728) 2.5msec
CS-CELP(c.729)t64l l0 msec
ACELP(G.723.1) 30 msec (plus 7.5 msec of look-ahead)
Although the roundtrip encoding/decodingdelays (which are double rhe above num-
bers) do not approachthe 200-msecthreshold, they can add to oflrer systemdelays to
exceed the maximum desirable delay. System factors such as interleaving for error
correction and packet delay on TDMA mobile systemscan add another30 msec or so
in eachdirection. If individual compressedvoice packetsare carried through an ATM
or packet-switchednetwork, delays in excessor 200 msec are easily produced. (see
Chapter I 0 for a discussionof theseapplications.)

3.10 ITU.TCODINGSTANDARDS

Thefollowing list identifiesvariousdigital voicecodingstandards

of theITU:
o.7ll standardfor speechcodecsthat providestoll quality audio at 64 kbps
usingeitherA-lawor p-lawPCM.
G-721 standardfor speechcodecsthat providestoll quality audio at 32 kbps
usingADPCM.
G'722 standardfor speechcodecstharprovideshigh-quality(program)audioat
64 kbpsusingsubbandADPCM (SB-ADPCM).Thealgorithmusesa l6-
kHz samplerateto captureaudiofrequencies between50 and 7000Hz.
Two ADPCM subbandsare used by this srandardto give audio
performancesuperiorto a single-bandADPCM algorithmoperatingat the
samebit rate.
 REFERENcES 155

G.723 Standardforspeechcodecs thatprovidestollqualityaudioat20or40kbps

usingADPCM.
G.723.1 Standardfor speechcodecsoptimizedfor modems.It providestoll quality
audioat 6.4kbps(MP-MLQ) or 5.3kbps(ACELP).
G.726 AdaptivedifferentialPCM at 16,24,32,or40kbps(using?-,3-,4-,ot5-
bit samples).
G.727 An extensionof Recommendation G.726 for use in packetizedspeech
$ystems. TheADPCM samplesaredividedinto 2, 3, or 4 corebits and0,
l, 2, or 3 enhancement bits.Thecorebitsprovidefor thebasicfunctioning
of the algorithmwhile the enhancement bits addqualityto thatprovided
by the core bits. In overloadsituations,the enhancement bits can be
discardedwhile thecorebits providebasicquality.
G.7ZB Standard for speechcodecsthatprovidesneartoll qualityaudioat 16kbps
usinglow-delayCELP (LD-CELP).G.728encodesfive p-law or A-law
PCM samplesinto 10-bit,linearpredictivecodewordsat 1600codewords
per second.
G.729 Standard for speechcodecsthatprovidestoll qualityaudioat 8 kbpsusing
CELP.

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"The Rolm Computerized Branch Exchange: An Advanced Digital
I J. M. Kasson,
PBX," Computer Magazine, June 1979, p' 24.
"speech Technology in Consumer Products," Speec*
2 G. Frantz and K.-S. Lin,
Technology,Apr. 1982, pp. 25-27 .
"Customieed LPC Vocabulary L.ets Cars "lalk," Speech Technology,
3 S. Finkelstein,
Sept./Oct.1983,pp. 65-69.
"The Compact Disc Digital Audio
4 M. G. Carasso, J. B. H, Peek, and J. P. Sinjou,
System," Phillips TechnicalReview,Vol. 40, No. 6, 1982,pp. 151- 155.
5 L, Rabiner and B.-H. Jtang, Fundamentals of Speech Recogrlition, hentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.
"speech Synthesis from Text," IEEE Communications Magazine, Jan.
6 Y. Sagiska,
pp,35-41.
1990,
7 J.L. Flanagan, Speech Analysis, Synthesis,and Perception, 2nd ed. Springer-Verlag'
New York. 1972.
"An Overview of the SPHINX Speech
I K. F. Lee, H. W. Hon, and R. Reddy,
Recognition System," IEEE Transactionson AcousticsSpeechand Signal Processing,
Jan. 1990,pp.35-45.
9 N. S. Jayant and P, Noll, Drgital Coding,of Wavefotms: Principles and Applications to
Speechand Video, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1984.
"Speech
l0 J. Flanagan, M. Schroeder,B. Atal, R. Crochiere, N. Jayant, and J. Tribolet,
'll0-737
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LPC-10,"SpeechTechnolagy, Apr. 1982,pp. a0-49.
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158 vorcEDrcrrzATroN

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48*54.

PROBLEMS
3.1 Assume a signal con$istsof three tones:one at I kHz, one at 10 kHz. and one at
2l kHz. What tones will be presenrar rhe ouFut of a PAM decoderif the sam-
 PRoBLEMS 159

pling rate is I ? kHz and the input is unfiltered? (Assume the output filter cutoff
frequency is 6 kHz.)
3.2 Derive an expressionfor the averagequantization noise power that occurs when
the decoder output samples are offset from the center of a quantization interval
by adistance equal to 25Voof the interval. (The outputvalues are aLtheTSVa
point insteadof the 507opoint.) How much degradationin decibelsdoesthis off-
set represent(assuminguncorrelatedoffsets)?
3.3 How much does the signal-to-noise ratio of a uniform PCM encoder improve
when I bit is addedto the codeword?
3.4 A black-and-whitetelevision signal has a banilwidth of about 4.2 MHz. What bit
rate is required if this signal is to be digitized with uniform PCM at an SQR of
30 dB? Use a sampling-rate-to-Nyquist-rateratio comparableto that used for
PCM voice encoding.
3.5 How much dynamic range is provided by a uniform PCM encoderwith l2 bits
per sampleand a minimum SQR of 33 dB?
3.6 What is the signal-to-quantizing-noiseratio produced by a segmentedp255
PCM coder when the input signal is a full-range triangular wave? (Assume the
repetition frequency is low enough that the bandlimiting filter does not change
the waveform significantly.)
3.7 Given a samplevalue of 420 mV for a p255 PCM encodercapableof encoding
a maximum level of 2 V, determine each of the following:
(a) The compressedp255 codeword
(b) The linear representationof the compressedcode
(c) The A-law code obtained by converting from the p255 code
(d) The pJaw code obtained by converting back from the A-law code

3.8 Given the following p255 codewords, determine the (noninverted) codeword
that representsthe linear sum (0 I 10 1001),(l 01 I 0I I I ).
3.9 Generatean encoding table (i.e., list the quantieationintervals and conespond-
ing codes) for the magnitude of a piecewise linear code with segmentslopes 1,
j, i, and f. Assume four equally spacedintervals are in each segment.Assume
all intervals in the first segmentare of equal length (as in A-law coding).
3.10 What is the signal-to-noiseratio of a full-amplitude samplefor the coder of Prob-
lem 3.9?
3.11 What is the signal-to-noiseratio of a maximum-amplitude samplein the first lin-
ear $egmentof the preceding coder?
3.12 What is the dynamicrangeimplied by Problems3.10 and 3.11?
3.13 For the encoderin hoblem 3.9, how many bits are required for unifotm encod-
ing of the samedynamic range and sameminimum quantization interval?
3.f4 A uniform PCM system is defined to encode signals in the range of -8159 to
+8159 in quantizationintervals of length 2. (The quantizationinterval at the ori-
gin extendsfrom -1 to +I.) Signals are encodedin sign-magnitudeformat with
a polarity bit = 1 denoting a negative signal.
(a) How many bits are required to encodethe full range of signals?
160 votcEDlcrrzAloN

(b) How manyunusedcodesarethere?

(c) Determinethe quantizationnoise,noisepower,andsignal-to-noiseratio (in
decibels)of eachof thefollowing samplevalues;30.2,123.2,-2336.4,and
8080.9.
3.15 Repeatpart(c) in Problem3.l4 for piecewiselinearp255PCM.
3.16 Given two A-law piecewiselinear(noninverted) codewords(00110110and
00101100),determinetheir linearrepresentations, addthem,andconvefiback
to compressed representation.
3.17 A D3 charrnelbankuses"robbeddigit" signalingwhereintheleastsignificantbit of
everysixthframeis stolenfor signaling.Determinetherelativeincreasein overall
quantizationnoiseproducedby this processunderthefollowing conditions:
(a) The decodermerelytreatsthe signalingbit as a voicebit and decodesthe
PCM sampleaccordingly.
(b) The decoderknows which bits are signalingbits and generates an output
samplecorresponding to themiddleof thedouble-length quantizationinter-
val definedby the7 availablebits.(Thisis theactualtechniquespecifiedfor
D3 channelbankdecoders.)
3.18 If 2 bitsper sampleareaddedto a PCM bit stream,how muchcanthedynamic
rangebeincreased if thequantization intervalsareadjustedto improvetheSQR
by 3 dB?
3.19 How muchcantheSQRof a digitizedvoicesignalbeincreased if thebandwidth
is reducedby 30Voandthedynamicrangeis unchanged?
3.20 AnA-law PCM encoderwith a perfectzero-levelthresholddetect$anarbitrarily
smallinputsinewavebecause thefirst quantizationintervaldoesnot straddlethe
origin.Whatis thepowerlevelof thedecodedoutputsignal?Assumethepower
level of a full amplitudesinewaveis +3 dBm.
3.21 Determinethe sequence of four p255 PCM samplesfor a 2000-Hztoneat -6
dBm whenthefirst sampleoccursat a phaseof 45".
3.?? RepeatProblem3.21forAlaw signals.
3.23 DeterminetheA-law codewordsthatcorrespond to thep-law codewordsof the
digital milliwatt signalgivenin Example3.3.Assumeboth systemsarescaled
to the samemaximumsignalpower.
 DIGITALTRANSMISSIONAND
MULTIPLEXING

A fundamental considerationin the design of digital transmission $ystemsis the se-

lection of a finite set of discreteelechical waveforms for encoding the information. In
the realm of digital communications theory these discrete waveforms are referred to
as signals. The sameterminology is used in this chapter with the understandingthat
signals in the present context refer to intemal waveforms (pulses) of a transmission
systemand not the control information (signaling) usedto set up and monitor connec-
tions within a network. In communicationstheory terminology, signalprocessing re-
fers to filtering, shaping, and transformations of electrical waveforms, not the
interpretation of conffol signalsby the processorof a switching machine.
A secondaspectof digital transmissioninvolves defining certain time relationships
between the individual transmissionsignals. The source terminal transmits the indi-
vidual signals using predefined time relationships so the receiving terminal can rec-
ognize each discretesignal as it arrives. Invariably the establishmentof a proper time
baseat the receiver requirestransmissioncapacity abovethat neededfor the digital in-
formation itself. Over relatively short distances(as within a switching system or a
computer complex), the timing information (clock) is usually distributed separately
from the information-bearing signals. Over long distances,however, it is more eco-
nomical to incorporate the timing information into the signal format itself. In eittrer
casethe timing information requireschannelcapacity in terms of bandwidth, datarate,
or code space.
This chapter discussesthe most common digital signaling techniquesfbr wireline
transmissionsystems.Thus the subject of this chapteris often referred to as line cod-
ing. Thesetechniquesaregenerallyapplicableto any transmissionsystemffansmitting
digital signals directly in the form of pulses (such as coaxial cable or optical fiber).
The fact that thesetechniquesinclude low-frequency componentsin their transmitted
spectrum leadsto their also being called low-pass or basebandtransmissionsystems.
In Chapter 6 we discuss bandpasstransmission sy$tems,that is, radio systems or
voicebandmodemsthat require modulation and carrier frequencytransmission.Chap-
161
162 DtcrrALrRANSMtsstoN
ANDMULTIpLEXtNc

ter 8 discusses someadditionalbaseband transmission formatscommonlyusedin op-

tical fiber system$.
Thefollowing discussions concentrateon systemandapplicationlevel considera-
tions of digital transmission. Analytic detailsof pulsetransmission systemsarenot
emphasized sincematerialof thisnatureis availablein all workson digitalcommuni-
cationstheory.somefundamentals of pulsetransmission systemsarepresented in Ap-
pendixC, wheremanyof theequationspresented in this chapterarederived.

4.1 PULSETRANSMISSION

All digitaltransmission systemsaredesigned aroundsomeparticularform of pulsere-

sponse. Evencarriersystemsmustultimatelyproducespecificpulseshapesat thede-
tectioncircuitry of the receiver.As a first step,considerthe perfectlysquarepulse
shownin Figure4.1.Thefrequencyspectrumcorresponding to therectangularpulse
is derivedin AppendixA and shownin Figure4.2. It is commonlyreferredto as a
sin(x)/xresponse:

-_ sin(roll2) (4.1)
1'((0=
1(Il+
aTl2

where co= radian ftequency 2nl,

7 = duration of a signal interval

Notice that Figure 4.2 also provides the percentageof total $peckumpower at vari-
ous bandwidths. As indicated, 90Voof the signal energy is contained within the first
spectralnull at f = l/T.The high percentageof energy within this band indicatesthat
the signal can be confined to a bandwidth of l/T and still passa good approximarion
to the ideal waveform. In theory, if only the samplevaluesat the middle of eachsignal
interval are to be preserved,the bandwidth can be confinedto IlZT.From this fact the
maximum basebandsignaling rate in a specified bandwidth is determined as

R** = 2BW (4.2)

- 1r T
Z
Time -**

Figure 4.1 Definitionof a squarepulse.

 4.1 PULSETFANSMISSION 163

t *ro
.E Frtrtion of out-of-bmd pomr (<tB)
E
t
E
fitt

fl -ao
u

-30

Froqumcy (Hrl

Figure4.2 Speckum pulsewithdurationT.

of square

whereR = signalingrate,= IlT

BW = availablebandwidth

Equation4.2 statesa fundamentalresultfrom communicationstheory creditedto

Harry Nyquist;The maximumsignalingrate achievablethrougha low'passband-
width with no intersymbolinterferenceis equalto twice thebandwidth.This rateR^o
is sometimesreferredto asthe Nyquistrate.
Althoughdiscrete,square-shapedpulsesareeasiestto visualize,preservationofthe
squareshaperequireswide bandwidthsand is thereforeundesirable.A more typical
shapefor a singlepulseis shownin Figure4.3.Theringingon bothsidesof themain
partof thepulseis a necessaryaccompaniment to a channelwith a limitedbandwidth.

l(tl
I
I
\ ,''i*t
t
I
I
I
I
I
I

-3r -2 +--rlT 4T
2T
Time.*

Figure 4.3 Typical pulseresponseof a bandlimitedchannel.

164 DTctTALTRANSMtSStoNANDMULTtpLEXtNG

Normally, a digital transmissionlink is excitedwith squarepulses(or modulated

equivalentsthereofl,but bandlimitingfiltersandthetransmission mediumitselfcom-
bineto producea response like theoneshown.Figure4.3 showspulseoutputin nega-
tive time so the centerof the pulse occursat f = 0. Actually, the durationof the
preringingis limited to thedelayof thechannel,the filters,andtheequalizers.
An importantfeatureof thepulseresponse shownin Figure4.3 is that,despitethe
ringing,apulsecanbetransmitted onceeveryT seconds andbedetected atthereceiver
withoutinterference from adjacentpulses.Obviously,the sampletime mustcoincide
with the zerocrossingsof the adjacentpulses.Pulseresponses like the oneshownin
Figure 4.3 can be achievedin channelbandwidthsapproachingthe minimum
(Nyquist)bandwidthequalto one-halfof the signalingrate.AppendixC describes
pulsetransmission designin moredetail.

4.1.1 Intersymbol Interference

As the signalingrateof a digital transmission
link approaches the maximumratefor
a givenbandwidth,boththechanneldesignandthe sampletimesbecomemorecriti-
cal.Smallperturbations in thechannelresponse or the sampletimesproducenonzero
overlapat the sampletime$calledintersymbolinterference. The main causesof in-
tersymbolinterferenceare;

l. Timing inaccuracies
2. Insufficient bandwidth
3. Amplitude distortion
4. Phasedistortion

4.1.2 Timlnglnaccuracies
Timing inaccuraciesoccuring in either the transmitter or the receiver produce in-
tersymbol interference.In the transmitter, timing inaccuraciescauseintersymbol in-
terference if the rate of transmission does not conform to the ringing frequency
designedinto the channel.Timing inaccuraciesofthis type areinsignificant unlessex-
tremely sharp filter cutoffs are used while signaling at the Nyquist rate.
Since timing in the receiver is derived from noisy and possibly distorted receive
signals, inaccurate sample timing is more likely than inaccuratetransmitter timing.
Sensitivity to timing errors is small if the transmissionrate is well below the Nyquist
rate (e.9.,if the transmissionrate is equal to or lessthan the channelbandwidth, as op-
posedto being equal to the theoreticalmaximum rate of twice the bandwidth; seeAp-
pendix C).

4.1.3 InsufflclentBandwidth
Theringingfrequency
shownin Figure4.3isexactlyequaltothetheoretical
minimum
bandwidth of the channel. If the bandwidth is reducedfurther, the ringing frequency
is reducedand intersymbol interferencenecessarilyresults.
 4,2 ASYNCHRONOUS
VERSUS TRANSMISSION 165
SYNCHRONOUS

Somesystemspurposelysignalat a rateexceeding theNyquistrate,but do sowith

prescribedamountsof intersymbol interferenceaccounted for in thereceiver.These
systemsarecommonlyreferredto as pafrial-responsesystems-so calledbecausethe
channeldoesnot fully respondto aninputduring thetime of a singlepulse.The most
commonformsof partial-response $y$tems arediscussedin a latersection.

4.1.4 AmplitudeDlstoilion

Digital transmission systemsinvariablyrequirefiltersto bandlimittransmitspectrums

andto rejectnoiseandinterference Overall,thefiltersaredesignedto pro-
in receivers.
ducea specificpulseresponse.When a transmissionmediumwith predetermined
characteristics canbeincludedin theoverallfilter design.
is used,thesecharacteristics
However,the frequencyresponseof the channelcannotalwaysbe predictedade-
quately.A departurefrom the desiredfrequencyresponse is referredto asamplitude
distortionandcauses pulsedistortions(reducedpeakamplitudesandimproperringing
frequencies) in thetime domain.Compensation for irregularitiesin thefrequencyre-
sponseof thechannelis referredto asamplitudeequaliqation.

4.1.5 Phase Distortion

Whenviewedin the frequencydomain,a pulseis represented asthe superposition of

frequencycomponents with specificamplitudeandphaserelationships. If therelative
amplitudesof the frequencycomponents arealtered,amplitudedistortionresultsas
above.If the phaserelationships of the components arealtered,phasedistortionoc-
curs.Basically,phasedistortionresultswhenthefrequencycomponents of a signalex-
periencedifferingamountsof delayin thetransmission link. Compensation of phase
distortionis referredto asphaseequalization.For a goodtutorialon equalization, in-
cludinga descriptionof an automaticequalizerfor datatransmission, seereference
[1]. A gooddescriptionof DSPbasedequalizers is availablein reference[2].

4.2 ASYNCHRONOUSVERSUSSYNCHRONOU$TRANSMISSION

Therearetwo basicmodesof digital transmission involvingtwo fundamentallydif-

ferenttechniques for e'rtablishinga timebase(sampleclock)in thereceivingterminal
of a digitaltransmission link. Thefirst of thesetechniques is asynchronous transmis-
sion,whichinvolvesseparate transmissions Within an
of groupsof bits or characters.
individualgroupa specificpredefinedtime intervalis usedfor eachdiscretesignal.
However,the transmission timesof the groupsareunrelatedto eachother.Thusthe
sampleclock in the receivingterminalis reestablished for receptionof eachgroup'
With the secondtechnique,calledsynchronous transmission, digital signalsaresent
continuouslyat a constantrate.Hencethereceivingterminalmustestablishandmain-
tain a sampleclock thatis synchronized to theincomingdatafor an indefiniteperiod
of time.
166 DIGITALTHANSMISSION
ANDMULTIPLEXING

Tran$fiitted waveform

Receivad waneform

l t t | i l 1 l l l l l l r l
ldeol Ea|npletimer for each8-bit character

Figure4.4 Asynchronous
transmission.

4.2.1 AsynchronousTransmiesion
Between transmissions
anasynchronouslineis in aninactiveor idlestate.
Thebegin-
ningof eachtransmission
groupis signifiedby a startbit.Themiddteof thestartbit
is determined, and succeeding information bits are sampled at a nominal rate begin-
ning at the middle of the secondbit interval. Following the information symbols, one
or more stop bits are transmitted to allow the line to return to the inactive state.* Figure
4.4 shows an asynchronousmode of operation commonly used for low-speed data
communications.
As shown in Figure 4.4, the detection of each information bit is accomplishedby
ideally sampling the input waveform at the middle of each signal interval. In practice,
sample times depart from the ideal depending on how much the start bit is comrpted
by noise and distortion. Since the sampletime for eachinformation bit is derived from
a single start bit, asynchronoussystemsdo not pedorm well in high-noise environ-
ments. of course,more than one start bit could be usedto improve the accuracyof the
starting phase of the sample clock, but this would complicate the receiver and add
more overheadfor transmissionof timing information.
Sample timing enors also arise if the nominal rate of the sample clock in the re-
ceiver is different from the nominal rate of transmission at the source.Even though
the start bit might define the proper starting phase for the sample clock, an offset in
the clock frequency of the receiver causeseach successivesampletime to drift faflher
from the centerofthe respectivesignal intervals. Since the very use ofthe term'hsyn-
chronous" implies a free-running clock in the receiver, a certain amount of drift is in-
evitable in all asynchronoussystems.The maximum length of each symbol group or
characteris determined by the limits of the initial phase inaccuraciesand the maxi-
mum expected frequency difference between the kansmitter and receiver clocks.

-Originally,
stop bits were inserterl to allow electromechanical equipment enough time to reset before the
next character anived. With elechonic equipment thc only purpose of stop bits is to allow a start bit to
always be a fransition to a space(logic 0).
 4.2 ASYNCHRONOUSVERSUS$YNCHRONOUSTRANSMISSION 167

The main attraction of asynchronoustransmissionis the easewith which it deter-

mines the sampletimes in the receiver. In addition, asynchronousffansmissionauto-
matically provides characterframing and is inherently flexible in the range of average
data rate$ that can be accommodated. For high rates, one character after another is
transmitted. l,ower data rates are automatically accommodated by increasing the idle
time between characters.In contrast, a synchronousreceiver must track changesin a
transmitter rate before it can sample the incoming signals properly. Normally the re-
ceive clock of a synchronoussystemcan be adjustedonly quite slowly and only over
a nilrow range. Hence an asynchronoussystem is more naturally suited to applica-
tions where the data rate varies.
Synchronoustransmissionsystemscan suppofi variable information rates,but the
task of adjusting the information rate falls upon higher level processes(data link pro-
tocols) that insert null codesinto the bit stream.The null codesare used as filler when
a source has nothing to send. This form of transmissionis sometimesreferred to as
"isochronous." An isOChrOnous mode Of Operationis required whenever a SynChro-
nous line carries data from an asynchronoussource.
The major drawbackof asynchronoustransmissionis its poor performancein terms
oferror rateson noisy lines. Thus asynchronoustransmissionevolved for applications
where implementation costs dominated performance considerations.Asynchronous
transmissionhas been usedin voicebanddata sets(modems)for transmissionratesup
to 1200 bps. For digital telephony, something similar to asynchronoustransmission
was proposedfor two-wire digital subscriberloops. Thesesystemsprovided a full-du-
plex (four-wire) circuit by transmitting bursts of data alternately in each direction on
"ping-pong"
a single pair of wires. Thus these systemsare sometimesreferred to as
ffansmissionsystems;they are not ffuly asynchronoussinceeachtransmissionin each
direction occurs at prescribedtimes allowing timing information in one burst to carry
over into the next burst. The use ofasynchronous tran$missionon long-distancetrans-
mission links is obsoletebecausethe cost of electronicsfor betterperforming synchro-
nous transmissionis no longer a consideration'

4.2.2 Synchronou$Transmis$ion

Tl linesandall otherinterofficedigital transmission links usedin thetelephonenet-

works use synchronous transmissionexclusively. Thus the line-codingformat for
thesesystemsmustincorporate special
considerations to en$ure thateachregenerative
repeateror receivercan synchronize a local sample clock to the incomingsignaling
rate.Generallyspeaking,the synchronization requirements imply thata certainmini-
mum densityof signaltransitionsis requiredto provide continuous indicationof sig-
naling boundaries.Often, purely randomdatacannotbe relied upon to provide a
sufficientnumberof transitions.In thesecasesceftain provisions mu$t madeto in-
be
sertartificialtransitionsinto thetransmittedwaveforms.Althoughtheseextratransi-
tions imply a certainamountof transmission overhead,the lossin capacitycan be
relativelysmall.Followingaredescriptions of f,rvetechniques for ensuringthe exist-
enceof signaltransitionsfor timing recovery:
168 DrcrrALTRANSMtsstoN
ANDMULTIpLEXtNG

l. Sourcecoderestriction
?. Dedicatedtiming bits
3. Bit insertion
4. Datascrambling
5. Forcedbit errors
A sixthtechnique-insertingthetransitionsinto the signalwaveformsthemselves-
is discussed
in Section4.3.

Source Code Restrlction

Onemeansof ensuringa sufficientnumberof signaltransitionsis to re$trictthecode
setor datapaftemsof thesourcesothatlong,transition-free datasequences do not oc-
cur.Historically,PCM channelbanksin theNorth Americantelephonenetworkpre-
cluded all-0's codewordssince the original line code of rl lines producedno
transitionsfor 0's. In thecaseof 8-bitPCM codewords, theexclusionof a singlecode-
word represents a lossin transmission capacityof only onepartin 256.-
Relyingon sourcecodingto ensuresufficienttransitionsin the line codehasone
very significantdrawbackThetransmission link cannotbeusedfor newapplications
wherethesourcedoesnotexcludetheunwanteddatapattems.Forthisreason,thetotal
capacityof a Tl line couldnot be usedfor randomdatauntil a new line code[binary
eight-zerosubstitution(B8ZS)]wasintroduced.

Dedlcated Timing Blts

As an altemativeto excludingtransition-freedatapatterns,the line itself can peri-
odicallyinsetttransition-bearing bits into the datastream.Thesebits areinsertedat
regularintervals,independently ofthe sourcedata,to ensuretheexistenceof a mini-
mumnumberof signaltransitions. Thussomefractionof thechannelcapacityis dedi-
catedto timing bits.
As an example,the original DataphoneDigital service(DDS) offering for dara
communications over Tl lines providesa maximumcapacityof 56 kbps for each
channel.when carriedwithin a 64-kbpsTl channel,only 7 of the 8 bits in eachrime
slot of the channelareavailablefor the user.Amongotherfunctions,the unusedbit
in eachtime slotprovidesan assurance thatall 8 bits of a time slot arenot 0. Several
fiber systemsdescribedin Chapter8 alsouseexplicit timing bits asinherentaspects
of their line codes.The densityof timing pulsesin thesesystemsrangesfrom I in S
bitsto I in 20bits.Noticethatinsertionof a dedicated rimingbit is essentiallythesame
procedureusedto establi$htiming for asynchronous transmission. In a synchronous
receiver,however,a sampleclock is obtainedby averagingthe timing information
overa largenumberof timing transitions,notjust one.

Blt lnsertion
In theprecedingDDS exampleI bit of every8 bits in a time slot is dedicatedto en-
suringsufficienttiminginformationin thebit stream.Anotherpossibilityfor preclud-
"From
an inf'ormation theory point of view the loss in voice information is even lower since the probahility
of occunence of the all-()'s codeword is much less than I in 256.
 VEHSUS
4.2 ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION 169
SYNCHRONOUS

"bit insertion"only whennecessary. As anexam-

ing unwantedline patternsis to use
ple, the sotucedataovera Tl line couldbe monitoredfor all 0's in the first 7 bits of
a time slot.Wheneverthe0's occur,a I couldbe insertedinto the datastreamasthe
eighthbit of thetime slot.At theotherendof theline the I following seven0's is re-
movedautomatically.Eachinsertiondelaysthe sourcedataby the time of I bit, but
otherwisethefull capacityof the channelis available.
This procedureis directlyanalogous to the "zero-bitinsertion"algorithmusedin
the High kvel DataLink Control(HDLC) protocol.In this protocola specificdata
patterncalleda "flag" is usedto indicatetheendof a datablock.Thetransmittermust
beprecludedfrom inadvertentlysendingtheflag aspartof thesourcedata.Themeans
of preventinginadvertent flagsis to inserta 0 followinga stringof five L's in theuser
data.Sincea flag containsa stringof six I's, zero-bitinsertionprecludesunintended
flag transmissions. Thereceivingnodeof anHDLC datalink removesany0 following
five I's. The receipt of six 1's, however,can only be part of a legitimateflag
(01I I 1I l0). If HDLC dataareinvertedfor transmission, it neverproducesall 0's (ex-
ceptduringtheidle state).
Althougha bit insertionalgorithmallowsfor moreefficientuseof a channelthan
dedicatedtiming bits, the insertionprocedurehasa numberof drawbacks. First,this
proce$$ causesthesourcedatato be delayedeverytime aninsertionis made.Hencea
continuous, real-timetransmission application(suchasvoice)requiressmoothingthe
arival ratewith databuffersatthedestination. Second,thebit insertionprocesscauses
anycharacter$tructurein theuser'sdatato bebecomeunrelatedto thetime slotstruc-
tureof a timedivisionmultiplexedhansmission link. Thusif userdataconsistof 8-bit
characters (like PCM voicesamples), character boundaries cannotbe maintainedwith
respectto 8-bit time slotsin a Tl transmission link.

Date Scrambling
Many digitaltransmission systemsusedatascramblers to randomizethedatapatterns
on their transmission links. Although these data scramblers aresimilarto thoseused
for encryption,thefundamental purpose of these scramblers is to preventthetransmis-
sionof repetitivedata patterns, notto encrypt the traffic.Repetitive datapattemsgen-
erateline spectrathatcanbe significantlymoredegrading from an interference point
of view than continuouslydistributedspectra produced by random data patterns.
Voicebanddatamodems,for example,areallowedto operateat higherpowerlevels
if theyincludescramblers to randomizethedatatraffic.Also, digitalradiosystemsare
requiredby theFCC to not ffansmitline spectra,whichessentiallymeansthatrepeti-
tive datapatternsmu$tbe excluded.
Evenwhennot required,datascramblers areusefulin transformingdatasequence$
with low transitiondensitiesinto sequences with strongtiming components. Scram-
bling is not usedon lowerrateT-carrier$ystems (T1 andobsolete T2) but wasusedon
the274-MbpsT4M coaxialhansmissionsystem[3] andcurrentopticalfiber systems.
Datascramblers (with equalinput andoutputbit rates)do not preventlong sffings
of 0's in anabsolutesense. Theymerelyensurethatrelativelyshortrepetitionpatterns
aretransformed to randomized traffic with a minimumdensityof transitions. If purely
 17O DrcrrAL
TRANSMtsstoN
ANDMULT|pLExtNc

randominput dataarescrambled,theoutputdataarealsopurelyrandomandtherefore
havea certainstati$ticalprobabilityofproducingarbitrarilylong stringsof 0's. The
probabilityof a randomoccurrence, however,is acceptable whencomparedto the
probabilityof nonrandomsequences representingspeechpausesor idle datatermi-
nals.To determinewhichseeminglyrandomdatasequence producesall 0's attheout-
put of a scrambler,applyall 0's to the correspondingdescrambler.
TheT4M coaxialtransmission systemuseda datascramblerasthebasicmeansof
producingadequatetiming information.This systemcould toleratemuch longer
stringsof 0's because the timing recoverycircuitsin the regenerativerepeaters used
phase-locked loopsthatmaintaintiming overrelativelylong periodsof time.In con-
trast,theoriginalTl systemsrecovered timingwith tunedcircuitsthatresonated at the
desiredclockfrequency(1.544MHz) whenexcitedby a receivedpulse.Becausethe
tunedcircuitshavelowereffectiveQ's thana phase-locked loop,theoscillationsdrift
from theproperfrequencyanddie out morerapidly.Hencethe originalrl receivers
couldnot tolerateaslong a stringof 0's ascouldT4M receivers.PhaseJocked loop
clockrecoverycircuitsareusedon all latergeneration wirelineandfibertrmsmission
$y$tems so muchlongerstringsof 0's canbe tolerated.

Forced Blt Errorg

A fifrh methodof maintainingsufficienttiming informationin the line signalsin-
volveshavingthetransmission terminalat the sourceforcean occasionalbit errorin
orderto intenupta long, transition-free datapattern.If the transition-freelrequences
arelong enoughanduncommonenough,the intentionalbit errorsmight be lessfre-
quentthanrandomchannelerrorson thedigitaltransmission link. Thustheintentional
errorsmay not representa significantdegradationover andabovethat that alreadyex-
ists.Nevertheless,
forcedbit errorsarenot generallyrecommended aspartof a line-
codingprocedurebut arementionedin theinterestof completeness.
As mentionedpreviously,NorttrAmericanchannelbanksforce a bit errorin the
secondleastsignificantbit of an all-0's transmission codeto ensuresufficientsignal
transitions.An importantaspectof thisprocedureis thatit is performedby the source
wherethesignificanceof thebit erroris known.If thetransmission link itself inserted
thebit errors,theeffectswouldnot be ascontrollable,particularlywhena varietyof
traffic typesarebeingserviced.
A moresubtleproblemwith forcedtransmission errorsarisesif the digital trans-
missionlink is usedfor automaticrepeatrequerrt (ARQ) datatransmission. An ARe
datacommunication link is designedto provideerror-freetransmission, despiteran-
domchannelerrors,by insertingredundancy into thedatastreamandcheckingthere-
ceived data for error-freereception.If errors are detected,a retransmissionis
requested. when the erTorsarenot random,but forcedby the transmission link, the
ARQ systemwill becomefrustratedif it everencounters thereshictedsequence, no
matterhow unlikelyit is.* once again,if forcederrorsareused,theyshouldbe incor-
poratedinto thesourceaspartofthe $ourcecoderestrictionprocessandnot aga func-
tion of thetransmissionlink.
*If
thetransmission
link usesa scrambler,
theunlikelysequence
will not berepeatecl.
 4.s UNEcoDrNc 171

4.3 LINE CODING

In the precedingsectionvarioustechniquesfor establishingtiming informationare

describedin generalterms.The choiceof anyparticulartechniqueis dependenton
the specificline codein use.This sectiondescribes the mostcommonline codes
usedfor digital transmissionandindicateswhat additionalsteps,if any,areneeded
to maintainsynchronizationbetweenthe transmitterandreceiver.Someline-cod-
ing techniquesprovideadequatetiming informationthemselvesanddo not require
anyofthe procedures discussedpreviously.In additionto synchronizationrequire-
ments,other considerationsfor choosinga line codeare the spectrumof the line
codeandthe availablebandwidth(particularlyat low frequencies), noiseandin'
terferencelevels,synchronization acquisitiontimes,performance monitoring,and
implementationcosts.

4.3.1 Level Encodlng

Conceptually, the simplestform of line codingusesa differentsignallevel to encode

eachdiscretesymboltransmitted. Within a computersystemthe mostcommonform
"1" andnear0 V for a "0." Overa
of codingis an on-off codeusinga 3-V levelfor a
transmission in termsof powerto encodebinarydata
link, however,it is moreeff,rcient
with an equivalentdifferencein levelsbut symmetricallybalancedabout0 V. For ex-
ample,theaveragepowerrequiredfor equallylikely +3- and0-V encodingsis 4.5 W
(assuming1 fl resistance). With +l.5- and-1.5-V encodings, thesameenor distance
is achieved with half the power requirements (2.25 W). Communications engineers
commonlyreferto theunbalanced code asa unipolar code and thebalancedcodeasa
polar code.A representativesequence of binary data and its corresponding bal-
ancedandunbalanced levelencodingareshown in Figure4.5. Noticethatthelevel
of eachsignalis maintainedfor the durationof a signalinterval.For this reason

n[,]n n
I

Unipoler(unbalanced)
rigneling

Figure 4.5 Unipolarandpolar(NRZ) line codes.

172 DIGITALTRANSMISSIoNAND MULTIPLEXING

Figure 4.6 Direct-current

wanderof NRZ signal.

the balanced(polar) encodingis alsoreferredto asa nonreturn-to-zero(NRZ) code.*

As indicated in Figure 4.5, an NRZ signal contains no transitions for long strings
of I's or 0's. Hence one of the proceduresdescribedpreviously to en$uretiming tran-
sitions must be employed if NRZ encoding is used on a synchronoustransmission
link.
An NRZ line code is a pulse transmissionsystem wherein the pulse (before filter-
ing) lastsfor the duration ofa signaling interval 7. Hence the frequency spectrum(as-
suming random data) of an NRZ code is the sin(x)/x specfrum of Equation 4.1 ancl
shown in Figure 4.2. As indicated, the frequency $pectrumis significantly nonzero at
zero frequency (dc). Most wireline transmissionlinks, however, do not passdc signals
by virtue of their being altemating current coupled with transformersor capacitorsto
eliminate dc ground loops. Furthermore, some systemspurposely remove dc compo-
nents from the signal to allow line powering ofrepeaters or to facilitate single-side-
bard transmission. The elimination of the low-frequency components in the
waveform causeslong strings of I's or 0's to decay gradually in amplitude. Hence a
receiver not only would lose timing information during these strings but also would
lose its amplitude referencefor optimally discriminating betweena "r" lever and a "0"
level. The effect of low-frequency cutof'f; called dc wander, is shown in Figure 4.6 for
a typical transmissionsequence.Notice that following the long string of I's, the output
of the link is such that 1-to-0 effors are more likely than O-to-l errors. Similarly, long
strings of0's increasethe likelihood ofa O-to-1error. This problem arisesnot only for
long strings of I's or 0's, but wheneverthere is an imbalancein the number of I's and
0's. Hence periodic timing pulsesare not sufficient to remove dc wander.
The existenceof low frequenciesin a random data signal is the basic reasonwhy
modems are needed for data communications over the analog telephone network.
(Analog telephonecircuits do not pass direct current.) It is also the reasonthat NRZ
coding is not often used for long-distancetransmission.Direct-current wander is not
unique to data transmission systems.It is a phenomenonthat must be reconciled in
television receivers,radar receivers,or radiation detectors.
One technique of offsetting dc wander is referred to as dc or baseline restoration
[a]. As illustrated in Figure 4.7, dc restoration involves passing received pulses
through a capacitor,detectingthem, and then removing the chargeon the capacitorbe-
fore the next pulse arrives. charge on the capacitoris removed by driving the voltage

*Some
communications theorists ref'et to a balanced two-level code as a "bipolar code." The North
American telephone industry, however, uses the term bipolar torefet to a t}reeJcvel code described in thc
next section,
 \

4.s L|NEcoDrNc 173

+v

Switch
on

t
Figure4.7 Direct-current
restoration
for unipolarpulses.

to a specificthreshold(0 V in Figure4.7)andthenremovingthedrivingvoltagewhen
thethresholdis reached.Sinceall chargeon thecapacitoris removedaftereachpulse,
thebaselineor decisionreference levelis constantat thebeginningofa signalinterval.
An obviousdisadvantage of this technique is thatthesignalinputmusthavezeroarn-
plitudeor be disabledduringtheresettime.
A generallymoreusefultechniquefor overcomingbaselinewanderis to usedeci-
sionfeedback,alsocalledquantizedfeedbackequalization[5*7]. In contrastto dcres-
toration, which drives the capacitor voltage to a constant,predeterminedlevel,
quantizedfeedbackcompensate$ for dc wanderby locally generatingthe unreceived
low-passresponse andaddingit to ttrereceivedsignal.To accomplish this,theoriginal
datastreamis reconstructed. As shownin Figure4.8,thereconskucted datastreamis
passedthrougha low-passfilter that generatesa pulseequalto the tail or droopchar-
acteristicof the channel.Thefeedbacksignaladdsto thereceivedsignalto eliminate
the droop(intersymbolinterference). Using a frequency-domain analysis,the feed-
backresponse is complimentary to the channelresponse. Quantizedfeedbackis used
in ISDN basicrateline interfaces[8].

4.3.2 Bipolar Coding

The dc restorationtechniquesmentionedin the precedingsectionsimplify pulsede-

tectionby creatinga low-passpulseresponsein thereceiver.Therearenumerousline

Figure 4.8 Decisionfeedbackequalization.

174 DGTTAL
THANSMtsstoN
ANDMULTIpLEXtNc

Figure4.9 Bipolar(AMI)coding,

codesthatarespecificallydesigned to notcontaindc energyandtherebybeunaffected

by dc removal.Bipolarcodingsolvesthedc wanderproblemby usingthreeleversto
encodebinarydata.specifically,a logic 0 is encodedwith zerovoltagewhile a logic
I is alternatelyencodedwith positiveandnegativevoltages.Hencetheaveragevolt-
agelevel is maintainedat zero-to eliminatedc components in the signalspectrum.
sincebipolarcodingusesalternatepolaritypulsesfor encodinglogic 1's,it is alsore-
ferredto asalternatemark inversion(AMI).-
Bipolarcodingis thebasicline-codingprocedureusedby Tl linesin thetelephone
network.Ratherthanusingfull-periodpulses,however,TI linesusea 50zadutycycle
pulseto encodeeachlogic 1.Return-to-zero (RZ) pulses(Figure4.9)wereselected to
minimize intersymbolinterferenceand simplify timing recoveryin the regenerative
repeaters of a Tl line [9]. Thepowerspectrumof a bipolarcodeis obtainedfrom I l0]
AS

I cosror -
s(or)='Plc(co)|2 - -
(4.3)
| 2(2p l)coswT+ (2p- r)z

wherep= probability
of a 1
G(rrl)= spectrum
of anindividualpulse
fr\ sin(roTl4)
c(oro)=|* | j -
forSOVIdurycyclepulses
[rJ ar/4
Equation4.3 is plottedin Figure4.10 for variousvaluesof p. For pureryrandom
data,p = j. Recall,however,thatsourcecodingfor p255PCM codecsproducesmore
I's than0's in theinterestof establishing
a shongclock signal.Hencetheappropriate
valueof p for a Tl voiceline is normallysomewhatlargerthan0.5 anddependson
theamplitudeof the voicesignal.Low-levelsignalsthatremainin thefirst encoding
segmentproducea valueof p approximatelyequalto 0.65.on the otherhand,full-
scalesinewavesproducea valuefor p thatis somewhatbelow0.5 sincemostof the
samplesoccurnearmaximumamplitude.
Becausea bipolarcodeusesaltematingpolaritiesfor encodingI's, stringsof l 's
havestrongtimingcomponent$. However,a stringof 0's containsno timing informa-
tion andthereforemustbe precludedby the source.The specifications for Tl line re-
*A
mark is a term arising from telegraphy to refer to the active, or l, state of a level encoded transmission
line,
 \

4.3 L|NECoDING 175

oStT
Frgquency

Figure 4.10 Specnaldensityof bipolarcoding.

peatersstatethat the repeaterswill maintain timing as long as no sfing of greaterthan

f,rfteen0's is allowed to occur I1 11.A string of fifteen 0's can only occur if a 0 framing
bit falls between a 10000000code in time slot 24 and a 0fi)00001 code in time slot l.

Coda SpaceRedundancY
butonlytwoof thelevelsduring
bipolarcodingu$esa temarycodespace
In essence,
any particular signal interval. Hence bipolar coding eliminates dc wander with an in-
efficient and redundantuse of the code space.The redundancyin the waveform also
provides other benefits. The most important additional benefit is the opportunity to
monitor the quality of the line with no knowledge of the nature of the traffic being
transmitted.Since pulseson the line are supposedto alternatein polarity, the detection
of two successivepulsesof one polarity implies an error. This error condition is known
as a bipolar violation. No single error can occur without a bipolar violation also oc-
cuning. Hence the bipolar code inherently provides a form of line codeparity. The ter-
minals of Tl lines are designed to monitor the frequency of occurrence of bipolar
violations, and if the frequency of occurrenceexceedssomethreshold,an alarm is set'
In T-carrier systems,bipolar violations are u$edmerely to detectchannelerrors.By
adding $omerather sophisticateddetectioncircuitry, the sameredundancycan be used
for conecting errors in addition to detectingthem. Whenever a bipolar violation is de-
tected, an effor has occurred in one of the bits between and including the pulses indi-
cating the violation. Either a pulse should be a 0 or an intervening 0 should have been
a pulse of the opposite polarity. By examining the actual sample values more closely,
a decision can be made as to where the error was most likely to have occurred.The bit
with a samplevalue closestto its decision thresholdis the most likely bit in error. This
technique belongs to a general class of decision algorithms for redundant signals
called maximum likelihood or Viterbi decoders[12]. Notice that this method of error
coffection requires storageof pulse amplitudes.If decision values only are stored,er-
ror correction cannot be achieved(only error detection)'
An additional application of the unused code spacein bipolar coding is to pur-
posely insert bipolar violations to signify special sifuationssuch as time division mul-
176 DIGITALTRANSMISSIoNANDMULTIPLEXING

tiplex framing marks, alarm conditions, or specialcodesto increasethe timing content

of the line signals. Since bipolar violations are not normally part of the source data,
these special situations are easily recognized. of course, the ability to monitor the
quality of the line is compromisedwhen bipolar violations occur for reasonsother than
channel errors.

4.3.3 BlnaryMZero Substltution

A majorlimitationof bipolar(AMI) codingis its dependence

ona minimumdensity
of 1's in the sourcecodeto maintaintiming at theregenerative repeaters.Evenwhen
stringsof0's greaterthan 14 areprecludedby the source,a low densityofpulseson
theline increases timingjitter andthereforeproduceshighererrorrates.BinaryN-zero
substitution(BNZS) [ l3l augmentsa basicbipolarcodeby replacingall skingsof N
0's with a specialNJengthcodecontainingseveralpulsesthatpurposelyproducebi-
polarviolations.Thusthedensityof pulsesis increased while theoriginaldataareob-
tainedby recognizingthebipolarviolationcodesandreplacingthemat thereceiving
terminalwith N 0's.
As an example,a three-zerosubstirutionalgorithm(B3zs) is clescribed. This par-
ticular substitutionalgorithmis specifiedfor the standardDS-3 signalinterfacein
NorthAmerica[14].It wasalsousedin theLD-4 coaxialmansmission systemin can-
ada[15].
In theB3ZSformat,eachstringof three0's in thesourcedatais encodedwith either
00v or BOv. A 00v line codeconsisrsof 2-bit intervalswirh no pulse(00) followed
by a pulserepresenting a bipolarviolation(v). A BOv line codeconsistsof a single
pulsein keepingwith thebipolaralternation(B), followedby no pulse(0), rurdending
with a pulsewith a violation(V). With eithersubstitution,
thebipolarviolationoccurs
'
in the lastbit positionof thethree0's replacedby the specialcode.Thustheposition
of thesubstitutionis easilyidentified.
Thedecisionto substitutewith 00V or BOv is madesothatthenumberof B pulses
(unviolatedpulses)betweenviolations(v) is odd.Henceif an oddnumberof I's has
beentransmittedsincethe lastsubstitution,00V is chosento replacethree0's. If the
interveningnumberof I's is even,BOv is chosen.In this mannerall purposefulvio-
lationscontainan odd numberof interveningbipolarpulses.Also, bipolarviolations
alternatein polaritysothatdc wanderis prevented. An evennumberof bipolarpulses
betweenviolationsoccursonly asresultof a channelerror.Furthermore, everypur-
posefulviolationis immediatelyprecededby a 0. Henceconsiderable systematicre-
dundancyremainsin the line codeto facilitateperformancemonitoring.Table4.1
summarizes the substitutionalgorithm.

Example4.1. Determinethe B3zs line code for the following data sequence:
1010001 10000000010001 . use + to indicatea positivepulse,- to indicatea negarive
pulse,and0 to indicateno pulse.
 4.3 L|NECODTNG 177

TABLE4.1 B3Z$ SubstitutlonRulee

Numberot BipolarPulses(1's)
SinceLastSubstitution

Polarityof
Preceding Pulse
00- +0+
00+ -0-

Sotution, There are two possible sequencesdependingon whether an odd or even

number of pulseshas been transmitted following the previous violation:

Substitutions
\ \
000 001 000
l0l
CaseI (odd): +0-
000
00-
ll
+-
000
+0+ -0- 00+ 00+ 1
Case2 (even): +0* +0+ -0- +0+ 00- 00-

Violations JJ
Example4.1 indicatesthattheprocessof breakingup stringsof 0's by substituting
with bipolar violationsgreatlyincreasesthe minimumdensityof pulsesin the line
code.In fact,theminimumdensity is 337owhiletheaveragedensityis just over607o'
HencetheB3ZSformatprovidesa continuouslystrongtimingcomponent. Noticethat
all BNZScodingalgorithmsguarantee continuoustiming information with no restric-
tions on sourcedata.HenceBNZS codingsupportsany application in a completely
transparentmanner,
AnotherBNZScodingalgorithmis the862,5algorithmusedon obsoleteT2 trans-
missionlines [16]. The 8625 algorithmis definedin Table4.2. This algorithmpro-
ducesbipolar violations in the secondand fifth bit positionsof the substituted
sequence.
ITTJrecommends anotherBNZS codingformatreferredto ashigh-densitybipolar
(HDB) coding[l7]. As implemented in theEl primarydigitalsignal,HDB codingre-
placesstringsof four 0's with sequences containinga bipolarviolationin the lastbit
position.Sincethis codingformatprecludesstringsof 0's greaterthanthree,it is re-
ferredto asHDB3 coding.Theencodingalgorithmis basicallythe sameastheB3ZS
algorithmdescribedearlier.Table4.3presents thebasicalgorithm.Noticethatsubsti-
tutionsproduceviolationsonly in thefourthbit position,andsuccessive substitutions
produceviolationswith altematingpolarities'
178 DIGITAL
TRANSMISSIoN
ANDMULTIPLEXING

TABLE 4.2 B€ZS Subetltution Rulee

Polarity
ol Pulse
lmmediately Preceding
Six0'sto be Substituted Substitution
0-+0+-
+ 0+-0-+
Hxample:
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
+ * ( 0 - + U + - ) + 0 - + ( o * - o - + ) ( u + - U - ++)) 0 0 0 -
- + (0+ - 0 - + ) - 0 (0- + 0 + - ) (0- + 0 T ) 0 0 0 +

A fundamental feature of end-to-end digital connectivity as provided by IsDN is

64-kbps transparentchannelsreferred to as clear-channelcapability (ccc) [18]. Two
aspectsof a bipolar/AMl line code as used on Tl lines preclude ccc; robbed sig-
naling in the least signilicant bit of every sixth frame and the need to avoid all-O's
codewords on the channel. Bit robbing for signaling is avoided with common-
channel signaling (also an inherent requirement for ISDN deployment). Two
meansof augmentingTl lines Io allow transparentchannelshave beendeveloped.
The first method is zero-bytetime slot interchange(ZBTSI) describedin reference
il 91.ZBTSI was used for upgrading some Tl facilities for ccc but is not a godd
long-term solution.
The secondmethod, which is most desirablein the long run, involves the use of a
BSzs line code for Tl lines. As such, the BBZS line code becamethe new line code
standardfor Tl lines with the introduction of D5 channel banks. (D5 channel banks
can also operate with bipolar/AMl line codes for backward compatibility.) As indi-
caredin Table 4.4, the BSZS algorithm is similar to the B625 algorithm in that each
individual substitution is dc balanced.Notice that there are two bipolar violations, in
positions 4 and 7, in every substitution.The purposeful introduction of bipolar viola-
tions requires replacementof any equipment that monitors all violations for perform-
ancemonitoring.

TABLE4.3 HDB3SubstltutlonHutes

Numberof BipolarPulses(1's)
$inceLastSub$titution

Polarity
of
Preceding Pulse odd Even
000- +00+
+ 000+ -{0-
 4.3 L|NECODTNG 179

TABLE4.4 BBZSSubetltutionRules

of Preceding
Polarity Pulse Substitution
000-+0t.-
000+-G-+

4.3.4 Pair SelectedTernary

TheBNZS substitutionalgorithmsdescribed in theprecedingsectionareexamplesof
selectingcodesin theternarycode space to increase thetimingcontentof a binarysig-
nal. PairselectedternaryGST) I20l is another example.
The PST codingprocessbeginsby pairing the binary input datato producese-
quences of Z-bitcodewords.Thesecodewords arethentranslated into two ternarydig-
its for transmission.Since there are nine two-digit ternary codes but only four
two-digit binary codes,there is considerableflexibility available in selectingthe
codes.Themostusefulof thepossiblecodingformats is shown in Table 4.5.This par-
ticularformatnotonly ensures a strongtimingcomponent but also prevents dc wander
by switchingmodesto maintaina balancebetween positive and negative pulses.The
codesareselected from onecolumnuntil a single pulse is transmitted. At thattime the
encoderswitchesmodesandselectscodesfrom theother column until another single
pulse(of theoppositepolarity)is transmitted.

Exampte4.2. Encodethe following binary data streaminto a PST line code:

0t 001l 10101
100.

Soluti.on. Therearetwo possiblesolutionsdependingon whethertheencoderis in

thepositiveor negativemodeat thebeginningof thesequence:

0l 00 11 l0 10 ll 00
CaseI (+ mode): 0+ -+ +- -0 +0 +- -+
Case2 (- mode): -+ -+ +- +0 -0 +- -+

Onepotentialdrawbackof thePSTcodingalgorithmis thatthebinarydatastream

must be framedinto pairs.Hencea PST decodermustrecognizeandmaintainpair

TABLE 4.5 Pair Selected Ternaly Encoding

BinaryInput + Mode - Mode

00 *+
01 0+ 0-
10 +0 -0
11 +-
180 D|G|TAL
THANSMISSIoN
ANDMULTIPLEXING

boundaries.Recognition of the boundaries is not difficult if random data are being

transmitted since a pairwise misframe eventually producesunallowed codes(00, + +,
--). Furthermore, time division multiplex formats typically provide character and
pairwise framing automatically.
The power spechum of a PST line code with equal probabilities for l's and 0's is
obtained from reference [20] and ploted in Figure 4.11. Also shown is the 8625
power spectrum [16] and the conventional bipolar power specffum.
An important point to notice in Figure 4.l l is that bipolar coding and its extensions
require equal bandwidths.Their only significant difference is that B625 and PST have
higher energy levels as a result of greater pulse densities.The higher energy levels
have the undesirableeffect of increasing crosstalk interference in multipair cables.
However, the degradation from the increasedcrosstalk is somewhat offset by im-
proved accuracyofthe recovered sample clock (assumingall signals in the cable are
using the sameline code).

4.3.5 TernaryGoding

SincebipolarandPSTcodingusea temarycodespaceto transmitbinarydata,they

do not achieveashigh aninformationrateasis possiblewith moreefficientuseof the
codespace.For example,an eight-element ternarycodeis capableofrepresenting
38= 656I differentcodes.In contrast,I bitsof binarydaraproduceonly 28= 256dif-
ferentcodes.Thepreviouslydescribedline codesdo not takeadvantage ofthe higher
informationcontentof ternarycodes;they selectcodesfor their timing contentand
spectralproperties.
one temaryencodingprocedureinvolvesmappingsuccessive groupsof 4 bits into
threeternary(483T) digits.sincebinarywordsof 4 bitsrequireonly t6 of the27 pos-
siblethree-digitternarycodewords,considerable flexibility existsin selectingtheter-
narycodes.Table4.6presents onepossibleencodingprocedure. Ternarywordsin the
middlecolumnarebalancedin their dc content.Codewordsfrom the first andthird

0.5tT ltT
Frequ€ncy

Figure4.ll Specftum ofbipolar, B3ZS, and PST line codes for equally likely I's and 0's,
 4,3 LINECODING 181

TABLE4.6 EncodlngTablefor 4B3TLine Code

TernaryWord(Accumulated
Disparity)

BinaryWord
0000 +++
0001 --0 ++0
0010 -0- +0+
0011 0-- 0++
- - + ++*
0100
0 10 1 - + - +-+
0110 f - -
-++
0 11 1 -00 +00
1000 0-0 0+0
1001 00- 00+
1010 0+-
1 0 11 0-+
11 0 0 +0-
11 0 1 -0+
1110 +-0
1111 -+0

columnsareselectedalternatelyto maintaindc balance.If morepositivepulsesthan

negativepulseshavebeentransmitted,column I is selected. Whenthe disparitybe-
tweenpositiveandnegativepulseschanges, column3 is chosen.Noticethattheall-O's
codewordis not used.Hencea $trongtiming contentis maintained'Becauseof the
higherinformationefficiency,however,the ability to monitorperformance is sacri-
ficed,andframingis requiredon three-digitboundaries. 4B3T codingis used on the
TI48 spanline developed by ITT Telecommunications [21].This system provides T-
for two DSI signals(48 channels)usinga bandwidththatis only
carriertransmission
50Vogrcatmthana Tl bandwidth(carrying24 channels)'A generalized discussionof
4B3T codingandotherternarycodingtechniques is containedin reference[22].

4.3.6 DigitalBiphase

Bipolarcodingandits extensions BNZS andPSTuseextraencodinglevelsfor flexi-

bility in achievingdesirablefeaturessuchastimingtransitions, no dcwander,andper-
formancemonitorability.Thesefeaturesareobtained by increasing thecodespaceand
norby increasingthebandwidth. (The null
first spectral of all codes sofar,
discussed
includinganNRZ code,is locatedat the signaling rate 1/2.)
Many varietiesof line codesachievestrongtiming andno dc wanderby increasing
the bandwidthof the signalwhile usingonly two levelsfor binarydata'One of the
mostcommonof thesecodesprovidingboth a strongtiming cornponentandno dc
"diphase"or a "Manchester"
wanderis the digital biphasecode,alsoreferredto as
code.
182 DtctrALTRANSMtsstoN
ANDMULTtpLEXtNc

'FH IJ
'tfr
Figure 4.12 Digital biphase(Manchester)
line code.

A digital biphasecode usesone cycle of a squarewave at a particular phaseto en-

code a I and one cycle of an opposite phaseto encode a 0. An example of a digital
biphasecoding sequenceis shown in Figure 4.12. Notice that a transition exists at the
centerof every signaling interval. Hence strong timing componentsare presentin the
spectrum.Furthermore,logic 0 signalsand logic I signalsboth contain equal amounts
ofpositive and negative polarities. Thus dc wander is nonexistent.A digital biphase
code,however, doesnot contain redundancyfor performancemonitoring. Ifin-service
performance monitoring is desired, either parity bits must be inserted into the data
stream or pulse quality must be monitored. (A later section of this chapter discusses
performance monitoring in more detail.)
The frequency spectrum of a digital biphase signal is derived in Appendix c and
plotted in Figure 4.13, where it can be compared to the speckum of an NRZ signal.
Notice that a digital biphasesignal hasits first spectralnill atLlT.Hence the exrrarim-
ing transitionsand elimination of dc wander come at the expenseof a higherfrequency
signal. In comparison to three-level bipolar codes,however, the digital biphasecode
has a lower error rate for equal signal-to-noiseratios (seeAppendix C).
Examination of the frequency specffain Figure 4.13 shows that the diphasespec-
trum is similar to an NRZ spectrumbut translatedso it is centeredabout 1/I instead
of direct current. Hence digital biphase actually represents digital modulation of a
squarewave carier with one cycle per signal interval. Logic I 's causethe squarewave
to be multiplied by +1 while logic 0's produce multiplication by -1. Diphase is pri-

\
\
\
\

1/T ztr 3tT 4tT

Ftgure4.13 Powerspectraldensityof digitalbiphase.

 4.3 LINECODING 183

marily usedon shorterlinks where terminal costs are more significant than bandwidth
"Ethemet" IEEE 802.3 local area data network uses digital biphase
utilization. The
(Manchester)coding.

4.3.7 DlfferentialEncoding

One limitation of NRZ and digital biphasesignals,as presentedup to this point, i$ that
the signal for a 1 is exactly the negative of a signal for a 0' On many transmissionme-
dia, it may be impossible to determine an absolutepolarity or an absolutephaserefer-
ence.Hence the decodermay decodeall I's as 0's and vice versa.A common remedy
for this ambiguity is to use differential encoding that encodesa I as a changeof state
and encodesa 0 asno changein state.In this mannerno absolutereferenceis necessary
to decodethe signal. The decodermerely detectsthe stateof each signal interval and
comparesit to the stateof the previous interval. If a changeoccured, a I is decoded.
Otherwise. a 0 is determined.
Differential encoding and decoding do not change the encoded spectrum of purely
random data (equally likely and uncorrelatedI's and 0's) but do double the error rate.
If the detector makes ar effor in estimating the state of one interval, it also makes an
error in the next interval. An example of a differentially encodedNRZ code and a dif-
ferentially encodeddiphasesignal is shown in Figure 4.14. All signalsof differentially
encodeddiphaseretain a transition at the middle of an interval, but only the 0's have
a transition at the beginning of an interval'

4.3.8 CodedMarkInversion

A variety of line codeshave evolved similar to the digital biphasecode describedpre-

viously. One of theseis referred to as codedmark inversion (CMI) in ITU recommen-
dations [l7l. CMI encodes I's (marks) as an NRZ level opposite to the level of the

(d)

o l 0

Figure 4.14 Differentially encoded NRZ and diphase signals: (a) differentially encoded
NRZ; (b) differentially encoded diphase.
 184 DIGITALTRANSMISSIONAND MULTIPLEXING

l o l ' l ' l 0 l oI ' l o I

J l I
Figure 4.I5 Codedmarkinversion.

previousoneand0's asa half-cyclesquarewaveof onepar"ticular phase.Figure4.15

showsa sampleencodingfor cMI. Thereis no dc energyin the signalandan abun-
danceof signaltransitionsexist asin diphase.Furthermore,thereis no ambiguity
betweenI 's and0's-Eliminationof theambiguityactuallyleadsto a majordrawback
of cMI coding;Its errorpedormance *
is 3 dB worsethandiphase.cMI is thespecified
interfacecodefor the fourrh-level(Bl) ITU multiplexsignalat 139.264Mbps.cMI
is alsousedfor electical interfacesof soNET sTS-3csignalsdescribedin chapterg.

4.3.9 MultllevelSignating

In the line codesdiscussed

so far, two-lever(binary)signalinghasbeenassumed. In
applications wherethebandwidthis limitedbut higherdataratesaredesired,thenum-
berof levelscanbeincreased whilemaintainingthesamesignalingrate.Thedatarate
R achievedby a multilevelsystemis givenas

R- ros,(r) (4.4)
F)
where.L= numberof levelsthat canbe freely chosenduring eachinterval
I= signalinginterval

The signalingrate llT is often referredto asthe symbolrateand is measuredin

bauds.within thedatacommunications industryit is commonpracticeto use..baud"
as being synonymouswith bit rate.strictly speaking,however,the bit rate is only
equalto thebaudrateif binarysignaling(l bit persignalinterval)is used.Figure4. I 6
showsanexampleof aneight-leveltransmission formatthatachieves3 bitspersignal
interval(i.e.,3 bitsper baud).
Multilevel transmissionsystemsachievegreaterdatarateswithin a given band-
widthbut requiremuchgreatersignal-to-noise ratiosfor a givenerrorrate.Oneaspect
of wirelinetransmission thatfavorsmultilevelline codingis thelower baudratefor a
givendatarate,which in turn reducesthe crosstalk.Hence,in crosstalk-limited svs-

*The
enor performanceof CMI is 3 dB worse than diphasewhen bit-by-bit detection is used.The
inetficiencyarisesbecause for one-halfof an intewal a I lookslike a 0. BecauseCMI hasredundancv.
someof the inefficiency canbe recoveredwith maximumlikelihood ffiterti) tletection.
 coDtNc 185
4.3 LINE

wittr 3 bits per signalinterva''

Figure 4.16 Multileveltransmission

tems the signal-to-noiseratio penalty of a multilevel line code is not as significant. The
TlG T-carrier systemdevelopedby AT&T [23] usesa four-level line code at the TIC
baud rate (3.152 MHz) to double the capacity of a TlC $ystem(from 48 channelsto
e6).
Another example of multilevel transmissionof pafiicular significance is the ISDN
basic rate digital subscriberline (DSL), which uses fbur-level transmission at a $i8-
naling rate of 80 kilobauds to achieve 160 kbps. The primary factors that led to select-
ing a multilevel line code in this application are ( I ) near-endcrosstalkthat cannot be
eliminated by pair isolation* as in Tl systemsand (2) high levels of intersymbol in-
terferencecausedby bridged tap reflections. Both of thesefactors are easierto control
when lower frequency signalsare used t241.Additional aspectsof this application are
describedin the ISDN section of Chapter 11.

$ignaling
4.3.10 Partial-Response
Conventional bandlimiting filters of a digital transmissionsystem are designedto re-
strict the signal bandwidth as much as possible without spreadingindividual symbols
so they interfere with samplevalues of adjacentintervals. One classof signaling tech-
par-
niques,variously referredto as duobinary [25], correlative level encoding [26]' or
tiai-responsesignaling [27], purposely introduces a prescribed amount of intersymbol
interferencethat is accountedfor in ttre detection circuitry ofthe receivers.By over-
filtering the encoded signal, the bandwidth is reduced for a given signaling rate, but
the overlapping pulses produce multiple levels that complicate the detection process
and increasethe signal power requirementsfor a given error rate'
Figure 4.17 shows the pulse responseof a typical partial-responsesystem. If the
channel is excited by a pulse of duration T, channel filters (defined in Appendix c)
limit the spectrumsuch that the main part of the pulse extendsacrossthree signal in-
tervals and contributes equally to two sample times. The reason for the term partial
responseis now apparent:The output only respondsto one-half the amplitude of the
input.
*Pair
isolation involves separating go and return pairs into separate cables'
 186 DIGITALTBANSMISSIONAND MULTIPLEXING

\\N6xt output puhe

Figure 4.17 Outputpulseof partial-response

channel.

If theinputpulseof Figure4.17is followedbyanotherpulseof thesameamplirude,

theoutputwill reachfull amplitudeby virtueof theoverlapbetweenpulse$.However,
if thenextinputpulsehasa negativepolarity,theoverlapproduceszeroamplitudeat
the sampletime.Thus,asshownin Figure4.18,a partial-response systemwith two-
levelinputs(+1,-I) producesanourputwith threelevels(+l , 0, -l). In similarfash-
ion, Figure4.19showsa systemwith four inputlevels( +3, +1, -1, -3) andseven
outputlevels(+3,+2,+1,0, -1, -2, -3).
Detectionof a partialresponse signal(PRS)is complicated by theadditionallevels
producedby the channelfilters andthe fact that samplevaluesaredependenton two
adjacentpulseamplitudes.Onemethodof detectinga PRSinvolvessubtractingthe
overlapof a previouslydetectedpulsefrom the incomingsignalto generatea differ-
encesignalrepresenting thechannelresponse to thenewpulse.only theoverlap(in-
tersymbolinterference) at the sampletimes needsto be subtracted. The difference
samplesare nominallyequalto one-halfthe amplitudeof the unknowninput pulse.
This techniquedoublesthe errorratein the samemannerthatdifferentiallvencoded
errorratesaredoubled.
Anothermethodof detectingpartial-response systemsinvolvesa techniquecalled
precodingat thesource.hecodingtransformstheinputdatain sucha mannerthatthe
outputlevel at thedetectordirectlyindicatestheoriginaldatawithoutcomparisonto
theprevioussamplevalue.In a binarysystem,for example,a I is encodedwith a pulse
of the samepolarityasthepreviouspulse.Hencelogic I 's showup at thedetectoras
eithera +l or a -l sample.Transmission of a 0 is encodedwith a pulseof opposite
polarity to the previouspulse.Hencelogic 0's alwaysshowup at the detectoras a
zero-levelsignal.similar precodingtechniques exisrfor multilevelsystems[zg].

Figure 4.I8 TfueeJevelpartial-response

inputsandourpurs.
 coDtNe 187
4.s LINE

inputsandoutputs'
partial-response
Figure 4.19 Seven*level

The partial-responsetechniquejust describedis actually a special caseof a more

generalclassof signaling techniquesreferredto as correlative level encoding [26]' To
describethe properties of generalizedpartial-responseor correlative level systems,it
is convenient to introduce a delay operator D to denote delay equal to one signal in-
terval Z. Physically, D can be thought of as a delay line of length ?- Two units of delay
is implemented with two delay lines in seriesand is denotedas D2'
Using this notation, the partial-re$ponse$y$temdescribedabove is referred to as
l+D PRS: The output representsthe superpositionof the input with a delayedversion
of the sameinput. Other forms of overlap are possible. These systemsdo not neces-
sarily produce the overlapping pulses by over{iltering an input' An alternative ap-
proach is to overlap and add the pulsesdirectly in the encodingprocess(hencethe term
correlative level encoding). An interesting special caseof correlative level encoding
is the I - D system shown in Figure 4.20 and extendedin Figure 4.21 to show the ef-
fect of overlapping Pulses'
The I - D encoderusesa single cycle of a squarewave acrosstwo signal intervals
-+) produce dc
to encodeeachbit. Since neither ofthe two individual signals ( +- or
energy,the encodedsignal has no dc wander.Furthermore, the positive and negative
leveis of the composite signal alternate in a manner reminiscent of bipolar coding'
In fact, if differential encoding is used (i.e., if a 0 is encodedwith the same phase

widrh Overlap
of one into
signal sdiEcent
interurl interval
I
#-r

Logic I Logic 0

Figure 4.20 Individual signalelementsfor I - D correlativelevelcoding'

188 DtcITALTRANsMtsstoNANDMULTtpLEXtNG

Figure4.21 Representative of I - D correlative

waveform levelencodins.

asthepreviousintervalanda I astheoppositephase),thisform of encodingis iden-

tical to bipolarcoding(assuming theNRZ levelsarereplacedby s}vo RZ pulses).
Thus I - D correlativelevel encodingis usedto shapethe bandwidthratherthan
to limit it. The spectraof unfiltered I + D, I * D, and | - Dz signalsareobtained
from referencel2Tlandplottedin Figure4.zz.TheTlD T-carriersystemof AT&T
usesprecodedI + D level encoding(alsocalledduobinary).
Thespectrumof the 1 * D2signalis particularlyinteresting. Ithas no dc componenr
andan upperlimit equalto ll2T: thesameupperlimit as a maximallyfilteredNRZ
codewith no intersymbolinterference. The I - D2partial-responsesystemshavebeen

l/
\

\t
Frequency
{Hzl

Figure 4.22 spectraof unfilteredI + D, I - D, ard I - Dz correlativeencodedsisnals.

 189
PERFoHMANcE
4.4 ERHoR

usedby GTE in a modifiedT-carriersystemproviding48 voicechannels[29] andfor

digitaltransmission overanalogmicrowaveradiosusingvery low baseband frequen-
ciesfor pilotsandservicechannels(whereno messaBe spectrumexi$ts)[30]' Theob-
soletelA-RDs (data-under-voice) systemof AT&T also used| - Dz codingwith
four-levelinputsto get 1.544Mbpsinto 500kHz of bandwidth[31]'
-
Notice that the I - Dz spectrumis essentiallythe productof the I + D andthe I
-
a I D en-
D spectra.Indeed,aI - D2 systemcanbe implemented by coxcatenating
coderwith a I + D channel response: (1 * D)0 + D) = | - Dz'Thusconelative level
system polynomials arevery usefulfor simultaneously representingcorrelations and
spectrum shaping. Since all correlativelevel systems use morelevelsthannecessary
for encodingthe data,they are inferior to uncorrelatedor full-responsesystemsin
termsof error perfofinance'
A summaryof digital transmission systemsidentifyingvariousline codesis pro-
videdin Table4.7.Otherline codesusedspecificallyin fiber systemsaredescribed in
Chapter8.

4.4 ERRORPERFORMANCE
Theprecedingsectionsof this chapteremphasized thetiming andpowerspecffumre-
quirements o1 various transmission codes. Another fundamentalconsiderationin
choosinga line code is the errorrateperformance in the pre$ence of noise.Excepton
relativelyshofi lines, where noise may be insignificant, error performance require-
mentrtcanimpact system costsignificantly.If a celtain minimum elror rateis speci-
fied, thosecoding schemes providing the desired error rate at lower signal-to-noise
ratiosallowregenerative repeatersto be spacedfartherapart,therebyreducinginstal-

TABLE4.7 DigitalTransmiselonSystems
CountrY
or Bit Rate Repeater
DesignationAdministration (Mbps) Line Code Media SPacing

T1 AT&T 1.544 AMYBEZS Twistedpair 6000ft

E1 ITU-T 2.048 HDBs(B4ZS) Twistedpair 2000m
T1C ATAT 3,152 Bipolar Twistedpair 6000ft
T148 ITT 2.37,ternary 4B3T Twistedpair 6000ft
9148A GTE 3.152 1 -D2, Twistedpair 6000fr
duobinary
T.ID AT&T 3.152 1+D, Twistedoair 6000ft
duobinary
T1G AT&T 6.443 Four-level Twistedpair 6000ft
T2 AT&T 6,312 B6ZS Low-capacitance 4800ft
twistedpair
LD.4 Canada 274.176 B3ZS Coax 1900m
T4M AT&T 274.176 Polar Coaxbinary(NRZ) 5700ft
 190 DtctrAlTRANSMlsstoN
AND MuLTtpLEXtNc

lationandmaintenance.+ Repeater spacingis animportanteconomicfactorin wireline

transmission, in opticalfiber transmission,andon point-to-pointradiolinks.
Theerrorrateresultsandcomparisons presented in this sectionarebasedon white
Gaussiannoise.This is the mostcoilrmonform of noiseandthe bestunderstood. In
someapplications, aswithin theolderelectromechanical telephonenetwork,impulse
noisemaybemoreprevalent.Thustheseanalyses do notprovidea completeerrorrate
analysisfor someapplications. Theintentof thissectionis to presentrelativeerrorper-
formancecomparisons of variousline-codingtechniques. For this purposea white
noiseanalysisis mostappropriate. If impulsesarelargeenough,theycauseenorsin-
dependent of thecoding$chemein use.
For themostpart,thefollowingsectionspresentonly theresultsof theerroranaly-
sesin theform of graphsof errorrateasa functionof signal-to-noise ratios.Appendix
C derivesthebasicequationsusedto producetheresults.

4.4.1 SignalDetection
Invariably,the detectioncircuiuryof a digital receiverprocesses incoming signal
waveformsto mea$ureeachpossiblediscretesignal.In mostcasesthe mea$ures are
nothingmorethansamplesof a filteredreceivesignal.Dependingon thesignalshape
andthelevelof performance desired,thereceiverusesmoresophisticated piocessing.
In anycase,theendmeasurement of a binarysignalnominallyproducesonevotmge
level for a 0 andanothervoltagelevel for a I. A decisionof which signalwastrans-
mitted is madeby comparingthemeasurement (at the appropriatetimeJto a threshold
locatedhalfwaybetweenthesenominalvoltages.Naturally,theerrorprobabilityde-
pendson thenominatdistancebetweenthevoltagesandtheamountof fluctuationin
themeasurements causedby noise.
Sincesignalmea$urement$ arenormallylinearin nature,theerrordistancebetween
I ' s and0's is proportionalto thereceivedsignalvoltage.Equivalently,theamountof
noisepowerrequiredto produceanerroris a directfunctionof thesignal-to-noise ra-
tio. Theoptimumdetectorfor a particularsignalsetmaximieesthesignal-to-noise ra-
tio at theinput to thedecisioncircuit.

4.4.2 Nolee Power

white Gaussian noiseis characterized

ashavinga uniformfrequencyspectrumacross
anarbitrarilylargebandwidthandanamplitudedistributionthatvariesaccordingto a
normal(Gaussian) probabilitydistribution.A parameterN,l
conventionally
represents
the powerspecfraldensityof white noiseandis the amountof powermeasured in a
bandwidthof I Hz. Hencetherms powerof whitenoisecominf out of a filter with a
bandwidthBW is (Nr)(BW).t
'On
Tl lines the rcpeater spacing was predetermined by the locations where loading coils needed
to be
.removed. Thus the error rate performance essentially determined the maximum oata iate.
TThe power
spcctral density of white noise is also specifred *
fro r* " ir"**ia*a rfr-t4
praclical matter, there is no difference in the specificarions,'since
oensity. as a
a rcal filter has the mathematical
equivalent of identical positive- and negative-frequencybands.Thus the measuredpower
corDng through
a filter with a one-sided (positive-frequency) bandwidth BW is No BW in either case.
 4.4 ERRORPEHFORMANCE I91

To determinetheamountof noisepowerpresentata decisioncircuit,it is necessary

to determinely'pandthe effectivebandwidthof the detectioncircuitry' Whenthe de-
tectioncircuiky consistsof nothingmorethana filter, theeffectivebandwidttris usu-
ally very closeto the 3 dB bandwidthof the filter. With othermore sophisticated
detectors.the effectivebandwidthcanbe moredifficult to determine'As derivedin
AppendixC, theeffectivebandwidthis usuallyreferredto astheeffectivenoiseband-
*idth (FIBW)of the receiver.Hencethe noisepowerat the decisioncircuit is (No)
(NBW).

4.4.3 Error Probablllties

An enor in detectionoccurswhenevernoisecau$esthe signalmeasurement to cross

circuitry'
thethresholdbetweenthetwo nominaloutputlevelsof thedetection Appen-
noiseas
dix C derivesthis probabilityfor white Gaussian

, ; (4.s)
\ -:--
I I
DfOD(erroD= lVZ?t6 "| nf rzd4,
v

where v = nominal distance(voltage) to a decision threshold

02 = noise power at detector,= (No)NBW)

Equation 4.5 is nothing more than the area under the probability density function
of a normal distribution. As shown in Figure 4'23, the equation representsthe error
probability as the probability of exceedingv/o standarddeviations in a normal distri-
bution with zero mean and unit varianceN(l' 0).
The error rate is completely determinedby the ratio of v to o. Since v is the noise-
free sample voltage and o2 is the rms noise power, v?/O2is a signal-power*to-noise-
po*"r rutio at the detector.This ratio is sometimesrefened to as a postdetectionSNR,
iince it is measuredafter the detectioncircuitry. It is usually more important to express
error rates in terms of an SNR at the input to the receiver. Figure 4'24 depicts a basic
channel. a basic detection model, and the relation between a predetectionSNR and a
postdetectionSNR. For reasonscliscussedin Appendix C, the most appropriatepre-
detection SNR for comparing line codesand digital modulation formats is an energy-

Dlo l*

Figure 4.21t Probabilityof errorfor binarysignaling.

 192 DGITALTRAN$MIssIoN
ANDMULTIPLEXING

F#=(;rs)
(';m;)
(*)
v1
i

EquivalBnt Noi* power

Noire = o ' = N B I / I ',N o
noi* bendwidth
Ep€ctral : NBW
denrity Ns

Figure 4.24 Signaldetectionmodel.

per-bit-to-noise-densityratro E6/N0. The relationship betweenE6/N0Nrdthe signal-

power-to-noise-powerratio is

g111p:siEpalPower
norsepower

_dEs1tr)
NoNBW

dErlog2l (llT)
(4.6)
NoNBW

where d= pulsedensity
E = energyper symbol
Ea= energyperbit
logyL = numberof bits per symbol(i.e.,t = numberof levels)
l/7= signalingrate
NBW = effectivenoisebandwidthof receiver

In determiningthe signalpower in Equation4.6, noticethe dependence on the

pulsedensityd. In a balancedNRZ line codethepulsedensityis I, but in manyof the
otherline codesthepulsedensityis dependent on thedataandany substitutionalgo-
rithmsthat may be in use.In thesecodes,increasingthe prrlsedensityincreases the
sNR but doesnot reducethe errorrate.The errorrateis determinedby the energy-
per-bit-to-noise-density
ratio. In fact, increasingthe pulsedensitymight worsenthe
errorrateifintederencebetweencablepairsis a significantconsideration. (Interfer-
enceis directlyproportionalto thesignalpower.)

Antipodal Signaling
The optimumsignalingformatfor binarysignalingmaximizesthe errordistancefor
a given receivedsignalpower and simultaneously minimizesthe noisebandwidth.
This conditionarisesonly whentwo signallevelsareallowedandonly whenonesig-
 4.4 ERRORPEHFOBMANCE 193

nal is theexactnegativeofthe other.Sincethesignalfor a I is theexactopposite(the

antipode)of thesignalfor a 0, optimumsignalingis oftenreferredto asantipodalsig-
naling.Sinceno otherbit-by-bitsignalingschemeis anybetter,antipodalperfortnance
is oftin usedasa basisfor comparisons. Ofthe line codesdescribedpreviously,only
balanced twolevel (NRZ) encoding and digital biphasecan provideantipodalper-
formance. Figure 4.25 shows the optimum errorperformance providedby antipodal
signaling as a functionof E/Ne and the SNR.

Error Bate of Level Encoded $ignale

As alreadymentioned,a balanced,two-levelline codeis capableof providingopti-
*u* "ooi rateperformance. If an unsymmetriclevel codeis used,suchasunipolar,
the same basic detectoris used asin symmetriclevelencoding.Theonly differenceis
"on"
thatthedecision threshold must be movedfrom zeroto half theamplitudeof the
signal.To maintainthe sameerrordistance,the averagetransmitpoweris increased
by a factorof 2. Hencea unipolarcodecarriesa performance penaltyof 3 dB with re-
spectto antipodalPerformance.
Figure4.25 showsthe idealperformance of a unipolar(on-oft) codewhereit is
comparedto antipodal performance.Notice that for all SNRsthe enor rateof the on-
off systemis exaitly equal
to theerrorrateof an antipodal systemwith 3 dB lessSNR'

Bipolar Slgnaling
With respectto errorperformance, bipolarsignalingis basicallyidenticalto a unipolar
code.During any particularsignalinterval,the receivermustdecidebetweenoneof
two possiblelevels:zeroor a pulsewith the appropriate polarity.Hencethe decision
thresholdpertinentto a particularsignalintervallies halfway betweenzeroandthe
amplitudelevelof theallowed pulse. Nanowing the pulseto 507o of thesignalinterval
doesnot changethe theoreticalerror performance (with respect to averagepulseen-
ergy).Thustheerrorratecurvefor on*off keyingin Figure 4'25 can be usedto deter-
mine theoreticalbipolar effor rates.
Oneconsideration in a bipolarline codecontributesto a slightlyhigherenor rate
thanin on-offkeying. This increaseoccursbecause bothpositiveandnegativenoise
cancausean erroneousthresholdcrossing when a zero-level signalis transmitted. In
contrast,a unipolarcodeis affectedonly by positive noisewhen a lower level signal
is transmittedandonly by negativenoisewhenthe upperlevel signalis transmitted'
If the bipolardetectorffeatsthe elroneouspulseas a I (despitea bipolarviolation)'
theerroiprobabilitywhen0's aretransmittedis doubled.Thustheoverallerrorprob-
by 50Voif 0's and I's areequallylikely.
ability is increased
Becauseofthe steepness ofthe curve,anincreasein theerrorrateof 50Vodoesnot
representmuchof a performance penalty.For example,if the errorrateis increased
from 1 x l0-6 to 1.5x 10-6,the sourcepowerof a line codeneedsto increaseby only
0.2dB to getbackto a I x 10-6enor rate.At higherenorrates,a largerpenaltyoccurs
because thecurveis not assteep.Theseeffectsaredemonstrated in Figure4.25,where
the idealperformance of a bipolarcode (with 507o0's) can comparedto the per-
be
formanceof a unipolarcode,
194 DIGITALTHANSMISSION
AND MULTIPLEXING

SisElll|olrlr-lo-nqllF-pffi rrfi q LdE)

6 8 9 l 0 l t 1 2 t 3
lo-t F

E
E
>
ll

2 3 f E 8 7 B S r 0 l t 1 2 1 3
En rlv-FoFbit-b{ol$dilrity rsflo, 4/IVo (dB)

Figure 4.25 Enor rates of polar (NRZ), unipolar, and bipolar line codes.
 4.4 ERROHPEBFORMANCE 195

Thefactthatbipolarcodingincursa 3.2-dBpenalty(at 10-6errorrate)with respect

to digital biphaseis indicativethat timing anddc wanderproblemsaresolvedby in-
*r*uring the numberof signallevels.In contrast'digital biphaseincursa bandwidth
penalry.Not all of the3.2-dBpenaltyfor bipolarcoding,andits extensions BNZS and
PST,"an be attributedto removingdirect currentandadding a timing
consistent pat-
tem.Bipolarcodingcontainsconsiderable redundancy for performancemonitoring or
*
possibleerrorcorrection.

Example4.3. Assumeeachsectionof a T1 transmission systemon Z2-gaugecable

is near-endcrosstalklimitedandoperatingwith a 10-6errorrate.Whatdesignchanges
areneededto reducethe error rateto 10-8?

Solution. Sincethe systemis crosstalklimited,the enor ratecannotbe improved

by increasingthepowerout of theregenerative repeaters.Thesolutionis to spacethe
repeaters closertogether(ignoretheimpracticalaspects ofthis solution).FromFigure
+.i5 it canuedetermined thatthesignalpowermustbeincreased by I '6 dB to improve
the error ratefrom 10-6to l0-8. In Figure4'10 it is seenthat the main lobe of the
bipolar spectrumextendsup to 1.544MHz. However'most of the energyin the
spectrumliesbelow 1 MHz. UsingFigureL14, we determinethat the attenuationof
Z-Z-gauge =
cableis 5 dB/kft at 1 MHz. Hence1.6/5 '32 kft or 320 ft is the reduction
in repeaterspacingrequired.

Example4.3 demonstrates a numberof importantaspectsof digital transmission

systems. iirst, arbitrarilygood transmissionqualitycanbe obtainedwith only a small
plnalty in transmitpoweror repeaterspacing.tThus,as mentionedin Chapter2' a
digitaltransmission andswitchingnetworkcanbe readilydesignedto impalt no deg-
rJation to voice quality,exceptwhereanalog-to-digital anddigifal-to-analog conver-
sions take place.
Second,the dramaticimprovementin errorratefor a relativelysmallincreasein
the SNR impliesextremesensitivityin the oppositedirectionalso.A slightincrease
in noisepoweror signalattenuationwould causea largeincreasein the error rate.
Hencethenominaldesignof a digitallink oftenprovidesconsiderably betterperform-
ance than normallY necessarY.
Third, thesolutionto Example4.3 appliesto anydigitaltransmission formatusing
the sameband of frequencies and, hence,the same attenuation per mile. Since all line
codeshaveapproximately the same steepness at a 10-6 errorrate,the relativechange
in SNR is the samefor all systems.Thus a Tl systemwith suboptimumdetection
wouldexhibitthesameperformance improvementif therepeaters weremoved320ft
closertogether. (Tl lines are designed to provide less than a 10-6 errorrateto begin
with. Seereference[32] for a thorough repofl of error rate surveys on Tl lines')
"In pulse is removed to
terms of logicJevel decisions, a bipolar code carrrot provide effor conection, If a
half of the time the efior is correctedbuthalf of the time another error is made.
eliminate abipolar violation,
a bipolar
Enor corection is possible only with a Viterbi-like detectot described previously. In this case
code orovides better performance than a unipolar code'
tsome systems, such as the tadio systems discussedin Chapter 6, require a greater decreaseifl repeatel
spacing to achieve the same improvement in performance'
 196 DIGITAL
TRANSMISsIoN
ANDMULTIPLEXING

E
t
s
I

8 9 t 0 t l 1 2 1 3 t 4 r b 1 8
Arrsrrgl snrqy-p€Fblt-to-ndire-dondty iltio, Ebftro (dB)

Figure 4.26 Error rate of balancedmultilevel signals (all systemsproviding an identical data
rate).
 4.4 ENHOHPERFORMANCE 197

8 e l 0 tl 1? l3 14 ID ru
EulVo ort tlrtdunncl

Figure 4.27 Error rates of I + D partial-responsesystems.

 198 DG|TALTRAN$MtsgtoN
ANDMULT|PLEXING

Multllavel Error Eatee

Themultilevelkansmissionsystemshownin Figure4.16doesnot requirebandwidth
in excessof a binarysystemusingthe samesignalingrate,yet it achievesthreetimes
thedatarate.Thepenaltyfor multileveltransmissioncomesin theform of greatlyin-
creasedsignalpowerfor a given error rate.For example,the averagepowerof the
eight-levelsystemin Figure4.l6 is 8.7 dB abovethe averagepowerof a symmetric
two-levelsystemwith thesameerrordistance.To makematter$worse,somesysrems
arepeakpowerlimited,in whichcasetheeightJevelsystemhasa 12.4-dBdisadvan-
tagewith respectto a two-levelsystem.Theerrorratesof multilevelsystemsarede-
rivedin Appendixc andplottedin Figure4.26asa functionof E6/N11.For thosecases
wherethe peakpoweris of interest,the relationshipbetweenthe peakand average
powerof a multilevelsy$temis derivedin AppendixC as

Peak-to-average(dB)= tlt
l0log,o t. (4'7)
(u L)E'/: At - rf
whereI is thenumberof equallyspacedlevelscenteredaboutzero[e.g.,+1, +3, +5,
. . ., J (r -1)1.
The enor ratesof I + D partial-response
rrystems arealsoderivedin Appendixc
andplottedin Figure4.27.Theseerrorrate$arederivedundertheassumption thatbir
by-bit detectionis used.Sincepartial-rerrponse
systemscontainredundancy (conela-
tion) in adjacentsamples,betterperformance cal be achievedwith Viterbi decoders
ll 21.

4.5 PERFORMANCEMONITORING

Two basictechniques existfor directlymonitoringthequalityof a digitaltransmission

link: redundancychecksand pulsequality measurements. Both techniquesare de-
signedto providean indicationof thebit errorrate(BER)of the channel.

4.5.1 RedundancyChecks

Redundancy canbeincorporated into a digitalsignalusingoneof two commonmeth-

ods.First,the line codeitself may containredundancy asin bipolarcoding.In a ran-
dom,independent errorenvironmentthefrequencyof bipolarviolationsis verynearly
equalto the channelBER (exceptfor extremelyhigh BERs).Second,logic-levelre-
dundancycanbe insefiedinto thedatastreamin theform of overheadbits.For exam-
ple, parity bits are insertedinto DS3 and DS4 signalsfor the expre$$purposeof
monitoringthechannelerrorrate.(Theframestructures of theseandotherhigherlevel
multiplexsignalsareprovidedin chapter7.) cyclic redundancy check(cRC) codes
arealsoincorporated into a numberof transmission systemsasa mean$of monitoring
BERsandvalidatingframingacquisition.Two prevarent examplesof cRC useare(l)
extendedsuperframe (ESF)onT I lines[33] introducedwith theD4 channelbanksand
(2) opticalfiber transmission usingthe soNET standarddescribedin chapterg.
 MONITORING 199
4.5 PERFORMANCE

The useof logic-levelredundancy(eitherparity bits or CRC codes)is generally

betterthantheuseofline coderedundancy (suchasbipolarviolations)because thelat-
ter is dependent on the technologyof the transmission link itself. Logic-level redun-
dancy,on theotherhand,is unaffectedby a change from cablepairs to fiber or radio.
As describedlaterin thischapter,a majorimpetusfor theintroductionof ESF into TI
transmission systemswasto get performance monitorabilityindependent of bipolar
line codes.DSI signalsareoftenmultiplexedinto higherleveldigitalsignalsandcar-
ried on a varietyof ftansmissionsystemssuchasfiber andradio.The CRC codesin
theESFframingformatprovidethemeansfor end-to-endpedormancemonitoringin-
dependent of whatevertransmission systemscarrythedatastream.
In contrastto line code redundancies,pafity bits andCRC codesdo not providea
one-to-oneindicationof theBER. The following equationrelatestheparityerrorrate
(PER)to thechannelBBR:

pER= I [T]p(r * p)N-i (i odd) (4.8)

-t'J
t=l "

whereN = lengthof a parityfield (numberof bits overwhichpantyis generated)

p = BER assumingrandom,independent errors

The relationshipbetweenthe PER andthe BER is plottedin Figure4.28for DS3

andDS4signals.Noticethatat low errorrate$thePERis essentially N timestheBER
(Np).At high errorrates,however,thisrelationshipchanges because anyoddnumber
'\ilhen
from a singleerror.
of errorsin a frameis indistinguishable the BER is high
enoughthatmorethanoneerrorin a parityfield is likely, thePERis uselessasanab-
soluteestimateof theerrorrate.In thesecasesthePERindicatesonly thattheBER is
abovea thresholdapproximately equalto 1/N.Becausea DS4frameformatcontains
a higherdensityof parirybits,DS4signalscanbe measured for highererrorratesthan
canDS3signals.
Determination of a CRCerrorrateis simplifiedbecause it is unlikelyfor multiple
errorsto notproducea CRCerror.Thustheprobabilityof a CRCenor (CRCER)is I
minusthe probabilirythat no errorsoccur;

CRCER=1-(l-p)N (4.9)

whereN = lengthof theCRCfield (includingCRCbits)

p = BER assumingrandom,independent enors

Again,at low errorratesEquation4.9 revertsto N timestheBER (Np).Equation4.9

is plottedin Figure4.28for ESFframeswheretheCRCfleld is 4614bits.(TheCRC
field doesnot includeF bits in Table4.8 excepttheC bits themselves.)
To haveCOnfidence in enOrratemeasurements, thesample$equence mUStbe long
enoughto allow anaverageof about10enorsin thesamplesize(e.g.,thesamplesize
 d
:Y
E

.f
b
g =

.$
CN

(4
rTl

t a
b
F ;
F

s ;
f E
o v
S E
m e
bI)

qa d

&
tr a

U}

a
E
t h
t q
E}
'-Fa
ff
(b
F!
+
{)
b!
EI

eler r0r,$ cHs#til-|ed

 MONITORING 201
4.5 PEBFORMANCE

TABLE 4.8 Extendsd Superframe Framlng Channel Formata

F-BitAssignment

ESFFrame
Number ESFBitNumber FPS FDL cRc
1 0 m
2 193 cB1
3 386 m
4 579 0
5 772 m
6 965 c82
7 11 5 8 m
I 1351 0
s 15,14 m
10 1737 c83
11 1930 m
12 2123 I

13 2316 m
14 2509 c84
15 27Q2 m
16 2895 0
17 3088 m
1B 3281 cB5
19 3474 m
20 3667 1
21 3860 m
22 4053 ;
23 4246 m
24 4439 1
aFPS,framingpatternsequonc€(. . .001011.. .); FDL,a kbpsfacilitydata link(messagebits m); CRC' GRC'6
cyclic redundancycheck (check bits CBl-CB6).

must be I0/BER). Hence, when trying to measurelow BERs (e.g., 10*6or l0-7), the
measurementtime may be too long to respondto changing channelconditions such as
radio channelfading.

4.5.2 SlgnalQualityMeasurements

The secondbasic technique for monitoring digital ffansmission quality is to process

the digital signal directly and measure ceftain properties related to lhe error rate. A
simple approach involves merely measuring the received signal power, a coillmon
technique in analog systems.In a fixed-noise environment this approachis adequate.
However, on transmissionlinks where the noise level can vary or where signal distor-
tions can arise, the quality of the pulsesthemselvesmust be measured.
202 DIGITALTHANSMISSION
AND MULTIPLEXING

Docirion threshold Pmudoerror rcgion

Figure 4.29 Pseudoerrordetection.

Figure4.29demonstrates theoperationof a'!seudo" errordetectordesigned to de-

tect receivedpulseswith abnormalamplitudesat the sampletimes.In the example
shown,binarydatais detectedby useof a singlethresholdlocatedmidwaybetween
the normalpulseamplitudes.Two additionalthresholdsare includedto detectthe
presenceof pulseswith abnormalamplitudes.Samplevaluesfalling into the central
decisionregiona.renot necessarily dataenors,but a high pseudo-error rateis a good
indicationthatthechannelis not performingproperly.
In a random(Gaussian) noiseenvironmenttheoccuffencerateof pseudo*effors is
directlyrelatedto theactualerrorrate.Figure4.30showsa Gaussian noisedistribution
anddecisionthresholds chosento producepseudo-errors at I 00timesa 10-6errorrate.
Hencean attractivefeatureof this error ratemeasurement is that it can measurevery
low errorratesusingcomparativelyshorttestintervals.Note,however,thattheerror
multiplicationfactoris dependent on theerrorrate.Thetechniqueof estimatinga vsry
low error rateby extrapolatingfrom an artificially generatedhigh error rate is some-
timesreferredto asa Q-factortechnique[34]. In essence, the parameters (meanand
variance)of a Gaussian distributionareestimatedwith easilyobtainedmea$urements
sothemuchlowererrorratescanbe estimatedfrom theparameters. This techniqueis
particularlyusefulin opticalfiber systemswhereextremelylow errorratesareto be
determinedthatotherwiserequireextremelylongmeasurement times.

-1 -0.2 0 0'2 1

Figure 4.30 Pseudoerrordecision thresholdsfor error multiplication of 100.

 4 . 5 P E R F O H M A N C E M O N I T O H I N G 203

A majordisaclvantage detectionis that pseudo-elror

of pseudo-error ratesarenot
accuratelyrelatedto actualerrorrateswhenthe noiseis non-Gaussian. Channeldis-
tortions,in particular,causehigh pseudo-errorrateswhenthe actualerrorratesare
small.Eventhoughabnormalpulseamplitudesarepresent,enorsdo not occurunless
noiseaddsto thedistortion.On theotherhand,impulsenoisemightproducehigh ac-
tual errorratesbut relativelylow pseudoerror
rates.
Thecorrespondence betweenmeasured anddeducederrorratesis improvedwhen
thedecisionthresholdis narrowed.Unfortunately,narrowerpseudo-emor decisionre-
"error" rate multiplication
gions are more difficult to implementand provide lower
factors.

4.5.3 Framing Channel Errors

As describedin Section4.6.2.identificationof individualchannelsof a TDM data

sffeamrequiresoverheadbits with a uniquedatapattemfor frameidentification.After
a receivingterminalhas"locked" ontothe ftamingpattern,it ignoresoccasionalbit
errorsin theframingpatternbut declaresan out-of-frame(OOF)conditionwhenthe
areconsistent.
erTorrt Thusframingbit errorscanbeusedto determinelow errorrates
but not higherrorratesthatcausefalseOOF indicationsandsubsequent lossof fram-
ing.Errorratesthatarehighenoughto causefalseOOFindications areusually sohigh
thatthelink is effectivelyout of service.

4.5.4 Performance Obiectives

Themostbasicmeasure of qualityof a digitaltransmission link is its BER.If theerrors

occurin a truly randomandindependent manner (i.e.,theyconformto a simplePois-
sonprobabilitymodel),the averageBER completelyspecifiestheperformance. Un-
fortunately,elror rateobservations[32] showthat ertorsoften occurin bursts,and
becauseburstsaffectdifferentservicesin differentways,specifyingthe qualityof a
transmission link requiresmorethanjust the averageBER. For example,datatraffic
is generallytransmittedin blocksthat areretransmittedno matterhow manyerror$oc-
cur in a block.Thus,a bursthaslittle moreeffectthana singlebit error.The rateof
rekansmissions of datablocksis morea functionof thefrequencyof theburststhan
of the long-teflnaverageBER. Voice traffic, on the otherhand,is increasinglyde-
gradedby all bit errorswhetheror not theyoccurin bursts.
Channelerrorsthatoccurin burstscanalsobemuchmoredeleterious to certainop-
erationsof a networkthanaredistributederror$at a similaraveragerate.A lossof
framing,for example,occursmoreoftenin a bursterrorenvironment.'Certaintiming
operarions (pulsestuffing)described in Chapter7 arealsosimilarlyaffectedby bursts.
Lossesof framingandtime synchronization bothproduceoutages(e.g.,continuous er-
*Errors
in a burst are not necessarily contiguous. They merely occur in a short time intewal at a rate that i$
too high to be r€asonably explained as chance independent events.
204 DIGITALTRANSMISSION
AND MULTIPLEXING

rors) in the associated

haffic channelsor eveninadvertentdisconnects
if the condi-
tionslasttoo long.
Commonperformanceparameter$usedto characterizeerTorratesare:

L Error-FreeSecond(EFS); Becausedatablockstransmitredat 64 kbpsrequire

much less than a second,the percentageof EFS essentiallyspecifiesthe
percentageof time that the channel is available for data transmission
applications.(Whentheblock transmissions
aremuchshorterthana second.a
shortermeA$urement intervalis moreappropriate.)
2. BurstErroredSecond(BES): An erroredsecondwith at least100errors.
3. Enored Secand(ES): A secondwith at leastoneerror.
4. SeverelyErroredSecond(SES);A secondwith a BER grearerthan(10)-3.
5. DegradedMinute(DM): A minutewith a BER greaterthan 10-6.

Thelastthrceparameters aredefinedin ITU recommendation G.821for performance ob-

jectivesof a digitalnetwork.Theobjectivesfor a 27,5ff)-kmreferenceconnection(imply-
ing errorcontributions frommany$ources) areES< 87o,SES<0.ZVo,and DM <l\Vo.
The availabilityof fiber optic transmission technologywith extremelylow error
rates(e.g.,I errorin 1012bits)andhigherlevelcommunications protocolsthatrely on
very low errorrateshavecreateda situationwherethe very low errorratesarerelied
on,eventhoughtheymightnotbeobtainedby metallicor radiosystems. As discussed
in chapter10,contemporary datanetworks[framerelay,asynchronous transfermode
(ATM), Internetprotocol(IP)l do not provideerrorcontrolat the datalink layerbut
defertheproblemto a higherlevelprocess.

4.5.5 Forward Error Correction

On ffansmission channelssuchasdigital subscriber

linesanddigitalradiolinks,rela-
tively high errorratesaresometimesunavoidable. Whenreal-timeapplicationslike
voiceor videoareinvolved,theeffectsofchannelerrorscannotbe accommodated by
periodicallyaddingredundantcheck-sumbits andrequestingretransmis$ion of cor-
ruptedblocksof dataasis commonlydonein manydatacommunications protocols.
As mentionedin the previouschapter,particularlycriticalbits of compressed digital
mobilespeechareredundantlyencodedwith enoughbits to permiterrorcorrectionof
somenumberof bit errors.Because thisbasicprocessdoesnotrequireretransmission
of data,it is knownasforwarderrorcorrection(FEC)t351.
FEC involvesaddingredundantdatabits, like parity bits or CRC bits, but in
sufficientquantityto enableerrorcorrectioninsteadofjust error detection.Two
basicformsof FEC areblock encodingandconvolutionalencoding.A block en-
coderattacheserror correctionredundancyto fixed-lengthblocks of data,which
implies the needfor establishingblock framing to identify the fields of redundanr
bits. A convolutionalencoder,on the otherhand,continuouslyinsertserrorcor-
rectionbits that arecontinuouslyprocessedby the decodingcircuitry while recov-
eringthe originaldata.
 ..5 PERFORMANCE
MONITORING 205

Reed-SolomonCodes
Although a wide variety of block-codingalgorithmshavebeendeveloped,Reed-
Solomon(RS)codingis themostpopularform. Whena blockof sourcedatasymbols
of lengthM is inputto anRScoder,an outputblock of lengthN symbolsis produced,
whereN - M is thenumberof checksymbolsR. An RScodewith theseparameters is
commonly referred to asa RS(N,M) = RS(N,N - ,R)
code. An RS(N, ry - R) codecan
conect+R symbolerrors.In mostcartes a symbolconsistsof an 8-bit byteof data,*so
multiplebit errorsin a singlebyte are no worsethana singlebit enor. Digital video
broadcasting (DVB) $y$tems useRS(204,188) codes,which meansthat asmanyas
eightbytescanbe coffupted andbe corrected.

Exampte4.4. Determinethe probability of failure of an RS(204, 188) code

operatingin a randomerrorenvironmentwith a bit errorprobabilityof 10-3'Assume
eachsymbolis an 8-bitbyte.

Solution. Becausetheprobabilityof multiplebit errorsin a singlebyteis small,

the probabilityof a symbol error pr is very close to 8 x l0-3. Using p,, the
probabilityof failure (theprobabilityof morethaneight symbolerrors),pp canbe
determinedas

zo4
-P,)'*'
o,=EfI)'*'
I
=l-T -Pr)to*t
Lt
r'4 f?-)"r'
= 0.00005

GonvolutlonalCoding
Block diagramsof two basic convolutional encodersare shown in Figure 4.31.
Both of theseencoder$are referred to as rate l/2 encodersbecausethe sourcedata
rate is half the channel data rate. During each bit time of a sourcetwo output bits are
generated.As illustrated in Figure 4.32, the constraint-zlength coder in Figure 4.314
outputs odd parity over bits A and B along with the value of B directly. In Figure
4.31b, odd parity acrossoverlapping fields (A, B, C and A, C) are generated.In the
caseof odd parity over A, B, C an output value is a I if and only if an odd number of
A, B, C are 1.
An important considerationof a convolutional coder is the constraint length,wlich
specifiesthe number of instancesthat a particular sourcebit getsmappedinto a chan-

*Reed*Solomon
codes are sometimes denoted as RS(N' N - R, B), wherc ,B designatesthe length of a
symbol in bits.
206 DIGITALTRANSMISSIONAND MULTIPLEXING

(o)

(b)

Figure 4.31 Rate l/2 convolutionalencoders:(a) sourceconstraintlength 2; (b) source

constraintlength3.

nel bit. In Figure 4.3la the length of the shift registersis 2 bits, which meansthat this
coder has a sourceconstraint length of 2. Becausethe output clock is twice the input
rate, the channel constraint length is 4. Similarly, the encoder shown in Figure 4.31b
has a sourceconsffaint length of 3 and a channel constraint length of 6. Longer con-
straint lengths produce better performance. Because the encoder shown in Figure
4.31a has the shortestpossibly constraint length, it is not commonly used but is con-
venient for illustrating the basic operationofa convolutional decoder.Notice that each

Sourcedata

F ,.. h
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
-{
I

Channeldata
01 11 0 1 1 0 11 00 01 1 1 -

Figure 432 Exampleinput and outputdatasequences

for convolutionalencoderin Figure
4.31b.
 4.6 TIMEDIVISIoN
MULTIPLEXING ?;O7

sourcebit in Figure 4.3la is mappedinto 3 channelbits. It is this redundancythat gets

processedto recover the original data.

Example 4.5. Determine the decoding logic to decode received data for the
convolutional encoderof Figure 4.31a. Assume bit-by-bit decisionsare made on each
received channelbit and only consider isolated channel errors.

Solution. Two casesare possiblefor isolated channelerrors: an error in a sourcebit

B or an error in a parity bit. If a sourcebit is receivedin error, two parity errors result.
Thus, when two adjacent parity errors occur, the most likely scenario is that the
implied databit needsto be inverted. If a single parity bit is receivedin error, the most
likely scenariois that the parity bit is itselfin enor and no sourceerrorshave occurred.
Thus, isolated parity error$are ignored.

Example 4.5 illustratesthat a convolutional encoder/decodercan easily correct iso-

lated channel errors-at the expenseof doubling the data rate. In contrastto the pre-
vious example and the normal implementation of an RS decoder, a convolutional
decoder usually processe$the received signal with maximum-likelihood sequence
(Viterbi) detectors[36]. In essence,a sequenceof receivedsignal samplesis compared
to all possible channel input sequenceswith the closestallowable sequencechosento
determine the sourcedata. The addedcomplexity provides signif,rcantbenefits. Con-
straint Iength 7 convolutional coding, for example, provides better than 5 dB of im-
provement in error performance for a given SNR. Since a doubling of the necessary
bandwidth (for rate l/2 coding) implies a relative noise increaseof 3 dB, a net gain of
2 dB is achieved- Notice further that a convolutional encoder can correct a much
greater number of comrpted bits than can an RS code-as long as the comlpted bits
are separatedby something greaterthan the channelconstraint length. Hence, convo-
lutional coding is well suited to correct independentenors while RS codeswork well
in burst error environments.For thesereasonscombinationsof the two codesare often
used.
Maximum-likelihood detection of convolutional code sequencertis very similar to
trellis-coded modulation (TCM) detection discussedin Chapter 6. The TCM discus-
sion provides some example measurementsthat involve the same basic processre-
quired for Viterbi detectionof convolution codes.

MULTIPLEXING
4.6 TIMEDIVISION
AlthoughFDMof digitaltransmission is possible
signals andis usedin somespecial
situations,TDM is by far themotitcolnmonandeconomicalmeansof subdividingthe
capacityof a digital transmissionfacility. One applicationwhereFDM techniques
havebeenusedfor digital signalsis on multidropdatacommunications lines,where
the sourcesanddestinations of thedataaredistributedalongtheline. Most telephone
network applications,however,involve clu$tersof channelsin the form of trunk
groupsbetweenswitchingoffices.In local digital accessapplications,wheresub-
208 DrGrrAL
TRANSMtsstoN
ANDMULTIpLEXtNe

scriberlocationsare distributedthroughouta servicearea,channelsare sometimes

addedanddroppedon a distributedbasis,but only with a limited numberof access
pointsbecause of maintenance andreliabilityconsiderations.*
Therearetwo basicmodesof operationfor TDM: thosethat repeatedlyassigna
pofiionof thetransmission capacityto eachsourceandthosethatassigncapacityonly
asit is needed.Thefirst form of operationis referredto assynchronaus time division
multiplexing(STDM) whennecessary, to distinguishit from the "as-needed" mode
of operation.Otherwise,TDM is generallyunderstood to imply the synchronous va-
riety.Theas-needed form of TDM is variouslyreferredto asasynchronous time divi-
sion multiplexing(ATDM), AsynchronousTransferMode (ATM), srarisricaltime
division multiplexing(Stat-Mux),or packetswitching.Circuit-switchedtelephone
networksuse STDM, whereasdatanetworkstypically use ATDM. Discussionof
theselattertechniques is deferredto Chapter10.
Thetermasynchronous is alsousedin anotherTDM contextto referto themulti-
plexingof multiple,independent tributarysignalsinto a singlehigherratesignal.In
this context,"asynchronous" is totallyunrelatedto eitherasynchronous transmission
asdescribedat thebeginningof thischapteror packetlikemultiplexingmentionedin
the previousparagraph. In this third contextasynchronous refersto multiplexingof
multipleunsynchronized tributariesinto a singlehigh-rateserialstream.This chapter
is concerned only with multiplexingof synchronized tributaries.TDM of unsynchron-
izedtributariesis describedin Chapter7.

4.6.1 Bit Interleaving Versus Word Interleaving

Two differentstructures of (synchronous)time divisionmultiplexframesareshown

in Figure4.33.In thefirst instanceeachchannelis assigned a time slotcorresponding
to a singlebit-hence the term bit interleaving.In the secondinstanceeachchannel
is assigned a longertime slotcorresponding to somelargernumberof bits,referredto
asa word-hence the tennword interleaving.
Thedecisionasto whichstructureto usein a particularapplicationis primarilyde-
pendenton the natureof the sources.[n T-carriersystemseachchannelproducesa
complete8-bit word at a time.Henceword interleavingis desirableso all bits canbe
transmittedasgenerated.
ln conffast,higherleveldigitalTDM multiplexerstypicallyusebit interleavingof
the lower level multiplexsignalssincethe lower level signalsrepresentcontinuous,
I-bit-at-a-time,datastreams. Thespecificformatsof thehigherlevelmultiplexsignals
aredescribed in Chapter7 whensynchronization of bit streamsis considered.Oneno-
tableexceptionto higherlevelbit interleavingis theword-interleaved structureof fi-
ber-based SONETor SDH multiplexingdescribedin ChapterL
'The
digital network has evolved with ever-increasinglevels ofmultiplexing creating serial bit streams with
ever-increasing data rutes. The use of WDM on optical fiber systems represeflts a deparhrre from the
single-streamparadigm stimulated by two factors: (l) it is impracticalto tansmit the ultrahigh speed serial
channels and (2) separate wavelengths provide transparency for diverse applications.
 4.6 TIME DIVISIONMULTIPLEXING 209
1 Frame
f+
Bit int€rlervlng

I Freme

lilord intcrlearing

'
r'ffl =i L =P r=F r
1 2 3 4 1

Figure 4.33 Bit interleavingandword interleavingof four-channel

TDM multiplexers,

4.6.2 Framlng

To identify individual time slots within a TDM frame, a receiving terminal uses a
counter synchronizedto the frame format of the transmitter. Just as for synchroniza-
tion of sampleclocks, a ceftain amount of hansmission overheadis required to estab-
lish and maintain frame synchronization.In fact, most of the techniquesusedfor frame
synchronizationare directly analogousto clock synchronizationtechniquesdiscussed
previously. Specifically, the basic meansof establishingframe synchronizationare;

l. Added-digit framing
2. Added-channelframing
3. Unique line signal framing
4. Statistical framing

The main considerationsin choosing a framing procedureare time required to es-

tabli$h framing, effects of channel erTor$in maintaining frame synchronization,rela-
tionships between the line clock and sample clocks derived from the line clock,
transmissionoverhead,and complexity of the framing circuitry.
The severiry of a loss of framing and the time required to reestablishsynchroniza-
tion dependon the nature of the traffic. Since a loss of framing implies a loss of data
on all channels,the mean time between misframes must be as long as possible' For
voice traffic infrequent misframes can be tolerated if frame synchronization is rees-
"glitch" in the output speech'
tablishedrapidly enoughto minimize the duration of the
For data traffic the duration of reframe times is not as critical as the frequency of oc-
currence since most data communicationsprotocols initiate recovery proceduresand
retransmit a mes$ageno matter how many data bits are lost.
A critical requirement for reframe time in the telephone network comes from the
possibility that various in-channel control signals may be lost and interpreted as dis-
connects.Thus the maximum refiame time on a particular digital transmissionlink is
often determinedfrom analognetwork signaling conventions.A loss of framing is also
used as a performancemonitor for the transmissionlink and usually setsalatm condi-
210 DrcrrAL
THAN$MrssroN
ANDMULTIpLEXtNc

tions, which in turn causeautomatic switching to spareterminals or transmissionfa-

cilities. Generally speaking,terminals serving 6(X)or more channelsrequire automatic
protection switching [37].
Out-of-frame conditions occur in two ways. First, the locally derived sampleclock
may lose synchronization with the line clock and produce a slip in the counter se-
quence.Normally, the timing information in the line clock is sufficiently strongto pre-
vent misframes of this type. An exception occurs on radio links when deep fades
reducethe signal power to the point that clock synchronizationis impossible. Receiv-
ing terminals can also lose clock synchronizationthrough no fault of their own or of
the transmissionlink. If the sourceclock at the transmitting terminal has too much jit-
ter or generates abrupt phase shifts, receiving terminals may be unable to track the
clock signal. Both phenomenaarerelatedto network synchronizationpractices,asdis-
cussedin Chapter 7.
A second source of mi$frames is from channel errors creating false out-of-frame
framing pattems. Thus considerableredundancyin the framing pattem is required to
minimize the probability of false misframes.A loss of framing is determinedwhen the
occurrenceof framing pattem violations exceedssome shoft-term density threshold.
In all of the framing techniques discussedin the following paragraphs,special
framing bits or codesare insertedinto the information skeam. Theseinsertionsdo not
have to occur with each frame. lnstead, they can be sent only once for a predetermined
number of information frames. In this manner the transmission overhead for framing
can be reduced,which is particularly important in bit-interleaved systems.An individ-
ual information frame containedbetween framing indicators is sometimesreferred to
arra "subftame,"

Added-DigitFramlng
Onecommontechnique of framinga digitalTDM informationstreamis to peri-
odically insert a framing bit with an identifiable data sequence.Usually the framing
bit is addedonce for every frame and alternatesin value. This particular format is the
procedureused to establish framing in the original Dl channel banks. When the Tl
line carriesonly voice traffic, this framing format is pafiicularly useful since no infor-
mation bits can sustainan alternating l, 0 pattem. (An alternatingpattern representsa
4-kHz signal component, which is rejected by the bandlimiting filter in the PCM
codecs.)
Framing is establishedin a receiving Dl channelbank by monitoring frrst one bit
position within a 193-bit frame and then another, until the alternating pattern is lo-
cated. With this framing strategy, the expected framing time from a random starting
point with random data i$ derived in Appendix A as

I averagenumberof)
I bitsto I
I determine thatan I
linformationpositionis I
not a framingnositionJ
I
 MULTIPLEXING 21 1
4.6 TIMEDIVISION

= (+N)(2N+l)

= M + |N bit times (4.10)

where Nis the number of bits in a frame including the framing bit.
For D I channel banks, N = 193 so that the framing time is 37,346 bits, or 24. I 88
msec.Also of interest is the maximum framing time. Unfoftunately, fhere is no abso-
lute maximum framing time for a Tl system with random data. It is very unlikely,
however, that the framing time would ever exceedthe averagesearchtime fbr all bit
positions, or 48.25 msec.This latter measureof framing time is refered to asthemaxi-
mum(werageframe time.It i$ the averagetime required to establishframing, but with
the assumptionthat all bit positions must be testedfor the framing sequencebefore the
actual framing bit is found. Obviously, the maximum averageframe time is twice the
averagevalue from a random statting point defined in Equation 4. I 0.
The framing time can be reducedby using more sophisticatedframe searchstrate-
gies. One approach examines one bit at a time, as before, but during a reframe the
searchbegins a few bit positions in front of the presentposition under the assumption
that short lapsesof clock synchronizationcausesmall counter offsets. A secondap-
proach [38, 39] uses a parallel searchby monitoring all bit positions simultaneously
for the framing pattern.With this framing procedure,framing is establi$hedwhen the
last of the N* I information bit positions finally producesa framing pattern violation.
The probability that all information bit positions produce a framing violation in n or
less frames is derived in Appendix A as follows:

prob(frame time < n) = [ * (*f]t-t (4.1l)

's
whereN is thenumberof bits in a frameandtheprobabilityof I i sj. UsingEquation
4. 11, we determinethe medianframingtime by settingprob(frametime < n) = i.
Hence

n = -logzll- (+)r/(N-')l
{4.r2)

Setting N = 193 for the frame length of the Dl channel bank producesthe result that
n = 8.1 frames, or approximately I msec.
An even more sophisticatedframing strategyinvolves continually monitoring all
bit positions, even while the system is synchronized.Then, when a misframe is de-
tected,a new frame position is immediately establishedor the frame searchtime is sig-
nificantly reduced.Fufthermore, the continuous searchfor framing patternsprovides
additional information for declaring an out-of-frame condition. (There is little point is
discarding the presentframe position unless anotherbit position exhibits a more con-
sistentfiaming pattern.)
212 DtctrAlTRANSMtsstoN
ANDMULTIpLEXINc

Theframingpatternof second-generation channelbanks(D3, D4) from AT&T was

changedfrom thealtematingl, 0 patternto establisha longersequence for identifica-
tion of signalingframes.As mentionedpreviously,thesechannelbanftsprovideI bits
of voicefor all time slotsexceptin everysixthframe,whichusestheleastsignificant
PCM bit for signaling.The signalingchannelsthusderivedaredividedinto an A and
a B subchannel, implyingeachsubchannel sendsa bit in everytwelfth frame.Hence
a l2-bit framingsequence is neededto identifythesignalingbitsandthetwo signaling
subchannels. The lZ-frame superframe(SF) structureand associated framing se-
quenceareshownin Figure4.34.
Whendescribingor processingthe framing$equence shownin Figure4.34,it is
convenientto divide the framingbits into two separatesequences. During the odd
framesthe framingbit altemates,while duringthe evenframesthe framingbit se-
quenceis Offi111000111000. Figure4.34indicatesthattheA signalingframecanbe
identifiedby a 0-to-l transitionin the even-numbered framesequence. Conespond-
ingly, a 1-to-0transitionin theeven-numbered framesequence signifiesa B signaling
frame.Frameacquisitionbeginsby findingthealternatingbit sequence (with 385in-
terveningbits). Then,the 000111framing patternis located.Anotherframing se-
quence,extendedsuperframe (ESF),for DSI signalsis describedin Section4.6.3.

Added-Channel Frdmlng
Added-channel framingis basicallyidenticalto added-digitframingexceptthatfram-
ing digits areaddedin a groupsuchthat an exha channelis established. Hencethe

Framing
bir
Freme
no,

2 OFil-T]
3 offi l--::]
4 OFilTl I-I
-l
5 rlilTl f
6 lFI Ftr-I T--TI
0FI*--*--T--*---] | I

1 2 0

Figure 4.34 Twelve-framesuperframesfucturc of DSI signalwith robbeddigit signaling,

Framealignmentsignal(F) = l0l0l0; multiframealignmentsignal(M) = ffil ll0.
 4.6 TIME MULTIPLEXING
DIVISION 213

transmissionrate of individual channelsis integrally related to the line rate of the en-
l
tire multiplex.
The fact that the frame boundariesare identified by whole codewordsaddsconsid-
erableperformanceand flexibility to the framing process.First, framing can be estab-
lished more rapidly since random 8-bit codewords are very unlikely to appear as
f'raming codes. (See the problems at the end of the chapter.) Second,the larger code
spacesimplifies identification of auxiliary functions such as superframeboundaries,
parity bits, or equipment$tatus.In most systemsthe addedchannelcontainsmore than
framing bits.
The first-level digital multiplex signal of ITU (El) is an example of a system
using added-channelframing. The El standardestablishes32 channelsper frame
with one channelproviding framing and one more channeldedicatedto signaling.
Thus, 30 of 32 channelsare availablefor messagechannels.Figure 4.35 showsthe
frame structureof the El signal. The frame alignment signal (FAS) is insertedinto
the framing channel of every even-numbered frame and a I bit inserted into the
secondbit position in every odd-numberedframe (to preclude FAS generationin
those frames). The first bit of every FAS frame may carry a cyclic redundancy
check (CRC-4) for additional frame alignment integrity and eruor rate monitoring.
The remaining bits of the framing channel are used for CRC-4 alignment or alarm
indications or re$ervedfbr other uses.(See ITU recommendationG.704 for more
details.)
The signaling channel ofFigure 4.35 depicts the use ofchannel-associatedsignal-
ing (CAS), which implies that 4 bits per 16-frame multiframe are allocated to each
messagechannel. The positions of the associatedsignaling channelsare determined
with respectto the multiframe alignment signal (MAS). The 4 bits of each CAS sig-
naling channel should never be 0000 to preclude inadvertent generation of the

Framing Mesage Signsling Metcoge

channel channelr ch6nn6l chennols

0 1 1 6 3 1
FramooTTEET-I "' lMAsTl "' l-]

Framer f'lil-T l "' f rTG-] "' l-l

Framez fl- FAsT-l ... I ,Tu-] "' |_*--l

,rPreclurion of FAS
-l "' "'
FrEmB
rb I trt | | fi'T3t-l T---l

Ftame
o [EsT--*] ... liifrHT-l ... l-l

Figure 4.35 Channelformatof ITU primarydigital signal(El).

214 DIGITAL
TRANSMISSIoN
ANDMULTIPLEXING

MAS. The use of thesebits is similar to the "bit-robbed" ABCD birs of the North
American DS I signal.When common channelsignalingis carriedon an E1 link, the
CAS channelsare replacedby a 64-kbps HDLC signaling link in time slot l6 of the
El frame.
The averageframe acquisition time of a multibit frame code is derived in Appendix
Aas

Frame :#j.+
rime (inbits) (4.13)

whereN is the length of a frame including the frame code, /, is the length of the frame
code,and it is assumedthat I's and 0's are equally likely.
From Figure 4.35 it can be seenthat for the El signal N = 512 and L = 7. Thus the
averageframe time from a random starting point is determinedfrom Equation 4.13 as
0.5 msec.Again, the "maximum average"frame time is twice the averagefrom a ran-
dom starting point, or I msec.Notice that theseframe times are much faster than DSI
added-digit frame times becausea higher percentageof bits are allocatedto framing.

Unique Line CodeFramlng

Bipolar coding managesto shapethe spectrum(remove the dc component)of the line
code by adding extra signal levels to provide more flexibility in selectingsignals.The
sametechnique can be used to establishframe synchronization.In fact, with bipolar
coding and added-digit framing, bipolar violations can be usedto identify the framing
boundariesuniquely and rapidly. A particularly significant exampleof using line code
violations for framing is the ISDN S/T basic rate interface describedin Chapter 11.
Even without added-digit framing, unique line codescan be used to carry informa-
tion while simultaneouslyconveying frame positioning. If the number of signal levels
is doubled for the framing bit only, the extra levels provide sufficient code spacefor
the information but uniquely identify that bit position as a frame boundary. This pro-
cedure does not necessarilyincreasethe effor rate, since for any particular bit (infor-
mation or framing), half of the levels can be disallowed.
The main advantageof using unique line codesfor framing is that the information
bit positions cannot generateframing pattems. Hence framing is establishedas soon
as a frame bit occurs, and misframes are detectedalmost immediately.
The main disadvantagesofunique line codes are the added signal processingre-
quirements(if new levels are establishedjust for framing) and the dependenceon the
transmissionterminals to locate framing. With the other framing techniquesdescribed
in this section, the framing pattems are representedin the data of the bit stream. Hence
the transmission equipment can be changed independently of the multiplex equip-
ment. For additional information on framing techniquesand performanceanalysessee
references[40] and [41].
 4.6 TIMEDlvlsloNMULTIPLEXING 215

Statlstlcal Framing
of datawithinindividualbitsof a transmis-
framingreliesonthestatistics
Statistical
sionscheme. Assumingthesourceof thedatais known,it maybepossibleto ascertain
informationsuchaswhichbit is a mostsignificantbit (MSB) of a PCM codewordand
therebyrecoverbyteframingwithoutan explicitframingbit of anytype.Obviously,
Onesuchapplication
thismethodof framingis only applicableto specialapplications.
is determiningwordalignmentin ADPCM7-kHzaudio[42],asin ITU-T Recoiltmen-
dationG.722.

4.6.3 DSI Extended Superframe

When a Tl line is usedas an interofficetransmission link, the operatingtelephone

companieshave accessto both endsof the line for maintenance and performance
monitoring.Furthermore,most installationsincludeprotectionswitchingfacilities
thatcanalsobe usedto routinelytesta line while thetrffic normallyassigned to that
line is divertedto a spareline.A significantlydifferentsituationariseswhena T1 line
is usedby a customerasaccessto thepublic$witchednetworkor a$a leasedline in a
privatenetwork.The explosiveuseof Tl linesin suchapplicationscreatedthe need
for enhanced maintenance featuresfor T1 customers. TheESFasprovidedin theD5
channelbankprovidesthedesired features.
Foremostamongthecustomerneedsis noninfiusiveperformancemonitoringof an
end-to-endTl circuit. Monitoring bipolar violationsat the customerserviceunit
(CSU)providesnonintrusivemonitoringof thereceivesignalbut providesno infor-
marionregardingthequalityof thesignalattheotherendof theline (whichterminates
at theprovider'sfacilities).Furthermore, leasedTl circuitsgenerallyinvolveinterme-
diatetransmission, multiplexing,andcross-connect equipment. Because theinterfaces
of eachof theseequipments removebipolarviolations,thecustomerhasno accessto
performance statisticsintemalto theprovider'sfacilities.Determination of end-to-end
errorrate performance in this environment requirestaking at least
a portion of theTl
(for
circuitout of service whichthere is usuallyno spare).
ESF allowscu$tomefsto achieveend-to-end, in-servicepelformancemonitoring
by redefiningthe8-kbpsF bit of eachDSI frameto consistof a 2-kbpsframingchan-
nel, a 4-kbpsdatalink channel,anda Z-kbpsCRC channelrepresenting a checksum
overall informationbits.Because theCRCchannelis carriedintactfromonecustomer
locationto another,channelenorsoccurringin anyintermediate facility produceCRC
errorsat the far end.
Thedatalink supportsnumerou$$ervices, oneof whichis theability to interrogate
the far end,or any intermediateequipment,for performancestatistics.Thus the data
link providesboththecustomerandtheserviceproviderwith anextremelyusefultool
for isolatingfaulty spanlinesor equipment.
As indicatedin Table4.8 obtainedfrom reference[33], the threesubchannels are
established by "extending" the D4 superframe formatto encompass 24 DS t frames.
Because theactualframingbits occuronly onceeveryfour DSI frames,thereare771
bits interveningbetweenbits carryingthe framepatternsequence (FPS)00101I '
216 DrcrrAl
THAN$MrssroN
ANDMULTIpLEXtNc

The6 CRCbits (CBI to CB6)of eachextendedsuperframe represenra CRCcheck

of all4608informationbitsin theprevioussuperframe.*
Besidesprovidingend-to-end
performance monitoring,theCRCvirtuallyprecludesthechances of falseframingon
a databit po$ition.Eventhoughstaticuserdatacaneasilysimulatethe FPS,it is ex-
tremelyunlikelythatuserdatacanspuriouslygenerate valid CRCcodesin successive
superframes.(Sixbitsof randomdatamatcha 6-bitcodewith a probabilityof I in 64.)
The performanceparametersmeasuredandreportedby the 4-kbpsdatalink (DL)
areframingbit errors,CRCerrors,out-of-frame(OOF)events,line code(bipolar)vio-
lations,andcontrolledslip events(describedin Chapter7). Individualevent$arere-
portedaswell asevent$ummaries. Thefour performance summaries reportedare:

I. Enoredseconds(ESs)(ES= at leastoneCRC event)

2. Burstyseconds (BSs)(BS= 2-3lg ESs)
3. Severelyerroredseconds(SESs)(SES= >319ESsor OOFs)
4. Failedseconds(FSs)(l0consecutiveSESs)

ESF CSUs typically determine the above parameterson 15-min intervals and store
them for up to 24 hr for polling by a controller [43]. The sES report conforms to ITU
recommendationG.821. In addition to suppofting remote interrogation of perform-
ance statistics,the data link carriesalarm information, loopback commands,and pro-
tection switching commands.
In addition to the previously mentioned features,EsF introducesa new option for
per-channel signaling via the robbed signaling bits in every sixth frame. Becausean
ESF is 24 frames long, there are four signaling bits in every channel in every super-
frame as opposedto 2 bits in sF format (Figure 4.34). whereas the two signaling bits
in the sF format are designatedas A and B bits, the four bits in the ESF caseare des-
ignated A, B, C, and D. Three signaling modes are defined: z-state where all bits are
A bits, 4-state where the signaling bits are ABAB, and 16-sratewhere the signaling
bits are ABCD. The SF format provides the first two signaling modes but not the last.

4.7 TIMEDIVISION
MULTIPLEX
LOOPSANDRINGS
In Chapter 2 it is mentionedthat TDM is not a$amenableto applicationswith disrrib-
uted $ourcesand sinks of traffic as is FDM. In this section a particular form of a TDM
network is describedthat is quite useful in interconnectingdiskibuted nodes.The ba-
sic structureof interestis referredto as a TDM loop or TDM ring and is shown in Fig-
ure 4.36.
Basically, a TDM ring is configured as a seriesof unidirectional (two-wire) links
arrangedto form a closed circuit or loop. Each node of the network is implemented
with two f'undamentaloperationalfeature$.First, each node acts as a regenerativere-
peater merely to recover,the incoming bit stream and retransmit it. Second,the net-
*Calculation
ofthe CRC actually includes F bits that are setto I for purposesofCRC calculation only. Thus,
charurel errors in the F bits do not create CRC errors (unless they occur in the CRC bits themselves).
 MULTIPLEX
4.7 TIMEDIVISION LOOPS
ANDHINGS 217

Figure 4.36 Time divisionmultiplexloop'

work nodesrecognize the TDM frame structure and communicateon the loop by re-
moving and insefting datainto specific time slots assignedto eachnode. As indicated
in Figure 4.36, a full-duplex connectioncan be establi$hedbetweenany two nodesby
assigninga single time slot or channelfor a connection.One node insetts information
into the assignedtime slot that propagatesaround the loop to the secondnode (all in-
tervening nodes merely repeat the data in the particular time slot). The destination
node removes data as the assignedtime slot passesby and inserts return data in the
proce$s.The retum data propagatesaround the loop to the original node where it is
removed and replacedby new data, and so forth.
Since other time slots are not involved with the particular connection shown, they
are free to be useclfor other connection$involving arbitrary pairs of nodes. Hence a
TDM Ioop with C time slots per frame can suppoft C simultaneousfull-duplex con-
nections.
If, as channelsbecomeavailable,they arereassignedto different pairs of nodes,the
transmissionfacilities can be highly utilized with high concentrationfactors and pro-
vide low blocking probabilities betweenall nodes.Thus a fundamental attraction of a
loop network is that the transmissioncapacity can be assigneddynamically to meet
changing traffic patterns.In contrast, if a star network with a centralized swirching
node is usedto intercorutectthe nodeswith four-wire links, many of the links to par-
ticular nodeswould be underutilized since they cannotbe sharedas in a loop configu-
ration.
Another feature of the loop-connectednetwork is the easewith which it can be re-
configured to accommodatenew nodes in the network. A new accessnode is merely
inserted into the nearestlink of the network and the new node has complete connec-
tivity to all other nodesby way of the TDM channels.In contrast,a $tarstructurednet-
work requires transmission to the central node and expansion of the centralized
switching facilities.
?18 DIGITAL
TRANSMI$sIoN
ANDMULTIPLEXING

The ability to reassignchannelsto arbiharypairsof nodesin a TDM loop implies

thattheloop is muchmorethana multiplexer.It is, in fact,a distributedtansmission
andswitchingsystem.The switchingcapabilitiescomeaboutalmostasa by-product
of TDM transmission. TDM loopsrepresentthe epitomeof integratedtransmission
andswitching.
TDM loopshavebeenusedwithin computercomplexesto providehigh capacity
andhigh interconnectivity betweenprocessors, memories,andperipherals[,14].The
loopstructurein thisapplicationis sometimes moreatffactivethanmoreconventional
bus structuressinceall transmissionis unidirectionaland thereforeavoidstiming
problemson bidirectionalbusesthatlimit theirphysicallength.Furthermore, asmore
nodesareaddedto a bus,theelectricalloadingincreases, causinga limitationon the
numberof nodesthat canbe connectedto a bus.Loops,on the otherhand,haveno
inherentlimits of transmission lengthor numbersof nodes.
The loop structureof Figure4.36 is topologicallyidenticalto the token-passing
ring developedby IBM and standardizedby the IEEE asa 802.5local areanetwork.
However,a token-passingring operatesdifferently than a TDM loop in that thereis
only onechannel.when a nodeon a ring becomesactive,it usesthe entirecapacity
of the outgoinglink until it is throughsendingits message. In contrast,a nodeon a
loopusesonly specifictime slotsin theTDM $tructure, allowingothernodesto be si-
multaneously "connected"usingothertime slots.[n essence,
a TDM loop is a distrib-
uted-circuitswitchandan 802.5ring is a distributed-packet switch.
A particularlyattractiveuseof a loopwith high-bandwidth linksis shownin Figure
4.37. This figure illustratesthe use of add-dropmultiplexers(ADMs) that access
whateverbandwidthis neededat a local nodebut passthereston to othernodes.In
fypicalapplications theamountof bandwidthallocatedto eachnodeis quasi-static: It
is changedonly in respon$e to macroscopic changesin traffic patterns,possiblyasa
functionof thetimeof day.Thisbasicoperationis genera-lly referredto asa cross-con-

Figure 4.37 Functionalmesh,fiber loop,andADMs.

 REFERENcES 219

Figure 4.3E Useof reverseloop to circumventlink failuresin TDM loops.

nect function as opposedto a swirching function, which involves call-by-call recon-

figurations. Both types of switching operationsare discussedin the next chapter.An
important point to note about Figure 4.37 is the ability to utilize a general-purpose
physical topology but define an arbitrary functional topology on top of it.
One obvious limitation of a loop is its vulnerability to failures of any link or node.
The effect of a node failure can be minimized by having bypasscapabilities included
in each node. When bypassed,a node becomesmerely a regenerativerepeater,as on
T-carrier transmissionlinks. Link failures can be circumventedby providing alternate
facilities. Figure 4.38 showsone particular structureusing a second,reverse-direcflon
loop to provide backup capabilitiesin the caseof failures. When fully operational,the
network can use the reverse loop as a separate, independent network for traffic as
needed.Whenever a failure occurs, the nodes adjacent to the break establish a new
loop by connectingthe forward path to the reversepath at both places.Hence all nodes
continue to have full connectivity to any node on the new loop'
A particular example of the useof the dual reverseloop for both protection and dis-
tributed queuedaccessto the channelsis the distributedqueueddual-bus(DQDB) [45]
system developedby QPSX in Aushalia and standardizedby the IEEE as an 802.6
metropolitan area network. Further examples of loop structures and applications are
provided in Chapter 8 where SOI.IET rings are discussed.

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I
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22O DtctrAl TRANSMtsstoN
ANDMULIpLEXtNG

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for Coaxial Transmission," IEEE Trttnsacfionson Communications,Jan, 1974,pp, l-5.
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7 J. M. Cioffi, W. L. Abbott, H. K. Thapar, C. M. Melas, and K. D, Fisher, "Adaptive
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9 M. R. Aaron, "PCM Transmission in the Exchange Plant," Bell SystemTethniml
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l0 Technical Staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Transmission Systems .for
Communiuttion,r, Westem Electric Co., Winston Salem, NC, l97l , p. 668.
ll "1.544 Mhps
Digital Service," Bell System Technical Reference Publication No.
4l45l,May 1977.
12 G. D, Forney, '"The Viterbi Algorithm," Praceedingsof IEEE, Mar. 1973,pp.268-2i8.
13 V. l. Johannes,A. G. Kaim, and T. Walzman, "Bipolar Pulse Transmission with Zero
Extraction," IEEE Transactions on Communications,Apr. 1969,pp. 303-310.
14 "The
D3 Channel Bank Compatibility Specification-lssue 3," Technica.lAdvisory
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l5 B. Johnstonand W. Johnston,"LD-4 A Digital Pioneer in Action," Telesis,Vol. 5, No.
3, June 1977,pp.66-72.
16 J. H. Davis, 'T2: A 6.3 Mb/s Digital Repeatered Line," IEEE Inrernational
ComrnunicationsConferenu, I 969, pp. 34-9-34- 16.
17 RecommendationG.703, CCITT Orange Booft, Vol. 3, No. 2.
18 R. M. Wienski, "Evolution to ISDN within the Bell Operating Companies," IEEE
CommunicationsMagafine, Jan. 1984, pp. 33-41.
19 American National Standard: Digital Hierarchy-Formats Specifications, ANSI
Tl.l07-1988, Editorial RevisedApr. 1989.
20 J. M. Sipress,"A New Class of SelectedTernary Pulse Transmission Plans for Digital
Transmission Lines," IEEE Transactions on Communitation Technology, Sept. 1965,
pp. 366-372.
2l E. E. Schnegelbergerand P. T. Griffiths, "48 PCM Channelson Tl Facilities," National
Elettronics Conference, 1975, pp. 20 1-205,
22 P. A. Franaszek, "Sequence-StateCoding for Digital Transmission," Bell System
Technical Journal, Dec, 1967, pp. 143-157.
23 J. O. Azaret, J. F. Graczyk, W. M. Hauser, and J, V. Mahala, "New Improved T-Canier
Doubles Capacity, Cuts Costs," BelI l-abs Rewrd, July 1985, pp. 26-31.
24 J, W. Lechleider, "Line Codes for Digital Subscriber Lines," IEEE Communit:ations
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25 A. Lender, -'The Duobinary Technique for High Speed Data Transmission," IEEE
Transactionson CommunicationElectronits, May 1963,pp.2l4-218.
26 A. t ender, "Correlative Level Coding for Binary Data Transmission," IEEE Spectrum,
Feb. 1960,pp. I 04- I I 0,
 PFOBLEMS 221
"Partial ResponseSignaling,"IEEE Transactionson
21 P. Kabal and S. Pasupathy,
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"Multilevel Partial ResponseSignaling,"
28 A. M, Genish and R. D. Howson,
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"DuobinaryPCM SystemDoublesCapacityof Tl
29 D, W. JurlingandA. L, Pachynski,
Facilities,"IntemationalCommunicationsConferente, l9TT'pp.32.2-297-32-2-301.
30 T. Seaver,"An Efficient 96 PCM ChannelModemfor 2 GHz FM Radio,"National
Telecommunications Conference, 1978, pp. 38.4.t -38'4'5'
3l "special Issue:IARDS," BeIISystemTechnical Joumal'Mar. 1984.
32 M. B. Brilliant, "Observationsof Errors and Error Rateson Tl Digital Repeatered
Lines,"Bell SystemTechnical Joumal,Mar. 1978,pp' 7ll*746.
33 ..Carrier-to-Customer krstallation-DSl Metallic Interface," ANSI T1.403-1989,
AmericanNationalStandards Institute.
34 N. S,Bergano,F. W. Kerfoot,andC. R. Davidson,|EEE PhotonhsTechnologyLetters'
Vol, 5, 1993,pp. 304-306.
35 S. B. Wicker, Error Control Sysferns for Digital Communicationand Storage,
Prentice-Hall,EnglewoodCliffs, NJ, 1995.
36 L. H. CharlesI*e, ConvolutionalCoding: Fundamentals and Applications,Artech
House.Norwood.MA. 1997.
37 TechnicalStaff,Bell TelephoneLaboratories, Eng,ineering and Operationsin theBelI
System,Western ElectricCo., Indianapolis,1978.
"RobustFrameSynchronization for Noisy
38 D. E. Dodds,L, R, Button,andS.-M.Pan,
PCM Systems,"IEEE Transactions on Communicatians, May 1985,pp. 465-469.
"StatisticalDistributionof PCM Framing
39 D. E. Dodds,S.-M.Pan,andA. G. Wacker,
Times,"IEEE Transactions on Communications, Nov. 1988,pp' 1236-'1241.
40 R. A. Scholtz, "Frame SynchronizationTechniques,*IEEE Transacfionson
Communications, Aug. 1980,pp' 1204-1212-
"On FrameSynchronization of
4l D. T. R. Munhoz.J. R. B, deMarca,andD. S, Arantes,
PCM Systems,*IEEE Transactions on Communicarions, Aug. 1980'pp' 1213-1218.
"Apparatusand Methodsfor RecoveringAlignment
42 M. Andersonand O. Petruclrka,
from a Non-IdeallyEncodedMulti-bit Digital Signal,"U.S.PatentNo.4,955'037' Sept'
4. 1990.
43 K. Stauffer and A. Brajkovic, "DS-l ExtendedsuperframeFormat and Related
Performance Issues,"IEEE Communications Magazine,Apt. 1989,pp' 19-23'
44 C-System GeneralDescription,Radio company ReportNo, 523-0561697-20173R,
CollinsRadioCompany,Dallas,TX, May I, 1970.
45 "New hoposal Extendsthe Reachof Metro Area Nets,"Data Communicuriorls,
Feb.
1988,pp, 139-145.

PHOBLEMS
4.1 If the transmitter and receiver of an asynchronoustransmission system utilize
clock sourcesthat are accurateto one part in 103,determinethe maximum num-
ber of bits in a codeword if the maximum sampletiming enor is 207oof a pulse
222 DIGITAL
TRANSMISSION
ANDMULTIPLEXING

interval. Assume the sampleclock is eight times the bit rate and that the stalt bit
is determinedby counting four sampletimes from the beginning of the start bit.
4.2 Using the symbols +, 0, and - to representa positive pulse, no pulse, and a nega-
tive pulse, respectively, determinethe following line code $equencesof the bi-
nary data sequence

0l l0 r0000t0001100000001
0

(a) Bipolarwith mostrecentpulsebeingpositive

(b) Bipolarwith mostrecentpulsebeingnegative
(c) Pairselectedtemarybeginningin thenegativemode
(d) B3ZSwith a +0+ substitutionhavingjust beenmade
(e) 8625 with themostrecentpulsebeingpositive
4.3 Assumethat two identicalcablesystemsareusedfor digital transmission with
equalpulseamplitudes. Onesystemusesconventional bipolarsignalingandthe
otherusesPST.comparethecrosstalklevelsof thetwo $ystems. (Assumethat
l's and0's areequallyprobable.)
4.4 A digitaltransmission systemoperatingat anerrorrateof 10-6is to haveits data
rateincreased by 50Vo.Assumingthatthe sametransmittedpoweris to be used
in the secondsystem,whatis thenewerrorrate?
4.5 Whatis theaveragereframetime of a D3 channelbank(usingSFframing)from
a randomstartingpoint?What is the maximumaveragereframetime of a D3
chalnelbank?(AssumeI's and0's in theme$sage traffic areequallylikely.)
4.6 Repeathoblem 4.5 for theprimaryTDM multiplexsignalspecifiedby CCITT.
4,7 A TDM systemoperatingat 2 Mbps is to havea maximumaveragereframe
time of 20 msec.What is themaximumpossibleframelengthif framingis es-
tablishedwith a bit-by-bitframesearch?(Assumethat I's and0's in message
channelsareequallylikely.)
4.8 A Tl transmission systemusinga Dl frameformatis to haveanaveragereframe
time (from a randomstartingpoint) of l0 msec.How largea block of bit posi-
tionsmustbe examinedin parallelto achievethedesiredresult?
4.9 what is theexpected framingtimefor a Tl line (D3 frameformar)if theframing
strategyis bit by bit andthedatasheamhas60% I's and40VoO's?
4.10 What is the averagepulsedensityof 4B3T coding(AssumeI's and0's are
equallylikely.)
4.11 A TDM transmission link using4B3T codingcantransmit32 64-kbpsvoice
channelsusingthe samesymbolrateas a Tl line (1544kbps).Assuminga
fixed Gaussiannoise environment,how much must the averagetransmit
powerof the 4B3T systembe increased to providethe equivalenterrorrate
of a bipolarcode?
4.12 Assumethatcrosstalkinterference in a multipaircablesystemproducesaneffect
equivalentto Gaussian noiseat anequalpowerlevel.Usinganerrorrateof 10-6
asa designobjective,determinetheeffectivedegradation of thecrosstalkon bi-
nary$olar) NRZ codingundereachof thefollowingconditions.(Theeffective
 PROBLEMS 2?3

degradation is determinedastheincreased transmitpower,in decibels,required

to achievethe desirederror rate.)
(a) Thecrosstalklevel is I 6 dB belowthe averagesignallevel,but thecrosstalk
is to be overcomeon only onepair (i.e.,all otherpairs$tayat a powerlevel
for 10-6BER with no crosstalk).
(b) Thecrosstalklevelis 16dB belowtheaveragesignallevel,but theeffectsof
the crosstalkare to be overcomeon all pairs' (Flfnt:Use signal-power-to-
noise-power ratios,not E/N^0.)
4.13 RepeatProblem4.12for bipolarcoding.
4-14 How muchdoes-1 8 dB of crosstalkdegradetheerrorrateperformance of a po-
Iar binaryNRZ signalfor a BER of l0-7? (Assume that all areat
transmitters
equalpowerlevels.)If crosstalkincreases 15dB per decadein frequency,what
is the relativecrosstalklevel of a four-levelNRZ codecarryingthe samedata
rate?Whatis theoverallperformance penaltyof thefour-levelsystemcompared
to thetwo-levelsystem?
4.15 How manydistinctcodewordsof length4 canbe constructed from temarysym-
bols?How manyof thesecodewordscontainan equalnumberof positiveand
negativepulses?How manycodewords canbeusedto ensurea minimumof one
timing pulseoccursin eachcodeword?
4.16 Cana setof ternarycodewordsof length8 be constructed to encodebinarydata
usingexactly four pulsesper 8-bit word and containing equal numbersof posi-
tive andnegative pulses?
4.17 Giventheinput$equence +1, -3, +1, -1, +3, +3, -3 of signallevels,determine
thesequence of outputsignallevelsfor eachof thefollowingcorrelativeencod-
ings.
(a)l+Dencoder
(b)1-Dencoder
(c) I -.d encoder
4.18 Whatis theprobabilityof a CRCerrorin a DSI signalwith ESFframingif the
randomBER is 10-7?
4.19 Whatis theminimumandmaximumlengthof a correctable burstof errorsin an
RS(204,188)codewhereeachsymbolis an 8-bitbyte?
4.20 Determinetheprobabilityof failureof anRS(7,2) codeoperatingin a random-
errorenvironmentwith a bit errorprobabilityof lQa. Assumeeachsymbolis
an 8-bitbyte.
4.21 Determinethe probabilityof failure of an RS(31,15) codeoperatingin a ran-
dom-errorenvironment with abit errorprobabilityof l0-3.Assumeeachsymbol
is an 8-bit byte.
4.22 Determinethe parity error patternthat resultsin a bit-by-bit constraintlength
convolutionaldecoderif two data(B) bitsin a row arecomrptedanddetectedin
errorbut no otherreceivedbits arein error.Usethe following bit sequence for
reference, whereP0is thefirst receiveddatabit andB 1and82 arein enor.POB0,
P181,P282, P383.
 DIGITALSWITCHING
'"'
''
t'

Of thethreebasicelements in a communications network(terminals, transmisrion*l-

dia, andswitches),switchesarethe mostinvisibleto theusersyet represent themost
impoftantelementsin termsof availableserviceofferings.As mentionedin Chapter
l, a majorr.nilestonewasestablished in 1965whenstored-program controlswitching
wasfirst introducedinto the U.S. publictelephonenetwork.Stored-program control
providesthe meansfor implementingmanyinnovativeuserservicesandfor greatly
simplifyingswitchadminishationandmaintenance.
The useof computersto controlthe switchingfunctionsof a centraloffice led to
the designation"electronic"switching[e.g.,electronicswitchingsy$tem(ESS)or
electronicautomaticexchange(EAX)]. However,the switchingmatricesof these
first-generationelectronicswitchesareactuallyelectromechanical in nature.Thefirst
useof electronicswitchingmatriceso.cqrnedin Francein 1971,whendigitalswitch-
ing wasappliedto an endoffice envfriinment.Ironically,thesefirst digital switches
did notusestored-program control.Digitalelectronicswitchingmatriceswerefirst in-
troducedinto the U.S. public networkin 1976with AT&T's No. a EsS-digitaltoll
switch.
In thelate 1970sdigitalclass5 switchesbeganto be installedin the UnitedStates,
mo$tlyin smallerend,officesasreplacements for step-by-step switches.At thattime
mostmajor_ switchingofficesalreadyhad stored-program
mettoi_oJif4n controlfrom
No. I ESSor No. I EAX machines. Because the digitaltoll andendoffice switching
machineswereinitially installedin predominantly analogtransmission environments,
their digitalmatrix providedno directbenefitto networkcustomers. The motivation
for the digitalmachineswa$reducedcostsfor the operatingcompanies: lowermain--
tenance,reducedfloor space,simplifiedexpansion,and lower manufabturing costs
tu.
By the mid-1980s the interoffice hansmission environment had changedto be al-
most exclusively digital. Thus analog-to-digital conversion costs moved from being
associatedwith digital transmission links to being associatedwith analog switches,
thereby further sealing the fate of analog toll or tandem switching technology. At this
time frame, end office ffansmissionenvironmentsalso begantJqeswing to a digital en-
vironment. Interoffice trunks were alreadydigital, digital loop barrier systemsbecame
226 DIGITALSWITCHING

cost effective in metropolitan applications, remotely conmolled switching modules

with digital fiber interconnectbecamecommon for service to outlying communities,
digital cross-connectsystem$(DCSs) were being deployed, and the feeder portion of
the subscriberloop plant beganto use fiber.
The cost penaltiesof interfacing to a digital transmissionenvironment and higher
maintenancecosts led to the older electromechanicalclass 5 switches being replaced
by digital machineswhen expansionor consolidationof an office occurued.The ability
to offer ISDN services was a lessermotivation for changing to digital switches be-
causelow-cost fiber transmissionin conjunction with DCS sy$temsallows provision-
ing of these servicesfrom other offices.
This chapterdescribesthe basic operation and implementation of digital tifiie divi-
sion switching as applied to PBXs, end offices, toll switche$,and crossconnects.Be'
fbre digital switching is discussed,certain basic switching conceptsand terminology
are introduced.

5.1 SWITCHINGFUNCTIONS

Obviously, the basic function of any switch is to set up and releaseconnectionsbe-

tween transmissionchannelson an "as-neededbasis," The structureand operation of
a switch dependon particular applications.Three switching categoriesfor voice cir-
cuits are local (line-to-line) switching, transit (tandem) switching, and call distribu-
tion.
The most common switching function involves direct connectionsbetween sub-
scriber loops at an end office or between station loops at a pBX. These connections
inherently require setting up a path through the switch fiom the originating loop to a
specific terminating loop. Each loop must be accessibleto every other loop. This level
of switching is sometimesreferred to as line switching.
Transit connectionsrequire sening up a path from a specific incoming (originating)
line to an outgoing line or trunk group. Normally, more than one outgoing circuit is
acceptable.For example, a connection to an interoffice trunk group can use any one
of the channelsin the group. Hence transit switching sffucturescan be simplified be-
causealternatives exist as to which outgoing line is selected.Furthermore, it is not
even neces$arythat every outgoing line be accessiblefrom every incoming line. Tran-
sit switching functions are required by all switching machines in the telephone net-
work. Some machines such as remote concentrators and toll or tandem switches
serviceonly hansit traffic (e.g., do not provide local connections).Theseconceptsare
illustratedin Figure 5. l.
call distributors are often implemented with the samebasic equipment as pBXs.
The mode of operation (software) is significantly different, however, in that incoming
calls can be routed to any available attendant.Normally, the software of an automatic
call distributor (ACD) is designedto evenly distribute the arriving calls among rhe ar-
tendants.Although it is not an inherent requirement that every incoming line (trunk)
be connectableto every attendant,call distributors are normally designedto provide
accessibility to all attendants.Furthermore, it is often desirablethat nonblocking op-

l\
 5.2 SPACFDIVISIONSWITCHING 227

Figure 5.1 Local andtransitftaffic switchingexamples.

erations be provided. (No matter what switch paths are in use, a new requestcan be
servicedby any available attendant.)

5.2 SPACE DIVISIONSWITCHING

Conceptually,thesimplestswitchingstructureis a rectangular arrayof crosspoints,as
shownin Figure5.2. This switching matrix canbe usedto connect any one of Ninlets
to anyoneof M outlets.If theinletsandoutletsateconnected to two-wirecircuits,only
onecrosspoint per connection is required'*
RectangularcrosspointEIIrays ale designedto provideintergroup(transit)connec-
tionsonly,thatis, from an inlet group to anoutletgroup.Applicationsfor thistypeof
an operationoccur in the following:

1. Remoteconcentrators
2. Call distributors
3. Portionof a PBX or endoffice switch that provides transit switching
4. Singlestagesin multiple-stageswitches

In mostof theforegoingapplications, it is not necessary thattheinletsbe connectable

involving
to everyoutlet.In situations large groups of outlets, considerable savingsin
totalcrosspointscan be if
achieved each inlet canaccess only a limited number of out-
occurs,"limited availability"is said to exist.By overlap-
lets.Whensucha situation
"grading"
pingtheavailableoutletgroupsfor variousinlet groups,a techniquecalled
An exampleof a gradedswitchingmatrixis shownin Figure5.3.Notice
is established.

*ln
fact, two (and sometimes thrce) switching contacts are associated with each ctosspoint of a two-wire
switoh, Since these contacts are pa-rtof a single unit and opetate in unison, they are considered a single
crosspoint.
228 DIGITALSWITCHING

,y Ourlerr

Figure 5.2 Rectangular

crosspointalray.

that if outlet connectionsare judiciously chosen,the adverseeffect of limited avail-

ability is minimized. For example, if inlets I and I in Figure 5.3 requesta connection
to the outlet group, outlets I and 3 should be choseninsteadofoutlets I and 4 to avoid
future blocking for inlet 2.
Graded switching structure$were often used for accessto large trunk groups in
electromechanicalswitches where crosspointrrwere expensiveand individual switch-
ing modules were limited in size. Gradings were also used in individual switching
stagesof large multiple-stageswitcheswhere more than one path to any particular out-
let exists. Becausevery large digital matrices can be implemented with full accessi-
bility, graded switch structuresare no longer necessaly.
Intragroup switching, as in line-to'line switching, requireseach line to be connect-
able to every other line. Thus full availability from all inlets ro all outlets of rhe switch-
ing matrix is required.Figure 5.4 showstwo matrix structuresthat can be usedto fully
interconnect two-wire lines. The dashedlines indicate that coffesponding inlets and
outlets of two-wire switching matricesare actually connectedtogetherto provide bidi-
rectional transmissionon two-wire circuits. For purposesof describingswitching ma-
trices, however, it is convenient to consider the inlets and ouflets of two-wire
switching matrices as being distinct.

2
3
{
lnlCli _
E

6
I
I

r 2 3 {
Outlctr

Figure 5.3 Graded rectangular switching matrix.

 5.2 SPACEDIVISIONSWITCHING ?,29

Inlrtil
out|.t

(t) ft)

Figure5.4 Two-wireswirching (a)square;

matrices: (folded)'
(b)triangular

Both structures in Figure5.4allow anyconnectionto beestablished by selectinga

singlecrosspoint. However,thesquaremahix,whichis alsocalledatwo-sidedmatrix,
allowsanyparticularconnectionto be established in two ways'For example,if input
link i is to beconnectedto input linkj, the selectedcrosspointcanbe at theintersection
of inlet i andoutletj-or at the intersectionof inlet j andoutlet i. For simplicity these
crosspoints arereferredto as(f,i) and(J, i), respectively. In a typicalimplementation,
crosspoint(i,7) is usedwheninputi requests service,andcrosspoint(j' i) is usedwhen
inputj reque$ts service.
In the triangularmatrix of Figure5.4 theredundantcrosspointsareeliminated.The
crosspointreductiondoesnot comewithoutcomplications, however.Beforesetting
up a connection between switch input i and swirch inputi, the switchcontrolelement
mustdetermine which is larger: d orj. If i is larger, crosspoint (i,i) is selected'If i is
smaller,crosspoint (.7,
i) must be selected. With computer*controlled swirching,the
line number comparison is trivial. In the older, electromechanically conholled
switches,however, the added complexity of the swirch control is more significant.

I
2

Inlorr i

t 2 3 ' i
Outlrtt

Flgure 5.5 Four-wire switchingmatrix'

 230 DIGITALSWITCHING

Switching machinesfor four-wire circuits require separateconnection$for the go

and return branchesof a circuit. Thus two separateconnection$must be established
for each service request.Figure 5.5 depicts a square-matrixstructureused to provide
both connections.The structure is identical to the squarematrix shown in Figure 5.4
for two-wire switching. The difference,however, is that correspondinginlets and out-
lets are not connectedto a common two-wire input. All of the inlets of the four-wire
switch are connectedto the wire pair carrying the incoming direction of transmission,
and all of the outlets are connectedto the outgoing pairs. When setting up a connection
betweenfour-wire circuits i andj, the matrix in Figure 5.5 must selectboth crosspoints
(i, j) and (j, f). In actualoperationthesetwo crosspointsmay be selectedin unison and
implemented as a common module.

5.2.1 Multlple.$tageSwltching

In theswitching
$tructures
described
to thispoint,aninletis connected
directlyto an
outlet through a single crosspoint. (Four-wire switches use two crosspointsper con-
nection, but only one for an inlet-to-outlet corurection.)For this reason,theseswitch-
ing structuresare referred to as "single-stage" switches. Single-stageswitches have
the property that each individual crosspointcan only be used to interconnectone par-
ticular inlet-outlet pair. since the number of inlet-outlet pairs is equal to N(N - lyz
for a triangular array, and N(N - l) for a $quare array, the number of crosspoints re-
quired for a large switch is prohibitive. Furthermore,the large number of crosspoints
on eachinlet and outlet line imply a large amount of capacitiveloading on the message
paths. Another fundamental defrciency of $ingle-stageswitches is that one specific
crosspoint is neededfor each specific connection. Ifthat crosspoint fails, the associ-
ated connection cannot be e$tablished.(An exception is the square,two-wire switch
that has a redundant crosspoint for each potential connection. Before the redundant
crosspointcould be usedas an alternatepath, however, the inlet-oriented selectional-
gorithm would have to be modified to admit outlet-oriented selection.)
Analysis of a large single-stageswitch revealsthat the crosspointsare very ineffi-
ciently utilized. Only one crosspointin eachrow or column of a squareswitch is ever
in use, even if all lines are active. To increasethe utilization efficiency of the cross-
points, and thereby reduce the total number, it is necessarythat any par-ticularcross-
point be usablefor more than one potential connection.If crosspointsare to be shared,
however, it is also necessarythat more than one path be available for any potential
connection so that blocking does not occur. The alternatepaths serve to eliminate or
reduce blocking and also to provide protection againstfailures. The sharing ofcross-
points for potential paths through the switch is accomplished by multiple-stage
switching. A block diagram of one particular form of a multiple-stageswitch is shown
in Figure 5.6.
The switch of Figure 5.6 is a three-stageswitch in which the inlets and outlets are
partitioned into subgroupsofNinlets and Noutlets each.The inlets ofeach subgroup
are serviced by a rectangular array of crosspoints.The inlet arrays (first stage) are
n x ft arays, where each of the ft outputs is connectedto one of the ft cenrer*smgear-
 SWITCHING
5.2 SPACEDIVISION 231

M
rt!il

maffix.
switching
Figure5.6 Three-stage

rays.Theinterstageconnections areoftencalledjunctors.Thethird stageconsistsof

ft x n rectangularartays that provide corxrectionsfrom eachcenter-stagearrayto the
groupsof n outlets,All center-stagearrayswe N/n x N/n arraysthat provideconnec-
tions from any first-stagealray to any third-stagearray.Notice that if all affayspro-
vide full availability,thereareft possiblepathsthroughthe switchfor anyparticular
connectionbetweeninletsandoutlets.Eachof the ft pathsutilizesa separate center-
stagearray. Thus the multiple-stage structureprovides altemate paths through the
swit"6 to circumvent failures.Furthermore, sinceeach switchinglink is connected to
a limited numberof crosspoints, capacitiveloading is minimized'
The total numberof crosspointsN1Erequiredby a three-stageswitch, as shownin
Figure5.6,is

Nx=2Nft.-[#l (s.1)

whereN = numberof inlets-outlets

n= sizeofeachinlet-outletgroup
ft = numberof center-stagearrays

As is demonstrated definedin Equation5.I can

$hortly,thenumberof crosspoints
be significantlylower than the number of crosspointsrequiredfor single-stage
switches. First.however.we mustdetermine how manycenter-stage arraysareneeded
to provide satisfactoryservice.
232 DIGITAL
SWITCHING

Nonblocklng Switches
Oneattractivefeatureof a single-stage switchis thatit is strictlynonblocking.If the
calledpartyis idle, thedesiredconnectioncanalwaysbe established by selectingthe
particularcrosspointdedicatedto the particularinput*outputpair.Whencrosspoints
are shared,however,the possibilityof blockingarises.In 1953charlesclos [2] of
Bell Laboratoriespublishedan analysisof three-stage switchingnetworksshowing
how manycenter-$tage arraysarerequiredto providea strictly nonblockingoperation.
His resultdemonstrated thatif eachindividualarrayis nonblocking,andif thenumber
of centerstagesft is equalto 2n -I, theswitchis strictlynonblocking.
Theconditionfor a nonblockingoperationcanbe derivedby first observingthata
connectionthroughthe three-stageswitchrequireslocatinga center-stagearraywith
ar idle link from the appropriatefirsr $tageand an idle link ro the appropriatethird
stage.sincetheindividualarays themselves arenonblocking,thedesiredpathcanbe
rtetup any time a centerstagewith the appropriateidle links canbe located.A key
point in the derivationis to observethat sinceeachfirst-stagearrayhasn inlets,only
n - I of theseinletscanbebusywhentheinletcorresponding to thedesiredconnection
is idle. If ft is geater thann - l, it follows that,at most,n - I links to cenrer-srage
irrray$canbe busy.Similarly,at mostn - I links to theappropriate third-stagearray
canbe busyif theoutletof the desiredconnectionis idle.
The worst-casesituationfor blockingoccurs(asshownin Figure5.7) it alln - r
busylinksfrom thefirst-stagearrayleadto onesetofcenter-stage arays andifall n -
I busylinks to the desiredthfud-stageErrraycomefrom a separatesetof center-stage
arrays.Thusthesetwo setsofcenter-stnge arraysareunavailablefor thedesiredcon-
nection.However,if onemorecenter-stage arrayexists,theappropriate inputandout-
putlinksmustbeidle,andthatcenterstagecanbeusedto setup theconnection. Hence
if k=(n * 1) + (n - l) + 1 =2n- 1,theswitchissrictlynonblocking. substituting

t l
l r
L--J

ArnlhblG pffh

Flgure 5.7 Nonblockingthree-srage

switchingmatrix.
 SWITCHING ?33
5.2 SPACEDIVISION

this value of t into Equation 5.1 reveals that for a strictly nonblocking operation of a
three-staseswitch

Nx=2N(2n- t)+(2n-t,[rOI (5.21

As expressed in Equation5.2,the numberof crosspoints in a nonblockingthree-

stageswiichis dependent on how theinlets and outlets arepartitioned into subgroups
of iize n. DifferentiatingEquation5.? with respect to n and settingthe resultingex-
pressionequalto 0 to determinethe minimum reveal that (for large M) the optimum
valueof n is (N/z)Ltz.Substitutingthis value of n into Equation 5.2 then provides an
expressionfor the minimum numberof crosspoints of a nonblocking three-stage
switch:

N*(min)=4N({2N - l) (s.3)

whereN = total numberof inlets-outlets.

Table5.1 providesa tabulationof Nx(min) for various-sized nonblockingthree-
stageswitcheiandcompares thevaluesto thenumber of crosspoints in a single-stage
*qu*" matrix.Both switchingstructure$ inherently provide four-wire capabilities,a
requirement for digital switchesbecause voice digitizationimplies four-wire circuits.
As indicatedin Table5.l, a three-stage switching matrix provides significant re-
ductionsin crosspoints, particularlyfor largeswitches. However, the number of cross-
pointsfor largethree-stage switchesis still quiteprohibitive.Largeswitchestypically
o*" -o.* thanthreeStages to providegreaterreductionsin crosspoints' For example,
theNo. 1 ESSusesaneight-stage switchingmatrixthat can serviceup to 65,000lines'
Themostsignificantreductionsin crosspointnumbers areachieved not so muchfrom
additionalsiagesbut by allowingthe switchto introduce acceptably low probabilities
of blocking.

Requlrsments
TABLE5.1 Croeepoint Swltches
of Nonblocklng
fot
Numberof Crosspoints for
Numberof CrossPoints
Numberof Lines Three-StageSwitch Switch
Single*Stage

128 7,680 16,2s6

51? 63,488 261,632
2,048 516,096 4.2 million
8,192 4,2 million 67 million
32,768 33 million 1 billion
131,072 ?68 million 17 billion
 234 DIGITAL
SWIT0HING

5.2.2 Blocklng Probablilties: Lee Graphs

Strictly nonblockingswitchesarerarely neededin most voice telephonenetworks.

Both the switchingsystemsandthenumberof circuitsin interofficetrunkgroupsare
sizedto servicemostrequestsastheyoccur,but economicsdictatesthatnetworkim-
plementations havelimitedcapacities thatareoccasionally exceeded duringpeak-traf-
fic situations.Equipmentfor the public telephonenetworkis designedto providea
cerlainmaximumprobabilityof blockingfor thebusiesthourof theday.Thevalueof
this blockingprobabilityis oneaspectof the telephonecompany'sgradeof service.
(other aspectsof gradesof serviceareavailability,tran$mission quality,anddelayin
'tettingup a call.)
A typical residentialtelephoneis busy 5,l0va of rhe time duringthe busyhour.
Businesstelephones areoftenbusyfor a largerpercentage of theirbusyhour (which
may not coincidewith a residentialbusyhour).In eithercase,network-blockingoc-
currences on the orderof l7o*duringthebusyhour do not represent a significantre-
ductionin the ability to communicatesincethe calledparty is muchmorelikely to
havebeenbusy anyway.under thesecircumstances, end office switchesand,to a
lesserdegree,PBXscanbe designedwith significantreductionsin crosspoints by al-
lowing acceptable blockingprobabilities.
Therearea varietyof techniques that canbe usedto evaluatethe blockingprob-
ability of a switchingmatrix.Thesetechniquesvary accordingto complexity-, accu-
racy,andapplicabilityto differentnetworkstructures. Oneof the mostversatileand
conceptuallystraightforwardapproachesof calculatingblocking probabilitiesin-
volvestheuseof probabilitygraphsasproposedby c. y. Lee [3]. Althoughthistech-
niquerequire$severalsimpliffing approximations, it canprovidereasonably accurate
results,particularlywhencomparisons of altematestructures aremoreimportantthan
absolutenumbers.The greatestvalueof this approachlies in theeaseof formulation
andthefactthattheformulasdirectlyrelateto theunderlyingnetworkstructures. Thus
theformulationshelpprovideinsightinto thenetwork$tructures andhow thesestruc-
turesmight be modified to changethe performance.
In thefollowing analyses we aredeterminingtheblockingprobabilitiesof various
switchingrrtructure$ usingutilizationpercentages, or ,,loadings,"of individuallinks.
Thenotationpwill beused,in general,to represent thefractionof timethataparticular
link is in use(i.e.,p is the probabilitythata link is busy).In additionro a utilizarion
percentage or loading,p is also sometimesreferredto as an occupancy.The prob-
ability thata link is idle is denotedbyq = | - p.
when any oneof n parallellinks canbe usedto completea connection,the com*
positeblockingprobabilityB is theprobabilityrhatall links arebusyt;

B=pn (5.4)

'Transmission
and switching equipment in the public network is normally designedfor even lower blocking
to provide for growth in the traffrc volume.
.probabilities
'Equations
5.4 and 5.5 assumeeach link is busy or idle independently of other links.
 swlrcHlNc 205
DlvlsloN
s.z $PAoE

Whena seriesof n links areall neededto completea connection'theblockingprob-

ability is mosteasilydeterminedas I minustheprobabilitythattheyareall available:

B=l-{ (5.s1

A probabilitygraphof a three-stage networkis shownin Figure5.8.This graphre-

latesthe fact that any pafiiculaf connectioncanbe establishedwith ft different pathsl
onetlrough eachcenter-stage alray.Theprobabilitythat anypalticular interstagelink
is busyis denotedby p'. Theprobabilityof blockingfor a three-stage networkcanbe
determinedas

ff = probability that all pathsarebusy

= (probabilitythat an arbitrarypathis busy)e
= (probabilitythat at leastonelink in a pathis busy)ft
= (l-qa)k (5.6)

whereft = numberof center-stagealrays

q'= probabilitythat aninterstagelink is idle, - | - P''

If the probabilityp that an inlet is busy is known, the probabilityp' that an inter-
stagelink is busycanbe determinedas
(s.7)
p,=fr tr<F)
wherep = Mn.Equation5.7presents thefactthatwhensomenumberof inlets(or out-
Iets)arebusy,the samenumberof first-stageoutputs(or third-stageinputs)arealso
busy.However,thereare F = Vn times asmanyinterstagelinks asthereareinlets or
outlets.Hencethepercentage of intersggelinks thatarebusyis reducedby thefactorp'
The factor p is defined as thoughft > n, which implies that the first stageof the
switchis providing$paceexpansion(i.e.,switchingsomenumberof input links to a
largernumberof outputlinks).Actually,p may be lessthan 1, implyingthatthefirst

P ' i e

Figure 5.8 Probability graph of three-stage network'

 236 DtctrAL
swtrcHtNc

stageis concenffatingtheincomingtraffic.First-stage
concentration hasbeenusedin
endoffice or largePBX switcheswheretheinletsarelightly loaded(S_l}vo).In tan_
demor toll offices,however,theincomingtrunksareheavilyutilized,andexpansion
is usuallyneededto provideadequatelylow-blockingprobabilities.
substitutingEquation5.7into Equation5.6providesa completeexpression for the
blockingprobabilityof a three-stage
switchin termsof the inlet utilizationp:

'=L'['-fii]
I r rz'1ft
(s.8)
Table 5.2 tabulatesnumbersof crosspointsobtainedfrom Equation5.g for the
sameswitchsizespresented in Table5.1.Thenumberof centerarrayswaschosenin
eachcaseto providea blockingprobabilityon theorderof 0.002.Theinlet urilization
in eachexamplewasassumed to be 107o.Noticethatthedesignswith smallbut finite
blockingprobabilitiesaresignificantlymorecosteffectivethannonblockingdesigns.
Theswirchdesignsin Table5.2assume thattheinletsareonly l0zobusy,asmight
be thecasefor anendoffice switchor a PBX. Thedramaticsavingsin crosspoints for
largeswitchesis achievedby introducingsignificantconcentration factors[yp; into
the middle stage.when the inlet utilizationis higher(astypicallyoccursin tandem
switches),high concentration factorsarenot acceptable, andthe crosspointrequire-
mentsthereforeincrease.Table5.3 lists corresponding crosspointrequirements and
implementationparaffreters for inlet loadingsof 'l\Vo.
The resultspresented in Tables5.2 and5.3 indicatethat very largeswitchesstill
requireprohibitivelylargenumbersof crosspoints, evenwhenblockingis allowed.As
mentionedpreviously,very largeswitchesusemorethanthreestagesto providefur-
therreductions in crosspoints. Figure5.9showsablockdiagramof a five-stageswitch
obtainedby replacingeverycenter-$tage arrayin Figure5.6 with a three-stage array.
Thisparticularstructureis notoptimumin termsof providinga givenlevelof perform-
ancewith the fewestcrosspoints, but it is a usefuldesignbecauseof its modularity.
(Furthermore, it is a lot easierto analyzethansomeotherfive-stagesfucrures.)
If themiddletlree stagesof a five-stageswirchasshownin Figure5.9 arestrictly
nonblocking(kz= Znz- I ), thedesignprovidesa savingsof 9704crosspoints in each

TABLE5.2 Three-Stage
SwitchDeslgnsfor BlockingProbabititlee
of 0.002andIntet
Utlllzation of 0.1

Switch Numberof Numberof Crosspoints

Size,N Crosspoints in Nonblocking
Design
't28
I 5 0.625 2,560 7,680 (k= 15)
512 16 7 0.438 14,336 63,488 (k = 31)
2,048 32 10 0.313 81,920 516,0e6 (k= 63)
8,1S2 64 15 0.234 491,520 4,2million (k= 127)
32,768 128 24 0,188 3.1million 33 million (,(= 255)
131,072 256 41 0.160 21.5 million 268million (k = 511)
 SWITCHING
5.2 SPACEDIVISION 237

TABLEE.l Three-StageSwitch Deslgnsfor Blocking Probabllltlesof 0.002end lnlet

UtllltationBof 0.7

Switch Numberof in
Numberof CrossPoints
Size N n k B Crosspoints NonblockingDesign

128 I 14 1.75 7,168 7,680 ( k =1 5 )

16 22 1.38 45,056 63,488 ( k= 3 1 )
512
2,048 32 37 1.16 303,104 516,096 (k = 63)
64 64 1.0 2.1million 4.2million (k = 127)
8,192
32,768 128 11 6 0.91 15.2million 33 million (k = 255)
256 215 0.84 1 1 3m i l l i o n 268million ( k= 5 1 1 )
131,072

center-stage array of the 32,7681ine,three-stage switch designspresentedearlier'

Hencea littl* one, I million crosspoints are savedin the 32,768-linetandemswitch
designof Table5.3. Since the middle stages do not introduceblocking,theperform-
anceof thisfive-stage switch is to
identical the performance design'
of thethree-stage
Naturally,a morecost-effective designcould be obtainedby allowing smgllamounts
of bloclcingin themiddlestages.Theprobabilitygraphof thefive+tageswitchis shown
in Figure5-.10.Fromthis graph,theblockingprobabilityis determinedasfollows:
B = ll - (sr)z[t - (1- d)t']]r' (s.e)

11 1il1
fl1 r 11

azx*z
;frx ffirr,,,

2 3 4

Flgure 5.9 Five-stageswirchingnetwork'

 238 DIGITAL
$WITCHING

rz=rrfir rfir

2 Ft ,-1/3-1i.15--\,^. Pr

Flgure5.10 probability
graphof five_stage
network.

where4r - | - h and,qr= I - Or.

Even greatercrosspointreductionscan, of course,be achievedby using more
stagesto replacethe ratherlarge first- and third-stageaffays.For example,the total
numberof crosspoints in the 32,0001ineswitchcanbereducedto lessthan3 million.
The 130,000-lineswitchis not practicalwith electromechanical switchingmakices
but is well within thecapabilitiesof a digiraltime divisionswitch.

5.2.3 Blocklng Probabiliiles: Jacobaeus

Theformulationsof blockingprobabilityobtainedfrom probabilitygraphsenrailsev-

eralsimplifyingassumptions. one of theseassumptions involvesexpressing thecom-
positeblocking probability of the alternatepathsas the produci of the blocking
probabilitiesof eachindividual path. This stepassumesthat the individual prob-
abilitiesare independent.In fact, the probabilitiesare not independent, particutarty
whensignificantamountsof expansionarepresent.Considera switchingmatrixwith
k=Zn - 1.Equation5.8producesa finite blockingprobabilityeventtroughtheswitch
is knownto be strictlynonblocking.Theinaccuracy when2n * z paths
resultsbecause
arebusy,theremainingpathis assumed to be busywith a probabilityof I - (qjr. In
fact,theremainingpathis necessarily idle.
In general,whenspaceexpansion exists,theassumption ofindependent individual
probabilitiesleadsto an erroneouslyhigh valueof blocking.Ttrelnaccuracyresults
 5.2 SPACEDIVISION
SWITCHING 239

becauseasmoreandmorepathsin a switcharefoundto be busy,the remainingpaths

arelessandlesslikely to be in use(only a subsetofn ofthe interstage links canever
be busy at any onetime).
A moreaccuratebut not exactanalysisof multistageswitchingmatriceswaspre-
sentedin 1950by C. Jacobaeus [4]. Althoughtheanalysisis conceptuallystoaightfor-
ward,it doesinvolve a considerable amountof manipulationthatis notpresented here.
Theresulting equation for a three-stage switchis from
obtained reference [5] as

(s.10)
u=ffipk(2-il,*

where n = number of inlets (outlets) per f,trst-(third-) stagearray

11= number of second-stageIIIrays
p- inletutilization

In the interest of comparing the two methods, Equations 5'6 and 5.10 have been
evaluatedfor three-stageswitches with varying amount$of spaceexpansion.The re-
sults were obtained for inlet utilization of 0.7 and are presentedin Table 5'4'
Table 5.4 revealsthat the two analysesare in close agreementfor near-unity expan-
sion factors. In fact, if p = l, the two formulations produce identical results' As ex-
pected,the Lee graph analysis (Bquation 5.8) producesoverly pessimisticvalues for
the blocking probability when p > 1.
As anothercomparisonbetweenthe two approaches,Table 5.5 is included to dem-
onstrate the use of Equations 5.8 and 5.10 for switches with significant amounts of
concenfrationmade possible by a relatively low inlet utilization of 0.1.
Table 5.5 reveals that a Lee graph analysis (Equation 5.8) consistently underesti-
mates the blocking probability when concentration exists. Actually, the Jacobaeus
analysis presentedin Equation 5.10 also underestimatesthe blocking probability if
large concenhation factors and high blocking probabilities are used.When necessary,
more accuratetechniquescan be used for systemswith high concentrationand high

TABLES.4 Comparisonof Blocking ProbabilityAnalyses(P= 0'7)"

Numberof Center SpaceExpansion, Lee Jacobaeu$

Stages,k F 5.8
Equation Equation5.10

14 0,875 0.548 0.598

16 1.0 0.221 0.221
20 1.25 0.014 0.007
24 1.50 3 . 2x 1 0 + 2 . 7x 1 0 +
2B 1.75 3 . 7x 1 0 4 7.7x 104
31D 1.94 8.5x 104 0 , 1x 1 0 - 1 2
aswitchsize N = 512; inletgroup8iz€n = 16i inletulilizationp = 0.7.
Di,,lonblocking.
 240 DIGITAL
SWITCHING

TABLE5.5 Comparisonof BlockingprobabllltyAnatyses(p= 0.1)"

Numberof Center SpaceExpansion, Lee Jacobaeus

Stages,k F Equation
5.8 Equation
5.10
0.375 0,0097 0.Q27
0.5 2 . 8x 1 0 4 8 . 6x 1 0 +
10 0.625 4.9 x 10+ 1 . 5x 1 0 +
12 0.75 5 . 7x 1 0 4 1 . 4x 1 0 - 7
14 0.875 4.0 x 10-10 7 . 8x 1 f l o
16 1.0 2 . 9x 1 0 * 1 2 2.9 x 10-12
aswitchsize N = 512; inletgroup
siz6 n = 16; Inl€rutilizationp = 0.1

blocking. However, switcheswith high blocking probabilities normally have no prac-

tical interest so they are not consideredhere.
Usersof PBXs sometimesexperiencedhigh blocking probabilities, but blocking in
thesecasesusually arisesfrom too few tie lines to other corporatelocations or too few
trunk circuits to the public network. The subjectof blocking in trunk groups is heated
in Chapter 12.
up to this point, the blocking probability analyseshave assumedthat a specific in-
let is to be connectedto a specific outlet. Also, it has been assumedthat the requests
for service on the individual lines are independent.These assumptionsare generally
valid for swirching one subscriberline to another in an end office switch or for con-
necting one station to another in a PBx. Neither of these assumptionsapply to con-
nections to or from a fiunk group.
when connectingto a trunk circuit, any circuit in a trunk group is acceptable.Thus
the blocking probability to a specif,rccircuit is only as important as its significance in
the overall blocking to the trunk group. The blocking probability to any particular cir-
cuit in a trunk group can be relatively large and still achievea low compositeblocking
probability to the trunk group as a whole. If the blocking probabilities to the individual
trunks are independent,the compositeblocking probability is the product of the indi-
vidual probabilities. However, the paths to the individual trunk circuits normally in-
volve {iome common links (e.g., the junctors from a first-stage array to all
second-stagearrays). For this rea$on the individual blocking probabilities are nor-
mally dependent,which must be consideredin an accurateblocking probability analy-
sis.
As an extreme example, consider a casewhere all trunks in a trunk group are as-
signed to a single outlet array in a three-stageswitch. since the paths from any par-
ticular inlet to all trunks in the group are identical, the ability to selectany idle 61nk
is useless.In practice, the individual circuits of a trunk group should be assignedto
separateoutlet arays.
Another aspectof fiunk groups that must be consideredwhen designing a swirch
or analyzing the blocking probabilities involves the interdependenceof activity on the
 s.z sPAcEDtvtstoN
swlrcHlNc 241

individual circuits within a trunk group. In contrast to individual subscriberlines or

PBX stations,individual circuits in a trunk group are not independentin terms of their
probabilities of being busy or idle. lf some number of circuits in a trunk group are
testedand found to be busy, the probability that the remaining circuits are busy is in-
creased.The nature of these dependenciesis discussedmore fully in Chapter 12. At
this point it is only necessaryto point out that these dependenciescause increased
blocicingprobabilities if the individual ffunks are competing for common paths in the
switch. ,l,gain, the effect of thesedependenciesis minimized by assigningthe individ-
ual trunks to separateinlet-outlet arraysso that independentpathsareinvolved in con-
nections to and from the trunk group. This process is sometimes referred to as
decorrelatingthe trunk circuits.
One last aspectof the blocking probability as a gradeof serviceparameterthat must
be mentionedinvolves variations in the loading of the network by individual users.In
the design examplesfor an end office presentedearlier, it was tacitly assumedthat all
subscribersarebusy l07o of the time during a busy hour' In fact, some subscribersare
active much more than I 07oof the time, and other subscribersare active lessthan l07o
of the time. In terms of haffic theory, some subscriberspresentmore than 0.1 erlangs*
of traffic to the network, whereasothers presentless'
When a switch is partitioned into subgroups(as all Iarge switchesmust be) and the
haffic is concentratedby first-stage switching alrays, a few overactive subscribers
in one subgroup can significantly degrade service for the other subscribers in the
subgroup. It does not matter that the subscribers in some other subgroup may be
explriencing lower than averageblocking. Their essentiallynonblocking service
is no compensation for those subscribers experiencing a relatively poor grade of
service.
Operatingcompanieshave traditionally solved the problem of overactivesubscrib-
ersby specifically assigningthe most active lines (businesses)to separateinlet groups
of the switctr. Sometimesthis procedurerequires making traffic measurementsto de-
termine which lines are most active and reassigningtheselines to different palts of the
switch. These proceduresfall into the general category of line administration. If the
subgroupsare large enough, or ifthe designsprovide adequatemargin for overactive
ure.s, thir aspectof line administration can be minimized. One feature of a digital
switch that can be utilized in this regard is the ability to design economical switches
with very low nominal blocking probabilities so that wide variations in traffic inten-
sities can be accommodated.
Even a modern digital switch can experienceloading problems when confronted
with extreme traffic conditions. An Internet service provider (ISP) in a metropolitan
area may atffact an extremely large amount of traffic that all passesthrough a single
class 5 switch. Although the connectionsto the ISP are lines, as far as the switch is
concerned,they actually representa trunk group with very heavy haffic, so much so
that $pecialline adminishation is required.

*An specifying isbusy'A circuit

oftimethatadevice
theproporlion
erlang oftrafficintensity
is ameasure
is saidtocarry0.1erlangif it is busyl0oloof thetime.
242 DIGITAL
SWITCHING

5.2.4 Folded Four-Wire Switchee

Multiple-stageswitchescanbe usedfor eithertwo- or four-wireswitchingoperations.

Figure5.ll depictsa four-wireconnectionthrougha four-stageswitch.Noticethat
two pathsmustbeestabli$hed for thecompleteconnection. A two-wireconnectionre-
quiresonly onepathsinceeachoutletis extemallyconnected to its corresponding
in-
let.
Thetwo pathsshownin Figure5.1I demonshate a particularlyusefulrelationship;
Onepathis a mirror imageof the otherpath.If the switchdiagramis folded aboutthe
verticalcenterline,thepathscoincide.Hencethismethodof settingup connections is
sometimesreferredto as a folded operation.When all connectionsin the switch are
setup with a foldedrelationship,severalbenefitsresult.
Firstofall, only onepathfindingoperationis neededsincethereversepathis auto-
maticallyavailableasa mirror imageof theforwardpath.In essence, everycrosspoint
on onesideis pairedwith anothercrosspointin a corresponding arrayon theopposite
sideof theswitch.Wheneveronecrosspointof a pair is usedin a connection, theother
crosspointin thepair is alsoused.For example,thethird inlet arrayin the first stage
usescrosspoint(6,4) to connectits sixthinlet to its fourthoutlet(leadingto thefourth
artay of the secondstage).The correspondingcrosspointin the third outlet array of
thelaststageconnectsits fourth inlet (comingfrom thefourth arrayin thefour-thstage)
to its sixth outlet.[n general,crosspointf,7 in onearrayis pairedwith crosspointj,I
in the conespondingarrayon the oppositesideof a switch.Sincethe availabilityof
onecrosspointin a pair ensuresthe availabilityofthe other,therever$epathis auto-
maticallyspecifiedandavailable.
A secondadvantageof the folded four-wire operationresultsbecausethe amount
of informationspecifyingthestatusof theswitchcanbe cut in half. Only thestatusof

grth Inldt
of thlrd arEy of rfiird rnv

a a
t I
I a

(7 llt
El6|rrfr inlit Eldudnfior|tl|t
of liftdnfi my of flftrnfi ffr.y

Figure 5.11 Four-wireconnectionthroughfour-stageswitch.

 5.2 SPACEDIVISION
SWITCHING 245

each pair of crosspoints or associatedjunctor is needed to find an available path

through the switch.
A third benefit of the folded structure occurs becausethe blocking probability is
one-half of the probability of finding two pathsindependently.It might seemthat pair-
ing the crosspointsin the describedmannerwould reshict the pathsavailablefor a par-
ticular connection. On the contrary, the crosspoint pairings merely guaranteethat a
reverse path is automatically available for any selected path in the forward direction'
The folded operation in the preceding paragraphs referred to a switch with an even
number of switching stages.An even number was chosenbecausethe conceptis easi-
est to demonstratewhen no center stage is present. The basic approach can be ex-
tendedto odd numbersof switching stagesif the centerstagecontainsan even number
of anays and is folded about a horizontal line at the centerof the stage.In this manner,
crosspoint i,7 in the top center-stagealray is paired with crosspointj, i in the bottom
center-$tagearray, and so on.

5.2.5 Pathfinding

Determininga paththrougha single-stage switchis virtuallyautomaticsincethenec-

essarycrosspointis uniquelyspecifiedby theinlet-outletpairto beconnected.In con-
trast,availabilityof morethanonepathin a multiple-stageswitchcomplicatesthepath
selectionprocess.Thecatlprocessor of theswitchmustkeeptrackof whichpotential
pathsfor a particularconnectionare availablein a statestore.A pathfindingroutine
processes thestatestoreinformationto selectanavailablepath.Whenevera newcon-
nectionis established thestatestoreis updatedwith theappro-
or anold onereleased,
priateinformation.

Pathtlndlng Times
Pathfindingbperationsrequirethe useof commonequipmentand must thereforebe
analyzedto determinetherateat whichconnectrequestscanbe processed. Thetime
requiredto find an availablepath is directly dependenton how manypotentialpaths
aretestedbeforeanidle oneis found.Somesystem$ cantesta numberof pathsin par-
allel andtherebyshortentheprocessing time.Sincetheexpectednumberof potential
pathsthatmustbe testedto find anidle pathis a functionof link utilization,pathfind-
ing timesunfortunatelyincreasewhenthe cornmoncontrolequipmentis busiest.
Assumethattheprobabilityof a completepaththroughtheswirchbeingbusyis de-
notedby p. If eachof k possiblepathsthroughtheswitchhasanequalandindependent
probabilityof beingbusy,theexpectednumberof pathsNothatmustbe testedbefore
anidle pathis foundis determined in AppendixA asfollows:

N,:H ( s.lr )

Example5.1. Whatis theexpectednumberof potentialpathsthatmust.betestedto

8192Jineswitchdefinedin Table5.2?
find anidle pathin thethree-stage,
 244 DretTAL
swtrcHtNc

solution. As indicatedin the table,a $paceexpansionfactor of 0.234is usedto

providea blockingprobabilityof 0.002.Hencetheutilizationof eachinterstagelink
is 0.1/0.234=0.427. The blockingprobabilityof eachpaththroughthe switchis
merelythe probabilitythat oneof two links in seriesis busy.Hencetheprobability
p = | * (I - O.427)z
= 0.672,andtheexpectednumberof pathsto be resredis

I - (0.672)15
Np=
| -0.672

=3.04

Example 5. I demonstratesthat, on average,only 3 of the 15 potential paths need

to be testedbefore an idle path is found. However, when the switch is experiencing
greaterthan normal ffaffic loads,the averagenumber of paths testedincreases.For ex-
ample, if the input line utilization increasesfrom 10 to l|Vo, the blocking probability
increasesfrom 0.002 to 0.126, and the expectednumber of paths to be testedin the
pathfinding operation increasesfrom 3 to 4.g.
Although this simple pathfinding example is, by itself, not particularly important,
it demonstrates a very important aspect of the loading of common equipment in a
switching system(or a network as a whole): Linear increasesin ttre offered traffic pro-
duce geometric increasesin the utilization of the network resources.If a systemis de-
signed and analyzedunder nominal traffic conditions and the results are extrapolated
to determinetotal capacity,greatly optimistic estimatesoften occur. In the pathfinding
example the processingrequirementsincreasejust when the call processor(stored-
program conhol) is already loaded with greaterthan averagetraffic volumes. For fur-
ther discussionof the effects of traffic loads on the common equipmentof a switching
sy$temseeSchwartz [6].

5.2.6 SwitchMatrixControl

When an available path through a cofilmon control switching network is determined,

the control element of the switch transfers the necessaryinformation to the network
to selectthe appropriatecrosspoints.Crosspoint selection within a matrix is accom-
plished in one of two ways. The control may be associatedwith the output lines and
thereforespeciff which inputs areto be connectedto the associatedoutputsor the con-
trol information may be associatedwith eachinput and subsequentlyspeciff to which
outputs the respectiveinputs are to be connected.The first approachis referred to as
output-associatedcontrol while the secondis called input-associatedcontrol. These
two control implementationsare presentedin Figure 5.12.
Input-associatedcontrol was inherently required in step-by-stepswitches where
the information (dial pulses) an-ivedon the input link and was used to directly select
the output links to each successivestage.[n common control system$,however, the
addressinformation of both the originating line and the terminating line is simultane-
ously available. Hence the connection can be establishedby beginning at the desired
 5.2 SPACEDIVISIONSWITCHING 245

(b) inputassociated.
Figure 5.12 Switchmatrixconffol:(a) outputassociated;

outlet and proceeding backward through the switch while selecting inputs to each
stage.
The implementation of both types of digital crosspointarraysusing standardcom-
ponents is shown in Figure 5.13. Output-associatedcontrol uses a conventional data
selector/multiplexer for each matrix output. The number of bits required to control
eachdata selectoris log2 N, where N is the number of inlets' Thus the total number of
bits required to completely specify a connection configuration is M log2 N.
Input-associatedcontrol can be implemented using conventional line decoders/de-
"wired-or" logic function. Thus the
multiplexers. The outputs are conmoned using a
output gatesof each decodercircuit must be open-collectoror histate devices if tran-
sistor-transistor-logic (TTL) is used. The total number of bits required to specify a
connection configuration in this caseis N log2 M.
A significant drawback of input-associatedcontrol arisesfrom the need to disable
unused inputs to prevent cross connectswhen another input selectsthe sameoutput.

Dfir rclictot/mu ltiPloxor Linr dccoder/demultiplexer

loga N log?rY

ft)

Figure 5.13 Standard component implementation of digital crosspoint aray: (a) output-
associatedcontrol; (b) input-associatedcontrol.
 246 DIGITALSWITCHING

with output-associatedconffol, unused output$ can remain connected to an input

without preventing that input from being selectedby another output. For this reason
and for generally greaterspeedsof operation,digital switching networks typically use
output-associatedcontrol. Notice, however, that the total amount of information
neededto specify a connectionconfiguration with input-associatedcontrol is lessthan
that with output control if the number of inputs N is much smaller than the number of
outputsM (N log2 M < M log2Il). Furthermore,input-associatedconffol is more flex-
ible in terms of wired-or (e.g., bus) expansion.

5.3 TIMEDIVISION
SWITCHING
Asevidenced
by multiple-stage
switching,
sharing
of individual
crosspoints
for more
than one potential connectionprovides significant savingsin implementation costs of
spacedivision switches.In the casesdemonstrated,the crosspointsof multistagespace
switchesare sharedfrom one connectionto the next, but a crosspointassignedto a par-
ticular connection is dedicated to that connection for its duration. Time division
switching involves the sharing of crosspointsfor shofier periods of time so that indi-
vidual crosspointsand their associatedinterstagelinks are continually reassignedto
existing connections.When the crosspointsare sharedin this manner, much greater
savings in crosspointscan be achieved.rn essence,the savings are accomplishedby
time division multiplexing the crosspointsand interstagelinks in the samemannerthat
transmissionlinks are time division muttiplexed to shareinteroffice wire pairs.
Time division switching is equally applicableto either analog or digital signals.Ar
one time, analog time division switching was attractive when interfacing to analog
transmissionfacilities, since the signals are only sampled and not digitally encoded.
However, large analog time division switches had the samelimitations as do analog
time division ffansmission links: the pAM samples are particularly vulnerable to
noise, distortion, and crosstalk.Thus, large electronic switching matriceshave always
incorporatedthe cost of digitizing PAM samplesro maintain end-to-end signal qual-
ity. The low cost of codecsand the prevalenceof digital trunk interconnectionsimply
that analog switching is now usedin only the smallestof switching system$(e.g.,elec-
tronic key systems).

5.3.1 AnalogTimeDlvlsionSwltching

Although analog time division swirching has become obsolete,it is a good starting
point to establishthe basic principle of time division switching. Figure 5.14 depicts a
padicularly simple analog time division switching structure.A single switching bus
supportsa multiple number of connectionsby interleaving pAM samplesfrom receive
line interfacesto ffansmit line interfaces.The operation is depicted as though the re-
ceive interfacesare separatefrom the respectivetransmit interfaces.When connecting
two-wire analog lines, the two interface$are necessarilyimplemented in a common
 swtrcHtNc 247
DrvrsroN
s.s TIME

[-l -tlr
r r i - iI
|-l t-l

f\H
t - l l
-1 i-1
I r_r, I
a

i
F\ L-l/
t-l I
Lin6 --
inGrfe6 $,vltchlng i
bur Tlme
_
I Cvclls I divirion
I qqqqql I controt

Figure5.14 Analogtimedivisionswirching'

module.Furthermore, in somePAM-PBX systems,analogsamplesweresimultane-

ouslytransferredin bothdirectionsbetweenthe interfaces[7].
Includedin Figure5.14aretwo cycliccontrolstores.Thefirst controlstorecontrols
gatingof inputsonto the bus one sampleat a time. The secondcontrol storeoperates
in synchronismwith the first and selectsthe apPropriateoutput line for eachinput
sample.A completesetof pulses,onefrom eachactiveinput line, is referredto asa
frame.Theframerateis equalto the samplerateof eachline. For voicesystemsthe
samplingraterangesftom 8 to 12 kHz. The highersamplingrate$weresometimes
usedto simplifythebandlimitingfilter andreconstructive filtersin theline interfaces.

5.3.2 DlgltalTimeDlvlsion Swltchlng

The analogswitchingmatrixdescribedin theprecedingsectionis essentiallya space

divisionswitchingmatrix.By continuallychangingtheconnections for shortperiods
of time in a cyclicmanner,theconflgurationof thespacedivisionswitchis replicated
oncefor eachtime slot. This modeof operationis refenedto as time multiplexed
swirching.While thismodeof operationcanbequiteusefulfor bothanaloganddigital
signals,digital time divisionmultiplexedsignalsusuallyrequireswitchingbetween
time slotsaswell asbetweenphysicallines.Switchingbetweentime slotsrepresents
a seconddimensionof switchingandis refenedto astime switching.
In thefollowing discussionof digitaltime divisionswitchingit is assumed, unle$s
otherwisestated,thattheswitchingnetworkis interfaceddirectlyto digitaltime divi-
248 DIGITALSWITCHING

sionmultiplexlinks.This assumption is generallyjustified$ince,evenwhenoperating

in ananalogenvironment, themostcost-effective switchdesignsmultiplexgroupsof
digital signalsinto TDM formatsbeforeany switchingoperationstakeplace.Thus
mostof thefollowing discussionis concerned with the intemalstructures of time di-
visionswitchingnetworksandpossiblynot with the structureof an entireswitching
complex.
The basicrequirementof a time division switchingnetworkis shownin Figure
5.15.As anexampleconnection, channel3 of thefirst TDM link is connected to chan-
nel l7 of thelastTDM link. Theindicatedconnectionimpliesthatinformationarriv-
ing in time slot 3 of thefirst input link is transferredto time slot l7 of thelasroutput
link. Sincethevoicedigitizationprocessinherentlyimpliesa four-wireoperation,the
returnconnectionis requiredandrealizedby transferringinformationfrom time slot
17 of the lastinput link to time slot 3 of the first ouFut link. Thuseachconnection
requirestwo transfersof information,eachinvolving translationsin both time and
space.
A varietyof switchingsffucturesarepossibleto accomplishthetransfersindicated
in Figure5.15.All of thesestructuresinherentlyrequireat lea$ttwo stages:a space
divisionswitchingstageanda timedivisionswitchingstage.As discussed later,larger
switchesusemultiplestagesof bothfypes.Beforediscussing switchingin bothdimen-
sions,however,we discussthecharacteristics andcapabilities of timeswitchingalone.

A Digital lllemory Swltch

Primarilyowing to the low cosrof digital memory,time swirchingimplemenrarions
providedigitalswitchingfunctionsmoreeconomically thanspacedivisionimplemen-
tations.Basically,a time switchoperates by writing datainto andreadingdataout of
a singlememory.In theprocess, theinformationin selectedtime slotsis interchanged,
asshownin Figure5.16.when digital signalscanbe multiplexedinro a singleTDM
format, very economicalswitchescan be implementedwith time switchingalone.
However,practicallimitationsof memoryspeedlimit thesizeof a time switchsothat
someamountof spacedivisionswitchingis necessary in largeswitches.As demon-
stratedin later sections,the mosteconomicalmultistagedesignsusuallyperformas
muchswitchingaspossiblein thetime stages.
Thebasicfunctionaloperationof a memoryswitchis shownin Figure5.17.Indi-
vidualdigital message circuitsaremultiplexedanddemultiplexedin a fixed manner

I FNAffiH

I
I
t
t

Figure 5.15 Time andspacedivisionswirching.

 SWITCHING 249
5.3 TIMEDIVISION

Figure5.16 Timeslotinterchange
operation.

to establisha singleTDM link for eachdirectionof travel.The multiplexingandde-

multiplexingfunctionscanbe considered aspartof the swirchitself, or they may be
implemented in remotetransmission terminals.In eithercase,a byte-interleaved form
of multiplexingis required.The asynchronous transmission hierarchy(DSz, DS3,
DS4) usesbit interleavingand thereforerequiresback-to-backdemultiplexingand
multiplexing operationsbefore switching c€urbe accomplished.In contrast,the
SONETnansmission formatdescribed in Chapter8 canprovidebyteinterleavingspe-
cifically soit canbe moredirectlyinterfacedto a digital switchingsystem.
Theexchangeof informationbetweentwo differenttime slotsis accomplished by
a time slotinterchange (TSI) circuit.In theTSI of Figure5.17datawordsin incoming
time slotsarewritteninto sequential locationsof thedatastorememory.Datawords
for outgoingtime slots,however,arereadfrom addresses obtainedfrom a control
store.As indicatedin the associated controlstore,a full-duplexconnectron between
TDM channeli andTDM channelj impliesthat datastoreaddressi is readduringout-
goingtime slotj andvice versa.Thedatastorememoryis accessed twiceduringeach
link time slot.First, somecontrolcircuitry (not shown)selectsthe time slot number

MUX T I M E S L O TI N T E H C H A N G E

Figure 5.17 MIDVTSI/DEMLIXmemoryswitch.

250 DIGITAL
SWITCHING

as a write address.Second,the content of the conffol store for that particular time slot
is selectedas a read address.
since a write and a read are required for each channel entering (and leaving) the
TSI memory, the maximum number of channelsc that can be supportedby the simple
memory switch is

r25
c:4 (5.r?)

where I ?5 is the frame time in microsecondsfor 8 kHz sampled voice and f" is the
memory cycle time in microseconds.
As a specific example, consider the use of a t 5.2 nsec of memory. Equation 5. 12
indicates that the memory switch can support 4096 channels(2048 full duplex con-
nections) in a strictly nonblocking mode of operation. The complexity of the switch
(assumingdigitization occurselsewhere)is quite modest:The TSI memory storesone
frame of data organizedas 4096 words by 8 bits each.The control store also requires
4096 words, but eachword has a length equal to log2(c) (which is 12 in the example).
Thus the memory functions can be supplied by a096 x 8 and 4096 x lz bit random-
accessmemories (RAMs). The addition of a time slot counter and some gating logic
to selectaddressesand enablenew information to be written into the conffol $torecan
be accomplishedwith a handful of conventional integratedcircuits (ICs).
This switch should be conrrastedto a spacedivision design (Equation 5.3) that re-
quires more than 1.5 million crosspoints for a nonblocking three-stageswitch. Al-
though modern IC technology might be capable of placing rhar many digiral
crosspointsin a few ICs, they could never be reachedbecauseof pin limitations. As
mentionedin Chapter 2, one of the main advantagesof digital signals is the easewith
which they can be time division multiplexed. This advantagearisesfor communica-
tion between integratedcircuits as well as for communication between switchine of-
fices.

Time Stagesin General

Time switching stagesinherently require some form of delay element to provide the
desiredtime slot interchanges.Delays are most easily implemented using RAMs that
are written into as data arrive and read from when data are to be transferredout. Ifone
memory location is allocated for each time slot in the TDM frame format, the infor-
mation from each TDM channel can be stored for up to one full frame time without
being overwritten.
There are two basic ways in which the time stagememoriescan be controlled; writ-
ten sequentiallyand read randomly or written randomly and read sequentially.Figure
5.18 depicts both modesof operation and indicateshow the memories are accessedto
translateinformation from time slot 3 to time slot 17. Notice that both modes of op-
eration use a cyclic control store that is accessedin synchronism with the time slot
counter.
 s.4 TWo-DTMENS|oNAL
swrrcHrNc 251

DEtd
Stors

'ims glot
Countdr

(rl {bl
Figure 5.18 Time switch modules: (a) sequential writes/random reads; (b) random writes/
sequentialreads.

The first modeof operationin Figure5.l8 impliesthat specificmemorylocations

arededicatedto respective channelsof theincomingTDM link. Datafor eachincom-
ing time slot arestoredin sequentiallocationswithin the memoryby incrementinga
modulo-ccounterwith everytimeslot.As indicated,thedatareceivedduringtime slot
3 areautomaticallystoredin thethird locationwithin the memory.On output,infor-
mationretrievedfrom the controlstorespecifieswhich addressis to be accessed for
thatparticulartime slot.As indicated,the seventeenth word of thecontrolstorecon-
tainsthenumber3, implyingthatthecontentsof datastoreaddress3 is transferred to
theoutputlink duringoutgoingtime slot 17.
Thesecondmodeof operationdepictedin Figure5-18is exactlytheoppositeof the
frrstone.ftrcomingdataarewritteninto thememorylocationsasspecifiedby thecon-
trol store,but outgoingdataareretrievedsequentiallyundercontrolof an outgoing
time slotcounter.As indicatedin theexample,informationreceivedduringtime slot
retrieveddur-
3 is writtendirectlyinto datastoreaddress17,whereit is automatically
ing outgoingTDM channelnumber17.Noticethat the two modesof time $tageop-
€ration depicted in Figure 5.18 are forms of output-associated control and
input-associated control,respectively. designexamplepresented
In a multiple-stage
later,it is convenientto u$eone modeof operationin one time stageand the other
modeof operationin anothertime stage.

5.4 TWO.DIMENSIONALSWITCHING

Largerdigital switchesrequireswitchingoperationsin botha spacedimensionanda

time dimension.Therearea largevarietyof networkconfigurations thatcanbe used
to accomplish theserequirements.To beginwith, considerthesimpleswitchingstruc-
tureshownin Figure5.19.This switchconsistsof only two $tages: a time stageT fol-
Iowedby a spacestageS. Thusthis $tructureis refered to a time-space(TS) switch.
Thebasicfunctionof the time stageis to delayinformationin arrivingtime slots
until thedesiredoutputtime slotoccurs.At thattimethedelayedinformationis trans-
252 DIGITALSWITCHING

f,'lgure5.19 Time-space(TS)swirchingmatrix.

ferred through the space stage to the appropriate output link. In the example shown
the information in incoming time slot 3 of link I is delayed until outgoing time slot
l7 occurs. The return path requiresttrat information arriving in time slot 17 of link N
be delayed for time slot 3 of the next outgoing frame. Notice that a time $tagemay
have to provide delays ranging from one time slot to a full frame.
Associated with the $pacestage is a control store that contains the information
needed to speciff the space stage configuration for each individual time slot of a
frame. This conhol information is accessedcyclically in the samemanner as the con-
trol information in the analogtime division switch. For example,during eachoutgoing
time slot 3, control information is accessedthat specifresinterstagelink number 1 is
connectedto output linkN. During other time slots,the spaceswitch is completely re-
configured to support other connections.
As indicated, a convenient meansof representinga conffol store is a parallel end-
around-shift register. The width of the shift register is equal to the number of bits re-
quired to specify the entire spaceswitch configuration during a single time slot. The
length of the shift register conforms to the number of time slots in a frame. Naturally,
$omemeansof changingthe information in the conhol storeis neededso that new con-
nections can be established.In actualpractice, the control store$may be implemented
as RAMs with counters used to generateaddressesin a cyclic fashion (as in the time
stagecontrol storesshown previously).

lmplementationComplexltyof Time Dlvlslon Switchee

In previous
sections,
alternative
space
divisionswitching
structures
werecompared
in
terms of the total number of crosspointsrequired to provide a given grade of service.
In the caseof solid-stateelectronic switching matrices, in general,and time division
switching, in particular, the number of crosspointsalone is a lessmeaningful measure
of implementation cost. Switching structures that utilize ICs with relatively large
numbersof internal crosspointsare generally more cost effective than other $uuctures
 SWITCHING 253
5.4 TWO.DIMENSIONAL

thatmayhavefewercrosspoints but morepackages. Hencea morerelevantdesignpa-

rameterfor solid-state switcheswouldbethe total number of IC packages. If alternate
designsare implementedfrom a comlnonset of ICs, the numberof packages may
closelyreflectthenumberof crosspoints.
In additionto thenumberof crosspoints in spacedivisionstages,a digitaltime di-
visionswitchusessignificantamountsof memorythatmustbeincludedin ane$timate
of theoverallcost.-Thememorycountincludesthetime stagememoryarraysandthe
controlstoresfor boththetime stagesandthespacestages. In largeswitches,thenum-
berof spacestagecrosspoints canbe reducedat the expense ofincreasingtheamount
of memoryrequired.Thus,athoroughanalysis of implementationcomplexityrequires
knowingthe relativecostof a crosspointrelativeto thecostof a bit of memory.Be-
causea crosspointis closelyassociated with an extemalconnection,it costssignifi-
cantlymorethana bit of memory.Theuseof standardmedium-scale integrationICs
leadsto onscrosspointcostingaboutthesameas I fi) bits of memory.tUseof custom-
or application-specific ICswith integratedmemorycanchangethisfactor,particularly
because large-scale IC packages provideaccess to manymorecrosspoints perpin. For
purposes of illustratingvariousdesigntrade-offs,thefollowinganalyses of implemen-
tationcomplexitycontinueto considercrosspointcoststo be lfi) timesthe costof a
memorybit. Dependingon theimplementationapproach,this factormay not be accu-
rate,but minimizingthecostof a matrixis no longermuchof a concern,exceptin ex-
tremelylargeswitchingsystems(e.g.,in switchesexceeding100,000voicechannels).
Theimplementation complexityis expressed asfollows:

No
=N**ffi
ComPlexitY (s.l3)

where Nx = number of spacestagecrosspoints

NB = number of bits of memory

Example5.2. Determinetheimplementation complexityof theTS switchshownin

Figure5.19 wherethe number of TDM input linesN = 80. Assumeeachinput line
containsa singleDSl signal(24 channels).
Furthermore, assumea one-stage matrix
is usedfor the space
stage.

in the spacestageis determinedas

Solutinn. Thenumberof crosspoints

Nx = 8d: 6400

*lt
is worth noting that digital memories are inherently implemented with at least two crosspoints per bit.
In this case the crosspoiflts are gates used to provide write and read accessto the bits. These crosspoiflts,
howcver, are much less expensive than messagecrosspointsthat are accessedfrom extemal circuits,
TSeethe first or second edition of this book.
254 DIGITALSWITCHING

(Thecrosspoints on themaindiagonalareincludedsincetwo channelswithin a single

TDM input may haveto be connectedto eachother.)Thetotal numberof memorybits
for the spacestagecontrolstoreis determined
as

Nnx = (numberof linksXnumberof controlwords)(number

of bits per control
word)
= (80x24X7)
= 13.440

Thenumberof memorybitsin thetime stageis determined

asthesumof thetime slot
interchange
andthecontrolstorebitsl

Nsr = (numberof links)(numberof channels)(number

of bitsper channel)
+ (numberof links)(numberof control words)(numberof bits per
controlword)
= (80X24X8)+ (80)(24)(s)
= 24,96O

Thustheimplementation
complexityis determinedas

Complexity= Nx * : 6114equivalent
crosspoints
W
The implementationcomplexitydeterminedin Example5.2 is obviouslydomi-
natedby thenumberof crosspoints in thespacestage.A significantlylowercomplex-
ity (andgenerallylower cost)canbe achievedif groupsof input links arecombined
into higherlevel multiplexsignalsbeforebeingswitched.The costof the front-end
multiplexersis relativelysmallif the individualDSI signalshavealreadybeensyn-
chronizedfor switching.In thismanner,thecomplexityof thespacestageis decreased
appreciably whiletheoverallcomplexityof thetimestageincreases only slightly.(See
the problemsat the end of this chapter.)The implementationcostsare reducedpro-
portionately,up to the point that higherspeedsdictatethe useof a moreexpensive
technology.
A significantlimitationof theTS structureof Figure5.19occurswhena connection
hasto bemadeto a specificchannelof anoutletasopposedto anychannelof anoutlet.
A connectionto a specificchannelis blockedwheneverthe desiredtime slot of the
inlet TSM is alreadyin use.For example,if time slot 17of thefirst inlet is in usefor
someconnectionfrom the first inlet to somelink otherthanlink N, the connection
from channel3 of inlet I to channel17of inletNcannotbemade.Because of thislimi-
tation,theTS structureis usefulonly if theoutletsrepresenttrunk groups,which im-
plies any channelof an outletis suitable.*Applicationsthat requireconnectionsto
specificchannelsrequireadditionalstagesfor adequate blockingprobabilityperform-
ance.
'A
full-duplex connection requires the reverse connection to be established, which adds restrictions to
which outlet channels can lre used. See the problems at the end of the chapter.
 5.4 TWO-DIMENSIoNAL
SWITCHING 255

Multlple*StageTime and SpaceSwitching

As discussedin theprecedingsection,aneffectivemeansof reducingthecostof a time
divisionswitchis to multiplexasmanychannelstogetheraspracticalandperformas
muchswitchingin thetime stagesaspossible.Time stageswitchingis generallyless
expensivethan spacestage$witching-primarily becausedigital memoryis much
cheaperthandigital crosspoints(AND gates).To repeat,the crosspoints themselves
arenot soexpensive, it is thecostof accessing andselectingthemfrom externalpins
thatmakestheir userelativelycostly.
Naturally,therearepracticallimits asto how manychannelscanbe multiplexed
into a commonTDM link for time stageswitching.Whenthesepracticallimits are
reached,furtherreductions in theimplementation complexitycanbeachievedonly by
usingmultiplestages.Obviously,somecostsavingsresultwhena singlespacestage
matrixof a TS or ST switchcanbe replacedby multiplestages.
A generallymoreeffectiveapproach involvesseparatingthespacestagesby a time
stage,or, conversely,separating two time stagesby a spacestage.Thenext two sec-
tionsdescribethesetwo basicstructures. Thefirst structure,consistingof a time stage
betweentwo spacestages, is referredto asa space-time-space (STS)switch.Thesec-
ond structureis referredto asa time-space-time(TST) switch.

5.4.1 $TS Swltching

A functionalblock diagramof an STS switchis shownin Figure5.20.Eachspace
switchis assumed (nonblocking)switch.For verylargeswitches,
to be a single-stage
it maybe desirable to implementthespaceswitcheswith multiplestages. Establishing
a paththroughan STSswitchrequiresfinding a time switchanay with an available
write accessduringtheincomingtime slotandanavailablereadaccessduringthede-
siredoutgoingtime slot.Wheneachindividualstage(S,T, S) is nonblocking,theop-
spaceswitch.Hence
erationis functionallyequivalentto theoperationof a three-stage
a probabilitygraphin Figure5.2I of anSTSswitchis identicalto theprobabilitygraph
of Figure5.8 for three-stage spaceswitches.Conespondingly,the blocking prob-
abilitv of an STSswitchis

(STS)switchingstructure.
Figure 5.20 Space-time-space
256 DIGITALSWITCHING

2
a
a
I

Figure 5.21 Probabilitygmph of STSswitch wirh nonblockingstages.

B=(1 -q'?)k (5.14)

where4'=l - p'=l - pl\ (F= fr/llt

ft = number of center-stagetime switch arrays

Assuming the spaceswitchesare single-stageEuray$and that eachTDM link has c

messagechannels, we may determine the implementation complexity of an STS
switch as*

Complexity= numtterof spaceslagecrosspoints

* (numberof spacestagecontrolbits

+ numberof time stagememorybits

+ numberof time stagecontrolbits)/100

2/cclog, N + tc(8) + ftclog, c

=2H,{+ (5.15)
100

Example5.3. Determinethe implementationcomplexityof a 2048-channel srs

switchimplementedfor 16 TDM links with 128channelson eachlink. The desired
maximumblockingprobabilityis 0.002for channeloccupancies
of 0.1.

solution. The minimum number of center-stagetime switches to provide the

desiredgradeof servicecanbe determinedfrom Equation5.14as fr = 7. Using this
valueof ft, thenumberof crosspoints
is determinedas(2X7Xl6) = 224.Thenumber
of bitsof memorycanbe determined as(2X7X128)(4) + (7X128X8)+ (7)(lZB)(7)=
*This
derivation assumesoutput-associatedcontrol is used in the first stageand input-associatedcontol is
third stage, A slightly different result occurs if the space stages are controlled in different
ffiar3l"
 s.4 rwo-DrMENsroNAL
swtrcHrNc 257

20,608. Hence the composite implementationcomplexity is 430 equivalent

crosspoints.

Thevalueof implementation complexityobtainedin Example5.3 shouldbe com-

paredto thenumberofcrosspointsobtainedfor anequivalent-sized switch
three-stage
listedin Table5.2.Thespaceswitchdesignrequires8l ,920crosspoints whiletheSTS
Thedramaticsavingscomesaboutas
designrequiresonly 430equivalentcrosspoints.
a resultof the voice having
signals alreadybeen digitizedandmultiplexed(for trans-
mission purposes).Whendigital switches
were first insertedinto an analogenviron-
ment,thedominantcostof the switchoccurredin theline interface.Digital interface
costsaremuchlower thananaloginterfacecosts,particularlyon a per-channel basis.

5.4.2 TST Swltchlng

The secondform of multiple-stage time-spaceswitchis shownin Figure5.22- the

TST switch.Informationarrivingin a TDM channelof anincominglink is delayedin
the inlet time $tageuntil an appropriatepaththroughthe space$tageis available.At
that time the informationis transferredthroughthe spacestageto theappropriateout-
let time stagewhereit is held until the desiredoutgoingtime slot occurs,Assuming
the time stagesprovidefull availability(i.e.,all incomingchannelscanbe connected
to all outgoingchannels), any spacestagetime slotcanbe usedto establisha connec-
tion. In a functional
sense the spacestageis replicatedoncefor everyintemaltimeslot.
This conceptis reinforced theTST probabilitygraphof Figure5.23.
by

Figure 5.22 Time-space-time(TST) switchingsfiucfure.

258 DIGITAL
SWITCHING

2
I
a
a

Figure 5.23 Probabilitygraphof TST swirchwith nonblockingstages.

An important feature to notice about a TST switch is that the spacestageoperate$

in a time-divided fashion, independentlyof the external TDM links. In fact, the num-
ber of spacestagetime slots I does not have to coincide with the number of external
TDM time slots c.
If the spacestageis nonblocking, blocking in a TST switch occurs only if there is
no intemal $pacestagetime slot during which the link from the inlet time stageand
the link to the outlet time stageare both idle. obviously, the blocking probabiliry is
minimized if the number of spacestagetime slots I is made to be large. In fact, as a
direct analogy of three-stage$paceswitches,the TST switch is strictly nonblocking if
I = 2c -1. The generalexpressionof blocking probability for a TST swirch wirh non-
blocking individual stages(T, S, T) is

B =lr _ q?lt (s.16)

w h e r e 4=l l - p r = l * p l a
cr,= rimeexpansion(//c)
I = numberof spacestagetime slots

Theimplementation
complexityof a TST switchcanbe derivedas

N/ log, N + 2Nc(8)+ 2Nl log, c

Complexity =N2 + (s.17)
100

Example5.4. Determinethe implementation complexityof a 2048-channel

TST
switchwith 16TDM links and 128channelsper link. Assumethe desiredmaximum
blockingprobabilityis 0.002for incomingchanneloccupancies
of 0.1

Solution' UsingEquation5.16,we candeterminethenumberof internaltime slots

requiredfor thedesiredgradeof serviceas25.Hencetimeconcentration of 1/g = 5.I ?
is possiblebecauseof the light loadingon the input channels.The implementation
complexitycannow be determined from Equation5.17as656.
 5.4 TWO-DIMENSIONAL 25S
SWITCHING

Theresultsobtainedin Examples5.3 and5.4 indicatethattheTST architecture is

morecomplex than the STSarchitecture.Notice, however, that the TST switch oper-
ateswith time concentration whereasthe STSswitchoperateswith spaceconcentra-
tion. As the utilization of the input links increase,less and less concentrationis
acceptable. If the input channelloadingis high enough,time expansionin the TST
switchandspaceexpansionin the STSswitcharerequiredto maintainlow blocking
probabilities.Sincetimeexpansioncanbe achievedat lesscostthanspaceexpansion,
a TST swirchbecomesmorecosteffectivethanan STSswitchfor high channelutili-
zation.Theimplementation complexitiesof thesetwo system$ arecomparedin Figure
5.24asa functionof theinput utilization.
As canbeseenin Figure5.24,TST switcheshavea distinctimplementation advan-
tageoverSTSswitcheswhenlargeamountsof traffic arepresent.For smallswitches,
the implementation complexitiesfavor STSarchitectures. The choiceof a particular
architecture may be moredependent on otherfactorssuchasmodularity,testability,
andexpandability. OneconsiderationthatgenerallyfavorsanSTSstructureis its rela-
tively simplercontrolrequirements[8]. For very largeswitcheswith heavytraffic
loads,the implementation advantage of a TST switchis dominant.Evidenceof this
fact is providedby the No. 4 ESS,a TST structureintroducedin 1976to servicean
excessof 100.000voicechannels.

SlSrsotprmlonf

.i

STEcomFhxlty g
.2
{
{ lm
,.,f $
E d
."d"' rsrtlil.rDililofid
E
I
6m .B

ztr

,z
Udllrdoft ot lnFut drnndr p

Figure 5.24 Complexity comparisonof STS and TST switching structuresfor a blocking
probabilityof 0.002.
260 DrerrAL
swtrcHtNc

lnlct OuttGt
tifte $pece Spacr tlm6
rtrgtc stEaE BtNg€ rtage

Figure 5.?5 Time*space-space-space-time

(TSSST)switchingsfllrcture.

TSSSTSwltches
Whenthe spacestageof a TST switchis largeenoughto justiff additionalcontrol
complexity,multiple spacestragescan be usedto reducethe total crosspointcount.
Figure5.25depictsa TST architecture with a three-stage spaceswitch.Becausethe
threemiddle stagesare all spacestages,thi$ structureis sometimesreferredto as a
TSSSTswitch.TheEWSD switchof Siemens[9] usesa TSSSTstructure.
Theimplementation complexityof a TSSSTswitchcanbe determinedas*

Nu* *Nu, *Nrrc (5.18)

Complexity= Nx *
100
whereNyg= numberof crosspoints, = ZNft+ k (Nln)z
=
Nsx numberof spacestagecontrolstorebits, = 2k(Nln)llog2(n)
+ k(Nln)l log2(N/n)
NBr = numberof bits in time stages,= 2Nc (8)
ffnrc = numberof time stagecontrolstorebits,= 21Vllogz(c)

Theprobabilitygraphof a TSSSTswitchis shownin Figure5.26.Noticethatthis

diagramis functionallyidenticalto theprobabilitygraphof a five-stagespaceswitch
shownin Figure5.10.Usingtheprobabilitygraphof Figure5.26,we candetermine
theblockingprobabilityof a TSSSTswitchas

B = { 1 _ (qr)tlr_ 0 _ d)ollt (s.l9)

The assumedconnol orientationsby stagesareoutput,output,output,input, andinput,

 s.4 rwo-DrMENsroNAL
swtrcHrNc 261

P, = Pla
pr=pllodl
c= Uo
r u-*''
Figure5.26 hobabilitygraphof TSSSTswitch.

where4r*I-pt=l-pla
Qz=r-Pz=I-plu9

Example5.5. Determinethe implementationcomplexity of a 131,072-channel

TSSSTswitchdesignedto providea maximumblockingprobabilityof 0.002under
channeloccupanciesof 0.7.Assumethe switchservices1024TDM input links with
is usedon thespace
128channelson eachlink. Also assumethatunity timeexpansion
stages.

Solution. The spaceswitchcanbe designedin a varietyof waysdependingon how

manylinks areassignedto eacharrayin thefirst (andthird) spacestages.A valueof
32 is chosenas a convenientbinarynumbernearthe theoreticaloptimumpresented
earlier(N/2)12.With thisvaluefor n, theonly unknownin Equation5.19is thenumber
of center-stagearraysft, which is determinedto be 27 for a blockingprobabilityof
0.0015.Thecomplexityis determinedfrom Equation5.l8 as

Nx = (2X1024)(27)
+ (27)QDz=82,944

Nnx = 2(27X32X = 1,658,880

I 28X5)+ (27)(32)(r28X5)

=2,097,152
Nsr= 2(10?4X128X8)

= 1,835,008
Nnrc* 2(1024X128)(7)

82,944 = 138,854
+ 5,591,040/100 equivalent
crosspoints
 DIGITALSWITCHING

5.4.3 No.4 ESS Toll Swltch

As shownin Fi gtxe5.27, thebasicstructureof a No.4 ESSmaFixis time-space-time

with four stagesin thespaceswitch(i.e.,a TSSSST)tl0, I ll. Theinputsto thematrix
arel20-channelTDM links formedby multiplexingfive DSI signalstogether.Before
theseinputsareinterfacedto the matrix, they arepassedthrougha decorrelatorto dis-
tributethe channelsof incomingTDM funk groupsacrossmultipleTDM links into
thematrix.Decoruelation is usedbecausetheNo. 4 ESSis a toll switchin which the
incomingTDM links represent trunk groupsfrom otherswitchingmachines. In con-
trastto TDM links of an endoffice switchformedby multiplexingindependent sub-
scriberchannels,the channelsof a TDM trunk grouparenot independently busy.In
fact,theactofconcentratingmultiple,independent sourcesontoa fiunk groupcauses
highlevelsof correlationbetweentheactivityon theindividualchannels. If thechan-
nels of a trunk group were not decorrelated, they would experiencemuch higher
blockingprobabilitiesbecause theywouldall be vying for thesamepathsthroughthe
matrix. Decorrelationshufflesthetrunk groupssothealternatepathsavailablefor any
particularconnectionaremorelikely to be statisticallyindependent. Noticethat,be-
sidesshufflingchannels, the decorrelatorprovidesspaceexpansion(7 to 8) andtime
expansion (l?0 to I28).
Themaximumsizeof theNo.4 ESSuses128deconelators with seven12O-channel
inputseach.Thusthe maximumchannelcapacityis (128X7X120)= 107,520chan-
nels.Thespacestageis a 1024x 1024matrixwith four possiblepathsprovidedduring
eachof the 128spacestagetime slots.Theprobabilirygraphof theNo. 4 ESSswirch
is shownin Figure5.28,from which thefollowingblockingprobabilityis derived:

B = [l - (l -p,Xt -pzXl *pr)]rz8 (5.20)

wherep is theextemalchannelutilization,p1= Q l8)(1201128)p,
andp2is theblocking
probabilityof thefour-stagespaceswitchderivedin AppendixA as

pz=zplql+rlplfi + s0p1q1+
szplfi+zlp\q\,+Bfrqr+
p! (5.21)

Example5.6. Determinetheblockingprobabilityandnumberof pathsrhathaveto

be searched
in a No. 4 ESSwith inlet channeloccupancies
of 0.7 and0.9.

Solution. The occupancies of the interstagelinls (pzr)aredeterminedto be 0.574

and 0.738,respectively.Using Equation5.21, the corresponding valuesofp2 are
determinedas 0.737 and 0.934.Equation5.20 can now be usedto determinethe
blocking probabilitiesas 0.fi)2 and 0.56 for inlet occupanciesof 0.7 and 0.9,
respectively.

The probability that all four spacepathsare busy in a parriculartime slot is I -

erezh (he baseterm in Equation5.20),which evaluatesto 0.952forp = 0.7 and
 R
- 9
p
ura
oO

!1

(}
I
(t
D(
+ E
g. i5
l A r A
x{ iA
d L :'-(
.i o |J.{
E *
A
z
F
FI
vi
P
EO
tl

iE
o
F
5
U
E
E
Ir
o

263
7

264 DIGITAL
SWITCHING

+ pt

Figure 5.28 Probabilitygraphof No. 4 ESSmatrix.

0.9955forp - 0.9. Equation5.11now determines the averagenumberof time slots

(four pathspertime slot)thatmustbe testedto find anidle pathas2l and9g,respec-
tively.
Example5.6 demonstrates that low blockingprobabilitiescan be achievedeven
whenindividualpathsarehighly utilizedif thereareenoughalternatives-a feature
thatis mostpracticalwith timedivisionswitching.Thisexamplealsodemonstrates the
sensitivityof the call procs$singtime asa functionof loadin thatpathsearchtimes
morethanquadruplewhenthenodebecomesoverloaded with traffic. Reference[l l]
reportsthat the pathsearchtime is only 72voof the total processingload at p = 0.7,
but thisexampleimpliesthatit wouldbecomemorethan50zoof theloadatp = 0.9 if
otheraspects of call processingwerelinearfunctionsof thetraffic volume(a risky as-
sumption).

5.4.4 Sy$rem 75 Dtgitat PBX

As originallyreleased, the system75 PBx of AT&T wasa midrangepBX that can

suppofr400 stations,200datainstruments, and200trunks[12].Theswitchingmatrix
consistsof two bytewideTDM busesa$shownin Figure5.29.Becausethebusesop-
erateat 2.048MHz, thereare256time slotsperbusperframe.Thusthetotalnumber
of timeslotsonthebusesis 5 12,whichsupport256full-duptexconnections.* All ports
of theswitchhaveaccessto all time slotson bothbuses.Thedual-busarchitecture al-
lows theuseof slowerelectronicsandprovidesredundancy in thecaseof failure.
As long asthereis an idle time slot on eitherbus,any sourcecanbe connected to
anydestination. Thustheblockingprobabilityis zerofrom rhestandpoint of matching
*Be"uur-
some of the time slots are used for overhead and continuous distribution of various tones, the
maximum traffic capacity is 7200 CCS [12], which relates to 200 connections.
 5.5 DIGITAL SYSTEMS 265
CROSS-CoNNECT

Switch BUBA

$Yvitch Bu$ B

75matrixarchitecture.
Figure5.29 System

lOss.BlockingCAnoccur,hOwever,asa reSUltofcongeStiOn: ifmore Connections are

requested thancanbe supported by thenumberof time slots.Blockinganalyses of this
type requirea different form of mathematicsreferredto ascongestiontheory.As pre-
sentedin Chapter12,congestion theorydealswith theprobabilitythattheofferedtraf-
fic load exceedssomevalue.Matchingloss,on the otherhand,is concernedwith
averageor busy-hourtraffic volumes.
As an example,congestionanalysesin Chapter12 showthat if 800 stationsare
37.5Vobwy,on average,theprobabilitythat a stationrequestsservicewhen400 sta-
tionsarealreadybusyis lO-s.Thusthe systemis virtuallynonblockingfor voiceap-
plications.Becausedataconnections areoften full-periodconnections, the blocking
probabilityfor voiceconnections maybecomemoresignificant in applicationsinvolv-
ing intensivevoicebanddataswitching.Seethe problem setin Chapter 12 for some
examples.

5.5 DIGITAL CROS$.CONNECTSYSTEMS

A DCS is basicatlya digital switchingmatrixwith an operationsinterfacefor setting

up relativelystaticconnections betweeninput andoutputsignalsor chamels.Instead
of establishingconnections in responseto signalinginformationpertainingto call-by-
call connection DCSconnections
requests, areestablishedin response to networkcon-
figurationneeds.The mostbasicfunctionof a DCS is to act as an electronic patch
panelin lieu of a manualcross-connect facility. Manualcros$-connect frameswere
typicallyinstalledin switchingofficesasdemarcation points between transmission fa-
cilities and switching machinesand in wire centersas demarcation points between
feedercablesanddistributionfacilities.In bothcases,themajorpurposeof thecross-
connectframewasto allowrearrangement of transmissioncircuitsandaccess for test-
ing thecircuitsin bothdirecfions.
Figure5.30showsa typicalmanualcro$ri-connect environmentwhile Figure5.31
showsthesamefunctionimplemented with a DCS.Manualcrossconnectsareimple-
mentedwith bridgingclipsandpunch-downwires.Crossconnections within theDCS
areestablishedby enteringcommandsat themanagement console(eitherlocally or re-
7

266 DIGITAL
SWITCHING

Menutl
(voicefrequencyl
Cros-Connect
Freme

MGIEllicFociliti$
t l -
\ /
\ /
-\ rr

ltr.r\
Alr
iul
I Local
I Switching
System

Figure5.30 Manualcross-connecr
sysrcm.

motely).As indicatedin the two figures,a majorfeatureof a DCS is its elimination

of back-to-backmultiplexingfunctionswhen crossconnectingindividualchannels
within TDM transmission links.Additionaladvantages of a DCS systemwith respect
to manualcross-connect $vstems are:

r. Automatic RecordKeeping.Becausethe crossconnectsare under'processor

control,circuit connectionreportsarereadilyavailablethroughthemanagement
interface.In contrast,recordsin manualsystemswereinherentlyerrorproneand
oftenout of date.

Clnnnrl Conlole
Benk Chann€l Switchcd Treff ic

Frcilitiet '*l Ti6 linrs

Fortign Exchange

IDLC
DCS

I
lllol Local
(DigitBll
Swltching
Syrtem
M13
::

Circuit SwitchedTraff ic

Flgure 5.31 Elecnonicdigitalcross-connect

system.
 5.5 DIGITAL SYSTEMS 267
CROSS-CONNECT

2. Remoteand Rapid Provisioning. Provisioning is the basic procertsof providing

(or discontinuing) service to a particular customer. The basic operations
involved are outside-plant cross connections, inside-plant cross connections,
configuration changes in switching system data base, and customer record
updatesin business(billing) $ystems.Obviously, the more theseprocesseswere
automated, the faster and more accurately they could be performed.
3. AutomatedTest Access.Testing analogcircuits at a manualcross-connectframe
involves physically breaking the connection (by removing bridging clips) and
attaching the test equipment to the side of the circuit to be tested.All manual
operationsare eliminated with an electronic patch panel by entering commands
at the management console to connect the desired test tone$ and (DSP)
measurementchannelsto the circuit under test.

Figure 5.31 depicts two type$ of network traffic: circuit-switched traffic and chan-
nel-switched trffic. Circuit-switched traffic representslocally switched fraffic (DSO
circuits typically) and channel switched-traffic refers to leased line equivalents of
digital channels.Channel-switchedhaffic might terminate at another public network
switching office as in a foreign exchange(FX) circuit or at a distant cu$tomerpremise
as a tie line of a private network. In the latter case,more than one DSOchannel might
be concatenatedtogether to form a single higher rate channel referred to as a fractional
TI circuit or M x 64-kbps channel. Channel-switchedservicestypically account for
over one-half of the ffansmissionbandwidth betweenU.S. metropolitan offices [13]'
The processof separatingchannel-switchedservicesfrom circuit-switched servicesis
"grooming." Figure 5.30 also showsthat universaldigital loop car-
often referred to as
rier (UDLC) becomesintegrated digital loop carrier (IDLC) in a digital environment
(Figure 5.31). (Chapter I I describesDLC $y$temsin more detail.)

5.5.1 Consolidationand Segregation

Two basically different DCS grooming functions are depicted in Figures 5.32 and
5.33: consolidation and segregation.When multiple-accesslines carrying traffic des-
tined to a coillmon distant node are partially filled, the per-channelco$tsof transpon
to the remote node can be reducedby consolidating the traffic. Conversely,when dif-
ferent types oftraffic originate at a single location, it is desirableto allow a single fa-

Frrthlly Filled Totally FillGd

Locsl Acc$6r Nstvvork
50t6
mt\*l-l rm*
30e6--{
*E; o"'F-
30!_.+{_l t0096
_
Figure5.32 Consolidation.
268 DIGITALSWITCHING

DDS Nttrvork
Tio Llnal
Fortign Exchenga
Losil Swltching

Figure5.33 Distribution.

cility (e.g.,a T1 line)to carryall typesof traffic andsegregate

it at theDCS.Examples
of suchtraffic arecircuit-switched channels, DDS channels,tie lines,multidropdata
circuits,FX circuits,or otherspecialservicesttratmight be availableonly at another
office.

5.5.2 DG$ Hierarchy

The cross-connect systemdepictedin Figure5.31terminatesDSI signalsandinter-

changesDSOsignals,which leadsto the designationDCS l/0. similarly, a digital
cross-connectsystemthatterminatesDS3 signalsandrearranges DSl signalswithin
theDS3sis referredto asa DCS3/1.If a DCS,sucha$a DCS3/0,providesrearrange-
mentof lowerlevelsignals,rruchasDSOs,it doesnotnecessarily meanthatit alsopro-
vides cross-connect servicesfor intermediate-level signals,such as Dsls. cross
connectionof DSls requirestransparent mappingof theentirel.5zt4Mbps,whichin-
cludestheframingchannel-a capabilitythatmaynorbeprovidedwhen64-kbpsDSO
channelsarethe primaryfocus.when a DCS providesmultiplelevelsof crosscon-
nects,theintermediate levelsaresometimes designated-asin DCS 3/l/0 for termi-
natingDS3sand rearrangingDSls and DS0s.In most cases,it is not necessarJ to
providecross-connect servicesat all levelsofthe digitalsignalhierarchyfor all ofthe
terminations.Figure5.34 depictsa DCS hierarchythat providesrearrangement of
lowerlevelsignalson only subsets of higherlevelsignals.Thehigherlevel(e.g.,Ds3)
signalsthatarenot crossconnected to a lowerlevelDCSmaybeunchannelized high-
speed(44.736-Mbps) signalsor transitDS3sthatterminateon a DCS 3/l or 3/0 at a

Figure 5.34 DCS hierarchy.

 5.5 DIGITAL SYSTEMS 269
CROSS-CONNECT

distantlocation.Theprimarypurposeof theDCS3/3is to providenetworkrestoration

or protectionswitchingof the DS3 signalsandto possiblyprovidetime-of-dayrear-
rangement of trunkgroupassignments.SONBTtransmission in Chap-
links described
ter 8 arecrossconnected at muchhigherratesproducingadditionalDCS layers.

5"5.3 IntegratedCrose-ConnectEquipment

Figure5.31 depictsdistinctmultiplexingequipmentand two distinctand colocated

swirchingsystems:the DCS and the local digital switch.AlthoughDCS functions
within thepublic networkaretraditionallyimplementedwith separateequipment,pri-
vatenetworksoftenutilize equipmentthatprovidesintegratedmultiplexingandcross-
connectfunctions.This equipmenthas evolvedfrom CPE-basedTl multiplexers
becauseTSI circuitsare insignificanthardwareadditionsto Tl multiplexinghard-
ware.Suchequipmentarevariouslyrefenedto asintelligentmultiplexers[14],nodal
processors,or networkingTl multiplexers.Cross-connect functionsarealsoincolpo-
ratedinto newerDLC systemsbecause, again,thecostof theTSI functionis vidually
nil.
Integrationof cross-connect functionswith higherleveldigitalsignals(suchas
a DS3) hasnot occurredbecausethe mannerin which the higherlevel signalsare
multiplexed(describedin Chapter7) is not amenablefor direct terminationon a
switchingsystem.The newerform of (synchronous)multiplexing,as specifiedby
the SONET standarddescribedin Chapter8, allows integrationof higher level
digital multiplexerswith cross-connect systemsfor both public andprivateequip-
ment.
Althoughcross-connect functionsare basicallynothingmore than "pegged"or
"nailed-up"circuit-switchedconnections, the two functionsaretraditionallyimple-
mentedseparatelybecauseof the following differencesin the applicationrequire-
ments:

l. A DCS needsto be strictly nonblockingat the DSOlevel,which is generally

uneconomical in largepublicnetworkswitches.
2. Transparent cross-connection of a 1.544-Mbpssignalrequirestransportof the
framingbit that is not possiblein typicaldigital circuit switchesbecauseDSI
interfaceequipmenta$sumes the DSI signalsarechannelized with framingin
the 193rdbit.
3. DCS functionality does not involve processingof signalingbits so fully
functionalcircuitswitchinterfaceshaveexcesscostswhenu$edasinterfacesto
cross*connect systems.
4. Crossconnectingmultiple,concatenated DSOchannels(fractionalTl channels)
requiresmaintainingorderin the concatenated datastream.Althoughthe order
can always be maintainedby careful mappingof the individual 64-kbps
connections,it i$ a function that is typically not provided in DSO circuit
switching software.Figure 5.35 shows how the order of bytes in the
concatenated datastreamcanbe transposed by ill-chosen64-kbpsconnections'
27O DIGITAL
SwITcHING

lffimlng
Oflr

Ditr
Outgolng

Ch{nnel ConnGtloni Ero At to 8t , Az to Bil As to Bl

Figure 5.35 Transposition of data in concatenatedtime slots.

5.6 DIGITALSWITCHING
IN AN ANALOGENVIRONMENT
whendigitalendofficeswitches
(or PBXs)areinstalled
in ananalogenvironment,
theanaloginterfacesarenecessarily unchanged. Althoughthedigital switchmay in-
terfacewith digital subscribercanier or digital fiber feedersystem$,thesesysrems
merelyextendthe analoginterfacepoint closerto the subscriber.This sectionde-
scribesthebasicconsiderations ofusing digital switchingin suchan analogenviron-
ment.Chapterl l describes digiralendoffice switchingwith digital subscriber
loops
in relationto the integratedservicesdigital network.

5.6.1 Zero-LossSwitchlng

As alreadymentioned,a well-designeddigital transmissionand switchingsystem

addsno appreciable degradation to the end-to-endquality ofdigitized voice.In par-
ticular,thederivedanalogsignalcomingout of a decodercanbe adjustedto thesame
levelasthatpresented to theencoderat thefar end.Curiously,zero-losstransmission
presentssomesignificantproblemswhendigitalswitchingis usedin theanalogfians-
missionenvironmentof a class5 centraloffice.
Analogendofficeswitchesaretwo-wireswitchesdesigned to interconnectbidirec-
tionaltwo-wirecustomerloops.The voicedigitizationprocess,however,inherently
requiresseparation of the go andreturnsignalpathsinvolvedin a connection.Thus,
a class5 digital endoffice or digitalPBx mustbe a four-wireswitch.when inserted
into a two-wireanalogenvironment,hybridsarerequiredto separate the two direc-
tionsof transmission.As shownin Figure5.36,hybridsateachendof ttreinternaldig!
tal subnetworkproducea four-wirecircuit with thepotentialfor echoesandsinging.
(Amplifiersareshownin conjunctionwith theencoders to offsetforwardpathlossin-
herentin thehybrids.)Instabilityarisesasa resultof impedance mismatches at thehy-
bridscausingunwantedcouplingfrom the receiveportionto the transmitportionof
the four-wireconnection.Impedance mismatches occurbecauseof the variabilityin
the lengthsandwire sizesofthe subscriber loops.In pafticular,loadedandunloaded
wire pairshavemarkedlydifferentimpedance characteristics.
Theinstabilityproblemsarecompounded by certainamountsof artificialdelaythat
are requiredin a digital time division switch.Althoughthe delaythrougha digital
switch(severalhundredmicroseconds, typically)is basicallyunnoticeable to a user,
 5,6 DIGITAL
SWITCHING ENVIRONMENT 271
INANANALOG

I underirNbh\
I trEnfhybrid I
coulllns
\ /

interfaces.
digitalswitchwithtwo-wireanalog
Flgure5.36 Four-wire

it representstheequivalentof asmuchas30 to 40 milesof wire.This increased delay

hasthe effectof loweringthe oscillationfrequencies that might otherwise be outside
thevoicebandandeffectivelybe removedby encoder/decoder filters'
As mentionedin Chapterl, hybridsweretraditionally used at the interfaceto the
toll networkwherethetransmission mediumis basicallyfour-wire.In theseinstances,
theinstabilityof thefour-wirecircuitwascontrolledby designinga prescribed amount
of netaftenuation (by wayof netloss)into thetransmission pathof shofiertoll network
circuits.On thelongercircuits,theechoesandsingingareeliminatedby echosuppres-
$orsor echocancelers. Class5 digital switchescouldpreventinstabilityin the same
manner:by designinga certainamountof lossinto the encoding/decoding process'
While thenecessary amount of signal attenuation (approximately 2-3 dB in eachpath
[5]) couldbe toleratedon localconnections, the added loss to some toll connections
wouldbe unacceptably large.
Fromtheforegoingdiscussionit canbe seenthatthe useof selectable attenuation
is onesolutionto theinstabilityproblems.Thenecessary lossis insefiedinto thetalk-
ing pathfor localconnections but not u$edon long-distance calls,whichalreadyhave
lossdesigned into them.A secondsolutioninvolvesmatchingtheimpedance atthehy-
bridsmoreclosely.Beforethe adventof DSPnearlycompleteeliminationof the un-
wantedcouplingwas prohibitivelyexpensive.However,adequateisolationof the
transmission pathscouldbe accomplished with just two differentmatchingnetworks:
onefor loadedloopsandonefor unloadedloops[61. Impedance matchinghasbeen
simplifiedby the useof advancedinterfaceelectronics (DSP) that containtrainable
andautomaticimpedance matchingcircuitry.Theimpedance matchingcircuitsessen-
tially representshort-delay echocancelers[17].
Notice that an all-digital network(with four-wiretelephones) avoidsinstability
problemsbecausethereareno two-wireanaloglines.Voice is digitizedat the tele-
phoneandusesa separate pathfrom the receivesignalall the way to the destination
telephone.Thus an endrto-endfour-wire circuit completelyeliminatesechoesand
singing,allowingall connections to operateon a zero*lossbasis'
 272 DIGITALSWITCHING

5.6.2 BORSCHT

In ChapterI thebasicfunctionalrequirements ofthe subscriber

loop interfacearede-
scribed.Theserequirementsarerepeatedherewith two additionalrequirementsfor a
digital switch interface:codingand hybrid. The completelist of interfacerequire-
mentsis unaffectionately knownasBORSCHT[18]:

B : Batteryfeed
o: Overvoltageprotection
R: Ringing
S : Supervision
C; Coding
H: Hybrid
T: Test

As mentionedin chapter l, thehigh-voltage,low-resistance, andcurrentrequire-

mentsof manyof thesefunctionsareparticularlyburdensome to integrated
circuitim-
plementations. First-generationdigital end office switchesreducedthe termination
costsby usinganalogswitching(concentrators) to commoncodecs.The DMS-100
[19] of NorthernTelecomandtheNo. 5 ESSof AT&T [20] useanalogconcentration
at the periphery.Integratedcircuit manufacturers haveworkeddiligentlyto imple-
ment the BORSCHTfunctionsin what is calleda subscriberloop interfacecircuit
(sl-rc). Perline sLICs allow implemenrationof perJine BORSCHT functions.
sLICs can be usedin PBx applicationswith a minimumof otherextemalcompo-
nents.In cenffaloffice applications,wherelightningprotectionand test accessare
moredemanding,sLICs typicallyneedothercomponents for a completeinterface.

5.6.3 Conferencing

In ananalognetworkconference callsareestablished by merelyaddingindividualsig-

nalstogetherusinga conference bridge.Iftwo peopletalk at once,theirspeechis su-
perposed.Furthermore,an active talker can hearif anotherconfereebeginstalking.
Naturally,thesametechniquecanbeusedin a digitalswitchif thesignalsarefirst con-
vertedto analog,added,andthenconvertedbackto digital.
As describedin chapter3,1t?55andtheA-law (ITU) codeweredesignedwith the
specificpropertyof beingeasilydigitally linearizable(EDL). with this property,the
additionfunctioncanbeperformeddigitallyby first convertingall codesto linearfor-
mats,addingthem,andthenconvertingbackto compre$sed formats.To theuser,the
operationis identicalto thecustomaryanalogsummation. For a conference
involving
N conferees,N separatesummationsmust be performed,one for eachconfereeand
containingall signalsbut his own.For a descriptionofthe conferencing algorithmin
the system75 PBX of AT&T, seereference[12]. For moregeneraldescriptionsof
conferencing implementations in digital switches,seereference[21].
 REFERENCES273

Another conferencing technique involves monitoring the activity of all conferees

and switching the digital signal of the loudest talker to all others. Although this tech-
nique is functionally different from a customaryanalog conferencebridge, it is advan-
tageous for large conferencesbecausethe idle channel noise of the inactive talkers
does not get addedinto the output of the conferencebridge. High-quality conference
circuits also include echo cancelersso higher signal powers can be provided.

REFERENCES
I M. R. Aaron, "Digital Communications-The Silent (R)evolution?" IEEE
Magazine,Jan.1979,pp. l6-26.
Communications
"A Study
C. Clos, of Non-Blocking Switching Networks," Bell SystemTechnical
Joumal, Mar. 1953, pp.4O6-424.
"Analysis
C. Y. Lee, of Switching Networks," Bell SystemTechnical Journal, Nov.
pp.1287-1315.
1955,
"A Studyof Congestion
C. Iacobaeus, No. 48,
EricssonTechniques,
in Link Systems,"
Stockholm,1950,pp. 1-70.
Telecommunications,
A. A. CollinsandR. D. Pedersen, A TimeFor Innovation,Merle
CollinsFoundation. TX,
Dallas. 1973.
M, Schwartz, Telecommunications NetvvorkProtacols, Modeling and Analysis'
Addison-Wesley, ReadingMA, 1987.
"New Time DivisionSwitchingUnits
T. E. Browne,D. J. Wadsworth,andR. K. York,
for No. l0l ESS,"Aell SystemTechnical Joumal,Feb.1969,pp.443-476,
I "Telephones
S. G. Pitroda, Go Digital,"IEEESpectrurn,Oct.1979,pp.51-60.
"EWSD;WhereIt Is," 'lieruen's
TelecomRepon,Vol. 12,No. 2-3' 1989'
9 N. Skaperda,
pp.56-59.
l 0 J. H. Huttenhoff.J. Janik.G. D. Johnson,W. R. Schleicher,M. F' Slana,and F' H'
Tendick,"No. 4 ESS:PeripheralSystems," Bell System TechnicalJournal,Sept.1977'
pp. 1029-1042.
u A, E. RitchieandL. S.Tuomenoksa,"No. 4 ESS:SystemObjectivesandOrganization,"
BeIlSystemTechnital Journal,1977,pp. 1017-1027.
t2 L. A. Baxter,P. R. Berkowitz,C. A. Buzzard,J. J. Horenkamp,and F' E' Wyatt'
"system 75: Communications and Control Architecture,"AT&T TethnicalJoumal,
Jan.1985,pp. 153-173.
"hoviding and Managing
l 3 R. K. Berman,R, W. Lawrence,and P. C. Whitehead,
ChannelSwitchedServicesin an IntelligentISDN Environment,"IEEE Clobecom,
1987,pp.4.6.1-4.6.5.
t4 J. L, MelsaandH. R. Scull,"The Applicationof lntelligentT1 Multiplexersin Hybrid
andISDNNetworks,"IEEEGlobecom, 1989,pp. 15.3.1-15'3'6.
1 5 J. L. Neigh,"TransmissionPlanningfor anEvolvingLocalSwitchedDigital Network,"
IEEETransactions July 1979,pp' 1019-1024.
on Communications,
"Tnro loss Considerationsin Digital Class5
l 6 R. Bunker,F. Scida,and R. McCabe,
on Communications,
Office,"IEEE Transactions July 1979,pp' 1013-1018.
274 DIGITAL
SWITCHING

l 7 D, L. Duttweiler, "A Twelve Channel Echo Cancellor,', IEEE Transactions on

Communications,May 1978, pp. 647-653.
1 8 F. D. Reese,"Memo to Management-You Must Appraise How New Technology Fits
Customers," TelephoneEngineering and Management, Oct. I, 1975, pp. I 16-121.
l 9 J. B. Terry, D. R. Younge, and R. T. Matsunaga, "A SubscriberLine Interface for the
DMs-l00Digitalswitch," IEEENationalrelecommunicationsconference,lgTg,pp.
28.3.1-28.3.6.
20 D. L. Camey, J. I. Cochrane, L. J. Gitten, E. M. Pretl" and R. Staehler. ..The 5 ESS
Switching System: Architectural Overview," AZ& T Technical Jorrrual, Aug. 19g5.
2 l R. J. D'Ortenzio, "Conferencing Fundamentalsfor Digital PABX Equipments,',IEEE
International Conferenceon Communications, 1979, pp. 2.5-2g-2.5-36.

PROBLEMS

5.1 How manyfour-wirevoice circuit connections can be providedby a bidirec-

tionalPAM switchingbusif theminimumachievable pulsewidth is 250nsec?
5.2 TheTS switchof Figure5.19usesDSI signalson eachrDM rink. what is the
implementationcomplexityif groupsof five DSI inputsarefirst multiplexedto
form 16input links with 120channelson eachlink?
5.3 DeterminetheLeegraphandJacobaeus blockingprobabilitiesof thefirst switch
in Table5.5 (ft = 6) if two inletsout of 16 becomeconnectedto l-erlangsub-
scribers.(Possiblytheselinescouldbe dial-upporrsto a compurer.)(Hint:Two
inletsarepermanently busybut the remaininginletscontinueto be O.l-erlang
porrs.)
5.4 RepeatProblem5.3but insteadof two inletsbeingbusyassumethattwo of the
outputlinks of thefirsr-stagemodulehavefailed.
5.5 How manycrosspoints areneededin a l024line, three-stage spaceswirchif the
inputloadingis six common-channel signalsper line andthemaximumaccept-
ableblockingprobability(usinga Leegraphanalysis)is 0.005?
(a) If n = 16,N/n = 64
(b)If n =32,N/n=32
(c) tf n = 64,N/n = 16
5.6 what is the(Leegraph)blockingprobabilityof theTS switchin Figure5.l9 for
channelloadingof 0.2erlang?
(a) AssumeeachTDM inputis a 24-channel interofficetrunk group.
(b) AssumetheTDM inputsarederivedfrom24-channel bankswith eachanalog
interfaceconnected
to a dedicated0.2-erlangline.
5.7 DesignansTS switchfor 128primaryTDM signalsof theccITT hierarchy(30
voicechannels perinput).Blockingshouldbelessthan0.002andtheloadingis
0.2 erlangper channel.How manytime slot interchange
modulesareneeded?
Whatis thecomplexiryof the switch?
5.8 RepeatProblem5.7 for a TST design.
 PROBLEMS 275

5.9 Determinethe numberof crosspointsNx and the total numberof memorybits

Ns requiredfor a TST switchdefinedasfollows;numberof linesis 32, single-
$tagespaceswitch,numberof channelsper ftameis 30, andtime expansionis
2.
5.10 Whatis theblockingprobabilityof theswitchin Problem5.9if thechannelload-
ing is 0.9 erlangperchannel?
5.ll How manybits of memoryareneededin a time slot interchangecircuit for a 60-
channelsignalwith 9 bitsper time slot?
5.12 DeriveEquation5.15 assuminginput-associated controlin the first stageand
output-associated controlin thethird stage.
5.13 DeriveEquation5.18assumingall controlorientationsareoutputassociated.
 DIGITALMODUL,ATION
ANDRADIOSYSTEMS

Chapter4 discusses variousmeansof encodingdigital informationfor transmission

overwireline (or fiber) transmission links.In the contextof this chapterthe dataen-
codingdescribed in Chapter 4 is referred to asbasebandcoding.To impressthe same
informationontoa carrierfor radiotratrsmisSiOn, a baseband signalis commonlyused
to modulate the carrier.Modulation shifts the dc-centered specfum of abaseband sig-
nal to thecarrierfrequency. In contrast to Chapter 4, which emphasizes binary trans-
mission,this chapteremphasizes multileveldigital modulationto achievehigh data
rateswirhin therigidly defined bandwidth of a radio channelor analogvoicebanddata
circuit.As described later in this chapter, most multilevelmodulationtechniques can
be implemented by directly modulating a carrier with one of the multilevel baseband
signalsdescribedin Chapter4.
Applicationsfor the digitalmodulationtechniques describedin this chaptercover
point-to-pointmicrowavesy$tems, digital cellular systems, andvoicebandmodems.
Atthoughpoint-to-pointmicrowave systems are no longer used alongheavyffaffic
routesof ttreU.S. public network, they are still utilized in thin-route applicationsin
the U.S. andaroundthe world where cost of a fiber right-of-way is prohibitive'Fur-
thermore,digital point-to-point microwave is still commonly used in privatenetworks
(alongwith someold analogsystems)andin specialapplications sucha$digitalvideo
transportfrom a studioto a transmitteror to and from a digital cellular basestation.
Digital cellulartransmission betweenbase stations and mobile units uses modulation
techniquesthat areidenticalto that usedin some original digital point-to-point sys-
TEInS.
Whendigitalpoint-to-pointradioswerefirst beingdeveloped, theFCCestablished
certaindatarates[1] thatmustbe achievedby theseradiosin the UnitedStatesto en-
surea minimum utilizationefficiencyof the radio frequency spectrum. Basically,
theseminimumrates(shownin Table6.1)specifyapproximately the same number of
voicecircuits(at 64 kbps)aswereavailablein theanalogFM radios in useat the time
(19?4).Althoughindividualvoicechannelsin a FDM signaloccupy4 kHz of band-
width, frequencymodulationtypically expandsthe signalbandwidthby a factorof
277
 278 DIGITAL
MoDUI.ATIoN
ANDRADIo
SYSTEMS

TABLE6.1 InformatlonDensltlegFequiredby Fcc for common-carrlerMicrowsve

ChanneleUsing64 kbps per VolceCircuit

Band (GHz) ChannelBW(MHz) BitRate(Mbps) Density(bps/Hz)

2.110-2.130 3.5 6.144 1,8
3.700-4.200 20 73.7 3.7
5.9?5-6.425 30 73.7 2.5
6.52ffi.87s 30 73.7 2.5
1Q.7-11.7 40 73.7 1.8

about4, dependingon the amountof FM deviationapplied.Thusthedigital systems

wererequiredto competewith an equivalentvoicechannelbandwidthof about 16
kHz' If the digitalradioswereforcedto competewith analogsingle-sideband radios
[2, 3] introducedin theearly 1980s,theycouldnot havedonesowithoutusinglower
bit ratevoiceencoding.
over andabovetheminimumbit ratesestablished by theFCC,competitionamong
digital microwavemanufacturersand the economicsof manimizing the numberof
voicecircuitsper radio stimulatedthe development of moreadvanceddigitalmodu-
lationtechniques to achieveevengreatertransmission rates.As an exampleof signal
processing advances,the6G150MB digitalradioof NEC carriesa 155-Mbpspayload
in 30 MHz of bandwidth-an informationdensityofjust over5 bps/Hz.Thefirst part
of this chapterdescribesbasicmodulationtechniquesandthe transmission efficien-
ciestheyprovide.The lattersectionsdescriberadiosystemdesignconsiderations for
point-to-pointmicrowaverelaysystem$.

lnformation Density
A usefulparameterfor characterizing
thebandwidthefficiencyof a digitalmodulation
systemis theinformationdensity,definedas

s-# (6.1)

where R = data rate in bits per second

BW = bandwidth of digital signal in hertz

The units of information density are sometimesreferred to loosely as bits perhertz.

However, as defined in Equation 6.1, the units shourdbe bits per secondper hertz or
simply bits per cycle. Since bits per secondper hertz conveysthe natureof information
density more completely, it is the preferred unit.
The bandwidth factor in Equation 6.1 can be defined in a variety of ways. In theo-
retical studiesthe bandwidth of a signal is usually determinedas the width of the ideal
filter used to strictly bandlimit the signal (i.e., the Nyquist bandwidth). hr practical
systems,where the spectrumcan never be strictly bandlimited, the bandwidth is more
 279
MODULATION
6.1 DIGITAL

difficult to define.In radiosystemsa channelis usuallyspecifiedwith a certainmini-

mumsignalattenuation atthebandedges.In thiscase,theinformationdensityis easily
determinedasthe bit rateof a signalmeetingtheserequirementsdividedby the allot-
ted bandwidth.
Whenno particulalemissionspecifications areprovided,however,thebandwidth
requiredby a digital signalmustbe defined in anothermoreor lessarbitrarymanner'
using a 3-dBbandwidthis usuallyinappropriate sincethe signalspectrummay drop
ratherslowly andtherebyallow.significantamountsof energyto spill overinto adja-
cent channels.Using a greaterattenuationlevel to definethe bandedgeswould be
more appropriatebut is still somewhatarbitrary.A generallymorerelevantcriterion
for practicalsystemsdefinesthebandwidthof a signalasthechamelspacingrequired
to achievea specifiedmaximumlevelof interference into identicaladjacentchannels.
Yet anotherdefinition of bandwidth,commonly used in Europe,is the 997opower
bandwidth.
The theoreticalmaximuminformationdensityfor binarysignalingis 2 bps/tlz for
a two-levelline codeor 1 bps/flz for a modulateddouble-sideband signal'If a four-
levelline codeis usedto achieve2 bits per signalinterval,thetheoreticalinformation
densityis 4 bps4lz for theline code,or ZbpslHzfor a double-sideband carriersignal.
Theinformationdensifl of amplitude-modulated signalscanbe doubledby usingsingle-
sidebandtransmissionto effectivelyachievethe sameefficiencyas the line codes
(baseband signals).
As a practicalexample,a representative datarateon a dial-upanalogtelephone line
is 28,800bps (usually with l2 bits per signal intervalanda 2400-Hz signaling rate).
Sincetheusablebandwidthof a telephonechannelis approximately3 kHz, a typical
informationdensityof a dial-upline is 9.6 bps/H2..
As a startingpoint for digital microwaveradios,Table6.1 includestheminimum
bit ratesandcorresponding informationdensitiesrequiredin common*carrier bands
of the UnitedStates.Competitionandcompatibilitywith the digital hierarchyled to
realizationsof evengreatertransmission efficiencies.

6.1 DIGITALMODULATION

Digital transmission on a radiolink differsfrom wirelinetransmission in two impor-

tantregards.First,the digital information must modulate a carrierin some mannerto
producethe radio frequency (RF) signal.In many casesthe modulation proce$s can
be viewedasa specialform of amplitudemodulation by a nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ)
line codesignal.Thustheline coderepre$ents a basebandsignalthatamplitudemodu-
latesthe carrierin the transmitterandis reproducedby demodulationin the receiver.
Representingthe modulationprocessin this mannerhas the advantagethat the RF
spectracanbe determinedby merelytranslatingtheline code(baseband)spectrato the
$elected carrierfrequencY.
*Slightly
higher rates are sometimes achieved with V.34 modems. Rates approaching 64 kbps are also
possible in special (V.90) applications described in Chapter 1I .
 280 DtctrALMoDULATtoN
ANDRADIosysrEMS

second,a radio link differs from wireline tansmissiondue to the necessityof

strictly bandlimitingthe transmittedsignalsto preventinterferenceinto otherchan-
nels.Althoughwirelinetransmission links automatically filter theline signalto some
extent,explicit filter requirementssometime$ occuronly in the receiversto rejectas
muchnoiseaspossible.*Sinceradiolinks arebandlimitedinthehansmitterandzpise
filtered in thereceiver,theend-to-end filter functionmustbe partitionedbetweenthe
two ends.Figure6.I showsa block diagramof a radio link showingrepresentative
basebandand RF waveformsalong with corresponding frequencyspectrums.For
modulation,Figure6.I showsmultiplicationof thecarrierby thebaseband waveform.
Modulationin a digitalradiomustultimatelybe designedin conjunctionwith the
firlterfunctions.For easeof description,however,modulationtechniques areconsid-
eredfirst. Later on, the filtering requirements of eachtype of modulationare dis-
cussed.Figure6.1alsoshowsthebaseband encodingproce$s to beindependent ofthe
modulationprocess.For mostof themodulationtechniques describedin this chapter
thisview is appropriate. In thecaseof trellis-coded modulation(TCM) andcarrierless
amplitudeandphase(cAP) modulation,described later,encodingis incorporated into
themodulationprocess.

6.1.1 AmplitudeModulailon

Historically,the simplestform of modulationto generateand detectis amplitude

modulation(AM). A conceptual illustrationof amplitudemodulationis shownin Fig-
ure 6.2.Themathematical definitionis

x(t)=[l +am,(r)]cosro"t (6.2)

wherea = modulationindex(0 < a S l)

mn$)=n-level, symmetricNRZ baseband signalnormalizedto maximum
amplitudeof I
0[ = is the radiancarrierfrequency,= 21;1

Amplitudemodulationis an exampleof a classof specialmodulationtechniques

referredto as"linear modulation."Linearmodulationimpliesthat the spectrumof the
modulatedsignalis obtainedby ffanslatingthebaseband spe{trumto theselectedcar-
rier frequencyband.As shownin Figure6.2, amplitudemodulationby a two-level
digitalbaseband signalessentiallytranslates thesin(x/x baseband specrrumup to the
carier frequencyf,.other linearmodulationtechniques aredouble-sidebandmodu-
lation,single-sideband modulation,andvestigial-sideband modulation.
Inspectionof Equation6.2or Figure6.2indicatestharif lfi)7o modulationis used
(a = I ), no carier is producedfor a logic0. Forobviousreasons,thisform of amplitude
modulationis oftenreferredto ason-off keying,oramplitudeshifi keyrng(ASK). As
'Adherence
to EMI compatibility specifications defined by the FCC (Paxt 15) often requires some amount
of transmit filtering in on-premiseswireline transmission systems.
! c
CI
-g

tE ,f ?i

j
6
t o

f
B
,6
E!
E
o

ct

j
{)

f bI)
6
E
,t4
o

j
o

E
EE
F (h
F
E
\a
P
HO

4 rE
FB

281
 282 DIGITALMODULATIONAND RADIOSYSTEMS

*kl = [t *an,(rll coro.r

] -.t

Figure 6.2 Digital binaryamplitudemodulation.

shown in Figure 6.3, on-off keying can be obtainedby direct multiplication of a car-
rier with the two-level (unipolar) line code describedin Chapter 4.
Amplitude-modulated signalsare usuarly demodulatedwith a simple envelopede-
tector. The cost effectivenessof this detectoris the basic reasonthat commercial ana-
log broadcastingusesamplitude modulation. unfortunately, the eruorperformanceof
digital amplitude modulation in general,and envelopedetection in particular, is infe-
rior to other forms of digital modulation and detection. For this reason, amplitude
modulation is used only where the cost of the receiver is a significant consideration.
Digital microwave links and digital cellular systemsuse other forms of modulation
and demodulation to minimize the enor rate for a given signal-to-noise ratio.
Conventional amplitude modulation provides suboptimum error performance for
two basic reasons.First, if a < r, a discrete (informationless) spectral line occurs at
the carrier ftequency. Although the existenceof this spectralline simplifies canier re-
covery' it increasesthe transmitter power without aiding discrimination between in-
formation signals.
with 1007omodulation (on-off keying) no line specfraare produced, but the sys-
tem is still inefficient in its use of transmifted power. As discussedin chapter 4 for
two-level line coding, the maximum use of transmittedpower is achievedwhen one
signal is the negativeof the other. Thus, a seconddeficiency of amplitude modulation
arisesbecausea 0 signal is not the exact negative ofa I signal. To achieve optimum
performance,a symmetric twolevel basebandsignal should directly modulate (mul-
tiply) the carier. As shown in Figure 6.4, this form of modulation producestwo iden-
 6.1 DtctrALMoDULATIoN283

frF+ #'q#q##t+t#
+Sffiffiffi

Figure 6.4 Phase-reversal keying.

tical signalsexceptfor a 180"phasereversal.Hencethis modulationis sometimes re-

ferredto asphasereversalkeying(PRK),or moreoften,two-level phase shift keying
(2-PSK),f-Ioticethat PRK cannotbe detectedby envelopedetection'Instead,a PRK
signalmustbe detectedby comparingit to a coherentcarier reference.
Coherentdetectioninvolvescomparingthe incomingsignalto a local carriersyn-
chronizedin phaseto that usedat thetransmitter.With conventionalamplitudemodu-
lation thereis no informationin the phase.With PRK signaling,however,all of the
informationis in the phase.The useof a coherentreferencefor PRK signalsallows
optimum(antipodat)elror rateperformance.Thebasicequationdefininga PRK signalis

oct
x(t1= r77r111cos (6'3)

signallm2$)= +1 for a I andm2(t)= -l for

wherern2(t)is thebinarydigitalbaseband
a 01.Thedemodulation equationis

y(t) =.r(t)[2cosoct]

= lmr(t) cosoctl [2 cosro"tl

* m?(t)+ m2(t)cos2ro.t (6.4)

wherethe double-frequencyterm is removedwith a low-passfilter'

As indicatedin Figure6.4 andEquation6.4, the coherentdemodulation proce$$
be processed further to detectthe data-
-Since a symmetrictwo-level signalthat can
produces
thedemodulated baseband signalis, in essence,equivalent to a line code,it must
asdiscussed
includetiming considerations in Chapter4. [n particular,theremustbe
enoughsignal transitionsin the basebandsignal to allow recoveryof a sample
clock. However,the basebandsignalneednot precludedc wandersincedc levels
 284 DIGITALMoDULATIoNANDHADIoSYSTEMS

o r r 0 0 t 0 t t 0 0 l o t t 0 0 l

trffi#hirfut\ddill Eq#
Phsre Low pssg
dctoclol fllur

Modulator Denrodulstol

Figure6.5 Binaryfrequency
shiftkeying.

aretranslatedto thecarrierfrequencyandpassedadequately
by thedouble-sideband
system.-

6.1.2 Frequency $hift Keytng

In additionto an inefficientuseof signalpower,conventionalamplitude-modulated

signals(not PRK) haveoneotherundesirable characteristic.
By definition,an ampli-
tude-modulated signalusesmultiplesignallevels,which impliesAM is quitevulner-
able to si8nal saturationthat narrowsthe distancebetweenamplitudelevels and
producesspectrumspreading. A commonsourceof saturation in a radiosyslemoccurs
in the outputpoweramplifierof the transmitter.In mostcasesoutputamplifiersare
operatedat lessthanmaximumpowerto eliminatesaturationandothernonlinearities,
sotheycanaccommodate amplitude-modulated signals[4].
systems FM or pM u.leconstant-amplitudesignalsnot adversely
__Angle-modulated
affectedby signalsaturation.HenceFM and pM canbe transmitteaat higherpowei
levelsthanAM systems.The ability to usesaturatingpoweramplifiersis oneof the
rea$ons why FM wasoriginallychosenfor analogmicrowaveradios.This sectiondis-
cussesdigitalfrequencymodulation,commonlyreferredto asfrequencyshift keying
(FSK).Thenext sectiondiscusses digitalphasemodulation,commonlyrefenedto as
phaseshiftkeying(PSK).Both systemsprovidea consrant-amplitude signal.systems
usingconstant-amplitude carriersarealsoreferredto asconstant-envelJpe sysrems.
Thegeneralexpression for ann-aryFSK signalis

.(,):*,[[*..9J'] (6.5)

'A
single-sideband system does not pass dc energy. Thus if single-sideband modulation
rs used, the
basebandsignal must exclude.dc energy from its spectrum. Some double-sidebandsystems
might also
require the elimination of baseband dc energy so that a carrier tone can be inserted
intl the center of tlre
passband without affecting the signal.
 MODULATION 285
6,1 DIGITAL

wherero"= radiancenterfrequency
ln, = n-levelNRZ digitalbasebandsignal
Aro = radiandifferencefrequencybetween signals

A typicalbinaryFSK signalis shownin Figure6.5 alongwith a simple(but low-

performance)meansof implementingthemodulatoranddemodulator.Themodulator
is a voltage-controlled oscillator(VCO)thatis biasedto producethecenterfrequency
whenno modulationis applied.Theamplitudea of thesymmetrictwo-levelbaseband
signalproducesa frequencydeviationof +Arr/2for a I and -L{dy?for a 0.
Thedemodulator is implemented asa phase-locked loop:a VCO, a phasedetector,
anda loop filter. Thephasedetectormeasures thedifferencein phasebetweentheFSK
signalandthe VCO output.A positivevoltageis producedwhenthe receivesignal
leadsthe VCO, anda negativevoltageis producedotherwise.After beingfilteredto
minimizetheeffectsof noise,thephasedetectoroutputdrivestheVCO in sucha way
asto reducethephasedifference.Ideally,theinput controlvoltageof thedemodulator
VCO will be identicalto the input of the modulatorVCO' The loop filter, however,
necessarily slowsthe demodulator responseto minimizethe effectsof noise.
Frequencyshiftkeyinggenerallyprovidespoorererrorperformance thanPSK,par-
ticularly for multilevelsignalingin a confinedbandwidth.Older asynchronous mo-
demsfor datatransmission overtheanalogtelephone networkused FSK modulation'
Newersystemsdo not useFSK because the simplerimplementation comparedto bet-
ter performingtechniques is no longersignificant.

Mlnimum Shift KeYing

Oneparticularform offrequencyshift keyingthathasreceivedconsiderable attention
in raaio systemsis minimumshift keying (MSK) [51. MSK
Basically, is binary FSK
with the two signalingfrequencies selectedso that exactly 180o difference in phase
shift existsbetweenthe two frequencies in one signalinterval'In this mannerMSK
producesa maximumphasedifferentialattheendof anintervalusinga minimumdif-
i"r"n"e in signalingfrequencies. Furthermore,an MSK signalmaintainscontinuous
phaseat signalingtransitions.For thisreasonMSK belongsto a classof FSK signals
iefenedto ascontinuous-phase frequencyshiftkeying(CPFSK).Figure6'6 depictsa
representativeMSK waveform.Noticethatthereis exactlyone-halfcycledifference
betweena I signalanda 0 signal(? cyclesversus1'5 cycles).
A mathematical expression for MSK signalingcanbe derivedfrom Equation6.5,
wherenn(t) = mz(t)is a symmetricbinary NRZ signal and ACO = n/7. The result for
anyparticularsignalintervalis

rrtr
t/r- shnrllno
fo- 1,6tT h*2lt

Figure 6.6 Minimum shift keYing.

 286 DIGITAL
MoDULATtoN
ANDRADtosysTEMS

f ( T *E*u
q o ) ) (logic1)
lcosl'cr
x(r)={ \ (6.6)
l ( T E t . \
(logic 0)
f'o'[*'- a+qo)
where1/7is thesignalingrateandS6is thephaseatthebegiruringof thesignalinterval
(+n in Figure6.6).
Themainattractionof MSK is its comparatively
compactspectrum.Furthermore,
with anappropriatemeansof detection,MSK canprovideoptimumerrorperformance
in termsof the energy-per-bit-to-noise-density
ratio (E/No). The expressionfor the
powerspectraldensityof theMSK signaldefinedin Equation6.6 is

s(rrr):t6rt7[4"==f (6.7)
-Ot')
[n,
wheres = l(D- to.lr. The frequencyspectrumof an MSK signalis plottedin Figure
6'7, whereit is comparedto the frequencyspecrrumof pRlt(2-psx; signatingwittr
the samedatarate.Noticethat the MSK spectrumis morecompactandhasits first
spectralnull at 3/4Iinsteadof l/Ifor pRK.*
Minimum shift keyingis actuallyjust oneexampleof a generalclassof continu-
ous-phase modulation(cPM) techniques thatmaintaina constantamplitude,narrow
power spectrum,andgoodenor performance.For a goodoverviewandbibliography
of this classof modulationschemesseereferencet6l. cpM schemes havenot been
usedin point-to-pointmicrowaveapplicationsbecausethey do not providehigh in-
formationdensities.Many versionsof CPM havebeenusedin sat"llit" applications
wherenonlineartransponder amplifiersprecludethe useof modulationiechniques
with multipleamplitudelevels[7].

Gausslan MSK
Like MSK, Gaussian minimumshift keying(GMSK) producesa constant-amplitude
and continuous-phase RF signal.GMSK differs from MSK throughthe use of a
Gaussian baseband pulseshapein praceof a squarepulseshapefor MSK. Because the
Gaussian pulserisesanddecaysasymptoticallywith respectto a zeroresponse level,
it hasa muchmoreconstrained bandwidth.Althoughit is conceivablethat a GMSK
signalcouldbe generated by filteringthemodulatedsignal,a rypicalimplementation
[8] utilizesbaseband filtering,asshownin Figure6.8,whereit is contrasted to unfil-
teredMSK' TheMSK signalis generated by directFSK modulationof a carrierwith
a baseband signalthatis scaledin amplitudeto producea modulationindexor 0.5.A
modulationindexof this valueproducesthe differenceof l80o of phaseshift for the
two datavalues.one complicationof the bandwidthJimitingfilter of GMSK is the

*MSK
i. achrally more closely related to 4-PSK and therefore rs compaxed to it in a later
section of this
chapter.
 MODULATION 287
6.1 DIGITAL

Sigmlingr.to = D|ta rute= l/T

g fttctioh of outd+and Pdvir t

E
E
,f,-
a

I
I
&
ol out*o{-hnd
ponnr IMSKI

Fruqrrency(Hrl

Figure 6.7 Power spectraof unfiltered MSK and 2-PSK signals'

MSKWaveform
Unfiltered

NRZ Baseband Waveform

ModulationIndex * 0.5

(a)

Filter
PulseResPonse
Gaussian

A
Index= 0.5
Modulation

(b)

Figure 6.8 Comparisonof (a) directmodulationMSK and(b) GMSK'

 288 DtctrAL
MoDULATtoN
ANDRADto
sysrEMS
creationof intersymbolinterferencesimilar to partial-response
sy$temsdiscussed
laterin this chapter.In essence,
GMSK tradesa smallamountof adjacentchannelin-
terference for a smallamountof intersymbolinterference.
GMSK modulationis util-
in Chapterg andin cellulardigitalpacket
izedin GSM digital cellular[9] discussed
data(CDPD)applications.

6.1.3 Phase $hift Keying

The secondcategoryof angle-modulated, constant-envelope signalsis referredto as

phaseshift keying(PSK).Actually,oneform ofpsK hasalreadybeendiscussed as
phasereversalkeying(PRK),morecorlmonly referredto as2-psK, indicatingthat
eachsignalintervalusesoneoftwo phasesthatare lg0" apartto encodebinarydata.
Multiple-phase shiftkeyingis alsopossible.Four-psK(alsocalledepsK) andg-psK
arethemostcommonexamplesof multiple-phase pSK.
Phaseshift keying (which includes4-eAM describednext) is the mosrpopular
modulationtechniquefor intermediate informationdensityhigh-performance applica-
tions.The popularityis primarily dueto its constantenvelope,lnsensitivity to level
variations,andgooderrorperformance. Both z-pSK and4-psK providetheoretical
optimumerrorperformance in termsof a signal-to-noise
ratio (E/ d.
A generalexpression for n-aryphaseshiftkeyingis providedin Equation6.g.This
expression assumeslfi)7a modulationis employed.That is, thephaseshift from one
intervalto the nextcanrangeanywherefrom -190" to +1g0..It is po$sibleto devise
PSKsystemswith lowermodulationindicesthatallow only transitionsto neighboring
phases:

"tt=cosfco'.O9O) (6.8)

whereAf =Znln is theseparation betweena-djacent signalphasesandmn$)is a sym-

metricn-levelNRZ baseband signalwith levels+1, t3, . . . .
Examplesof typical 2-PSKand4-psK waveformsare shownin Figure6.g. Ttre
signalingratefor the4-PSKsystemis shownto be exactlyone-halfthez-psr signal_
ing ratesothatequaldataratesareprovided.Thesamefigurealsoshowscorrespond-
ing phasordiagramsof the signalingphasesof a cosinewaveasdefinedin Equation
6'8. other phaseorientations
arepossible.Theparticurarphases$hown,however,are
convenientfor laterdiscussions
relating4-psK systemsto othertypesof digitalmodu-
lation.

Quadrature Signal Bepresentailone

Despitethe somewhatexoticsoundingname,quadrature signalrepresentations
area
very convenientandpowerfulmeansof describingpsK signalsandmanyotherdigi-
tally modulatedsignals.Quadrature
signalrepresentations
involveexpressingan ar-
bitraryphasesinusoidalwaveformasa linearcombinationof a cosinewaveanda sine
 MODULATION 289
6.1 DIGITAL

Ph$e disgrim Timrwrwform

h)

Fharndirgrem Timewwgform
ft)

Figure 6.9 Phaseshift keying; (a) 2-PSK (b) 4-PSK.

is providedby
wavewith zerostartingphases.The derivationof this representation
the trigonometricidentity:

cos(to"t+ 0) = cosQcosro./- sin $ sin ro"t (6.e)

Notice that cosQandsin Qareconstantsover a signalinginterval andhencerepre-

sentcoefficientsfor expressing cos(ro"t+ $) asa linearcombinationof thesignalscos
O"t and sin co.f.Sincecos rrr"tand sin or./ are90" out of phasewith respect to each
said to be "in quadra-
other, they are ofihogonalin a phasordiagramand henceare
ture.tt
In essence,co$ Oct and sin tDcfrepresentbasis vectors in a two-dimensional phasor
diagram. The cosine signal is usually referred to as the in-phase or l signal, and the
sine signal is referredto asthe out-of-phaseor B signal' Table 6.2 provides an example

TABLE6.2 QuadratureSlgnalCoefllclentelor 4'PSK Modulatlon

Coefficients
Quadrature

DataValues cos ocf sin ool CompositeSignal

01 0.7Q7 4,707 cos(otf+ n/4)

00 -0.707 -0.707 cos(ru"f+ 3r/4)
10 4.707 0.707 cos(<o"t-3r/4)
11 0.707 0.707 co$(0)cl- ty'4)
290 DGIALMoDULATtoN
ANDHADto
sysrEMs

TABLE6.3 OuadratureSignalCoefficientefor g-pSKModutatlon

Quadrature
Coefficients

DataValues cos ocf sin o.f CompositeSignal

011 0.924 -{,383 cos(cu"f+ dB)
010 0.383 4.924 cos(ro"f+ 3r/8)
000 -0.383 -{.924 cos(o"t+ 5nl8)
001 -{.924 -o,383 cos(ro"f+ 7rl8)
101 -0.924 0.383 cos(ohf* 7rrle)
100 -{.383 0.924 cos(ocf- 5nl8)
110 0.383 0.924 cos(ro.f-3nl8)
111 0.924 0.383 cos(ro.f- dB)

of quadraturesignalrepresentations for the4-psK signalspresented in Figure6.9.Ta-

ble 6.3 providesa correspondingspecificationfor an g-psK systemusing signal
phasesasprovidedin thephasordiagramofFigure6.10.Thephasordiagramassumes
counterclockwise rotation,andhencethesinefunctionlagsthecosinefunctionby 90o.
Most of the rest of this chapterrelies heavily on quadraturesignalrepresentations
to describevariousmodulationconcepts, analyses,andimplementationr.

Modulator Implementatlone
A varietyof techniques
arepossiblefor implementingpsK modulators. As mentioned
whendiscussing PRK modulation,a 2-psK modulatorcanbeimplemented by merely
invertingthecarier (multiplyingby -l) for a logic 0 andby nof invertingfor a logic
l. someof the basictechniques usedfor generatingmultiple-phase psK signalsare
thefollowins;

dn 0r.t

Figure 6.10 Phasordiagramof B-pSKsignal.

 MODULATION 291
6.1 DIGITAL

L synthesisof the desiredwaveformsusingdigital signalprocessingat suitably

low carrierfrequencies(asin voicebandmodems).
2. Generating multiplephasesof a singlecarrierandselectingbetweenthephases
dependingon the datavalues.
3. Using controlleddelaysselectedthrougha switchingarrangement to provide
the desiredphaseshifts.Delaysareoften usedto generatethe separate signals
in method2.
& Generating thePSK signalsasa linearcombinationof quadraturesignals.

Noneof theforegoingtechniques representa directimplementation of multiphase

PSKmodulationasdefinedin Equation6.8. To implement Equation 6.8 directly,a de-
vice is neededthat producescarrier phase shifts in direct proportion to the levelsin
thebaseband signalmn(t).Exceptfor thespecialcaseof Z-PSK where a multiplier can
be usedto produce+180ophaseshifts,suchdevicesdo not exist'
Direct modulationby basebandsignalscanproducePSK signalsif a quadrature
signalimplementationis used,as indicatedin method4' Actually, two multilevel
baseband onefor thein-phase(I) signalandonefor the
signalsneedto be established:
(0)
out-of-phase signal. These baseband signalsarereferredto asr4(t) andtt?q(t)for
p
the1 and signals,respectively. The levelschosenfor thetwo baseband signalscor-
respondto the coefficientsneededto repre$ent a PSK signal as a linear combination
of the/ andQ signals.For example,Figure6.11 showshow an 8-PSKsignal,defined
in Table6.3,canbegenerated by addingtwo amplitude-modulated quadrature signals.
A blockdiagramof thecorresponding implementation is providedin Figure 2. This
6.I
particularform of modulatoris chosen,not so much asa recommendationfor actual
implementation,but becauseit demonstratesimportantmodulationconceptsand is
usefulin analyzingthe spectrumrequirements of PSK signaling'

Demod uI ator Irr p le m e ntati o n

Owing to the constantenvelope,*all PSK systemsmustbe detectedwith the aid of a
localreference.For Z-PSKsystems, theidealreference is coherentwith oneof thetwo
possiblephases.Whenthis referenceis multiplied (mixed) with an in-phasesignal,a
maximumpositiveoutputis obtained.Whenmultipliedby theoppositephase,a maxi-
mum negativeoutputis obtained.In this manner,2-PSK providesantipodalperform-
ancewhena local coherentreferenceis established. The demodulationprocessfor
2-PSKis presented in Figure6.4 andEquation6.4, wherethe mixing and filtering
processeffectivelyrecoversthebaseband signalruz(t).
The combination of a mixer and a low-passfilter shownin Figure6.4 is generally
referredto asa phase detector.The phase detectionpropertyis representedmathemati-
cally as
*Discussions
to this point have not considered the effects of filtering on constant-envelopesignals. A
heavily filtered PSK signal does not have a constant envelope. However, as long as filtering occurs after
channel nonlinearities (e,g., power amplifiers), the most harmful effect of a nonlinearity, spectrum
sprcading,is avoided.
29? DIGITALMODULATION
ANDRADIOSY$TEMS

tr(ll ' frr . cB @.r

rq {rl = ng ' rin o.r

t k l = r f ( r l + r Oi r l

ilt=fiQl
ilO r ln9t 0r = FhrF ol Jrh Intflil

Figure 6.11 Generationof 8-pSK signals by superposition of quadrature-amplitude-

modulatedsignals.

#r; = 1o*Ouss{cos(ro"r
+ 0) (2)cosocr}
= lowpass{cos
S + cosQcos2ro"t- sin2qrl
=COs0 (6.10)

wherelowpass{.}is a low-passfilter functiondesignedto removetwice carrier

terms.
Whendetecting2-PSKmodulation,a single-phase detectorindicateswhetherthe
receivedphaseis closerto 0oor to 180".Thedesiredinformationis directlyavailable
asthepolarityof thephasedetectoroutputcosQ.In multiphasesystems, however,the
informationprovidedby a single-phase detectoris inadequatefor two reasons.First,

Ampliturlc
moduhtid
Id{ml

Oonnrmerryrlopr
PSK$nd

$n adc t Amplltudt
modrlrted
0SCul

Figure 6.12 GeneralizedPSK modulatorstructure.

 MODULATION 293
6.1 DIGITAL

a measure of cos$ providesno informationasto whetherQis positiveor negative'Sec-

ond,theoutputof thephasedetectoris proportionalto the signalamplitudeaswell as
to cos$. Hencethemagnitudeof thephasedetectoroutputis meaningless unlessref-
erencedto the signalamplitude.
Both of the aforementionedproblemsare overcomeif a secondmixer and filter
measure thephasewith respectto a differentreference. As expected, thebestperform-
anceis obtainedwhenthesecond referenceis orthogonal to the first. Ify{r) is theout-
in
put ofthe first phasedetectordefined Equation 6.I 0, then the second phasedetector
outputyQ(r)becomes

+ 0) (2) sin rrl.rl

lB$) = lowpass{cos(o"r (6.11)
= _sin 0

Thesecondphasedetectornot only resolvesthepositive/negative phaseambiguity

but alsoeliminatesthe needto establishan amplitudereference. All decisionscanbe
basedon thepolarityof a phasedetectoroutputandnot on the magnitude.As a first
example,considerdetectionof the4-PSKsignalsdefinedin Table6.2'Noticethatthe
first databit in a pair is a 0 whenthephaseangleis positive(tt/4 or 3nl4) anda 1 oth-
erwise.Hencethefirst databit is completelyspecifiedby thepolarityof sin Q:theout-
put of the secondphasedetectoryA(f).Similarly,the seconddatabit is a I whenthe
phaseis it/4, indicatingthat the polarityofyr(fl providesall informationnecessary
to detectthe secondbit. The basicimplementation of a 4-PSK (QPSK)demodula-
tor/detectoris shownin Figure6.13.AIso shownis a 4-PSKmodulatorto emphasize
the relationshipsbetweenthe modulatorand demodulator.A 4-PSK systemis pre-
$entedspecificallybecause it is a popularsystemandbecause it is a usefulfoundation
for describingothermodulationtechniques'
An importantconceptto noticein *re 4-PSKsystemshownin Figure6.13is that
thereare,in e$$ence, two separatedatastreams.The modulatordividesthe incoming
bit streamso that bits are sentaltematelyto the in-phasemodulatorl andthe out-of-
phasemodulatorO. Thesesamebits appearat the outputof the respective phasede-
tectorsin the demodulator,wherethey areinterleavedbackinto a serialbit $tream.In
this mannertwo essentiallyindependent binary PSK channelsareestablished using
theorthogonalcarrierscosr.rlct andsin ocf. Thechannelsareusuallyreferredto asthe
I andSchannels,respectively. This techniqueof establishing two channelswithin an
existingbandwidthis sometimesreferredto asquadraturemultiplexing'
As long asthe carriersin the modulatorandthe referencesin the demodulatorare
truly orthogonal(coherence is maintainedfor bothchannelsin thereceiver),the1and
B channels do not interfere with eachother.Any amountof misalignmentin thesere-
lationshipscausescros$talkbetweenthe two quadraturechannels.Crosstalkalso
arisesif thereis unequalized phasedistortionin thetransmission channel.
At first thoughtit might seemthatquadrature multiplexingincreases the capacity
of a given bandwidth by a factor of 2. It must be remembered, however, that thebinary
PSK signal on each quadrature channel is a double-sideband signal. Hence theband-
width of the channel, without quadrature multiplexing,is only 507o utilized in com-
 ?,94 DIGITAL
MODULATIoN
ANDRADIoSYSTEMS

parison to a single-sidebandsy$tem. when quadraturechannels are used, a single-

sideband operation is no longer possible since the sideband separationprocess de-
shoys the orthogonality of the two signals.In essence,quadraturemultiplexing only
recoversthe loss of capacity incurred by the double-sidebandspecfrum.In fact, $ome
single-sidebandmodulators [10] possessa remarkable resemblanceto the
epsK
modulator shown in Figure 6.13.
Demodulation and detection of higher level psK systemsare complicated by the
fact that the use of only two referencesdoes not provide a simple meansof detecting
all databits. There are two basic ways in which simple decisions(positive versusnega*
tive) can be establishedto detect all data. One method is to establishmore references
in the receiver and measurethe phaseof the received signal with respectto the acldi-
tional references.The secondmethod is to use only two referencesand related phase
detectorsand generateall additional measurementsaslinear combinationsof the first two.

Frtqudrcy
D|tr Input HrcG
t 0 1 4-PSK$lgnrl
0 1 0

lflf
Q Chrnnd

Dt$ iltput
4-PISK Signal
r 0 1 1
0 t 0

Q Glunml
(h)

Figure 6.13 Four-PSK modulator-demodulator structure: (a) modulator; (D) demodulator-

detector.
 MODULATION 295
6.1 DIGITAL

for 8-PSKdetection.
references
Figure6.14 Receiver

As anexampleof thefirst method,considerthe8-PSKsystemdefinedin Table6.3

andshownin Figure6.10.Optimumdetectionfor this systemcanbe obtainedif two
additionalphasedetectoroutputsareprovidedwith respectto referencesat +ru/4and
-tc/4.Thetwo newreferences aredesignated A andB asshownin Figure6.14'
The ouputs of four phasedetectorscorrespondingto the four referencesaredeter-
minedasfollows;

+ 0Xz) sin to"f} = -sin S

)0 = lowpass{cos(ro"r
yu = lowpass{ cos(co"t
+ OXz)sin(rrl"r+ i r) }
=O.707cos0 - 0.707sin$ (6.12)
+ 0X2) cosoct} = cosS
yr = lowpass{cos(rrr.r
yA= lowpass{cos(ro"t+ 0X2)cos(co"t
* i n)}
= 0;707cos$ + 0.707sinQ

As an aid in determining the appropriatedecision logic, theseequationshave been

evaluatedfor each of the eight possible signal phasesand listed in Table 6.4. Exami-
nation of Table 6.4 indicatesthat the fust data bit is I whenever yg is positive. Simi-
larly, the seconddatabit is 1 whenevery1is positive. The third databit is a I whenever
bit is
)a,lr, and y6 are all positive or when they are all negative.Hence the third data
determinedas a logical combination of phase detector outputs' In summary,

D r =Q Dz=I Dt=AIB+AIB (6.13)

positive
whereDi is the lth databit and0, /, A, andB arelogic variablesrepresenting
outputsfrom yg, /r, )4, andyr' respectively.
296 DtcrrALMoDULATtoN
ANDHADtosysrEMs

TABLE6.4 Elght-P$KPhaeeDetactorOutpurs

Data Phase Yn YB Yt YA
011 nl8 -0.383 0.383 0.924 0.924
010 3rll8 4.924 4.383 0.383 0.924
000 5nl8 -0.924 {.924 -0.383 0.383
001 7r18 4,383 -0.924 -0.924 4.383
101 -hil8 0.383 -0.383 -0.924 -0.924
100 -5nl8 0.924 0,383 {.383 4.924
110 -3?r/8 0.9?4 0.924 0,383 4.383
111 4tlB 0.383 0.924 0.924 0,383

Anothermethodof detecting8-PSKsignals,whichavoidstwo extrareferences

and
phasedetectors,
is revealedin thephasedetectorEquation6.12.The exhamea$ure-
mentsyd andy6 canbe determinedas

-
h= 0.70'lyr O.707yn t6= 0.7O7y,
+ 0.707y, (6.14)

Hencethe Ja and)r measurements can be obtainedas linear combinationsof the

quadraturechannelphasemeasurements y7andJg, andno additionalphasedetectors
arerequired.Theresulting8-PSKdemodulator/detector is shownin Figure6.15.No-
tice that implementation of the linearcombinationsin Equation6.14canignorethe
magnitudeof the0.707multiplierssinceonly the signof theresultis needed.
The linear combinationsin Equation6.14 essentiallyrepresenta rotationof the
quadrature channelbasisvectorsthroughanangleofr/4 radians.By changingthean-
gle of rotation,thelinearcombinations neededfor otherphasemeasuremen6 areeas-

Figure 6.15 Eight-PSKdemodulator-detector

usingonly two references,
 MODULATION297
6.1 DIGITAL

ily determined. Hence all phase-detector-baseddemodulators can be implemented

with two phase detectors and as many linear combinations as needed.The general
equation for the linear combinationsproduced by a rotation of a radiansis

v"=v^coscL-y,slng y. = v^ $rn fl, + V, cOSg, (6.1s)

Beference and Clock Recovery

Thedemodulators di$cussed in theprecedingparagraphs all requirea local,phase-co-
herent,carrierreferencefor their operation.Furthermore,multiple-pha$esystemsre*
quire at leastone more referencein quadraturewith the first one. Recoveryof any
referenceis complicatedby thefact thatphaseshift keyingis a double-sideband -rap-
pressedcarier modulationsystem.In otherwords,thereis no discretespectralline at
the carrierfrequencyasthereis with someothertypesof modulation.In fact, theFCC
hasruledspecificallythatno spectrallinesareallowedin thefransmittedsignal.The
absence of a spectralline at thecarrierfrequencyis overcomeby usingoneof several
nonlinearprocessingtechniques[1]. After one coherentreferenceis established, a
quadraturereferenceis obtainedby delayingor differentiatingthe flust.
Clockrecoveryis obtainedin severalways.Oncecarrierrecoveryis accomplished
anddemodulation occurs,theclockcanbe obtainedby lockingontotransitionsin the
baseband signal.Baseband clockrecoveryoccursasthoughthesignalhasneverbeen
modulatedand demodulated. In contrast,the clock can sometimesbe recovereddi-
rectly from the modulatedsignal.If a PSK signalis heavilyfiltered,the envelopeis
not constantand,in fact, containsamplitudemodulationat the signalingfrequency.
Hencetheclockcanberecovered, independently of signaldemodulation, by envelope
detectinga heavily filtered PSK signal [2].
Clock transitionsareoften assuredby purposelyshifting thecarrierreferencehalf-
waybetweensignalpointsin everyinterval.Using4-PSK,for example,thereferences
wouldbe shiftedby 45o.Duringanyoneintervaltherearestill only four possiblesig-
nal statesseparated by 90o.However,thesignalstatesalternatebetweenbeingaligned
with thel andQ axesandbeingalignedat45', asshownin Figure6'9' Because a phase
shiftis ensuredwith everysymbol interval,both the (filtered) carier envelopeandthe
recoveredbaseband signalhave amplitude transitions. Without the referenceshifts,
properclockrecoveryrequiresa minimum density of data transitionsas described in
Chapter4.

D itfere ntial Detectl o n

AS an alternativetOrecoveringa Coherent reference,somesystemsmerelycompafe
the phasein the presentintervalto the phasein the previousinterval.The signalre-
ceivedin thepreviousintervalis delayedfor onesignalintervalandis usedasa ref-
erenceto demodulate thesignalin thenextinterval.Assumingthatthedatahavebeen
encodedin termsof phaseshift, insteadof absolutephasepositions,the datacanbe
"differential dete{tion," inher-
decodedproperly.Hencethis technique,referredto as
ently requiresdifferential encoding.
298 DIGITALMODULATIONAND RADIOSYSTEMS

In general,PSKsystemsrequiredifferentialencodingsincethereceiversnormally
haveno meansof determiningwhethera recoveredreferenceis a sinereferenceor a
cosinereference.- Furthermore,thepolarityof therecovered referenceis ambiguous.
Thuserrorprobabilitiesfor PSKsystemsaredoubledautomatically because of thedif-
ferentialencodingprocess.Differentialdetection,on the otherhand,impliesan even
greaterlossof performance sincea noisyreferenceis usedin thedemodulation proc-
ess.Typically,differentialdetectionimposesa penaltyof I to 2 dB in signal-to-noise
ratio[10].

PSK Specta
By far theeasiestwayto determinethespectrumof a PSKsignalis to analyzethebase-
bandwaveformsappliedto thequadrature channels. Owingto theorthogonalityof the
two channels,the signalsareuncorrelated, andthecompositespectrumis merelythe
sumofthe individual(identical)spectra.
In either?-PSKor 4-PSK systemsthe baseband signalis a symmetrictwo-level
NRZ waveform.Thecorresponding spectrumis thecommonsin(x)/xspectrumshown
in Figure4.2. High-levelsysrems(8-PSKor greater)usesymmetricmultilevelNRZ
baseband signalssimilarto thatshownin Figure4.16.ThemultiphasepSK baseband
signalis somewhatdifferentsinceunevenlyspacedlevelsasdef,rned in Table6.3 are
used.
As mentionedin chapter4, a multilevelNRZ signalhasthe samespectrumasa
two-levelsignal.Henceall conventionalPSK systemsproducea spectrumthat fol-
lows the sin(x)/xresponsedefinedin Equation4.1 but translatedto the carrierfre-
quency.tFigure 6.16 showsthe PSK spectrumfor two-, four-, and eight-phase
systemsdesignedto providethesamedatarate.Hencethehigherlevelsystemssignal
at lower ratesandhaveproportionatelynarTowerspectra.

PSK Error Pertormance

The errorperformatrce of any digital modulationsystemis fundamentally relatedto
thedistancebetweenpointsin a signalspacediagram.For example,a z-psK sy$tem,
asrepresented in the phasediagramof Figure6.9, is capableof optimumerrorper-
formancesincethe two signalpointshavemaximumseparationfor a given power
level (radiusof thecircle).In otherwords,one2*psK signalis the exactnegativeof
the other'Hence2-PSKmodulationprovidesantipodalerrorperformance asdefined
in Chapter4.
Theerrorperformance of a multiphasePSK systemis easilycomparedto a 2-psK
systemby determiningtherelativedecrease in theerrordistance(voltageoutputof a
properlyreferenced phasedetector).In additionto the error distance,however,the
relativevaluesof thenoisebandwidthsmustalsobeconsidered. (Recallthatthenoise
bandwidtheffectivelydetermines thevarianceof the noisesamples.)
*Absolute
phase can be determined if a particular pattern in the data sream such as a framing pattern is
,unambiguously related to some particular phase of the caxrier.
'The baseband
levels must be unconelated to each other to produce a sin(.r)/.rspectrum,If phasetransitions
from one interval to the next are restricted in some manner, the baseband levels are correlated. and a
different spectrum results.
 MODULATION ?99
6.1 DIGITAL

6
3
F

E
s \
E
E "o*\
T
€ I
l - I ? t .l 3 _E-
3T 2t 3r T 3T 2T 3T

Figure 6.16 Spectrumof unfilteredPSK signalscarryingequaldatarates.

The general expression for the distance between adjacent points in a multiphase
PSK systemis

d= 2 ,i" (6.r6)
[_N)
whereN is the numberof phases.
A generalexpressionof the bit error probability (or bit error rate) of an N-phase
PSKsystemis derivedin AppendixC as

Pu=*fu erf(z) (6.17)

where

,=,*F)u"*rt"'["+J
Equation6.17revealsthat,with respectto EblNg,4-PSKprovidesthe sameerrorper-
formanceasdoes2-PSK.Thus,asmentionedearlier,both systemsprovideoptimum
performance, but 4-PSKutilizeshalf asmuchbandwidth.The 4-PSKsystemhasan
error distancethat is 3 dB smallerthan the error distanceof Z-PSK.However,the
shortererrordistanceis offsetby a 3-dB decrease in thenoisebandwidth(indicating
a 3-dB reductionin noisepowerat the detector).For the 4-PSKsystemto havethe
samenoisepowerat the detectorit would haveto experiencea 3-dB greaternoise
spectraldensity.Henceconventionalsignal-power-to-noise-power ratios(SNRs)can
be misleadingparametersfor comparingdigital modulationsystem$.Howevet,as
mentionedin Chapter4, error rateperformancesin termsof SNRsare desiredwhen
300 DtctrALMoDuLAloNANDRADto
sysrEMS

E
o
t
=
E
t

8 e 1 0 r 1 1 2 t s 1 4 1 8 t 8 1 7
Enrqy-prrdt-E-noh-dindty mio A/Vo {dBl

Figure 6.17 Errorratesof PSKmodulationsystems.

 MoDULATToN
6.1 DtcrrAL 301

determiningthe effectsof interferenceor when specifyingerror rate$with respectto

measurable quantities.Figure6.17displaysthe errorperformance of 2-, 4-,8-, 16-,
and32-PSKasa functionof E6lNs.AppendixC providestherelationships neededfor
enor ratesin termsof SNR.

6.1.4 QuadratureAmplitude Modulation

As describedpreviously,a convenientmeansof representing phaseshift keyingwith

four or morephasesinvolvestheuseof quadraturesignals.In thecaseof 4-PSK,the
quadraturesignalsrepresenttwo separate channelsby virtue of the independence of
the basebandsignalsfor eachquadraturechannel.In higherlevel PSK systems,the
level of a baseband signalfor the1 channelis not independent of thebaseband level
for theQ channel(seeTable6.3or Figure6.I I ). After thebaseband signalshavebeen
established,however,thequadrature channelmodulationanddemodulation processes
areindependent for all PSK systems.
Quadrature amplitudemodulation(QAM) canbeviewedasanextensionof multi-
phasePSKmodulationwhereinthetwo baseband signalsaregenerated independently
ofeachother.Thustwo completelyindependent (quadrature)channelsareestablished
includingthebaseband codinganddetectionprocesses. In thespecialcaseoftwo lev-
els (fl) is
on eachchannel,the system identicalto 4-PSK andis oftenreferredto as
such.Higher level QAM systems,however,aredistincflydifferentfrom the higher
levelPSK $ystems. Figure6.18showsa signalconstellation of a I6-QAM systemob-
tainedfrom four levelson eachquadrature channel.Thedotsrepresent compositesig-
nal points while the hatchmarks on the axesrepresentamplitudelevels in each
quadraturechannel.Figure 6.19 showsa basic QAM modulatorand demodulator
structurealongwith,arepresentative waveformfor l6-QAM.
Noticethat,in contrastto PSK signals,theQAM signalshownin Figure6.I 8 does
nothavea constantenvelope. A constantenvelopeis maintained with PSKmodulation
by restrictingthe combinationof levels on the quadrature channels. A QAM system
doesnot restrictthe combinations sincethe levelson eachchannelareselectedinde-
pendenfly.ThusQAM modulationcannotbe usedwith saturatingamplifiers.

of I6-QAM modulation.
Figure 6.18 Signalconstellation
30? DIGITAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDHADIoSYSTEMS

Modulrtor Oetnodulrtor

Ftgure6.19 QAMmodulator-demodulator.

Thespectrumof a QAM systemis determined by thespectrumof thebasebandsig-

nalsappliedto thequadrature channels.Sincethesesignalshavethesamebasicstruc-
ture as the basebandPSK signals,QAM spectrumshapesare identicalto psK
spectrumshapeswith equalnumbersof signalpoints.Specifically,l6-eAM hasa
spectrumshapethatis identicalto I6-PSK,and64-QAM hasa $pectrumshapeiden-
tical to tr-PSK.
Eventhoughthe spechumshapesareidentical,the error performancesof the two
system$ arequitedifferent.with largenumbersof signalpoints,eAM systemsalways
outperformPSK systems.Thebasicreasonis thatthe distancebetweensignalpoints
in a PSK $y$temis smallerthanthe distancebetweenpointsin a comparableQAM
system.Figure6.20comparesthe signalpoinrsof a I6-QAM sysremwith the signal
setof a 16-PSKsystemusingthesamepeakpower.

r6-oi.u r6-P$K

Figure 6.20 Comparisonof I6-QAM and I6-PSK signalsets.

 MODULATION303
6,1 DIGITAL

The general expressionfor the distance between adjacent signal points in a unit
peak-amplitudeQAM systemwith /, levels on each axis is

d= {2 (6.r 8)
L-l

Equations6.16and6.18revealthatan n-aryQAM systemhasan advantage overan

n-aryPSK systemwith the samepeakpowerlevel.In termsof averagepowerlevels,
the QAM systemhasan evengreateradvantage. The following equation,derivedin
AppendixC, providesa generalexpressionfor the peak-to-average
ratio of a QAM
svstem:

Peakpower - L(L - I)2 (6.re)

Averagepower zZ!!l 1zi- t1?

Example6.1. Determinethe enor performance of a I6-PSK systemrelativeto a

I6-QAM systemwith the samepeak power level. Also determinethe relative
with respectto identicalaveragepowers.
performance

Solution. Sincethe two systemsprovideidenticalnumbersof signalpoints,they

signalat the samerateandrequirethe samebandwidthfor a given datarate.Thusthe
relativeerrorperformanceis completelydeterminedby therelativedistancesbetween
signal points. (When different signalratesare used,the effect of different noise
bandwidthsin thereceiver$mu$talsobe considered.) EvaluatingEquations6.16and
6.18indicate$that 16-QAMhasa 1.64-dBadvantage over 16-PSKfor a givenpeak
power.Equation6.19indicatesthat I6-QAM hasa peak-to-average powerratio of
2.55 dB. SincePSK $ystemshaveunity peak-to-average ratios,the advantageof a
16-QAMsystemovera 16-PSKis 4.19dB for equalaverage powers.

Theresultsof Example6.I showthat I 6-QAM is a significantlybettermodulation

formatthan 16-PSKfor applicationslike voicebandmodelsthathaveno technology
limits.- In digital microwaveapplicationsthe performance
advantage of I6-QAM is
diminishedby availableamplifier technology,but, nevertheless, it is at 16 signal
points that PSK modulationdefersto QAM modulationfor performancereasons.
Somefirst-generation digital radiosused8-PSKmodulation[13] and someused

'Voiceband
modems are not resticted by technology but by signal power limits to prevent intetference with
other signals in the network. It is ironic that these rcstrictions arise primarily from old FDM analog radio
systems in which a high-powered signal in one channel could create inter{erence (crosstalk) into other
channels. In a predominantly digital network the main signal limitation would be the saturation point of
PCM encoders(and possibly crosstalk in subscriberpairs). It is also ironic that increasing the signal power
ofa voiceband modem (V.34 and earlier) to falljust short ofthe PCM saturation point would not improve
performance in a mostly digital network. Performance of high-speed modems in this case is primarily
determined by multiplicative noise crcated by PCM companders[18].
304 DIGITAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDHADIoSYSTEMS

:21.96d8

Figure 6.21 256QAM andsteppedsquare256QAM.

I6-QAM [a] with comparable performance. Second-generation radiosuse64-eAM

[5] followedby third-generation radioswith 256-QAM [16, t7].
Reliableoperationof high-densitymodulationformarslike 256-eAM requiresex-
tremelylinearamplifiersto toleratethewide rangeof signalamplitudesandextremely
accurateadaptiveequalizersto removesmallpercentages of intersymbolinterference
that arisewhen a high-amplitudepulse is kansmittedadjacentto a low-amplitude
pulse.Amplifier andequalizerperformance requirementsarebasicallya functionof
thedynamicrangeof thesignalamplitudes*;

Dynamic roilg€ = lorog,ot"Tl (6.20)

The dynamicrangeof a squareQAM modulationformat canbe improvedby modi-

fying thesignalsetto eliminatecornerpointsthatproducehighpeakpowers.one such
techniquereferredto as 256-stepped squareQAM (256-sseAM) tlgl is shownin
Figure6.21,whereit canbe comparedwith the signalsetof conventional256-eAM.

Example6.2. Determinethe dynamicrangeof both the conventional256-eAM

signalsetandthe 256-SSQAMsignalsetshownin Figure6.21.

Solution. Usingintegralunitsalongeachquadrature
axisof l, 3,5,7,9,1 l, 13,and
15for 256-QAM,thedynamicrange(DR) is

/ t'-
q 2 - r - t^"
s2\
DR(256-QAM):lOlosro |l I
1 2 + 1 2|
\ , /
= 23.52dB
'Ifthe
quadrature carriers are perfectly recovered, intersymbol interference would only be a functio n ofthe
dynamic range along each axis. To make an allowance for quadrature carrier phase enor, which causes
interfercnce between I and p channels, the composite signal power is used.
 . 6,1 DIGITAL
MODULATION 305

Thehighestamplitudesignalpoint of 256-SSQAMis the (5,17)point.Thusthe dy-

namicrangeof the256-SSQAMsignalis

= lolog,o
DR(256-ssQAM) l'Hl -
\- J
:21.96 dB

The resultof Example6.2 showsthatthe peakpowerof 256-SSQAMis 1.56dB

lowerthanthepeakpowerof conventional 256-QAMfor the samesignalpoint sepa-
ration.Thusin a peak-powerlimited application,256-SSQAMcanoperatewith 1.56
dB moresignalseparation thancanconventional 256-QAM.Whenother,lesssignifi-
cantfactorsareconsidered, reference[20]reportsthata 140-Mbps256-SSQAMradio
at6 GHzhasa 2-dB performance advantage.
The theoreticalenor rateequationfor QAM modulation,derivedin AppendixC,
is identicalto themultilevelbaseband enorrateequationwith thesamenumberof lev-
els.This equation is usedto produceeffor ratecurvesfor 4-, 16-,64-,and256-QAM
modulationin Figure6.??.Table6.5 comparesthe most coillmonforms of digital
modulationusedin point-to-pointmicrowaveradiosystems.

Offeet Keylng
Becauseof the interdependence of the baseband signalsin highJevelPSK modula-
tion, the signaltransitionson thequadrature channelsnecessarily coincide.However,
sinceQAM systemsindependently modulatethe quadraturechannels,they are not
consffained to alignthesignalintervalson thetwo channels.Whenthesignalintervals
overlapeachotherby 507o(Figure6.23),themodeof operationis referredto asoffset
keying.Offsetkeying is commonlyusedon 4-QAM systems(morecommonlyre-
ferredto as4-PSKor QPSKsystems). Themainadvantage of offsetkeyingliesin the
abilityof thereference recoverycircuitryto becomesynchronized to theincomingcar-
ratiosthanconventional(aligned)QAM andQPSKsys-
rier at lower signal-to-noise
tems[21,22],

QAM Representation of Mlnimum Shlft Keying

Theprecedingdiscussionsof QAM sy$tems haveassumed theuseof baseband signals
with NRZ levelencoding.A moregeneralview of QAM allowsarbitrarypulseshapes
in generating
thebaseband signals.Oneparticularlyinterestingpulseshapeis a half-
sinusoidpulse;

(6.21)
A(t):cosffF I r < / <" +
zl
\ - )
where? is the durationof a sienalinterval.
306 DGtrALMoDUt-ATtoN
ANDRADtosysrEMs

10-l

\
\ \
\
t0-?
\ \

\ \
\
\ \
\
\ zEE-Ievel
l0-3
\ \ \
\ \

\
\ \
- 1o-4 \
e
E \
o
\ \
\
=
5
to
d 10-6
\ \ \ \
\
\ \

to4 \ \ \ \

0l
\

\l
\ \

l(r7 \

\
+ t6-i 32-lcvil
\
l0-€ \ \
9 10 lt 12 13 t4 t5 t8 r7 18 rg 2{t 2l
Avrage rnergy-per-bit-to - mis - dsrrlty rutio Eb/,Vo (dBl

Figure 6.22 Error rates of QAM modulation systems.

 6.1 DIGITAL
MODULATION307

TABLE6.5 Comparisonol VarlousDigitalModulatlonTechnlqussBasedon Equal

Data Rstes

Signal-to-Noise^Ratios
forBER= 10* (dB)

System Information EblNo

on the SNHat Decision Peak-to-Average
Designation Density(bp#Hz) Channel Circuit Hatio(dB)e
2-PSK 1 10,6 13.6 0.0
4.PSK,4-QAM 2 10.6 13,6 0.0
QPR Zb 1?,6 17.6 2.0
8-PSK q
14.0 't8.8 0.0
16.QAM 4 14.5 20.5 2.55
16-QPR 4b 16.5 24.5 4.55
16.PSK 4 18,3 24.3 0.0
32.QAM 5 17.4 24.4 2.3
64.QAM 6 18.8 26,6 3.68
aRetioof maximumsteady-state Bignalpowerto averag€signalpowerwith randomdata.MBasured on a
channelwithsquare-roolliltorpartitloning.
Dlna strictB€ns€,th6 signalbandwidthof a panial-response syst€mis no narrowerthan the th6orBtical
(Nyquist)bandwidthof a conesponding sybtem.As a practicalmann€r,however,the partial-
fulFresponse
re8pons€ systemsrequireabout17ol,lsssbandwidth [21].

pulseshapingof duration7 is usedon bothchannelsof an offset

If half-sinusoidal
keyedQAM system,thequadrature channelsignalsp(r) andq(r) canbe expressed as
follows;

= ai*,[r$J""-
p(t) +r f +t=,=+t)

Q(t)= aq'-[ff)-i" *"t ( 0 < r < I ) (6.22)

tr(rl=Dr(,|'cE

l ^^l l ^ l , l . l ' l".llo" l . l ' l ^ l

rln(dJl

Figure 6.23 Offsetkeyed4-PSKsignaling.

308 DGITAL
MoDULATtoN
ANDRADto
sysrEMS

wherea; andc, aredatavalues(tl) for the/ and0 channels, respectively,cos(ntlLT)

is shapingon the.lchannel,andsin(nrl?T)is shapingon thep channel.(Thesinefunc-
tion is usedto accountfor offsetkeying.)Addingthetwo quadrature signalstogether
andapplyingsomefundamental trigonometricidentitiesproducestheresult

x(t): p(t)+ q(t)

= a i c o l's [ + r +nr)
7J (a,=no)

( m \
= 4i cos - (a,+au) (6.23)
rrj
[*t
Equation 6.23 is essentiallyidentical to Equation 6.6 defining minimum shift keying.
Hence, except for a logicJevel transformation of data values, offset QAM with
sinusoidalpulse shapingis identical to MSK 15,241.The relationship is further dem-
onstrated in Figure 6.24, which shows how an MSK signal is generatedby offset
keyed quadraturechannel modulation with sinusoidalpulse shaping.

I-Channelbrrohnd: Dr(rl

,5rltl = Df(tl ' cor (o.rl

Q-Chennelbftsbrnd: Dg lrl

.$a(tl = Dq (rl . rin (<o.rl

$(tl = sr{tl +.So(rl

^ l r , ^l I t l r l r . l r " l r " l ^l l^ol ^ l o

w, =2tf, lo * 2'l5lt fi =a.isrt
Figure 6.24 MSK signalingproducedby offsetkeyedQAM with sinusoidalpulseshapes.
 MoDULATToN309
6.1 DterrAL

6
3
F

T
E
t

f,
I

Frnumcrr {Hzl

Figure 6.25 Powerspectraof MSK and4-PSKsignals.

TheseforegoingresultsshowthatMSK is very closelyrelatedto offset-keyed4-

PSK. The only differenceis in the useof half-sinusoidal baseband pulseshapesfor
MSK andsquarepulseshapesfor 4-PSK.Becauseof this closerelationship,it is in-
terestingto comparetheamplitudespectraof the two systemsin Figure6.25.As in-
dicated,theMSK spectrumhasits first spectralnull at a 507ohigherfrequencythan
4-PSK'sfirst null. Otherthanthis,theMSK spectrumis morecompactthanthe4-PSK
spectrumandis significantlylower in amplitudeat frequencies outsidethemainlobe
of thespectrum. ForthigreasonMSK is anattractivemodulationtechniquewherecon-
stantenvelopes andlittle or no filteringaredesired.Onesuchapplicationis on digital
satellitelinks with frequencydivisionsubchannels requiringtrans-
[7]. In applications
mitter filters, MSK hasno particularadvantageover 4-PSK and usuallyrequiresa
morecomplicatedmodulator.

6.1.5 CarrlerlessAmplitude and Phase Modulatlon

Carrierlessamplitudeand phase(CAP) modulation[25] is a specializedform of

QAM. As indicatedin Figure6.26,no explicitmodulationof a carrier(or carriers)oc-
curs.Instead,two separate modulatedsignalsaredirectlygenerated with DSP filter
functions:onefor anin-phasechannelandonefor a quadrature channel.Thein-phase
filter conveftsf channeldatadirectlyinto a filteredDSPcosinewavewhile thequad-
raturefilter converts0 channeldatainto a filteredDSPsinewave.In this mannerthe
symbolrateis lockedto animpliedcarrierembedded into thefilter algorithm.(Typi-
cally,theembedded carier frequencyis equalto thebaudratesothereis onecycleof
a "carrier"in eachsymbolinterval.)After fhein-phaseandquadrature-phase signals
310 DIGITAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDHADIoSYSTEMS

Figure6.26 CAPmodulator
blockdiagram.

areadded,the result is convertedto an analogsignaland f,rlteredto smooththe DSp

samplingfrequency.
CAP modulationis used in one versionof asymmetricdigital subscriberline
(ADSL) [26] and for a 51.84-Mbpsunshieldedtwisted-pairATM srandard[27].
ADSL applicationsaredescribedin Chapter11.

6.1.6 Partlal-ResponseQAM

Another popular modulationtechniqueis quadraturepartial-response signaling

(QPRS).As commonlyimplemented[28], a QPRSmodularoris nothingmorethana
QAM modulatorfollowed by a narrow-bandpass filter that "over filters" the quadra-
ture signalsand producescontrolledintersymbolinterferencein eachchannel.The
mostcommonapplicationof QPRSinvolvestwo levelson eachchannelbeforefilter-
ing andthreelevelsafterward(seeChapter4).
This systemis essentiallya 4-PSK systemwith partial-response filtering to in-
creasetheinformationdensity.As shownin Figure6.27,theeffectof partial-re$ponse
fiIteringis to produceninesignalpointsfrom theoriginalfour. In a similarmanner,a
16-QAMpartial-response system,with four levelson eachchannelbeforefiltering,
hassevenlevelsafterwardand49 signalpointsin all t291.

Edtor" filtfiing Afti. tlltfiing

Figure 6.27 QPRSsignalconstellations.

 \-

6.1 DIGITAL
MODULATION 31 1

Heiredcodne chonncl

Sigr|nl
sspsr|tiod
Truncetion NBw= 1/r =,/Ve
loll = OdB
(dueto prkingf

Cdinc chrnnol
-i
r

Signrl
rGpdratlon
Truncrtlon NBW= Z/tT =t/Iatz
lon = 2dB (2dBbolortl/n

withequaldatarates.
of QPSKandQPRSsystems
Figure6.2E Comparison

Althoughthemodulators of a QPRSsystemcanbeconventional QAM modulators,

the demodulator/detectorsmust be modified to accountfor the extra levels in the
waveform.After the signalis demodulated, the detectionprocessesfor eachchannel
areindependentandidenticalto the basebandPRSdetectionproceduresdescribedin
Chapter4.
Figure6.28compares a QPRSsystemto a QPSK(4-PSK)systemin termsof equal
peakpowerout of the modulator.The averagetransmitpowersaredifferent,how-
ever,becausethe partial-respon$e systemoverfiltersthe signalto reducethe trans-
mitted bandwidth.In practice, the informationdensityis increasedby about 177o
t231.
As discussedin Chapter4, partial-response filteringcutsthedistancebetweensig-
nal pointsin half, indicatinga 6-dB reduction in error performance. However,the
noisebandwidthof a PRSreceive filter is lower than the noise bandwidth of thecor-
respondingfull-response systemso that some of the enor distance degradation is re-
covered.For the filter systemsshownin Figure 6.28 the net performance loss of a
QPRSsystemis 4 dB. Notice,however,thatwith respectto power on the channel the
performance lossis only 2 dB.

6.1.7 Trellls-Coded Modulation

The 2-dB pedormancedisadvantage of PRS mentionedin the previoussectionas-

sumesthatdataaredetectedby makingharddecisionsonebit at a time.As described
in Chapter4, however,a PRSsignalhasredundancy thatoverlapstwo bit intervals.If
the signalspanningtwo intervalsbeforemakinghard
the detectioncircuitry processes
decisionstheperformance penaltycanbe recovered.Processing a redundantsignalin
312 DrcrTAL
MoDULATtoN
ANDRADto
sysrEMS

this way is an exampleof a maximumlikelihoodor viterbi decodingalgorithm[30]

for redundantsignals.If theredundancy is extendedto morelevelsandmoreintervals
andoptimallyprocessed, evengreatercodinggainsarepossible.As typicallyimple-
mented,theseextensions useextrasignalpointswith reskictedsequences (transitionrr
betweenpoints).Whenthe allowedsequences are represented with stateffansition
diagrams, theyform a trellis.Hencethetermtrellis-coded modulation(TcM) t3l, 3zl.
As mentionedin chapter4,TCM is very similartoconvolutionalcoding.Thema-
jor differenceis that convolutionalcoding addsredundantsymbols(increasesthe
bandwidth)but TCM addsredundantsignallevels(increases the signalspace).Both
$ystemsaredetectedin similar fashionsusingtrellis diagrams.The decodingalgo-
rithmsof both$ystems essentiallydeterminethemostlikely sequence of statesof the
tran$mitted codes,Thetransitionsbetweenstatesthendeterminethedata.
As a TCM example,considertheexpansionof a 4-PSKsignalsetto an B-psK sig-
nal setas shownin Figure6.29.Althoughthereareeightsignalpointsin the g-psK
constellation,only four pointscanbe freelychosenin any oneinterval.which four
pointscanbe chosenis dependent ofthe signalpointschosenin previousintervals.A
TCM demodulator/decoder thendetermineswhich of the allowedsignalsequences
mostcloselymatchesa received$equence beforemakingharddatadecisions.
Figure6.29 showsthat if datadecisionsaremadeoneintervalat a time. without
processing the redundancy, the errorperformance of ttreexpandedsignalsetis 5.33
dB worsethantheoriginalsignalset(a consequence of thenoisepowermarginof ad-
jacentsignalpointsbeingreducedfrom 0.5 to 0.146).Also shownin Figure6.29are
thenoisemarginsof morewidely separated signalpoints.TCM recoversthe5.33-dB
penalty,andmore,by ensuringall allowedsequences includesomeof thelargerdis-
tances.Furthermore, noisein only oneintervalis notlikely to producea decisionerror.
when four-statecoded8-PSKusesthetransitionrellis shownin Figure6.30,theper-
formanceapproaches a 3-dB improvementwith respectto uncoded4-psK t3ll.
To understand Figure6.30,it is importantto realizethatit represent$ statetransi-
tionsin theencodingprocess,not signalwaveforms.Theuseof thestatesin thisman-

4 (157.5)

or2= = 0.146
sinlae.s")
5 (202.5)
d3=sint+s")=0.S
dsz=sintoz.b") = 0.854
doz=sintggo)=1.0

Figure 6.29 EighrPSK signalpointsanderrordisrances.

 6,1 DIGITAL
MODULATION 313

Figure 6.30 Four-statetrellis for 8-PSKmodulation.

ner is just a convenientmeansof representing pasthistory.(All pasthistoriesareen-

capsulated intojust four states.)Transitionsfrom onestateto anotherarelabeledwith
the8-PSKsignalpointchosenfor encoding2 bits of data.Noticethatonly four of the
8-PSKsignalpointscanbe freelychosenandthat thesepointshavethe sarne$epara-
tion asuncoded4-PSK.The significantaspectsof the decodingproces$aresuflrma-
rizedasfollows;

1 . An allowed transition between two statescan occur with either of two signals,
which implies sequenceinformation does not help discriminate between those
two particular signals.However, the two signals in question are chosento have
maximal separation(noise margin 1) so redundancyis unnecessary.
2. Transitions that originate in different statesand terminate in any particular state
are encodedwith signalshaving noise power margins of 0.5.
3 . All sequencesthat begin and end in common statesare at least three intervals
long with minimum noise power margins of 0.5, 0.146, and 0.5. Thus the total
noise margin betweenany two minimum-length sequencesis 1.146.

It may be necessaryto discriminatebetweenseguencerl that arelongerthanthreebut

in all casesthe endpointsinvolvetransitionswith noisepowermarginsof 0.5' Thus
thenoisemarginis alwaysgreaterthan l, whichis 3 dB greaterthanthenoisemargin
of uncoded4-PSK.Determinationof the exacterrorrateof a TCM systemis much
moreinvolvedthanwheninterval-by-interval detectionis used.Reference [31] shows
314 DGTTAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDHADto
sysrEMS

that the bit error rate of coded 8-PSK asymptotically approaches3*dB improvement
with respectto 4-PSK as the noise margin would indicate.

Example 6.3. A receiver for a trellis-coded modulation system as shown in Figure

6.30 detects a phase sequenceof 20o, 220", and 10o. Determine the allowabre
$equenceof three signals with the closest distance to the given received sequence.
Assume the starting stateis stateB.

solution. To begin with we can determine the closest encoder signal phasesas
22.5",202.5o,22.5",whichcorrespondtosignalpoints l,5, l.ExaminationofFigure
6.30 indicates that this is a disallowed sequencebecausea 5 signal cannot follow a I
signal. If data were decidedon a symbol-by-symbol basis,an error would certainly be
made. By tracing the trellis from state A, a list of allowable state sequencescan be
determinedas provided in Table 6.6. For eachtransition, the most likely signal of each
pair of signals that can produce a particular transition is indicated. The symbol errors
(in degrees)for eachof thesesignalsis then determinedfollowed by the total sequence
error. As indicated, the most likely statesequenceis cAA (signal sequence:1,6,0).

Although the result of Example 6.3 indicatesone particular sequenceis more likely
than any other, there are two other allowable sequences(l4l and 162) that are fairly
close to the most likely signal sequence.Notice that these two sequenceshave end
states(C and B) that are different than end stateA ofthe selectedsequence.Thus, there
is more information to come as to which is the most likely sequence.Becausestates
A and B have no coillmon allowed signals, the next symbol will provide additional
discrimination between 160 and 162. The very next signal will not help discriminate
between 160 and 141 but the signal following that will. A thorough determinationof
the most likely transmitted signal sequenceneedsto consider other possible starting
phasesand, consequently,previous signal values. (This is an exerciseleft to the stu-
dent.)
Coded 8-PSK TCM hasbeenusedin satellitecircuits [33] where nonlinearitiesdic-
tate the use of a constant-envelopesignal. TCM with higher density eAM signal sets

TABLE6.6 Sequenceand Error Det€rmlnatlonfor Example6.3

States Signals SymbolEnors TotalEnor

cBc 141 ?,5,62.5,12.5 77.5
DDD 351 9?.5,17.5,12.5 122.5
CAA 160 2.5,27.5,32.5 62.5
DCB 370 92.5,72.5,32.5 197.5
CBD 143 2.5,62.5,102.5 167.5
DDC 353 92.5,17.5,102.5 212.5
CAB 16? 2.5,27.5,57.5 87.5
DCA 372 92.5,72.5,57.5 222.5
 MODULATI0N 315
6.1 DIGITAL

voicebandQAM modemssuchasthe 14.4-kbpsV.33 [3a] and

is usedin high-speed
28.8-kbpsV.34 [35]. TCM can alsobe usedin conjunctionwith MSK modulation
t361.TCM hasbeenutilizedin point-to-pointmicrowaveradiossuchasthe 155-Mbps
6G150MB radioof NEC.The modulationformatis 128-QAM.NEC refersto TCM
asmultilevelcodedmodulation(MLCM).

6.1.8 MulticarrlerModulation

In all of themodulationformatsdescribed to thispointit hasbeenimplicitly assumed

thatmodulationoccurson a singlecarrier,or possiblyon two quadrature carriersop-
eratingat the samefrequency.Multicarriermodulation(MCM) involvesdividingthe
datastreaminto multiple, lower ratesffeamsthat aretransmittedin parallelon multi-
ple carrierfrequencies. AlthoughMCM hasbeenutilizedin somespecialapplications
in the past[37],It is theemergence of DSPtechnologythatallowseconomicimple-
mentationof multiplemodulatorsanddemodulators for commercialapplications. The
mostcommonmeansof implementingMCM utilizesfastFouriertransforms(FFTs),
asshownin Figure6.31.Sourcedataaredemultiplexed datastreamsfor
into separate
eachsubchannel. The datafor eachsubchannel arethenindependently encodedinto
discrete-level complexnumbersrepresenting the amplitudesof quadraturechannel
carriers.An inverseFFI transformsthe complex$pectrumcomponents into a time-
domainwaveformthat is convertedto analogandtransmitted.
Thebasicstepsof theprocessarereversed in thereceiverwheretheincomingtime-
domain waveformis sampledand fed to an FFT that recoversa complexspectrum'
The spectrumcomponents arethenprocessed asindividualQAM (or possiblyPSK)
signalsto decodethe data,which arethen multiplexedbackinto a compositedata
stream.Not includedin Figure6.31areancillaryfunctionsof equalizationandclock
recovery.Normally,onefrequencycomponentis dedicatedasa pilot signalthatcar-
ries clock informationfbr all subchannels.Amplitudeequalizationinvolvesmerely
scalingtheFFT componentamplitudesat theoutputof theFFT.Amplitudeequaliza-
tion may not evenbe requiredif PSK modulationis utilized because,eventhough
theremaybe amplitudedistortionin thechannel,within eachnarrowsubchannel the

InvstEe
Encode FFT

Figure 6.31 Multicarrier modulationutilizing fast Fourier transforms.

316 DtctrALMoDULAIoN
ANDRADto
sysrEMS

distortion is essentiallyflat, which implies that PSK data can be recoveredby merely
determining the phaseof each complex frequency term.
Multicarrier modulation with an FFT implementation is commonly referred to as
discrete multi-tone (DMT) in North America and as orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) in Europe. (The term "orthogonal" occurs becausethe fre-
quency components of an inverse FFT are harmonically related and therefore have
zero-valuedcross-correlationproducts.)The terms DMT and OFDM are interchange-
able with the exception that in some OFDM applicationsit is understoodthat all sub-
channels utilize the $ame form of modulation with the same number of bits per
channel. In DMT systemsthe modulation of the subchannelsis more general so that
different dataratescan be carried on different subchannelsdependingon the transmis-
sion quality of the respectivesubchannels.A principal application of DMT is ADSL
[38] standardizedby ANSI committee TlEl.4. OFDM is specifiedby EuropeanTele-
communications standards Institute (ETSD as the modulation format for Digital
Video Broadcasting(DVB) t391.
One of the most attractive featuresof DMT is the inherent ability to match an in-
formation signal spectrum to a channel response.An example of such a system is
shown in Figure 6,32 that is representativeof an ADSL application on subscriberwire
pairs. A significant impairment of using existing wire pairs for high-bandwidth clata
is the possiblepresenceof bridged taps.ISDN basic rate installationsrequire removal
of bridged taps. In an ADSL implementation bridged rap$are accommodatedby de-
tecting their presenceduring channel characterizationand then transmitting only as
much information in the affected subchannel(s)as can be reliably supported.Notice
that a conventional wideband data signal would experiencesignificant distoftion if
ffansmitted on the channel of Figure 6.32. Thus, a significant amount of amplitude
(and probably phase)equalizationwould be required.

Bridgedtap notch

Narrowband
Channel interference
response

Information
densityper
subchannel

Frequency

Figure 6.32 Use of DMT modulationto matchsubchanneldatacapacityto transmission

channel.
 PARTITIONING 317
6.2 FILTER

Figure6.32showsthata DMT systemassignsinformationdensitiesto individual

subchannelsbasedon respectivesignal-to-noise ratios determinedduring channel
Includedin theprocessis detectionofnanowbandinterference
characterization. that
causesa subchannel Noticethata conventional
to be eliminatedaltogether. wideband
systemmightbetotallydisabledby thenarowbandinterference.* For moredetailson
DMT implementations seetheADSL discussion in ChapterI l.

6.2 FILTERPARTITIONING

Thetransmittingandreceivingequipmentof a digitalradiosystemtypicallycontains
severalfilters that limit the signalspectrumto somedegreeor another.Sincethe end-
to-endfrequencyresponse of thechannelmustconformto certainbaseband pulsere-
sponseobjectives,thedesiredcompositefilter functionmustbepartitionedamongthe
individualfilters.Normally,a numberof the filters canbe designedto providetheir
respectivefunctionswithoutsignificantlyimpactingthe channelpulseresponse. For
example, a mixing process producesa sum and a of
difference the input frequencies.
Only the sumis wantedwhenmixing upward,or only the differenceis wantedwhen
mixing downward.Usuallytheundesired termscanbeeliminatedby a filter thatdoes
not significantlyaffectthepulseshapeof theunderlyingsignal.Thefollowingdiscus-
sionassumes thatonly two filters significantlyinfluencethebaseband pul$eresponse;
onein the transmitterandone in the receiver.

6.2.1 Adlacent-Channel Interference

One basic pil?o$e of the radio channelreceivefilter is to minimize the amountof

noisepresentat the detector.A secondpurposeof this filter is to rejectenergyin ad-
jacentradio channels.Energyfrom an adjacentchannelthat doesnot get rejectedis
referredto as adjacent-channel interference.In this discussion,we assumethat the
spectrumshapes in theadjacentchannelsareidenticalto thedesiredspectra. This situ-
ation is shown in Figure 6.33, which depictsa number of frequency-division-multi
plexeddigitalchannels.
As indicatedin Figure6.33,adjacent-channel interferenceoccursasa resultoftwo
phenomena. First, the receivefilter passesunwanted power P1 becausethe adjacent
signalis notcompletelytruncatedto preventoverlap thedesiredchannel.Thesec-
into
ond sourceofinterference,P2,occursbecause thereceivefilter doesnot provideinf,t-
nite attenuationof power properly belongingin the adjacentchannel.Unwanted
powerP1is minimizedby narrowingthetransmitfilter, while P2is minimizedby nar-
*Totally
avoiding the effects of high-energy narrowband interference in a DMT sylttem is not as simple as
it might seem, If the interference is present at the input to the A,/D converter in the recei ver, the interference
may causeA/D saturation(orincreased quantizationnoise ifa compandedconverter is utilized). Thus, total
avoidance of narrowband interference requires front-end norching of the signal. A front-end notch could
also be used in a conventional wideband system followed by decision feedback equalization to
accommodate the inserted distonion [401.
318 D|GITAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDRADIo
SYSTEMS

rowing the receive filter. Since channel pulse responseconsiderationsconstrain the

compositefilter function to someminimum width, one componentof the interference
cannotbe reducedwithout increasingthe other. Hence the total filter function must be
partitioned in some marlner to minimize the sum of Pr and p".

6.2.2 Optlmum Partitionlng

The optimumfilter designfor anyparticularapplicationmay dependon a numberof

factorsincludinglegislatedemissionspecifications, availabletechnologyfor power
amplifiers,theavailabilityofcrosspolarizationfor adjacent*channel isolation,andthe
relativeeffectsof noiseversusadjacent-charurel interference.
In theabsence of exter-
nal constraints, a classicalresultattributedto Sundet4ll andalsopresented in refer-
ences[42] and [43] determines optimumpartitioningasonemarchingthe outpurof
the transmitfilter to the squareroot of the desiredchannelresponse.The desiredout-
put spectrumY(or)is obtainedas

Y(or)= Holo);I1r*(ol)X(ro) (6.24)

whereX(ro) = channelinput spectrum

flrx(rn) = transmitfilter response
/1nx(ot)= receivefilter response

Thentheoptimumpartitioningis obtainedas

Adi*rnt De$rrd Adleent

rlgnrl tignrl rl0nrl

Rffihrfi filtrr.E|pofite

Figure 633 Adjacent-channelinterference.

 6.2 FILTEHPARTITIONING 319

lflo*(o)l =lY(rt)llt?

lar*(ru)l=H (6.25)

Equation6.25def,rnes thefilter amplitudere$ponses to minimizetheadjacent-channel

interferenceunder the condition tttat the adjacentchannelscontainidentical signals
with identicalpowerlevels.In addition,if thetransmittedspectrumffty(ro)X(ro) is the
complexconjugateof thereceivefilter response Hs;q(o),thereceivefilter is matched
to the channelspectrum,andthe bestpossibleerror performanceis obtainedwith re-
spectto signalpoweron thechannel.
Partitioningasdefinedby Equation6.25is shownin Figure6.34for a pulseinput
anda raisedcosineoutput(seeAppendixC). Eventhoughonly baseband signalspec-
is
tra areshown,theconcept extended easily to passband filter functions.
AlthoughEquation6.25providesa soundtheoreticalbasisfor determiningtheop-
timum filter partitioning,practicalconsiderations of a particularapplicationmay re-
quire deviationfrom the "optimum." Oneproblemthat arisesin digital microwave
radiosis relatedto thepeakat thebandedgesof thetransmitfilter in Figure6.34.With
a passivefllter this peakcanbe obtainedonly by insertinglossinto the midbandre-
sponrte. If the transmitpowercanbe increasedascompensation, no ill effectsresult.
However,theoutputlevelof manydigitalmicrowaveradiosis limitedby thetechnol-
ogy of microwavefrequencypoweramplifiers(a few wattstypically).Sincethesera-
dios are device power limited, midbandinsertionloss cannotbe overcomeand
thereforesubtractsdirectlyfrom thereceivedsignallevel.
In device-power-limited applicationsthe optimumhansmitfilter is onehavinga
flat response in thepassband. To achievethedesiredchannelresponse at thedetector,
the receive filter mustthen be peaked at the band edges. Channel insertion lossesat
this point do not degrade performance $ince both the signal and fhe noise ate attenu-
atedequally.However,the peaks havetheundesirable effect of increasing the receiver
noisebandwidthand the P1componentof adjacent-channel interference. Although
theseincreasesrepresenta poorerperfonnancethanthat obtainedby theoreticallyop-
timum partitioning,the degradationis not a$ Sreatas the insertionloss neededto
achievethe "theoreticaloptimum."As onefulther note,it shouldbe mentionedthat

ilob. Nnd
Infirfafdftot

excitationand raised-cosine
Flgrrre 6.34 Theoreticaloptimum filtering for square-pulse
output.
320 DrcrrALMoDULATtoN
ANDHADtosysrEMS

not all theoretically optimum transmit filters havea peak at the band edges.In particu-
lar, partial-responsesystemsdo not require band edge peaking (seeAppendix C).
Another aspectof the optimum designto be kept in mind is that optimum error per-
formance is achievedwith respectto signal power on the channel,and not with respect
to unfiltered transmitterpower. It is this featurethat allows any amount of attenuation
to be inserted into the charurelat the transmitter and not degradethe optimum perform-
ance. If performanceis measuredwith respectto unfiltered transmit power, the best
transmit filter may be different from that defined in Equation 6.25. Not only would
less midband attenuationbe desirable,as discussed,but it might also be desirable to
widen the transmit filter response.This decreasesthe truncation loss in the kansmit
filter so the receive filter can be narowed to decreasethe receiver noise bandwidth.
As an extreme example of how widening the transmit filter can improve error rate
performance,consider removing the transmit filter and incorporating it into the re-
ceiver. For a given output at the power amplifier, the signal at the detector is un*
changed.The receiver noise bandwidth, however, is reduced becausethe composite
filter is nilrower than the original receive filter. Hence a higher signal-to-noiseratio
is presentat the detector.
The penalty incurred for removing the transmit filter, of cour$e, is a greatly in-
creasedP1componentofadjacent-channelinterference.Ifadjacent channelsdo not ex-
ist or if they are adequatelyisolated by cross-polarization(i.e., if the systemis noise
limited), the performance can be improved by moving some of the transmitter ffunca-
tion lossesto the receiveruntil adjacent-channelinterferencematchesthe noise. Keep
in mind, however, that if the sy'rtemis adjacent-chamel interferencelimited, the op-
timum partitioning is indeed defined by Equation 6.25.

6.3 EMISSION
SPECIFICATIONS

Oneunavoidable
consideration
whendetermining
thefilterfunctions
of a transmitter
and receiver is the out-of-band emission specificationsestablishedby the FCC in the
united states or the ITU-R in other parts of the world. In many casesthe emission
specificationsdictate a narower transmit filter than the theoreticaloptimum. Thus the
partitioning aspectof the filter designsmay be predetermined.
It is somewhatironic that the FCC emissionspecificationswere intendedto control
adjacent-channelinterferencebut, in somecases,actually causethe interferenceto in-
creaseby forcing the use of a wider than optimum receive filter. The FCC specifica-
tions, however, were intended to protect adjacent analog radio channels from
out-of-band digital emissions.They were not selectedwith adjacentdigital channels
in mind.
In January 1975, when the FCC establishedthe out-of-band emission specifica-
tions, two separatespecificationswere established;forradios operatingbelow 15 GHz
and for radios operating above l5 GHz. The emission limitations for operationbelow
l5 GHz are more restrictive than those for operation above 15 GHz becausethe lower
frequencieswere heavily used for analog FDM-FM radios, which are more sensitive
to interference.The higher frequencieshave not beenusedextensively becauseof vul-
 SPECIF|CATIONS321
6.3 EMISSTON

nerability to rain attenuation.Thesefrequenciesare usedfor short-distance,special-

putposeapplicationsandarenot ascongested asthelower frequencies. Initially, the
mostpopularbandsfor digitalmicrowavewere I I and6 GHz.
Theemissionlimitationsfor operationbelow 15GHz are

A = 35 + l0log,oB + 0.8(P- 50) (P > 50) (6.26)

whereA = powerin 4-kHzbandrelativeto meanoutputpower(dB)

B = authorizedbandwidth(MHz)
P = percentremovedfrom carrierfrequency(50 is thebandedge)

In addition,the attenuation A mustbe at least50 dB everywhere outsidethebandbut

doesnot need to exceed 80 dB at any point. Notice that the emission limitationsare
not $pecified in terms of absolute power levels, but only relativeto the transmitted
power.Thustheseemissionlimitationsdo not constraintheoutputpowerlevelof the
radio.Microwaveoutputpowersareoftenconshained by microwaveamplifiertech-
nology. (A limit of 10 W of ouryut power does exist when technologycanreachit')
Figure 6.35 displays the emission mask for I 1-GHz radios usinga40MHz of band-
width.Also shown is the power spectrum of a 90-Mbps 8-PSK radiousinga signaling
rateof 30 MHz. To be compatible with the emission specification, the $-PSKpower
spectrumis shown in terms of power per 4-kHz band, The difference betweenthesig-
nal spectrumand the FCC mask represents the minimum attenuation requiredof the
transmitfilter. The filtered 8-PSK signal thereby provides an information densityof
=
90/40 2.25bpslHz. This is the basic modulation and frltering format used by Col-
lins/Rockwell in their 9O-Mbps digital radio, the MDR-I1 [13]'
Theemissionlimitationfor microwavebandsabove15GHz is definedas

PorYrrin {kHr bmcl rclstir'c to

mcln outFut potw {dBl

FCCrmidon limitrtiom

SX $.ct.um Fowr/{ kHr

(3OirHt $gilllne .rtrl

-60

*70

-H)

h
Frnqucncy(MHrl

Figure 6.35 FCC emissionmaskat I t GHz anda 90-Mbps8-PSKspectrum.

 322 DIGITALMODULATION
ANDRADIOSYSTEMS

A = l l + 1 0 1 o g , o B+ 0 . 4 ( p - 5 0 ) (p>50) (6.27)

where A = attenuationin l -MHz band below mean output power (dB)

B = authorizedbandwidth (MHz)
P - percentremoved from carrier frequency

The attenuationA must be at least I I dB but does not have to exceed56 dB.
In conjunction with the emission limitations, the FCC has stipulated that no dis-
cretelines exist in the transmittedspectrum[44]. Thus no carrier componentscan exist
and no repetitive data patterns are allowed to occur. The repetitive data pattems are
effectively eliminated by using a scramblerin the transmitter and a descramblerin the
receiver. As mentioned already, PSK and QAM are forms of double-sidebandsap-
pressed carrier modulation so that the carrier terms are eliminated automaticallv as
long as modulation is continuous.

6.4 HADIOSYSTEMDESIGN

Theforemost
design
requirement
of apoint-to-point
radiosystem
for telephony
is op-
erational dependability,usually referredto as availability. Availabitity is expressedas
the percentageof time that a systemprovides a specified minimum quality of service.
with analog systems,minimum performanceis determinedby the noise power in the
receivedsignal.The performanceof a digital systemis determinedby the bit error rate.
Typical objectives for bit error rates range from l0-3 for voice trafTic to 10-6or l0-7
for data traJfic. Recall that a bit error rate of l0+ correspondsto the thresholdofper-
ceptibility fbr errors in a PCM voice signal. Typical designobjectivesfor microwave
radio systemsspeciff availability on rhe order of gg.g\vo [45, 46]. Hence the maximum
acceptableaccumulation of outage,due to all causes,is on the order of z hr per year.
Radio systemavailability is dependenton equipmentreliability and path propaga-
tion characteristics.The high-availability objectivesof a typical radio systemmandate
redundalt equipmentand often require redundantpath$.The needfor redundantpaths
is determinedby the likelihood of atmospheric-inducedoutages(rain attenuationor
multipath interference).Rain is a dominant considerationat higher carrier frequencies
(above lt GHz), and multipath interference must be considered at all frequencies.
Multipath fading is dependenton prevailing climate and terrain.
Redundantradio equipment typically operatesin either a backup or a hot-standby
mode with automatic protection switching. The transmissionpath is backed up with
sparechannels(freguency diversity) or sparepaths (spacediversity receivers).In ex-
treme ca$e$a backup route may even be utilized.

6.4.1 FadeMargins

The main technique usedto circumvent atmospheric-inducedoutagesis to provide an

exffa $trong signal at the receiver during normal path conditions. The difference be-
 6.4 RADIO DESIGN 323
SYSTEM

tween the normal receivedpower and the power required for minimum acceptableper-
formance is referred to as the fade margin. Greater fade margins imply less frequent
occurrencesof minimum performance levels. Radios operating in higher frequency
bandsgenerally require greaterfade margins becausethey are more susceptibleto rain
attenuation.A 50-dB fade margin is typical for a digital radio at I I GHz, while a 40-
dB fade margin is typical for lower microwave frequencies.
The amount of fade margin actually required for a particular route dependson the
probability of multipath-induced fades and heavy rainfall occurrences.Thus drier cli-
matespermit lower fade margins, thereby allowing greaterrepeaterspacing.In some
mountain-basedmicrowave links in the western United States,microwave hops can
be 100 miles long. By comparison,the averagehop in other parts of the country is less
than 30 miles long.
When large fade margins are provided, the received signal power during unfaded
conditions is so strong that bit errors arevirtually nonexistent.Nevertheless,problems
with extra strong signals do exist. Namely, automatic gain control in a receiver must
operateover a wide dynanric range.If the maximum signal level into the demodulation
and detection circuihy is not controlled, saturationis likely to degradepetformance,
especially in high-density modulation formats such as 64- or 256-QAM, where infor-
mation is encodedinto the signal amplitudes.
To minimize dynamic rangerequirementsin a receiver and reduceinterferencebe-
tween systems,adaptive transmitter power control (ATPC) is sometimesused [47].
ATPC usesa feedback data link from a receiving station to control the output power
of a transmitting station.Thus when excesspower is unnecessary,it is not used' ATPC
is commonly used in digital mobile telephone$ystemswhere interferencecontrol is a
primary concern.

6.4.2 SystemGain

One of the most impoltant parametersused to characterizedigital microwave system

performanceis the systemgainA,. Systemgain is defined to be the difference,in deci-
bels, of the transmitteroutput power and the minimum receivepower for the specified
error rate;

fr,\ (6.28)
Ar= r0ros,o
['p;j
where P.1= transmitter output power
Pn = r€ceive power for specified error rate

The minimum acceptablereceive power is sometimes referred to as the threshold

power and is primarily dependenton the receiver noise level, the signal-to-noiseratio
required by the modulation format, and various system degradationssuch as excess
noise bandwidth, signal distortions, intersymbol interference,carrier recovery offsets,
 324 DIGITAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDRADIoSYSTEMS

timingjitter, andcouplingandfilter lossesthateitherattenuate the signalor increase

thenoiselevel.
Noisepowerin a receiveris usuallydo:ninatedby thermalnoisegeneratedin thefront-
endreceiveramplifier.In thiscase,thenoisepowercanbe determinedasfollows:

pN = (FXNfl(B)

= F(kTo)B (6.2e)
whereF= thereceivernoise figure
No= thepowerspectraldensityof thenoise
B= thereceiverbandwidth'
ft = 1.38(10)-23is Boltzmann's
constant
7o= theeffectivereceivertemperatures
in degreesKelvin

Equation6.29 essentiallystatesthat the receivernoisepower is determinedby the

spectralnoisedensityof the receiverinput resistance
andthe additionalnoiseinho-
ducedby the amplificationprocess(noisefigureF). Normally,a referencetempera-
tureof 290 K is assumed sothatthethermalnoisedensity(ftTo)is 4 x 10-21wFIz.
The noisefigure of any deviceis definedasthe ratio of the input signal-to-noise
ratioto theoutputsignal-to-noise
ratio;

(S/Mi,
r_= - (6.30)
(s/N)out

In effect,thenoisefigurespecifiestheincreasein noisepowerrelativeto theincrease

in signalpower.sinceall physicaldevicesinhoducenoise,thenoisefigureofany sys-
tem is alwaysgreaterthan I andis usuallyexpressed in decibels.If a systemhasno
gainor attenuation,thenoisefigureis exactlyequalto theratioofoutputnoi$eto input
noise.Noisefiguresof low-noisemicrowaveamplifierstypicallyrangefrom z to 5
(3-7 dB). Radioreceivernoisefiguresaretypically6-10 withouta low-noiseampli-
fier.
combiningEquations6.28and6.29andincorporaring a termD for thedegradation
from idealperformance producesthefollowing generalexpression for systemgain;

A,=ro**,,[ffi*rJ-" (6.3
r)

whereSNRis thetheoreticalsignal-power-to-noise-power
ratiorequiredfor themaxi-
mum acceptableerrorrateandD includesall degradations
from idealperformance.
-Typically,
B is assumcd to be the minimum theoretical bandwidth for the particular modulation format in
use. Excess bandwidth required by practical implementations is then incorporated rnro a sysrem
degradation factor.
 DESIGN 325
6.4 RADIOSYSTEM

Noticethatthe SNRtermin Equation6.31refersto signal-power-to-noise-powerra-

tios andnot EblNO.Therelationshipbetwe€nSNRandE6lNsis providedin AppendixC.
Thesystemgain,in conjunctionwith antennagainsandpathlosses,determinesthe
fademargin:

Fade margin = A, + 6r + GR + 20 log,n fu-Af - A0 (6.32)

where 6i1 = transmitter antenna gain (dB)

Gq = receive antennagain (dB)
L = tran$mittedwavelength
Af = antennafeeder and branching loss (dB)
Ao = free*spaceattenuation(distanced must be in the sameunits as l,)
= 20logro (4nd)

Thedirectivity, andconsequentlythegainof, an antennais directly proportionalto the

sizeof its apertureandinverselyproportionalto the squareof the transmittedwave-
length.In determiningthe receivepower,however,it is actuallyonly the areaof the
antennathatis importantandnot thedirectivityor gain.Thusradiosystemdesigners
convenientlyconsidertransmitand receiveantennagainsas contributingto signal
powerbut includea wavelengthnormalization(20log1sl,) to relatethegainof there-
ceivingantennabackto the sizeofits aperture.
In additionto providingincreasedantennagain,greaterdirectivitiesalsoreduce
multipathproblems.Thelongersecondary paths,whicharisefrom greateremanation
angles,havelower powerlevelswhenthedirectivityis increased. Unfortunately,an-
tennagainsarelimited by practicalconsiderations in severalregards:Economically
sizedtowerscansupportonly limited-sizedantennas, mechanicalalignmentis diffi-
cult, anddirectionalstabilityof boththe antennaandthepathis limited.
Thefeederandbranchinglosses41includedin Equation6.32arisebecause single
antennasystemstypically carry severalchannelsfor separateradios.Furthermore, re-
usually
liability considerations dictatethat sparetransmittersand receiversbe avail-
ablefor protectionswitching.The processof combiningsignalsfor transmission or
distributingthemafter reception inherentlyintroduces variousamounts of attenuation
or splittingof signalpower.

Example6.4. Determinethe systemgainof a l0-Mbps, z-GHzdigitalmicrowave

repeaterusing4-PSKmodulationandan outputpowerof 2.5 W. Assumethe excess
bandwidthof the receiveris 307oand ttrat other departuresfrom ideal performance
amountto 3 dB degradation. Assumea noisefigureof 7 dB for the receiver,andthe
desiredmaximumerrorrateis 104. Also determinethefademarginassumingantenna
gainsof 30 dB eachanda pathlengthof 50 km. Thebranchingandcouplinglosses
are5 dB.

Solution. FromFigure6.17,therequiredvalueof E6lN0for 4-PSKmodulationcan

bedeterminedas10.7dB. UsingEquation3.42(in AppendixC), it canbe determined
 326 DIGITAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDRADIoSYSTEMS

that the signal-power-to-noise-power

ratio at the detectoris 3 dB higherthanE6lr/6.
Thus,therequiredSNRis 13.7dB.

since4-PSKmodulationprovides2 bps/rlz,the signalingrateis 5 MHz, whichis

thetheoreticalminimum(Nyquist)bandwidth.Equation6.31cannow be usedto de-
terminethe systemgain:

13.7*7-3*10losl.3
)
:l16dB
At a carrierfrequencyof 2 GHz,thewavelengthis 3 x 108/2xlOe= 0. l5 m. Thusthe
fademargincanbe determined from Equation6.31:

Fademargin= I I 6 + 60 + 20 log,o(0.l5) - S- Z0 log,n(4ru5

x lOa)

= 38.5dB

6.4.3 FrequencyDiverslty

As mentioned previously, neither the transmitting and receiving equipment nor the
path is normally reliable enoughto provide an acceptablelevel of systemavailability.
Frequency diversity is one means of providing backup facilities to overcome both
types of outages.A deep multipath-induced fade occurs when a signal from a $econ-
dary path arrives out of phasewith respectto the primary signal. Since the phase shift
produced by a path is proportional to frequency, when one carrier fades, it is un-
likely that another carrier fades simultaneously. Frequency diversity involves the
use of a sparetransmitter and receiver operating in a normally unusedchannel. Since
separatehardware is used, frequency diversity also provides protection againsthard-
ware failures.
The simplest meansof implementing frequency diversity is to use one-for-one (l : l)
protection switching as indicated in Figure 6.36. one-for-one protection switching
implies that one sparechannel is provided for each assignedmessagechannel.when
high-spectrumefficiency is required, it is generally necessaryto have only one spare
for a group of N channels( I ; N protection swirching). In fact, the FCC has stipulated
that, in somefrequencybands,a systemmust be implementablein one-for-Nconfigu-
rations. The main impact of a I ; Nprotection systemis the complexity of the switch-
ing unit and the needto switch back to the assignedchannel in the first available hop
so that a single sparechannel can be reusedrepeatedlyon a long roule.
Frequency diversity normally does nothing to alleviate rain outages since all
channels in a particular frequency band are simultaneously affected. when rain is
a pafticular problem, it can be overcome only by using higher transmit powers or
shorter hops.
 6.4 RADIoSYSTEMDESIGN 327

-'Wrt

Figure 6.36 Protectionswitchingwith one-for-onefrequencydiversity.

6.4.4 SpaceDiverslty

diversityis implemented,
Space two
asshownin Figure6.37,by verticallyseparating
receive antennason a single tower. The resulting difference in the two paths is nor-
mally sufficient to provide independentfading at the two antenna$.Spacediversity is
the most expensivemeansof improving the availability, particularly if separatereceiv-
ers for multiple channelsare used for each antenna.The cost can be minimized, how-
ever, by combining the two received signals in a phase-coherentmanner for input to
a common receiver t451. This technique provides less hardware backup than when
completely separatereceiversare used for each antenna.

6.4.5 Angle Diverslty

Becausemultipath fading is producedby multiple incident rays alTiving at slightly dif-

ferent angles,protection from fading can be achievedby discriminating on the angle

Figure 6.37 hotection swirchingwith spacediversityreceivers.

 328 DIGITAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDRADIoSYSTEM$

of arrival' Angle diversityutilizestwo side-by-side

receivingantennaswith slightly
differentangularelevationsto providethediscrimination.Althoughanglediversityis
generallynot aseffectiveasspacediversity,it canimprovethe availabilityofdigital
signals[48, 49] in applicationswherethe towerrequirements of spacediversityare
impracticalor disallowed.

6.4.6 Adaptlve Equallzation

Sincemultipatheffectsare frequencydependent, not all frequencies in a particular

channelsimultaneously experience thesameamountof fading.Thusmultipathfading
canproducenot only a generalattenuation ofthe receivedsignalbut alsotheequiva-
lentof in-bandamplitude(andphase)distortion.Distortionof thespectrumamplitude
producesa generaldegradation in the errorperformance overandabovethefenalty
incurredby the generalattenuationof the signal.In widebanddigital radios,fre-
quency-selective fading (as opposedto flat fading)hasprovedto be the dominant
sourceof multipathoutage$.Fortunately,betterperformance canbe achievedif the
spectrumamplitudeis equalized(adjustedto a uniformlevel).
Sinceatmospheric-induced multipathinterferena varieswith time,removalof mul-
tipath-inducedamplitudedistortionrequiresadaptiveequalization.A commonap-
proachto adaptiveamplitudeequalieationmerely samplesthe energyat selected
frequencies in the receivedsignalspectrum.A compensating filter shapeis thenin-
sertedinto the signalpathto adjustall energysamplesto a commonlevel.This basic
techniqueis usedin digitalradiosmanufactured by Bell Northern[45] andRockwell
International[50].Reference[50] reportsa 7-dB improvementin effectivefademar-
gin canbe achievedwith an adaptiveequalizer.
Because channeldistortionsproduceintersymbolinterference in thereceivedbase-
brurdsignal,time-domainequalizationwith adaptivetransversalfilters or decision
feedbackequalizersis alsoused.Reference[51] contraststherelativemeritsof both
approaches and providesan extensivelist of references.The use of high-density
modulationformatssuchas256-QAMplacesverystringentrequirements ontheadap-
tive equalizerssotheseradioscommonlyusebothtypesof equalizers[47].
Frequency-selective fading,which comrptsonly a portion of a wide-bandwidth
channel,is particularlydifficult to equalizebecauseit changesrapidly andrequires
complicatedequalizerstructures(in the frequencydomainor the time domain).The
problemcanbegreatlysimplifiedif, insteadof usinga singlecarrier,multiplecarriers
(i.e.' MCM) within theallottedbandwidthareusedto createmulriplesubchannels. With
thisapproach, fadingwithin anysubchannel is relativelyflat andeasyto equalize.Thedis-
advantage of this approachis thecostof replicatedcircuiry for eachsubchannel. As re-
portedin [5?],however,atmospheric-induced outagesaregreatlyreduced.

6.4.7 Route Design

Thelayoutof a point-to-pointmicrowaverelaysysteminvolvesnumerousconsiderations
of thelocalterrain,prevailingatmospheric
conditions,radiofiequencyinterferencewith
othersymbols,andinterferencefrom onehop to anotherwithin a singlesystem.
 REFERENCES 329

Path Length
The foremost considerationin setting up a single hop of a microwave system is that
line-of-sight transmissionis required. Using antennaheights of about 60 m, the cur-
vature of the earth limits the transmission distanceto approximately 50 km. Longer
line-of-sight distancesare possible if taller antennatowers are used.However, plscti-
cal considerationsof mechanicalstability limit the height of a tower, particularly since
longer distancesimply larger and more directive antennas.
When antennasare rigidly mounted on the top of a building or the side of a moun-
tain, mechanicalstability may not be a problem but the $tability of the path itself may
becomea limiting factor. Under some atmosphericconditions, radio waves can be re-
fracted to the point that a narrow beam completely misses the receiving antenna.
Bending of the propagationpath can also causea f,rxedobstacleto intermittently ob-
struct transmission, implying that clearance between the notmal path and nearby
physical obstructionsis required.Thus there is always a practical limit on how narrow
the beam can be.
Local teruainalso influences the prevalenceof multipath fading. Nearby bodies of
water contribute significantly to multipath conditions during late evening or early
morning hours when thereis litfle wind. Direct transmissionovor water is usually very
difficult becauseof reflecfions off the water surface.Transmission over water often
requireshigher antennasand some meansof blocking direct reflections.

Cochannellnbrterence
Since there are a limited number of channelsavailable for point-to-point microwave
systems,the same channelSmust be used Over and over again. ReuSeof microwave
fiequency bands is enhancedby the directivity of the antennasand the general need
for line-of-sight reception.In many metropolitan areas,however, thereis so much traf-
fic converging into one particular areathat it is impossible to completely isolate two
systemsusing the samechannel. This type of interferenceis refened to as cochannel
interference.
Cochannel interf'erenceresults from converging routes or from overreach of one
hop into anotherhop of the same systemreusing a channel. Sometimesreflections or
atmosphericrefractions can contribute to overreach,even when direct line of sight is
not present.Overreach is usually controlled by zigzagging the hops so that a beam
from one tran$mitter misses all subsequentreceive antennasin a route. The reduced
use of point-to-point microwave for long-distanceftaffic has reducedthe cochannel
intetference in point-to-point systems.However, cochannel interference is a major
considerationin the design and deployment of digital cellular systems,as discussedin
Chapter 9.

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MODULATION
ANDRADIOSYSTEMS

W. A, Conner, R. J. Girvin, and W. R. McClellan, ,.FrequencyControl of the MSR_6

single sideband system," IEEE International conference on communicarions. 19g3,
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52.4.r-52.4.5.
s. Pasupathy,"Minimum shift Keying: A spectrallyEfficient Modulation,"/EEE
Comrnunications Magaline,July 1g79,pp. l4-ZZ.
c.-E. sundberg, "continuousphaseModulation,"IEEE communications Magafine,
Apr. 1986,pp.25-38,
Y. Morihiro, s. Nakajima,andN. Furuya,"A 100Mbir/s hotorype MSK Modemfor
satellitecommunications,"IEEE Transactionson communications,oct, 1979,pp.
l512-1518.
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GMSK Data Transmission," MX-coM Application Note, rggg
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l0 R. E. Ziemer and w. H. Tranter,principlesof communications, HoughtonMifflin,
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l3 P' R. HartmannandJ. A. crosset,"A 90 MBS Digital Transmission systemat I I GHz
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t4 I. Horikawa,T. Murase,and y. saito, "Designand performances of 200 Mbivs 16
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l5 J. A' crosserand P. R. Hartmann,"64-eAM Digital ttadio Transmissionsysrem
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Proteedings, 1988,pp. 52.7.1,52.7.6.
t1 H. Matsue,T. shiraro,and K. watanabe,"256 eAM 400 Mb/s MicrowaveRadio
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l9 T. Ryu' J. uchibori, and y. yoshida,'A steppedsquare256
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20 M. Tahara,T. Deguchi,S.Mizoguchi,andY' Yoshida, GHz 140MbpsDigitalRadio
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CarrierSynchronization,"
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23 J. W. Bayless,R, D. Pedersen,and J. C. Bellamy,
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S. A. Oronemeyerand A. L. McBride, QPSKModulatton,"IEEE
Transactions on Communicafians, Aug, 1976'pp. 809-820.
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25 R. D. Gitlin, S.K. Rao,J.Werner,andN. Zervos,
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Employing Decision Feedback Equalization,"IEEE Intemational Conferenteon
Communications, 1983,pp. 1453-1458'
30 A. J. Viterbi,"Error Boundsfor ConvolutionalCodesandanAsymptoticallyOptimum
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260-269.
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3l G. Ungerboeck,
Introduction."IEEE Communicatktns Magaeirre,Feb.1987'pp. 5-l l'
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of theArt," IEEE Communications Magarine,Feb.1987'pp. t2-21 .
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R. J. F. Fang, Coded8-PsK systemfor 140-MbivsInformationRateTransmission
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ModemImplemented with a single-chipHigh-speedDigital signalhocessor,"/EEE
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 332 DIGITAL
MoDULATIoN
ANDRADIo
SYSTEMS

37 J. A' C' Bingham,'-MulticartierModulationfor DataTransmission: An IdeaWhose

Time HasCome,"IEEE Comtnunitations Magazine,May1990,pp. 5_14,
38 J. M. cioffi, "Asymmetric Digita-l subscriberLines," in The cornmunications
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40 B. Saltzberg,"Comparisonof Single-Canierand Multitone Digita.lModulationfor
ADSL Applications,"IEEE Comrnunications l4agaline,Nov. lg9g, pp. llL-llL.
41 E. D. sunde,"IdealBinarypulseTransmission by AM andFM," Eel/ systemTechnical
Joumal,Nov. 1959,pp. 1357-1426.
42 w. R. BennetandJ. R. Davey,Data Transmission, McGraw-Hill.New york. 1965.
43 R. w. Lucky, J. salz, and E. J. weldon, Jr., principlesof Data communications,
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44 FederalCommunications Commission,MemorandumOpinionand Ordermodifying
FCCReponand Orderof Docket193I l, released JanuaryZg,1975.
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I EEE NationalTelecommunicat ions Conference, I g7g, pp. 3g,l l _3g.1.6.
46 H. Kostal,D. R. Jeske,andv. K. prabu,"AdvancedEngineeringMethodsfor Digital
Radio Route Design,"IEEE Intemational communitationsconference,l9g7, pp.
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48 E. A. SweedykandP. Balaban,"A MultipathFadingModelfor TenesrrialMicrowave
Radio,"IEEE Glohecomproceedings,lgB8,pp. 52.6.1_52.6.1 .
49 s. H. Lin, "openingNew vistas for MicrowaveRadio,"gel/core Exchang,e,July/Aug.
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5l J. K. chamberlain,F. M. clayton, H. sari, andp. vandamme,,.Receiver Techniques
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52 Y, Nakamura,H. ohtsuka,s. Aikawa,and H. Takanashi,'Advancedrechniquesfor
super Multi-carrier Digital Microwave Radio with Trellis-coded 2s6
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Modulation," IEEE Globecom proceedings,lggg, pp. l l.3.l_l1.3.6.

PROBLEMS

6.1 To prevent the transmission of line spectra, digital radio terminals use data
scramblers to randomize the data patterns. Furthermore, differential encoding is
normally required for proper datadetection.Both functions inffoduce error mul -
tiplication. If the combined effect of theseoperationscausesan averageof five
 PROBLEMS 333

decodedenors for everychannelenor, what is the effectivepenaltyin transmit

powerfor a 4-PSKsystemat BER = 10-6?At BER = 10-3?
6.2 If a digitalradioreceiveris experiencingthermal-noise-induced errorsat a rate
of I per 106bits, whatis thenewerrorrateifthe pathlengthis decreased from
30 to ?5 miles?
6.3 DeriveEquation6.18.
6,4 what is the minimumtheoreticalbandwidthof an 8-PSKsignalcarrying4800
bps?
6.s A 32-QAM signalsetis implementedby eliminatingthefour cornerpointsof a
36-QAMsignal.what is theminimumerrordistancein termsof thepeaksignal
power?How doesthis answercompaleto theerror distancefor antipodalsig-
naling?(Expresstheanswersin decibels')
6.6 what is the peak-to-average ratio of a 32-QAM signal(Problem6.5) assuming
transmission of randomdata?
6.7 How does32-QAM (Problem6.5)eruorperformance compareto 32-PsKenor
performance?
(a) In termsof averagesignalpowers?
(b) In termsof peaksignalpowers?
6.8 A carriertransmission systemusing4-PSKmodulationprovidesanerrorrateof
l0-6. tf themodulationis changedto 16-PSKto naffowthetransmission band-
width (datarateunchanged), how muchmustthehansmitpowerbe increased to
maintainthe sameerror rate?
6.9 RepeatProblem6.8 assumingthat the bandwidthis unchangedandthe datarate
is doubled.
6.10 What is theerrorrateof anidealI6-QAM signalwith a signal-to-Gaussian-noise
ratio(SNR)of 18dB?
6.11 What is the error rate of hoblem 6.10 if interferenceis also present at a level
that is 21 dB below the received signal? (Assume the effect of the intefference
is identical to Gaussiannoise at the samerms power.)
6.r2How much must the transmit power in Problem 6.1 I be increasedto off'setthe
effect of ttre interference?(Assume the interferencelevel is fixed.)
6.13 Repeat Problem 6.1?, but assumethat the interferenceincreasesin proportion to
the increasein transmit power. (Signal powers in the adjacentchannelsare in-
creasedalong with the desired signal power.)
6.14 Repeat Problem 6.3 assuminga starting stateof D-
 NETWORK RONIZATION
SYNCH
CONTROLANDMANAGEMENT

In Chapters4 and6 somesynchronization requirements of transmission systemsare

discussed.Theserequirementsinvolve carier recoveryfor coherentdetectionof
modulatedsignals,clock recoveryfor samplingincomingdata,and framingproce-
duresfor identifyingindividualchannelsin a TDM signalformat.All of theseconsid-
eratronsareinherentin digital transmissionsystemsand,for the mostpart, operate
independently of otherequipmentin a network.An instanceof one subsystem's de-
pendencyon anotherwasnotedfor Tl lines.Tl sourcedatamu$tincludeminimum
densitiesof 1's to maintaintiming on theoriginaltransmission link. In contrast,other
line codesare describedthat maintain clock synchronization independentlyof the
sourcedata.
This chapterdiscussesnetwork-relatedsynchronizationconsiderationsfor in-
terconnectingvariousdigital transmissionand switchingequipment.Foremost
among theseconsiderationsis synchronizationof switching equipment'When
digital switchingequipmentwasfirst installedin thepublic telephonenetwork,the
interfaceswere analogtransmissionsystems.Hence,each switchingmachine
could operatewith an autonomousfrequencysource(clock) that convertedall
voice signalsinto digital signalswith preciselythe samedatarate (nominally 64
kbps).Theseswitchingmatriceswere designedto carry one channelrate and one
channelrate only. The advent of subsequentdigital switch interconnectionre-
quired switchesto carry digital channelsoriginating someplaceelse in the net-
work-from a different frequency source. Thus, network synchronization
requirementsarose.
When individual synchronous transmissionand switchingequipmentsare inter-
connected to form a network,certarnprocedures needto beestablished thateithersyn-
chronize the clocks to each other or provide for their interoperabilitywhen each
subsystem usesindependent clocks.Followingthe discussionof networkclock syn-
chronization,the conceptof synchronization is extendedto otheraspectsof network
control.
336 NETWORK
SYNCHRONIZATION
CONTROL
ANDMANAGEMENT

7.1 TIMING

All digital systemsinherentlyrequirea frequencysource,or ..clock,"asa meansof

timing internaland externaloperations.operationstimed from a singlefrequency
sourcedo notrequireparticularlystablesourcessinceall commonlyclockedelements
experience timing variationsin common.A differentsituationoccurswhentransfers
aremadefrom one synchronousequipmentto another(asfrom a ffan$mitterto a re-
ceiver).Evenif theclockof thereceivingterminalis "synchronized" to thetransmit-
ting terminalon a long-termor averagebasis,short-termvariationsin eitherclockmay
jeopardizethe integrityofthe datatransfer.Thusit is generallynecessary to usefre-
quencysource$(oscillators)in boththe transmitterandthereceiverthatareasstable
asis economicallyfeasible.

7.1.1 Tlming Recovery: Fhaee-Locked Loop

A commonmeansof synchronizinga receiverclock to a transmitterclock usesa

phase-locked loop (PLL) asshownin Figure7.l. A phasedetectorcontinuouslymeas-
uresthe phasedifferencebetweenthe incomingclock anda locally generated clock.
Thephasedetectorin Figure7.1merelymeasures thedifferencein thezerocrossings
betweenthe two signals.Whenthe zerocrossingof the line clock precedes the zero
crossingof thelocalclock,a positivevoltageis generated; otherwise,a negativevolt-
ageis produced.The outputof the phasedetectoris filteredto eliminateasmuchre-
ceivenoiseaspossible,andthenthephasemeasurement adjuststhe frequencyof the
voltage-controlled oscillator(VCo) to reducethephasedifference.Someamountof
noiseor interference inevitablypasses throughthephasedetectorandthefilter, caus-
ing erroneousadjustments in the vco frequency.As time passes,however,a fre-
quencyoffsetproducesever-increasing phaseshifts.Whenthephasedifferencebuilds
up,it is easierto detect,andtheappropriate changes in theVCo occur.Hencethelocal

Figure 7.1 Phase-locked

loop clockrecoverycircuir.
 rMrNG 337

clock maintainsthe desiredaveragefrequencybut inherenflyproduces$hort-termvari-

"hunts"theunderlyingfrequencyofthe line clock.
ationsofphaseandfrequencyasit
Theline clockin Figure7.1is shownto havea transitionin everyclockinterval,a
situationthatdoesoccurwith Manchester or diphase-type line codes.With someline
codes (bipolar or AMI in particular)thereare no clock transitions duringintervalsof
binary0's. In thesecaseseither the clock extractioncircuitry inserts artificialtransi-
tionsexffapolated from previous intervalsor the phasedetector is disabled duringin-
tervalswhenno pulse is detected.

7.1.2 Clock InstabilltY

The variationin the outputfrequencyof the VCO describedaboveis an exampleof

clock instability.All clockshavea certainamountof instability-even free-running
oscillators.An importantaspectof clockinstabilityis its frequency:therateat which
the clock frequencychangesfrom beingtoo high to beingtoo low. The frequencyof
the instability canbe directly observedasthe frequencyspectrumof the VCO control
voltagein a PLL clockrecoverycircuit.WhentheVCO controlvoltagevariesslowly,
the variationsarereferredto asclock wander.Whenthevariationsaremorerapid,the
instabilityof the clock is refenedto asjitter. The mostgenerallyaccepteddividing
pointbetweenwanderandjitter is 10Hz. Purewanderon a Tl line thereforeproduces
positivephaseerrorsfor morethan77,200bit intervals(0.05sec)followedby more
than77,200bit intervalsof only negativepha$eerrors.*Themainsourcesof clockin-
stability(bothwanderandjitter) in a networkare;

1. Noiseandinterference
media
2. Changesin the lengthof transmission
3. Changesin velocityof propagation
4. Dopplershiftsfrom mobileterminals
5. Irregulartiming information

Nolseand lnErterence
with a verylow cutofffrequency,it canfilter
If thelow-passfilter of a PLL is designed
outalmostall of thenoiseandinterference link thatwouldotherwise
on a transmission
comrptthetiming recovery.Therearethreemain reasonswhy arbimarilylow passfil-
terscannotbeused.First,theability ofthe PLL to acquiresynchronization (e.9.,lock
on to theunderlyingclock)is inverselyrelatedto thePLL bandwidth'If the VCO be-
ginsoscillatingat thewrongfrequencyandthebandwidthis too narrow'thePLL may
neverpull theoscillatorto thefrequencyof theline clock.Sometimes, thisproblemis
accommodated by usingtwo bandwidths:a wide oneto acquiresynchronization and
a narrowonethatis selectedafterlock is achieved'
+As discussed later, observing wander in this way requires extremely stable clocks as a reference. The
normal PLL clock recovery circuitry cannot be used to observe wandet because the VCO tracks the
relatively long-term phase offsets, Thus the clock recovery citcuit does not filter out thc wanderbut passes
it on.
 338 NETWoRKSYNcHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

A secondconsiderationthat generally precrudesthe useofvery nanow filters, even

after acquisition, is that the sourcemay vary in frequency that cannot be tracked by a
slowly respondingPLL. In this case,the recoveredclock doesnot track the ideal sam-
ple times leading to high error rates or, worse yet, the pLL loses synchronization
al-
together and has to reacquire lock.
The third limiting factor for low-bandwidth PLLs is the instability of rhe VCO ir-
self. If the vco begins to drifr in frequency, very low bandwidth filters preclude ad-
justing the VCO input voltage soon enough to prevent bit errors or possible loss
of
synchronization.
Because operational considerations dictate certain minimum PLL bandwidths.
noise and interferenceon the transmissionlink always causethe recoveredclock to be
more impaired than the sourceclock. The pLL does, however, eliminate that portion
of a disturbancewith frequency content abovethe bandwidth of the PLL. Thus distur-
banceswith low-frequency content are the most difficult to deal with. systematicjit-
ter, as produced by particular pattems of intersymbol interference, can have an
arbitrarily low frequency content and is discussedmore fully in a later section.
An important considerationin the design of a digitrrl transmissionlink is the accu-
mulation ofjitter in tandemclock recovery circuits. If a recoveredclock is usedto time
the transmissionof outgoing data, as in a regenerativerepeater,some amount of in-
coming jitter is imbedded into the outgoing clock. The clock recovery circuit in the
next receiver tracksits incoming clock but introduceseven morejitter due to noise and
interferenceon the secondsection. Thus jitter accumulatesat every regenerativere-
peaterusing its received line clock as its transmit clock. If there is a large number
of
regenerativerepeaters,thejitter can accumulateto a point where subsequentclock re-
covery circuits have difficulty tracking the receive clock, produce sampling error$,
and possibly lose lock.

Changeeln Lengthof TransmiesionMedia

Path length changesoccur as a result of thermal expansionor conffaction of guided
transmissionmedia or of atmosphericbending of a radio path. while a path is increas-
ing in length, the effective bit rate at the receiver is reducedbecausemore and more
bits are being "stored" in the medium. similarly, as the path shortens,the bit rate at
the receiver increa$e$becausethe number of bits storedin the transmissionlink is de-
creasing.After the path has stabilized, the receive signal returns to the nominal data
rate. The mo$t significant changesin path length occur with communications satel-
lites' Geostationarysatellitesproduce path length variations of approximately ?fi) miles,
which causepropagationtime variations of approximately I msec I I . path length changes
I
also occur in guided transmission media such as copper wire and optical fibers. These
changesare referred to as diurnal changesbecausethey occur once a day.

Changesin the Vetocityof propagation

Temperaturechangesnot only causeexpansionand contraction of wireline transmis*
sion media but also can changethose propagation constantsof the media that deter-
 7.1 rMrNG 339

mine the velocity of propagation.The resulting changein received clocked stability,

however, is much less than that produced by the changein path length [2]'
The propagation velocity of radio waves in the atmosphere also changes with tem-
perature and humidity. Although these velocity changes are more significant than
those occurring in wirelines, they are still smaller than the path-length-inducedvari-
ations. Notice that a change in propagation velocity is effectively equivalent to a
"stored" in the transmission path is
change in path length since the number of bits
changed.

Doppler Shlfts
The mostsignificantsourceof potentialtiming instabilityin a receivedclock occurs
asa resultof Dopplershiftsfrom airplanesor satellites.For example,a Dopplershift
inducedby a 350-mphairplaneamountsto anequivalentclockinstabilityof 5 x 10*7'
Digital mobiletelephonereceiversmust accommodate Dopplershiftsequivalentto
clock instabilitiesof aboutonepartin 107.*Again,Dopplershiftsoccur,in es$ence,
asa resultof pathchanges.

Ineg u lar Tlm ing lnfo rmetlo n

As discussed in Chapter4, a fundamental requirementof a digital line codeis thatit
provide sufficienttiming informationto establishandmaintaina receiverline clock.
If thetiminginformationis datadependent, jitter in therecovered clockincreases dur-
ing periodsof relativelylow densitytiming marks.Themagnitudeof thejitter is de*
pendentnot solely on the densityof timing marksbut also on the timing (data)
patterns.In an ideal repeater,only the densitywould matter.In practice,however,
variousimperfectionsleadto pattern-dependent jitter [3].
As discussed laterin this chapter, higher level digitalmultiplexersinsertoverhead
bits into a compositedata stream for various purpo$es. When the higherrate data
streamis demultiplexed, the arrival rateof data within individual channelsis irregular'
This inegularity produces timing jitter when generating new line clocksfor thelower
ratesignals. This source ofjitter (waiting time jitter) is oftenthe most troublesome and
is discussed in more detail later.

7.1.3 Elastic Stores

The timing instabilitiesdescribedin the precedingparagraphs essentiallyrepresent

changesin the numberof bits storedin a transmission link. In the caseof noise-and
"bits stored"occursbecausedataare sam-
interference-inducedjitter, the changein
pleda little earlieror a little laterthannominal.Sincetheoutgoingdataof a regenera-
tive repeateraretransmittedaccordingto the recoveredclock, a phaseoffsetin the
clockmeansthedelaythroughtherepeateris differentfrom whenthereis nomisalign-
mentin timing.
*If
you *e pa*noid about cooperation between cellular operators and law enforcement authorities, you may
not want to use your cell phone while speeding.
 340 NETwoHKSYNcHHoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Ifphase offsets in successiveregenerativerepeaterscoincide, a net changeof sev-

eral bits of storagein a long repeatedtransmissionlink occurs. Sincetheseexffa bits
enter or leave the hansmission link over relatively short periods of time, the accumulated
jitter rnay representa relatively large, but short lived, instability in the receive clock.
Becauseregenerativerepeater$use incoming sample clocks as output clocks, sus-
tained timing differencesbetween inputs and outputs do not exist. The endpointsof a
transmissionlink, however, may interface to a local clock. In this casea difference be-
tween a received and a relatively fixed local clock must be reconciled with an elastic
store' An elastic store is a data buffer that is written into by one clock and read from
by another.If short-term instabilities exist in either clock, the elastic storeabsorbsthe
differencesin the amount of datatransmittedand the amountof datareceived.An elas-
tic store can compensateonly for short-term instabilities that produce a Iimited differ-
ence in the amountsof data transmitted and received.If sustainedclock offsets exist.
as with highly accuratebut unsynchronizedclocks, an elastic store will eventually un-
derflow or overflow.

TDld-Swltch ln|errtace
A typicalneedfor anelasticstoreoccurswhena digitaltransmission link is interfaced
to a digitaltime divisionswitch.As shownin Figure7.2,theelasticstoreis placedbe-
tweentheincomingdigitaltransmission link andtheinlet sideof the switch.In most
instances thedigitalswitchprovidestimingfor all outgoingTDM links sotharno tim-
ing discrepancies existbetweentheselinks andtheswirch.For thetimebeing,assume
that the far end of the digital link derivesits clock from thereceivesignalanduses
thatclockto timedigitaltransmissions returningto theswitch.Thisis thesituationthat
ariseswhena remotechannelbankis connected to a digital swirchthroughTl ]ines
andis commonlyreferredto aschannelbank"loop timing."when looptimingis used,
the line clock on the incominglink of the switchis nominallysynchronized to the
switchclock.However,for rea$onsdiscussed previously,a certainamountof insta-
bility in the incomingclock necessarily exists.The elasticstoreabsorbstheseinsta-
bilities sothatpurelysynchronized dataareavailablefor the swirch.

Figure 7.2 Interface between TDM nansmission link and a digital switch using an elastic
store.
 TrMrNc 941

theloopformedby thetransmission
In essence, links andtheelasticstoremaintains
a constantand integral numberof clock intervalsbetweenthe inlet and outlet of the
switch.Thus,from a timingpoint of view,theinletsandoutletsoperateasthoughdi-
rectlyconnected to eachotherusinga commonsourceof timing.

Removal of Accumulated Jitter

Anotherapplicationfor an elasticstoreis shownin Figure7.3,whereit is usedto re-
movetransmission-induced timingjitter in a regenerahve repeater.Normally,aregen-
erativerepeaterestablishesthe transmittiming directly from the locally derived
sampleclock.In Figure7.3,however,thetransmittimingis definedby a separate local
clock.Theelasticstoreabsorbs theshoft-terminstabilitiesin thereceiveclock,butthe
"av-
long-termfrequencyOfthetransmitclock is controlledby maintaininga cefrain
eragelevel of storage"in theelasticstore.Thusthetransmitclockis synchronized to
theline clockon a long-termbasis,but not on a short-termbasis.Ifthe elasticrltoreis
largeenoughto accommodate all transientvariationsin thedatarate,high-frequency
instabilityof theinputclockis removed.
All regenerative regardless
repeaters, of themechanism usedto recovertiming,de-
rive their outputclocksby averagingthe incomingtiming informationovera period
of time.Tunedcircuitsaveragetheincomingclockfor relativelyfew signalintervals;
phase-locked loopsdo sofor manyintervals.In all casesa certainamountof storage
or delayis implied.An elasticstoreis merelya mechanism to increasethe available
delay so that output timing adjustmentscanbe mademore gradually.Notice that an
elasticstorealwaysinsertssignificantamount$of artificial delayinto the datapath'
To removearbitrarilylow frequencyinstabilities(wander),aftihalily large elastic
stores(andarbitrarilystableVCOs)arerequired.Thusa jitter-removingelasticstore
shouldbeinsertedinto achainof repeaters only whenjitter accumulation the
threatens
ability of a regularregenerativerepeaterto maintainsynchronization'
Jitteris notjust a phenomenon of a digitaltransmissionlink but alsooccursin digi-
tal storage$y$tems. For example,jitter removallike that shownin Figure7.3 is used
in laserdiscptayersto eliminateblurringof thevisualimages[4].

Elastlc Store ImPlementdtiong

The requiredsizeof an elasticstorevariesfrom a few bits to severalhundredbits for
high-speed,long-distancecommunications links.Figure7.4 showsonemeansof im-
converter,a register,and
plementinga smallelasticstoreutilizing a series-to-parallel

repeater.
regenerative
Figure 7.3 Jitter-removing
 342 NETWoRK
sYNcHRoNIzATIoN
coNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Input
clock
Input rignrl

Ortput clock

OrrtDUtdrtr

Figure 7.4 Basicimplementation

of an elasticstore.

a parallel-to-seriesconverter.As indicated, incoming data are transferredinto the reg-

ister as soon as each word is accumulatedin the series-to-parallelconvefier. Some
time later, data in the register are transferredto the output parallel-to-serierrconverter
as a complete word is shifted out. Notice that transfersto the parallel-to-seriescon-
verler are independentof the incoming clock. As long as ouFut transfbrsoccur be-
tween input transfers,no data are lost, and short-term jitter is absorbedby varying
delays through the elastic store.
Normally, somecontrol circuitry (not shown) is neededto initialize the elastic store
so that the first transferinto the registeroccurs midway betweenoutput transfers.This
processmeanssomeincoming dataare initially discardedby the series-to-parallelreg-
ister until the desiredtransfer time occurs.
The relative times of the parallel transfersinto and out of the holding registerpro-
vide a direct indication ofthe relative phaseofthe input and output clocks. Thus the
parallel transfer clocks contain the information neededto generateVCO control volt-
agesif the elastic store is being used to remove accumulatedtransmissionjitter.
The basic structureshown in Figure 7.4 can be extendedto implement larger elastic
stores,as shown in Figure 7.5. The only changeinvolves the substitution of a f,rrst-in,
first-out (FIFO) buffer for the holding register of Figure 7.4. This data buffer i$ de-
signed specifically to allow input transfersunder the control of one clock while out-
put$ are controlled by a different clock. Normally, the FIFO buffer is initialized by
inhibiting output transfers until it is half firll. In fact, some commercially availabll
FIFO buffers have an output signal specifically indicating when it is half full or
greater.

7.1.4 Jitter Measurements

A simplecircuitfor measuring
timingjitteris shownin Figure7.6.As indicated,
it is
nothing more than a phase-lockedloop (pLL) with the output of the phasecomparator
providing the measurementof the timing jitter. Normally, the bandwidth of the low-
passfilter (LPF) is very small so the vco ignoresshort-termjiner in the timing signal.
If there is no jitter at all, the output of the phasecomparatoris constantand no signal
is passedby the high-passselectionfilter (HpF).
 7.1 TrMrNc 343

Inrutfita

Irput
clalt

Outputclock

Output (htr

of anelasticstore.
Figure7.5 FIFOimplementation

Very low frequencyjitter ciurnotbe measured by thecircuit in Figure7.6 because

theVCO tracksslowlychangingphaseshifts.Low-frequency jitter maybe of no con-
cern,however,becauseit canbe hackedby a PLL. Higher frequencyjitter, on the
otherhand,is moreaptto causesamplingerrorsor a lossof lock in theclockrecovery
Thusthespectralcontentof thejitter aswell asits magnitudeis of inter-
of a repeater.
est.Besidesnot beingableto measurelow-frequency jitter, the circuit of Figure7.6
cannotoperateif it cannotlock ontothefundamentalclock signal,Section7.4.7de-
scribesanotherway to measurejitter andothertiming impairmentswithin a network.
Phasejitter is commonlyspecifiedby communications theoristsasa powermeas-
urementin unitsof radianssquaredor cyclessquared.(Onecycle= Zruradians')As
indicatedin Figure7.7,phasejitterPoweristhenameasure of thevarianceof thenum-
berof clockcyclesor unit intervals(UIs) storedin thetransmission link. In a physical
sensejitter "power" haslittle meaningbecauseit represents timing variations,not
power.Somephysicaljustificationfor expressing jitter asa powercanbe obtainedby
observingthat theIms power o| of the phasedetectoroutput signalis propottionalto
therms phasejitter ofr:

2
at Jitt0f

Clock rlgnal

Phi|e lock loop

timingjitter'
Figure 7.6 Circuittbr measuring
 344 NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION
CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT

Prohbility dkfibution of nuftbGr

of ryrtolr in trrnrlt

lntunbncou| numblr = /V

Ar,6rgp - ilo

Trsn|ftrhtfi *ith Rtcdrnr

it|bh rimingsurE+

Figure 7.7 Phase jitter modeled as the variance in the number of symbols ',stored" in the
transmissionlink.

ot,=K3siry2) (7.1)

whereKa is thephasedetectorgainfactorin voltsperradian.

Example7.1. Givenan rms phasejitter of 10.7dB relativero oneuI, what is the

standarddeviationof thephaseoffset?

Solutinn. Thevarianceof thesignalphaseis determined asofr: l0 exp(10.7/10) =

11.76UI squared. Hence,the standarddeviationis (ll.?6)u2 = j.4j UI (symbol
intervals)'Since687oof a normalprobabilitydistributionlies within one standard
deviation,thephaseof thissignalis within +3.43symbolintervalsfor 687oof thetime.
Onepercentof the time the signalphasewill be outside2.6 standarddeviations.or
+8.9symbolintervals.

If phasejitter arisesas a resultof additiveGaussiannoiseon a stablesignal,the

phasenoisecanbe approximated as

(7.2)
4:# (rad2)
whereofr= additivenoisepower
Pr = signalpower

Equation7.2 is the basicequationofphasejitter producedby additivenoiseon a

continuoussinusoid[5]. when timing is exhactedfrom a datasignal,the timing in-
formationis usuallynot continuous.The distinctionis not importantbecause jitter
producedby additivenoiseis normallyinsignificantcomparedto othersources
[6].
For an analysisof phasejitter producedby regenerativerepeaters
operatingon ran-
domlyoccurringtiming transitions,seereference[7].
 TrMrNc 3rt5

TABLE7.1 Maxlmumlnstabllltyof D$l Customerlnterlace

Band
Frequency Maximum Variation
Peak-to-Peak
<10H2 28 Ulsin 24 hr
< 10Hz 5 U l si n 1 5m i n
10 Hz-40 kHz 5 Uls
I kHz-40 kHz 0 , 1U l s

As an example of a particular instability specification, Table 7.I lists the wander

and jitter specificationsof a DSI digital carrier (Tl) interface to the public network
[8]. Notice that the higher frequencyjitter specificationallows deviationsin pulse cen-
ters of only 5Vo,which effectively specifies the accuracy of the data sample clock'
Larger variations are allowed for lower frequency instabilities becausethe clock re-
covery circuits can track the changesto maintain a good sample clock.

7.1.5 $ystematlcJitter

An originalanalysisof jitter in a chainof digitalregenerators wasreportedby Byrne'

Karafin,andRobinson[3]. Figure7.8 showsthebasicmodelof their analysis'Each
of theregenerativerepeatersin a T-carrierline extractstiming from thereceivedwave-
form andpasses thattiming on to thenextregenerator asa transmitclock.Becauseof
implementationimperfections (primarily intersymbol intetference)in the timing re-
jitter
coverycircuits, produced by repeaters is dependent on the datapatterns'One
worst-casepattern produces an exheme phase lag. Another pattemproducesan ex-
tremephaselead.Whenthedatflpatternshiftsftom one worst caseto theother,a phase
rampoccurs.Because everyrepeaterha$ thesamebasicimplemenfadon, thejitterpro-
ducedby individualrepeaters tendsto be coherent.Thesystematic natureofthisjitter
makesit the most signiflrcant sourceof accumulated line clockjitter at the end of a
chainof repeaters.

I
I

Phuodritt
$rilih rr
Stvitch indlvlilirl
ln drtr ttlpetif
ptt$7nt

Figure 7.8 Model of systematicjitter in a string of regenerativerepeaters;(D2= phaseshift

producedby worst-casedatapattemfor phaselead;(Dt = phaseshift producedby worst-case
datapattemfor phaselag.
7

346 NETWoRKSYNCHRoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

As indicated in Figure 7.8, the last repeaterin the chain experiencesa large phase
ramp equal to the number of repeaterstimes the phaseshift of eachindividual repeater.
This phaseramp representsan abrupt changein the clock frequency that may cause
bit errors or a complete loss of synchronization.Thus there is a limit to the number of
repeatersthat can be used without jitter removal. For more analysesof jitter accumu-
lation including the combined effects of systematicjitter and rzurdomperturbations,
seereferences[9J, [0], and [11].

7.2 TIMINGINACCURACIES
In the precedingsectionthe natureof certain instabilities or transientvariationsin tim-
ing was discussed.Although thesevariations representshifts in the frequency of a line
clock, the shifts are only temporary and can be absorbedby elastic stores.In some in-
stancesdigital communicationsequipmentusing autonomousfrequency sourcesmust
be interconnected.when this happens,the clock ratesof the two systemsarenever ex-
actly the $ame,no matter how much accuracyis designedinto the frequency $ources.
An offset in the two clocks, no matter how small, canaotbe reconciledby elastic stores
alone.
In the preceding section,channel bank loop timing was mentioned as an example
of how remote terminals are synchronized to a digital switch. When the remote termi-
nal is anotherdigital switch using its own frequency sourceas a reference,a difTerent
situation results. As shown in Figure 7.9, the outgoing clock for each direction of
transmissionis def,rnedby the local switch clock. Thus the incoming clock at each
switch interface containsnot only tran$mission-line-inducedjitter but also a small and
unavoidablefrequency offset.

7.2.1 Slips

As indicated in Figure 7.9, the interface of eachincoming digital link necessarilycon-

tains an elastic store to remove transmissionlink timing jitter. The elastic store at the
first digital switch is written into by the recoveredline clock but read
from the local
rateR1.If the averagerate of the recoveredline clocklR2is different fromRl, the elastic

Figure 7.9 Connections

betweenautonomously
timeddigital switches.
 7,2 TIMINGINACCURACIFS 347

storewill eventuallyunderflowor overflow,dependingon whichrateis larger.When

R2is greaterthanR1,the elasticstoreat the first digital switchoverflows,causinga
lossof data.If R2is lessthanR1,thesameelasticstoreunderflows,causingextraneous
datato be insefiedinto the bit sffeamenteringthe switch.Normally,the extraneous
dataarea repetitionof databits alreadytransferredinto theswitch.Disruptionsin the
datastreamcausedby underflowsor overflowsof an elasticstorearereferredto as
"slips."
Uncontrolledslipsrepresent very significantimpairmentsto a digitalnetworkbe-
causethey generallycausea loss of framesynchronization. Thetefore,slips are al-
lowed to occuronly in prescribedmannersthat do not upsetframing.One general
approachto controllingthe slipsis to ensurethattheyoccuronly in theform of a repe-
tition or deletionof an entireframe.Thusthe time slot counter$andframing logic as-
sociatedwith the multiplexgroupremainsynchronized. Conholledslipscomprising
entireframescanbe assured by usingelasticstoreswith at leastoneframeof storage.
As a slip occurs,the storagelevel in the elasticstoreis effectivelyincreasedor de-
creasedby a full frame.Ratherthanactuallyinsertingor deletinga frameof informa-
tion, the desiredeffect is achievedmore easily by indexingaddresspointersin a
random-acce$$ memory.Sucha systemis shownin Figure7.10.
Theelasticstorein Figure7.10operates by sequentially writing input information
into memoryaddresses corresponding to individualTDM channels. Datafor individ-
ual outputchannelsareobtainedby readingthesameaddresses in thesamesequential
manner.Ideally,if thereis no offsetbetweenthe clock rates,the readtimesof each
channeloccurmidway betweenwrite timesfor corresponding channels.The elastic
storethenhasthecapabilityof absorbingtransmission delayvariationsup to one-half
of a frametime.

Memory
wrltS*
Memory
reodr Double
reEd

Figure 7.10 Hlasticstoreoperationwith a one-framememory,

348 NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION
CONTROLANDMANAGEMENT

The timing diagram in Figure 7.10 depicts an exaggeraredtiming offset in which the
switch clock R2 is greaterthan the incoming clock lt1. As indicated, the read times carch
up gradually with the write times until a "double read" occurs.At that time the information
retrieved for eachcharurelis a repetition of the information retrieved for the previous out-
going frame. Although write and read times for only one channel are shown, the corre-
sponding times for all other channelshave the samerelationship. Thus all charurelsslip
together.Notice that R1 is greater than R2, a slip occurs when a "double write" on all
channelscausesthe information in the previous incoming frame to be overwritten.
The elastic store operation depicted in Figure 7.10 is very similar to the operation
of a time slot interchangememory describedin Chapter5. This relationshipis exploit-
able in a TST switch where the inlet memory can provide both the elastic store func-
tion and the time switching function. When the two functions are combined, slips
generally occur at different times for different channels. Nevertheless,individual
charnels maintain proper frame alignment since each channel is transferredthrough
the inlet memory using dedicatedmemory addresses.
One attractivefeatureof using the inlet memory as an elastic storeis that, when set-
ting up a new connection,an internal switching time slot can be chosenso that the inlet
memory read is halfway betweeninlet memory writes for the particular channel.Thus
a slip in that connection will not occur for a long time, probably not until long after
the connection is released.(With a clock inaccuracy of one pafl in 108,ttre time be-
tween slips in any one channel is 3.5 hr.)
One potential problem with the elastic store in Figure 7.10 occurs when write and
read times nearly coincide. When both accessesto a single channeloccur one after the
other, transient timing instabilities can causethe two accessesto cross back and forth
with respectto each other. Thus slips causedby double readsmay follow slips caused
by double writes and vice,versa.To remedy this situation, some amount of hysteresis
is neededin the counter adjustmentprocess.The hysteresis,in turn, implies that addi-
tional storageis neededto defer the occurrenceof one type of slip after a slip of the
other type has recently occurred.
One meansof implementing an elastic storewith the desiredhysteresisis to usetwo
framesof storageas shown in Figure 7.11. Forconvenience,the elastic storeis divided
into an A-frame memory and a B-frame memory. The counterlogic again accessesthe
memories in sequentialfashion except that frames are written alternately into the A
and B memories.Under normal operation,the memoriesare accessedin the sameway
for output data. When a slip is imminent, however, control logic causesthe output
channelcounter to be reset so that the A memory is read twice in a row. This situation
is depicted in the timing diagram of Figure 7.1I, which again assumesthat R2 is
Sreaterthan R1.The imporrant point to be noticed in the timing diagram is that after
the counter adjustmentproducesa double read of memory A, the write and read times
of each individual memory are approximately one frame time apart. Thus anotherad-
justment can be deferred until the write and read accessesagain drift one full frame
time with respectto eachother. The structure and mode of operation shown in Figure
7.11 describethe elastic store used for DSI signal interfacesto AT&T's (now Lu-
cent's)No. a ESS II2].
 7.2 TIMINGINACCURACIES 349

VP
n,$ J I
r
I awntr I
I

l \ A

H
B

J} fi2

P/S

ilhmory A A
r$lt||
l,/hmofy
rgrd A
Double
t?ral

Figure 7.ll Elasticstorewith a two-framememory.

9llp Bate Qbjactlves

If the difference between an elastic store's input data rate and its output data rate is
M,- the time between slips is

A7={
AR

where N is the number of bits that get dropped or repeatedwhenever a slip occurs.
Normally, a slip involves a full frame of data, in which casethe time between slips
is determined as

47=-l-
^F

whereAF is the differencein framerates.

As long asslipsarecontrolledsotheydo not disruptframing,ltheir only effectis
aninfrequentrepetitionor deletionof theinformationwithin affectedTDM channels.
The audibleeffectof slipson a digitizedvoice signalis an occasional"click." Only
oneslip in 25 producesanaudibleclick in PCM voice[]. Voice signalscantherefore
tolerateseveralslipsperminute[13].
*Typicatly,
clock offsets are specified in relative terms (e,g,, onepart in 106). A clock tlat is accurateto P
parts per million (ppm) has a maximum offset of AR = ll . P/10".
TWith single-frame slips, framing is disrupted in thc sense that framing pattem is shifted, Thus, the frame
sequence has to be reacquired, but this process is simplified by the fact that the location of the framing bits
and the integrity of the message channels are maintained.
350 N ETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION
CONTHOLAND MANAGEMENT

A moresubtleandtroublesome aspectof slipsoccurswhena digitizedchannelcar-

riesvoicebanddata.High-speeddatamodemsfor the analogtelephonenetworkuse
QAM modulationwith coherentdetectionin thereceiver.Sincethesemodemsarepar-
ticularlysensitiveto phaseshifts,theyareparticularlyvulnerableto slips.An 8-bitslip
in a digitizedmodemsignalusinga carrierof 1800Hz causesaninstantaneous phase
shift of 8l o.obviously,a phaseshift of this sizecausesa dataerror,but moreimpor-
tantly,it upsetsthecarrierrecoverycircuitryin thereceiverandcauses multipleerrors.
A singleslip canupsettheoperationof somevoicebandmodemsfor severalseconds
[ 1 4 ,1 5 ] .
characterizations of theeffectsof slipson Group3 facsimileequipment[16]reveal
thata singleslip cancausethelossof four to eightscanlineswithoutanerrorreport.
Sometimes thelossof thelinesis not immediatelyevidentto thereconstructed image.
Diagonallines,however,readilyrevealmissingverticalspace.
Encryptedtraffrc(voiceor data)is moresusceptible to slipssincetheencryption-
decryptionprocessusuallyrelieson bit-synchronous scramblersand unscramblers.
Whenthebit countis alteredby insertionor deletionof bits in a time slot,countersin
the sourceanddestinationbecomeunsynchronized. At berrt,the decryptionprocess
causeseveryslip to be audible.At worst,unintelligiblespeechor dataresultuntil the
unscrambler is resynchronized. Anotherimportantaspectof encryptedcommunica-
tion is transmission of encryptionkeysor indexesto encryptionkeys.If synchroniza-
tion is lost for somereason,it maybenecessary to resynchronize theencryptionkeys,
therebycompromisingsecurity.
Whena digitaltransmission link is beingusedto transmitdatadirectly,theeffect
of a slip maynot be anymoresignificantthana singlechannelerror.Most datacom-
municationsreceivingequipmentrequestsa completeretransmission of anyblock of
datanot satisfyingcertainredundancy checks.Thusoneerroris asbadasmanyerrors
or a completelossof data.Theeffectof the slip will be moresignificant,however,if
the communications protocol[e.g.,the DDCMP of Digital Equipmentcorporation
(compaq)lrelieson bytecountprocedures to delimitmessage blocks.Insefiionor de-
letion of databy the networkcausesthe receivecounterto becomeunsynchronized,
andthenormalexchange of informationis disrupteduntil thelossof synchronization
is recognized.
Fromtheforegoingconsiderations for datatransmission, theslip rateobjectivefor
theAT&T networkandadoptedby BellcoreandANSI for NorthAmericawasserar
oneslip in 5 hr for anend-to-end connection[17-19]. Sinceslipscanoccurat multiple
pointswithin a network,the objectivefor slipsat individualtrunk and switchingin-
terfaceswas$etat oneslip every20 hr.

Example7.2. Determinethe relativeaccuracyrequirement$ of two independent

clocksto maintaina mutualslip rateobjectiveof one slip in 20 hr. Assumea frame
rateof I kHz asin PCM voicesisnals.

solution. The slip rateobjectiveimpliesthattheframerateproducedby oneclock

canbe different thanthe framerateproducedby the otherclock by no morethan
 7.2 TIMINGINACCURACIES 351

I
* = = 1.39x 10-5slipsper second
r; * * *

Sinceilrereare8000framesper second,therelativeaccuracyis determinedas

1.39xl0-5
= 1.7x "lo-e
n.-,
sliPs/frame
ffi

Hencetheclocksmustbe accurateto 1.7partsin lOe.

BecauseExample7.2 determines only a maximumrelativeinaccuracy,the abso-
lute inaccuracyof eachindividualclockmustbe lessthan( I .7 x 10-e)/2,or 0.85parts
in 10e.

7.2.2 Asynchronou$ Multlplexing

In the precedingsectioncertainaspectsof networksynchronization werediscussed

that implied the needfor clock synchronization to preventa lossof databy way of
slips.In this sectiona procedurereferredto as"pulsestuffing"is discussed thatavoids
both slipsandclock synchronization. The termpulsestuffingcanbe somewhatmis-
Ieadingsinceit impliesthatpulsesareinsertedinto the line codeto maketiming ad-
justments.Actually,pulsestuffinginvolvesonly the datastreamandis independent
of theline codeor modulationsystemin use.Pulsestuffingis a termcommonlyused
in North Americawhile the $ameconceptis refenedto as"justification"in Europe.-
Thebasicconceptofpulsestuffinginvolvestheuseof anoutputchannelwhoserate
is purposelyhigherthantheinputrate.Thustheoutputchannelcancarryall inputdata
plus somevariablenumberof "null," or "stuff," bits.The null bits arenot partof the
incomingdata.Theyareinserted,in a prescribed manner,to padtheinputdataskeam
to the higheroutputrate.Naturally,the extraneous null, or stuff,bits mustbe identi-
fiablesothat"destuffing"canrecovertheoriginaldatastream.
Thepracticeof pulsestuffingarosewhenthe initial digitalTDM hierarchy(Table
1.10)was defined.At this time therewere only isolateddigital transmissionlinks
within the networkthat precludedsynchronizingthemto a commonclock.Whenit
cametimeto combinelowerratetributaries(e.g.,DSls) into higherlevelsignals(e.g.,
DS2sor DS3s),themultiplexingprocedurenecessarily hadto accommodate tributar-
ies operatingat $lightlydifferentrates.Thegenerictermfor combiningtheseunsyn-
chronizedsignalsis asynchronous multiplexing.In this context,"asynchronous"
refersto multiplexingofunsynchronized tributariesinto a higherlevel signal(using
pulsestuffing).It doerrnot refer,in any way, to a meansof transmission. The higher
level signalis alwayscarriedon a synchronous transmission link.
As the amountof digital equipmentin the networkgrew andmore andmore of it
becameinterconnected, boththemeansandthenecessityfor a differentform of mul-
*Justification
is the pnnting industry practice that aligns the right sirle oflines oftext by inserting a variable
amount of spacewithin the line. As you will seein the following discussion,aligning individual tributaries
to thc rate of a higher level multiplexer is conceptually the same process,
352 NETWoRKSyNcHRoNTzATToNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

tiplexing arose.The chosenapproachis refened to as synchronousmultiplexing

(SONET)in North AmericaandSynchronous Digital Hierarchy(SDH) in therestof
theworld.Theprinciplesof SONETandSDH aredescribed in conjunctionwith fiber
systemsin thenextchapter.

P ulse-Stuff i ng Concepts
As a startingpoint for understanding theneedfor pulsestuffing,considerthe simple
two-channel,bit-interleavedmultiplexerin Figure 7.12. As indicated,within any
stringof even-numbered bits in the multiplexerouryut,thenumberof bits carriedin
eachsubchannel is necessarilyidentical.Thus the ratesof the subchannels are also
identical.If the two input clatastreamsarerunningat differentrates,the outputcanbe
synchronized to oneofthe channelsbut not both.Thusslipswould necessarily occur
in at leastoneof thetributaries.
As a simplifiedexampleof pulsestuffing,Figure7.13 showsa two-channel, bit-
interleaved formatasbeforebut with theadditionaldetailneededto allow adjustments
of theinformationflow within eachsubchannel. As indicated,themultiplexedoutput
is formattedinto 10-bitmasterframeswith 5 bits assignedto eachsubchannel. The
frrst 3 bits in eachsubchannelof eachmasterfoamealwayscarrydatafrom therespec-
tive tributaries.Thefourthbit in eachsubchannel (C1andCj specifywhetherthelast
bits (S1andSj carrydataor arestuffbits.WhenC1is a "1," a bit is stuffed;otherwise
s 1carriestributarydata.Henceeachma$terframecancarry3 or 4 bitsfromeachtribu-
tary.Il on average!eachtributarysends3.5bits duringa ma$terframe,variationsof
+l4Voin thetributaryclockratescanbe accommodated.
An importantpoint to noticeaboutan asynchronous multiplexeris thattheoutput
framestructureis unrelatedto theframeskuctureof thelower level inputs.As far as
thehigherlevelmultiplexeris concemed, eachinprrtsignalis merelya serialbit stream
with no particularstructureassumed. Framingbitsin thelowerlevelmultiplexsignals
aretransmittedright alongwith the informationbits. After thehigherlevel signalis
demultiplexedand the tributariesare unstuffed,framingof the lower level signals
mustbe established for furtherdemultiplexing.
Althoughpulsestuffingcanbeimplemented with a varietyof higherlevelframing
formats,thegenerallymostdesirablefeaturesof a pulse-stuffingformatareidentified
asfollows:

1. Theuseof fixed-lengthmasterframeswith eachchannelallowedto stuff or not

to stuff a singlebit in themasterframe

ffi
Figure 7.12 Two-channel multiplexer showing equal output data rates for each input,
 7.2 TIMINGINAccURACIES 353

I Frame
E D c B A

Figure 7.13 Simplifiedpulse-stuff,rng

example.

2. Redundant$tuffing specifications
3 . Noninformation bits distributed acrossa masterframe

Timing offsetsaregenerallyquitesmall,soonly smalladjustments from a singleoc-

casionalstuff bit arerequired.Thuslargenumbersof tributarybits canbe combined
into a masterframewith one specificbit positionidentifiedasthe S bit. Nominally,
approximately one-halfof the masterfrarnescontainthemaximumnumberof infor-
mationbitsNM,andtheotherhalf containNy - l informationbits.
Thepurposeof a pulse-stuffingoperationis to preventa lossof datawhentwo in-
terconnected digitaltransmissionlinks areunsynchronized with respectto eachother.
If singlebit errorscancausea stuffbit to be interpretedasinformation(or viceversa),
the basicobjectiveis lost. Furthermore,noticethat an erroneousinterpretationof a
stuff codecausesembedded, lower level multiplexsignalsto loseframing.For these
reasons, theinterpretationof C bitsmustbeencodedredundantly. Underthe a$rtump-
tion that channelerrorsarerandom,the probabilityof misinterpretinga stuff code
is

Po:rfti,';,-',' - p)'

wherep = probability of a channelerror

n = numberof correctable stuff codeerrors(2n + I bits in a stuff code)

Informationbits shouldbe distributedacrossa masterframefor severalreasons.

First,by sepamting thesebits asmuchaspossible,enorsin redundant$tuffingspeci-
ficationbits(C bits) aremorelikely to beindependent. If thespecification
bits aretoo
closetogetherandbursterrorsareprevalent,theredundantencodingis of little use.
Second,by distributingnoninformationbits, the irregularityof informationflow is
minimized.Whenhigherlevel multiplexsignalsaredemultiplexed, a clock for each
individuallower level signalneedsto be derivedfrom the irregularinformationrate
in eachchannel.Generation of a suitablystableclocksynchronizedto theinformation
rate is simplif,redif informationburstsor gapsare minimized.Furthermore,elastic
storesneededto smoothout the informationratesare smallerwhen the length of in-
formafiongapsis minimized.
354 NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION
CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT

M12 Multiplexer
An exampleof a higherlevel multiplexingformatis providedin Figure7.14.This is
theformatusedfor 6.3l2-MbpsDsZ signalsin theNorthAmericandigitalhierarchy.*
A DSz signalis derivedby bit interleavingfour DSI signalsandaddingtheappropri-
ateoverheadbits.
A DS2masterframeis 1176bitslong.Of thesethereare1148informationbits(287
perchannel),I I framingbits (I%, Mr, Fo,Fr), l2 stuffingconrrolbits (Cr, Cz,C:, C+),
4 S bits (Sr,Sz,Sr, S+),andan alarmbit X. Sincean S bit canbe a null bit or aninfor-
mationbit, eachchannelcan send287 or 288 bits in a masterframe.An S bit is
designated asan informationbit if all threeof the corresponding C bits are0. The S
bit is a null (stuff)bit if all threecorrespondingc bits are 1.obviously,thisencoding
procedureallowsfor singleerrorcorrectionin the stuffingcontrolbits.
The first level of framingis established by the alternatingF6,F1,F0,. . . pattern.
Noticethat exactly146bits separate theFs andFl bits.Anotherlevel of framingfor
identifyingthe C andS bits is established by theMs andM1 bits.A fourthM bit (X)
is not usedfor framingand thereforecan be usedas an alarmservicedigit. Similar
framestructuresexist for otherhigherlevel digital signals.Figures7.15-7.18show
thestructures for DS3,DS4,DSIC, andtheE2 second-level digital signalof theITU,
respectively.

Example7.3. Determine the minimum and maximum input channel rates

accommodated by an Ml2 multiplexer.Also determinethe rateof DSI misframes
causedby anerroneousinterpretation
of a stuffedbit. Assumethebit errorrateis 10-6.

Solution. The maximuminformationrateper channelis determinedas

6.31?:?8s
= 1.5458
Mbps
lt76
Theminimuminformationrateper channelis determinedas

6.312x287
= 1'5404MbPs
ffi6
Sincetherearethreepossiblecombinations of two errorsin theC bits,theprobability
of misinterpreting
an S bit is closelyapproximatedby 3 x (10-6)2=3 x l0-r2. Thedu-
rationof eachmasterframeis 117616.312 = 186Fsec.Thustherateof misframesper
DSI sienalis

3 x 10-12
persecond
10{ misframes
"#r":0'016x

whichis equivalentto onemisframeevery2 years.

'DS2
signals are no longer transmitted as individual signals. They only exist as an intermediate level
between 28 DSls and a DS3 sienal.
 7.2 TIMINGINAcCURACIES 355

Zgt-Bit1;btilffi
+--'-
aE /tB Erulf
ilC-*r-rO
bitr

f
! C1
F
l

E
T
-E

Figure 7.1C Frame format of DSZ digital signal. Stuffing occurs in channel i when the
previous Ci bits = lll; X is an alarm bit that equals I for no-alarm condition. Framing is
establishedby the F6F1F6. . . sequencewith 146 intervening bits.

Example7.3 demonstrates thatthetoleranceof a 1.544-MHzDSI clockis -3.572,

to +1.796kHz. ThustherelativeaccuracybetweentheDSI andDS2 clocksmustbe
I.79611544,or only I part in 860. This relativelylarge timing toleranceis much
greaterthanwhatis requiredfor reasonable clockandline instabilities.Thetiming ad-
justmentcapabilitiesandunsymmetrictolerancerangewerechosenout of a desireto
(l) minimizeDS2reframetimes,(2) providea line clockthatis a multipleof 8 kHz,
and(3) minimizewaitingtimejitter [20].

C8O blt ilbfrfile

s
E
t
ll

$E
s

Figure 7.15 Frameformatof DS3digitalsignal;P is evenparityoverall message bits in the

previousmasterframe.Stuffingoccursin channeli whenthe previousCi bits = lll, The X
(alarm)bits andthe P bits mustbe l l or 00 so the MoMrM6sequence
canidentifythe endof
the masterframe.
356 NETWoRKSYNCHRoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Stuft bit

E
E
tl
o
gE
o
ti
{

Figure 7.16 Frame format of DS4: Ci bits = I l l implies stuff the eighth messagebit position
for channel i following the last ci; Pr is even parity over the 192 previous odd-numbered
messagebits; P0 is even parity over the 192 previous even-numberedmessagebits.

ElastlcSlore Size Requlrements

A functional
modelof anMl ? multiplexer
is shownin Figure7.19.Associated
with
eachlower level (DSl) input is an elastic store to hold incoming data until it is trans-
ferred to the higher level (DS2) output. The elastic storesserve two purposes:to re-
move the arrival jitter of the incoming data and to hold data for the proper time slots.
In addition to generatingframing, the control logic of the multiplexer monitors the

318 bir NUbfrEmG

rtro-i-c,-33-ro cr

5 Mr q
({
tl
o Ml
6
q

E
:E

Figure 7.17 Frame format of DSIC digital signal. Stuffrng occurs in channel i when the
previous Ci bits = lll; X is an alarm bit that equals I for no-alarm condition. Framing is
establishedby the FoFrFo. . . sequencewith 158 intervening bits.
 7.2 TrMrNc
rNAccuRActEs 357

21?Eitsblm

Fflri digffi$t rign|l

200ilmgr blt

irBtff
tffir-
8{8 bltr

Figure 7.18 Frameformatof second-level digital signalof ITU-T (E2), Stuffingoccursin

channeli whenthepreviousCi bits are lll.

$toragelevel (which servesa$ a phasecomparator)of eachelastic store and initiates a

stuffing operationwheneverthe elastic storeis lessthan half full. Conversely,no stuff-
ins occurs when the elastic store is more than half full.
Sincestuffingcanoccurat only certaintimesandonly at a certainmaximumrate,
the elastictltoremustbe at leastas largeasthe peakjitter (peakphaseoffset)of the
incomingsignal.As discussedat the beginningof this chapter,jitter accumulates
alongthe entirelengthof a repeatered transmission link. Thus longerlinks require
largerelasticstoresif slipsareto be prevented.
As an exampleof therelationshipbetweenline length(numberof repeaters) and
numberof bits of elasticstorageneededby anM12 multiplexer,referto Figure7;20.
This figurewassubmittedby AT&T to the CCITT specialstudygrouponjitter [21].
The analysisis an extensionof the systematicjitter analysisof reference[3].

DS-l
inputs
DS-Zoutout

Sdl6ctorcodtrol
framing inrrtion
dnd rtuffing

Framing gonaration
Etuffing contfol

Storag6
l#el
Eign|lr

Figure 7.19 Functionaldiagramof a Ml2 multiplexer

358 NETWoRKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

{
E
e
lio
o
o
o
E

fl.
o
E
o
cl
o
E

e5 3.0
Jltur rlopq (kHr)

Figure 7.20 Maximumnumberof regenerativerepeatersasa functionof elasticstoresizeand

jitter slope;,4 = numberof cellsin elasticstore.

The abscissaof Figure 7.20 is the maximum-phaseslope produced by a clock re-

covery circuit in the presenceof a worst-caseshift in datapatterns(worst-casesystem-
atic jitter). Since phase slope is nothing more than frequency offset, the required
elastic store size can be determined as the maximum phaseslope times its maximum
duration. Since the total phase slope is proportional to the number ofrepeaters, Fig-
ure 7.?0 displays the maximum number of repeaters per storage cell in an elastic
store versu$ the jitter slope of an individual repeater when making worst-case tim-
ing transition.
As an example, f,ust-generation Tl repeater$produce a worst-ca.seslope of 2.4 ktlz.
Ml2 multiplexers allocate 5 bits of storageto input phasejitter (3 more bits are included
for implementationeaseand waiting time jitter). From Figure 7 .20 it can be seenthat
the ratio of N-* to A is 56, which implies that N*"* = 56 x 5 = 280 repeaters.*

*The
performance of long Tl lines is not as much of a concem as it once was becausemost long-distance
DSl circuits ate now embedded in frber links, which have much greater repeater spacing,
 7.2 TrMrNc
rNAccuRAcrES359

7.2.3 WaitlngTimeJitter
Whendemultiplexinga higherlevel TDM datastream,it is necessary to generatea
clockfor eachderivedsubchannel. Because the subchannels aretransfened (or trans-
mitted)asa synchronous datastream,the derived clock must be continuous. Deriva-
tion of subchannel clocksis complicatedby the insertioninto TDM data streamsof
overheadbits that creategapsin the bit anival times.Inegularityin the dataanival
ratecausedby thesegapsis referredto aswaitingtimeiitter.
Mostof theoverheadbits(e.g.,framingbits,paritybits, stuffingcontrolC bits)oc-
cur on a regularandpredictablebasis.The waitingtime jitter causedby thesegaps
(sometimes referredto asmappingjitter+) canbeeliminatedeasilywith anelasticstore
andanoutputclockderivedfrom theincomingline clock.For example,a singlePCM
channelclock at 64 kbpscanbe derivedfrom a 1.544-MbpsTl line clockby multi-
plyingby I anddividingby 193.Mappingjitter asit occursin a EI signalmappedinto
an E2 signalis depictedin Figure7.21. In this figure the phaseof the tributarydata
mappedinto the higherlevel signalis shownrelativeto an unmapped(continuous)
dataclock at the sameaveragerate.Notice that the phaseof the tributary falls behind
thereference duringperiodsof datagapsbut catchesup duringdatafieldsbecause the
averagetributary datarateduringthesefields is slightly higherthanthereference.No-
tice furtherthat the fill level of an elasticstoredoesnot get perfectlyreconciledat the
endof a singleE2 masterftame.This resultoccursbecause, on average, a nonintegral
numberof bits of a tributary are calried in a masterframe.
In contrastto mappingdataratevariations,waitingtime jitter producedby pulse
stuffingis significantlymoredifficult to dealwith. Thedifficulty arisesbecause wait-
ing timesproducedby stuffedpulsesareirregularandunpredictable. For this reason
the subchannel outputclocksderivedfrom a pulse-stuffed TDM line mustbe derived
independently andonly fromtheaveragearrivalrafeof eachchannel'sdata-not from
thehigherlevelTDM rate!
Outputclocksfrom M12 demultiplexers aregenerated usingjitter-removingelastic
stores,asshownin Figure7.22.If laryeelasticstoresandvery slowly adjustedoutput
clocksareused,mostof thejitter canbe removed.Unfortunately,waitingtimejitter
hasfrequencycomponents down to zerofrequencyso the jitter (e'g', wander)can
neverbe eliminatedentirely.However,thejiner canbe conf,tned to aslow a bandof
frequencies asdesiredby usinga largeenoughelasticstore.Figure7.23depictstime
intervalerrorsresultingfrom thepulsestuffing-destuffingprocess.Thekey point to
noticeis a full bit of offsetbetweenthesourcedataclockandthemappeddatacanoc-
cur at anytime but an adjustmentcanonly be madewhenthenext stuff opportunity
occurs-hencethetermwaitingtimejiner.
Waitingtimejitter is basicallya functionof how oftenpulsesarestuffed,but it is
alsodependent on theratioof actualstuffsto stuffingopportunities. If theinputclock

"Some
references include mapping jitter to include waiting time jitter. Here, mapping jitter is used to
represent repetitive data rate variations that occuf when both the tributary and the higher level transport
signals are respectively at their pre,ciserates. Thus, waiting time jitter only occurs as a result of frequency
adjustments,
360 NETWoHKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAcEMENT

Phffi of tn'hrrsry m cmpositc rig*t rcl8tivc b tqFt EigFrl iD Ulg

X: otrcrtad lr& Frfio I; lfrffilrim bit pilidm fn I rrfrltry sr Tffig a{iahflr (.||d) blr poridn
' Ewy_@lpilh AM c*df, Zoj hfffi|timtir p* ffirieyftr wDoilftb rd,fdwlirftd|thf, til
!H hhEyin m S bit poiria strpaftrg o r!.d.

Ftgure7.21 Mapping
Jitterof a CCITTEl in a CCITTE2sisnal.

is jitter free,theoutputjitter peakswhenone-halfof theopporhrnities areused.From

thepoint of view of maximumtolerancefor clockoffsets,a stuffingratioof { is ideal.
To reducethewaitingtimejitter, however,stuffingratiosof approximately {'areoften
used.For a thoroughanalysisof waitingtimejitter, seereferencet2zl. As anexample
of waitingtimejitter dependence on stuffing(iustification)ratios,seeFigure7.24 ob-
tainedfrom reference[21]. The abscissa ofFigure 7.24represents the ratio of stuffs
to opporhrnities while theordinateis jitter powerproducedby a singlepulse-stuffing
process.Thejitter poweris expressed in decibelsrelativeto one slot squared(a
slot is an olderterm for a unit interval,ul). curve A showsthe outputjitter pro-

Figure 7.22 Functionaldiagramof Ml2 demultiplexer/desynchronizer,

 SYNCHRONIZATION361
7.3 NETWORK

AdJurtuent thrcshold Tlms iileffsl €rrorE

H
lnput clock phase

Figure 7.23 Time intervalerrorsproducedby adjustment

waitingtimes.

(dBl 0dB = t slotr

-12
E
o

E *rE '1
,A

.;
5 \ -h
€ JE 7
E
h
B -20
o
o

5
cclTT.4773A
o ol 0.4 05 0.6 0.7 0.s 0.9 1.0
Juttification ratio
A : Tributsryjitter - 0.10 tlot r.m.r.
B I TributEry iitter - 0.25 rlot r.m.r

on justification ratio.
Figure 7.24 Waiting timejiner dependence

ducedwhentheinputjitter is -20 dB (0.t UI rms).CurveB showsthe outputjitter

whenthe inputjitter is -72 dE (0.25UI rms).Figure7.24 showsjitterproduced
by a singlemultiplexer.From measureddata 122],a good order-of-magnitude es-
timateof the waiting time jitter accumulatedby N, tandemM12stuffing-destuff-
ing operationsis

4=ffiruti' (7.6)

7.3 NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION

As discussed in the precedingsection,whenevera digital transmissionlink is con-

thetwo systemsby havingthe
nectedto a digital switch,it is desirableto synchroniee
362 NETWoRKSYNCHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

transmission link obtainits timingfrom theswitch.An obviousexceptionto thismode

of operationoccurswhena digital kansmissionlink is connected to a digital switch
onbothends.Generally,a hansmission link in anall-digitalnetworkderivesits timing
from just oneof the switchesto whichit is connected. If theotherswitchis not syn-
chronizedto thefirst in somemanner,anunsynchronized interfacenecessarily results.
This sectionis concemedwith networksynchronization as a whole,not simply the
synchronization of a singleinterface.Basically,networksynchronization involves
synchronizingthe switchesof the network.The transmission links canthenbe syn-
chronizedautomaticallyby deriving timing directly from a switchingnode.
Therearetwo basicreasonsfor payingassiduous attentionto the timing require-
mentsof a digital network.First, the networkmustpreventuncontrolledslips that
couldproducemisframes,inadvertent disconnects, andcrossconnects. It is generally
very difficult or very expensiveto preventslipsaltogether. Thusa secondaspectof a
networktiming plan requiresestablishing a manimumrateof controlledslipsaspafi
of theend-to-endcircuitqualityobjectives.
Synchronizing privatenetworksis sometimes difficult because thenetworktopolo-
giesarenot designedwith networksynchronization in mind,andtheswitchingequip-
ment (PBXs) me not designedto provide synchronizationto other nodes.
Furthermore,the privatenetworksoften interfaceto multiple cardersin multiple lo-
cations.Determiningwhich signalsto synchronize to, particularlyon a dynamicbasis
whena referencesignalbecomesunavailable, is exceptionallydifficult.
Therearesix basicapproaches used,or considered for use,in synchronizing a digi-
tal network:

1. Plesiochronous
2. Networkwidepulse$tuffing
3. Mutual synchronization
4. Networkmaster
5. Master-slaveclockins
6. Packetization

7.3.1 Plesiochronous

A pJesiochronous networkdoesnot synchronize the switchesbut merelyuseshighly

accurateclocksat all swirchingnodessotheslip ratebetweenthenodesis acceptably
low. This modeof operationis the simplestto implementsinceit avoidsdistributing
timing throughoutthenetwork.A plesiochronou$ network,however,impliesthatthe
smallerswitchingnodescarrythecostburdenof highlyaccurate andredundant timing
source$' As a compromise, largenetworkscanbedividedinto subnetworks for timing
purposes anduseplesiochronous operations for inter-subnetworksynchronization and
someother,morecost-effective, meansof providingintra-subnetwork synchroniza-
tion. As describedin section7.5, the public telephonenetworkin the united states
usesplesiochronous synchronizationat theupperlevels.
 7.3 NETWORKSYNCI{HONIZATnN
363

Plesiochronoustiming is also usedto synchronizeinternationaldigital network in-

terconnections.In recommendationG.811 [23], the ITU has establishedthe stability
objectives for clocks of all intemational gateway digital switches.The stability objec-
tive of one part in l01l implies that slips betweeninternational gateway switcheswill
occur at a rate of one per 70 days. (This assumesone clock is positive one part in 10lt
and anotherclock is negative one pafr in 1011.)

7.3.2 NetworkwidePulseStuffing

If all internallinks andswitchesof a networkweredesignedto run at nominalrates

slightlyhigherthanthenominalratesofthe voicedigitizationprocesses, all voicesig-
nalscould propagatethroughthe networkwithout slipsby stuffingthe information
rateup to thelocalchannelrate.Noneof theclockswouldhaveto be synchronized to
eachother,and relativelycoarseclock accuraciescould be tolerated.
At every inter-
facebetweensystemsrunningunderdifferentclocks,however,the individualchan-
nelswouldhaveto be unstuffedfrom theincomingrateandstuffedup to thelocal or
outgoingrate.In essence, theTDM linksof thenetworkwouldprovideTDM channels
throughwhich userdataflows at lower andvariablerates,the differencesbeingab-
sorbedby internalpulsestuffing.
ln contrastto pulse-stuffing operationsof higherlevelmultiplexerswhereall chan-
nelsin a lower level digital signalarestuffedasa group,switchingoperationsimply
thateachchannelmustbe stuffedindependently. Theneedfor separate pulse-stuffing
operations is illustratedin Figure7.25,whichdepictstwo voice beingswitched
signals
into a commonTDM outletlink. Obviously,thebit ratert3of bothoutputchannelsis
identical.If the two channelsoriginatein portionsof the networkrunningunderdif-
ferentclocksR1andR2,the pulse-stuffingadjustments mustbe madeseparately for
eachchannel.The complexityof stuffingand unstuffingevery64-kbpschannelat
everynetworkelementwould havebeenextremelyexpensivewhenthe digital net-
work beganto takeshape.

Figure 7.25 Swirchingtwo channelswith different ratesonto a commonTDM output

364 NETWoFKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

Although the availability of low-cost logic could minimize the cost aspectof net-
workwide pulse stuffing, other problems would occur. First, the 64-kbps clocks for
speechreconstruction would be required for each channel and would contain rela-
tively large amountsof waiting time jitter. second, the network would no longer pro-
vide byte framing so the channel recovery processwould have to also include byte
framing logic. Byte boundariesof PCM datacan be readily determinedfrom statistical
data patterns in the bit positions (e.g., the polarity bit), but other applications for the
channelsmay require explicit byte boundary identifiers.

7.3.3 Mutual Synchronizatlon

The two precedingsectionsdiscussmodes of operation for the network that do not in-
volve synchronizationofindividual clocks. This sectionand the next two describenet-
work timing plans that synchronizeeachindividual clock to a common frequency.The
first method, mutual synchronization,establishesa coilrmon network clock frequency
by having all nodesin the network exchangefrequency referencesas shown in Figure
'l
.26.Each node averagesthe incoming referencesanclusesthis for its local and trans-
mitted clock. After an initialization period, the network clock normally convergesto
a single stable frequency. under certain conditions, however, the averaging process
can become unstable[24].
The main attractivenessof a mutually synchronizednetwork is its ability to remain
operationalin spite of a clock failure in any node. The main disadvantagesare the un-
cenainties of the exact averagefrequency and unknown transient behavior. Mutual
synchronizationhas not been consideredfor the North American telephonenetwork.
In Great Britain, however, a hierarchical timing structure was once consideredthat
utilized mutual synchronizationwithin some portions of the network [25].

7.3.4 NetworkMaster

Anothermethodof synchronizing
thenetworkis shownin Figure7.27.with this
methoda singlemasterclockis tranrtmifted
to all nodesenablingthemto lock ontoa
commonfrequency.As indicated,all networknodesaredirectlyconnected to thenet-
work master,implyingthe needfor a separatetransmissionnetworkdedicatedto the

SN

Flgure 7.26 Mutual synchronization: SN, switching node.

 SYNCHHONIZATION365
7.3 NETWORK

synchronization:
Figule7.27 Networkmaster node,
SN,switching

distributionof thereference.Reliabilityconsiderationsalsoimply thatalternatepaths

be providedto eachnode.Becauseofcost considerations timing net-
for the separate
work andreliabilityproblemswith reference distribution,a networkmaster with direct
transmission to eachnodeis undesirable.
Somethingsimilarto a mastersynchronized networkis evolvingthroughthe use
of Global PositioningSystem(GPS) satellitesfor timing distributionto network
nodes.Switchingsystem$ of telecommunications networksaroundtheworld areusing
GPSandothersatellitesystemsto synchroniee their switchingoffice clocks.As the
costsof theGPSreceiversandsuitablystableoscillatorsdropin cost,moreandmore
networknodesate beingtimed from this master(highly accurate)source.Because
CDMA digitalmobilesystemsalsolock to GPS,lowercostsynchronization systems
havealsobeendeveloped thatobiainGPStimingfrom the CDMA basestationsin lieu
of directly receivingGPSsignalsthat often requireoutsideantennasto receive from
multipleGPSsatellitessimultaneously.

7.3.5 Master-Slave Synchronizatlon

The main drawbackto networkma$tersynchronizationasdescribedin the preceding

andreliabletransmission
sectionis its needfor separate facilitiesto everynode.Figure
7.28 showsa networkconfigurationthat disseminates a masterreferenceby way of
themessage A networkreferencefrequencyis transmittedto a few
links themselves.
selectedhigherlevel switchingnodes.After thesenodessynchronize their clocksto
the referenceand remove tansmission link-induced timing jitter, the referenceis
passedonto lowerlevelswitchesby wayof existingdigitallinks.Thenextlowerlevel
switches,in turn,synchronize to anincominglink from thehigherlevelandpasstim-
ing on to anotherlevelof switchesby way of theiroutgoingdigitallinks.Theprocess
"mas-
of passingthe referencedownwardfrom onelevel to thenext is referredto as
ter-slavesynchronization. "
Sinceall switchingnodesin the networkaresynchronized eitherdirectlyor indi-
rectly to the samereference,they all run at the samenominalclock rate.Thus slips
shouldnotoccur.However,because of thedifferentpathsthroughwhichtimingis dis-
seminated, short-termfrequencydifferencescanoccurbetweensomenodes'If these
 366 NETWoRKSYNcHRoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

Indlrcctly
rynchronlrrd
linkr

.---;_

Figure7.2t Master-slave
synchronization.

nodesaresynchronized indirectly,asshownin Figure7.28,infrequentslipsmightoc-

cur. Furthermore,reliability considerations imply that backupclocksmust be pro-
vided in all switchesshouldthe clock distributionsystemfail. when this happens,
slips becomemore likely, but only after relativelystablebackupclockshave had
enoughtime to drift from the commonreferencefrequency.
AT&T andthe united statesIndependent TelephoneAssociation(usITA) origi-
nally selectedmaster*slavesynchronization for the switcheddigital networkin the
united states[26]. Thereferenceftequencywaslocaredin Hillsboro,Missouri,from
whichselected No. 4 ESSswitchingcentersreceivedtheirtimingby wayof dedicated
transmission facilities.synchronization of all otherswitchesoccunedby way of ex-
istingdigitaltransmission links.As discussedin Section7.4,theoriginalplanhasbeen
changedto useplesiochronous synchronization at the highestlevel.Furthermore,as
mentionedin the previou$section,the availabilityof Gps timing sourcesis leadingto
moreandmorenodesatthehigherleveland,consequently, fewerandfewerslavenodes.

7.3.6 Packetlzation

Thesynchronization discussions of thefive precedingsectionshaveassumed implic-

itly thata synchronous,circuit-switchednetworkwasbeingconsidered, sinceprevail-
ing digitalvoicenetworksoperatein thatmanner.Forcompleteness, however,another
form of networkmustbe mentioned-a packet-switched network.
As discussedin chapter 10,packet-switched networksbreakup messages into
identifiableblocks(packetsor cells)of data.In betweentheblocks.thehansmission
linkscarryeitheridle codesor controlmessages. If all messages (controlanddata)are
separated by a nominalintervalof idle transmission, elasticstorescan be resetin
preparationfor the nextblock.As long aseachblock is limited in length,theelastic
storescanabsorbclock differencesandavoidlossesof data.(In essence, slipsoccur
in theidle codes.)

7.3.7 Network Timing Performance Measuremcnts

After choosinga synchronization

architecturefor a network,it is necessary
to be able
to measurethequalityof thetiming signalswithin thenetworkto qualifyequipment,
 7.s NETwoRK 367
sYNcHRoNrzATloN

determineperformance margins,isolatefaulty equipmentor transmissionlinks, and

possiblyevaluatedesignaltematives. ANSI andITU standards usetheconceptof time
interval error (TIE) andmaximumtime interval error {MTIE) for thesepurposes'An
additionalmeasureof clockperformance is a time variance(TVAR).

Maxlmum Time lnterval Error

A TIE is the differencein delay betweena timing signal and an ideal timing signal
measured at the endof a particulartime period(i.e.,theerrorat the endof a time in-
terval).An MTIE is the maximumpeak-to-peak varjationin TIE valuesthat occur
within a specifiedtime interval.Theseconceptsareillustratedin Figure7.29.Figure
7.29adisplaysthe TIE that occurswhenmeasuringa perfectlystablebut inaccurate
timing signal.Because thefrequencyofthe signalundertestdiffersfromthereference
frequencyby a constanfvalue (A/), the TIE is directly propol'tionalto the measure-
mentintervalS.Theenor is determined by countingclockcyclesin both signalsand
expressingthe differenceas the time requiredby the test signal to catch up (or fall
back)to thecurent referencecount.ThustheTIE producedby a constant-frequency
offsetis

T''=T
_ s(/+4fl - s(/)
J
f

='H) (7.7)

whereAn is theaccumulated differencein clockcycles,A/is thefrequencyoffset,and

S is themeasurement intervalin seconds.
Because theTIE in Figure7.294increases monotonicallywith S,theMTIE andthe
TIE areidentical.In contrast,Figure7.29bdepictstheTIE producedby a timing signal
with no long-termfrequencyoffsetbut someshott-terminstabilitiesfiitter andwan-
der)aswouldoccurif thereferencewasrelayedthrougha network.As indicated,the
TIE variesasa functionof Sbut is bounded.TheMTIE is thelargestpeak-to-peak dif-
ferencein TIE valuesin a measurement interval S. The determinationof MTIE with
no long-termfrequencyoffsetsis alsoshownin Figure7.30,whereperiodicsamples
of time interval errorsaredepicted.
Figure7.29cdisplaysthe moregeneralcasewherethe signalundertestcontains
bottrinstabilityanda frequencyoffset.In ttriscasethechoiceof thevaluefor S is critical.
If S is too small,jitter will maskthepresence of theoffset.If Sis too large,thefrequency
offsetdominates theTIE andMTIE measurement$. Thusperiodicmeasurements needto
be recordedfor a time historyto fully characterize thetiming imperfections.
Thefirst threeexamples in Figure7.29assume theuseof a "perfect"reference with
which to makethe mea$urements. If an "imperfect" referenceis used,meaningful
measurements areobtainedaslong astheTIE variationsaresignificantlygreaterthan
 NETWOHKSYNCHRONIZATION
CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT

StablE
PErfEGt lnaccilratG
Source Sourcl

Time +

PErfoct
Soutcs

Time +

(d) Tim6 -r>

Timc -rF ss

Figure 7.29 TrE andMTIE for variousclock imperfections:(a) pureoffset;(D)purejitter;

(c) offset andjitter; (d) TE differencemeasuremenr.
 SYNCHRONIZATION369
7.3 NETWORK

timeintervalerrorexample,
Figure7,30 Maximum

theimperfectionsof thereference.Sometimes therelativeperformance betweentwo

timing signalsis of interest.For example,a PBX with Tl connections to two different
places(or carriers)is moredependent on thetimingdifferences betweenthetwo trans-
missionlinks thanon the absoluteperformances. Figure7.29ddepictsmeasuringthe
relativeperforrnance of two suchlinks.In thiscase,all measurementsaremeaningful,
evenarbitrarilylow frequencywander,whichcancauseslipsbut is difficult or impos-
sibleto measurein an absolutesense.If relativemeasurements indicatetiming prob-
lemsexist,absolutemeasurements maybe neededto isolatetheproblemsource.

Time Varlance
Neither TIE nor MTIE measurements conveyany informationregardingthe fre-
quencycontentof the jitter (other thanthatconveyedby themeasurement interval,f).
A moregeneralstatisticalcharacterization of thejitter requiresrepresenting
thejitter
magnitudeasa functionof frequency,or equivalently,asa functionof time between
TIE samples.The time variance(TVAR) is sucha measure. TVAR valuesaredeter-
minedastheexpectedvaJiance of second-order differencesbetweenTIE samplesthat
areseparatedby a time t, wheret variesfrom zero(or somefractionof a second)to
somemaximumobservation period.TVAR valuesarecustomarilymeasured in units
of time squared(e.g.,nanoseconds Theformulafor calculating
squared). TVAR val-
=
uesfromTIE samples;;(i 1, . . . ,19 is

TVAR(I) = o:(r)

:.tgltltt)tl
'2
N*3n+l fn-r
-ffi- -zxv*k**r*)
{"r*r"*o (7'8)
L v ' ' r 3n
r . -+L1)
r I lE |
Fl
lm l
where t = nto (to is the sampling interval) and the obserrvationperiod is Nto'
The use of second-orderdifferencesremovesthe effect of a dc offset or of a linear
phaseramp in the TVAR samples.Thus, there is no need to ulie a synchronizedrefer-
 370 NETWoHKSYNCHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

enceto deterrninethe TIE samplesbefore determining the TVAR values.However, if

TVAR values for long observationperiods T are to be determined,a stablereference
is neededto preclude referencewander from influencing the measurementvalues.

Time Devlatlon
Timedeviation
(TDEV)measurements
aremerelythesquare
rootof theTVARmeas-
urements.
Thus,TDEVandTVARvalues havethesamerelationshipastheclassical
standarddeviation and variance of a probability distribution. TDEV is customarily
measuredin nanoseconds.

7.4 U.S.NETWORK
SYNCHRONIZATION
Theoriginalplanfor synchronization
of theu.s. networkformulated
by theBellsys-
temandtheu.s. Independent Telephone Association
wasto usemaster-slave syn-
chronization with a single master clock [26]. Due to the breakup of the network into
multiple independentcompaniesand to difficulties in reliably distributing a highly ac-
curate master,the synchronizationarchitecturefor the United Stateswas changedto
a plesiochronous/hierarchicaldesignin the lare l9g0s [13, lg, I g]. Although the hier-
archical design is still in use,it is gradually changing to a ..flatter" design by incorpo-
rating top-level functionality in more and more nodes.

7.4.1 SynchronizationRegions
As shown in Figure 7.31, the public network is partitioned into synchronization re-
gions that are intemally synchronizedwith a master-slave timing hierarchy that es-
tablishesdifferent levels of timing quality: sffatum I to stratum 4. stratum I clocks
have the highest quality while stratum 4 clocks have the lowest. Timing for each re-
gion is establishedby a primary referencesource(pRS) at stratum l. stratum I clocks
are free-running clocks with inaccuraciesno greater than one part in 10il. Some re-
gions may have their own PRS while others may use a synchronization signal from
anotherparty (e.g., an interexchangecarrier such as AT&T).
For the most part, the synchronizationregions correspondto LATAs. Every region
must have at least one stratum 2 clock, which is typically associatedwith an access
tandem switch. Toll offices within LATAs may also have stratum 2 clocks. All toll
switches within AT&T network contain stratum ? clocks [13]. Except when they use
a coilrmon PRS, the synchronization regions are independently syncfuonized. Thus
connectionsbetween the regions (using interexchangecarriers like AT&T) are typi-
cally plesiochronouslytimed. within a single region nodesare synchronizedin a mas-
ter-slave hierarchy as indicated.
The accuracyrequirementsof the four levels of stratum clocks are provided in Ta-
ble 7 .2. These accuraciespertain only to situations in which the nodes are operating
in a free-running mode. Normally the nodes are synchronizedto higher level clocks
so the long-terrn accuracyis haceableback to the respectivePRS. In addition to listing
free-running accuracies,Table 7 .2lists accuraciesthat must be met durine holdover
o o
0 .9
E
o o t
_th
E(J F(,
xa oqJ r4 f ; tc
l;6 U O E6(JE

:i;t
q i
* [

6
N

ti

+ \
i
F I
E

o
{
-
o
z
(t
t*
I
uo

371
 572 NETWoRK
syNcHHoNtzATtoN
coNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

TABLE7.2 StratumClockAccuracyRequlrementa

Level Free-RunAccuracy 24-HrHoldoverAccuracy

Stratum1 +1 x 10-11 Notapplicable
Stratum2 + 1. 6x 1 0 + t1 x10-loperday
Stratum3E t4.6 x 10+ +1 x 10-s(day1)
Stratum3 f4.6 x 104 < 255slipsin day1
Stratum4 i32 x 104 Notrequired

states.Theholdovermodefor stratum2 and3 clocksrequiresthesenodesto gradually

transitionto thefree-runningstatewhentheylosetheirreferencesignals.*A stratum
2 clock,for example,losesthepreviouslyestablished frequencyat therateof I x I 0-r0
per day,implyingit would take 160daysto reachthe worst-case free-runningaccu-
racy'Stratum4 clocks,however,haveno holdoverrequirements sotheyenterthefree-
runningstateimmediatelyuponlosingtheirreference(s).
Networksynchronization requirements alsospecifyhow thevariousnodesrespond
to degradationor completefailure of their references.Stratum2 and 3 clocksmust
bridgeshortintemrptionsin thereferencewith minimumspecifiedtime-keepinger-
rors [l9]. Stratum3 clocks,whichtypicallyhavea primaryreferenceanda secondary
reference,mustperforma very gradualswitchoverto the secondary referencewhen
theprimaryfails. Abruptswitchovers, asoftenoccurin stratum4 nodes(pBXs),can
causephasetransientsin the outputclock,which canin turn disruptsynchronization
in all downstream devices(e.g.,within a privatenetwork).

7.4.2 Primary Reference Sources

TheANSI MTIE specification for theaccuracyof a primaryreferencesourceis shown

in Figure7.32.Noticethatjitter (instabilitythatcanbeobservedin lessrhan0.05sec)
is not specified.wander,asmeasured over500-sectime intervals.is limited to 3000
nsec.The asymptotefor long-termtiming errorscorresponds to inaccuracies of 1 x
10*1r.
In additionto beingdesignedwith highly accurate(cesiumbeamor rubidium)
clocks, all PRSsmust be continuouslyverified with universalcoordinatedtime
(urc). such verificarioncanbe achievedby usinga UTC-basednavigationsysrem
suchasLoran-c or GPS.MCI usesLoran-c andGps to directlysynchronize its pRS.
AT&T usesGPSto monitor(verify)thelong-termaccuracyof eachpRSnodeestab-
lishedin NorttrAmerica.tThetypicalaccuracyof thesenodesis muchbetterthanthe
ANSI or ITU requirement [13].
*Holdou-t
operations are typically implemente<lby storing the last valid conection value (e.g., filtered
phase detector output) and maintaining that value as an offset conection to
a highly stable
*(temperature-compensated) oscillator.
'Originally' AT&T
had 16 PRS nodes. Subsequentlarge-scaleusage of GPS has led to the establishment
of hundreds of PRS in the AT&T network.
 7.5 NETWoRKCONTROL 373

........ MTtE
- aTrT, 10-il

105

^o r d
E
E
t
'* (to-?s +
X - 3000nsec
(proritionrlly)
t0?

l0l

l0-l
104 10?

Ob86NationPBriod(sec)

Figure 7.32 PermissibleMTIE versusobservationperiodat the outputof a primary reference

source.

7.4.3 1996 AT&T Synchronlzation Architecture

Beginningin 1996AT&T begana moveawayfrom a two-tieredsynchronization ar'

chitectureto a single-levelarchitecturewith a sfiatum2 clock in everyoffice synchro-
nizedto GPS[?7]. Significantfeaturesofthis architecture are:

l. The synchronization distributionnetworkhasbeeneliminated.

2. Synchronizationis independentof the networktopologyso the traffic-carrying
networkcanbe changedwithout affectingsynchronization.
3. Eachnodeis monitoredby two adjacentnodesand eachnodemonitorstwo
adjacentnodesfor performance verification'
4. Performanceverificationinvolvesthe useof both MTIE andTDEV.
5. DSI timing signalsarederivedfrom SONETopticalsignals.

7.5 NETWORKCONTROL

The synchronizationproceduresdescribedin theprecedingsectionrepresentmethods

for controllingthetimingbetweentransmissionandswitchingsystems. In this section
 374 NETWoBK$yNcHBoNIzATtoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

synchronizationis discussedin a more generalsense.Insteadofjust time or frequency

control, the synchronizationconcept is extendedto higher level functions ofconnec-
tion control and network control as a whole. Fundamentalto the control conceptis the
interactionbetweentwo processes(e.g.,the exchangeof information from one switch-
ing machine to anotherto set up or monitor a connection).
A particularly useful meansof defining the interaction of two processesis a state
transition diagram. The main purposeof the statetransition diagram is to abstractthe
operational state$of a process and indicate what events causeffansitions from one
$tateto another.when theseevents are messages(signaling tones or ccs messages)
from another process,the statetransition diagram efTectivelydef,rneshow two com-
municating proce$$esinteract.

7.5.1 HlerarchicalSynchronizationprocesses

Asanexample
of amoregeneralized
concept
of synchronization,
Figure7.33has
been
included to demonstratethree distinct levels ofcontrol for a conventional telephone
connection using digital transmission and multiplexing. The lowest level process
shown in Figure 7.334 depicts nothing more than the clock synchronizationproces$
required to transmit and receive digital information. There are only two statesto the
processin both the transmitterand the receiver.The purposeof clock synchronization
is to causeffansitions between the two statesin the receiver to coincide with transi-
tions in the clocking processof the transmitter. To accomplish this, a certain amount
of transmissioncapacity is required in the form of line code transitions.
Figure 7.33b depicts a higher level synchronizationprocessinvolving the framing
of a time division multiplexer. Both processesrepresenta modulo-N counter, where
N is the number of channelsin the TDM frame. The two processesare synchronized
(framed) by utilizing someof the transmissioncapacityto sendframing patterns.
once
the receiver acquiresframing, the counter in the receiver counts in synchronismwith
the counter in the transmitterso that individual TDM channelsare properly identified.
Figure 7.33c provides state transition diagrams of a somewhatmore complicated
but easily understoodprocess.The figure depicts the connectioncontrol ofa conven-
tional telephonecall. The statetransition diagram ofthe first processrepresentsa sub-
scriberplacing a call (going off-hook). The secondstatetransition diagram represen6
the sequenceof statesthe control element in the local switch goes through to set up
the connection.
As indicated, the processbegins by the originating subscribergoing off-hook and
waiting for the dial tone. When the switch recognizesthe off-hook signal (current flow
in the line), it connectsthe subscriberline to a digit receiver that returns a dial tone.
The subscriberthen dials the addressofthe desiredtelephoneand entersanotherwait
state' Upon receiving the last digit of the address,the switch control processesthe re-
quest.once the statusof the called party is determined,a busy tone or a ringback
tone
is returned to the originating subscriber.A busy tone prompts the subscriberto hang
up (go on-hook) while a ringback signal causesthe subscriberto stay in the wait state
until the called party answersor until the caller "times out" and abandonsthe call.
 coNTRoL 375
7.s NETWoRK

Traffimlttor Rectlvtr

fl H (a)

fl}

Originatingrub,ecriber Suvltchcofitrol

(c)

(a) timing process;(b)

processes:
Figure 7.33 Statetransitiondiagramof synchronizatiQn
(c) telephoneconnectionprocess,
tiaming proce.qs;

When the called party answers,both processesenter the connectedstateand com-

munication between the end users begins.The end usersthen get involved in yet an-
"synchronization." Voice telephone users begin by exchanging
other level of
"connection" betweentheir thought processesto
greetingsand identities to establisha
communicateon a mutually understoodsubject.The messageexchangeprocessalso
requires synchronizationso that only one person talks at a time. Hence various forms
"turn the line around." Although being somewhatsub-
of control signalsareneededto
tle in nature, thesecontrol signalsrepresenttransmissionoverheadin the same sense
as control signals within the network. A talker may indicate his end of transmission
 376 NETWoRKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

by asking a question,by inflections in the voice, by the messageitself, or more com*

monly by a pause.
Data communicationsequipment goesthrough the samebasic proceduresin order
to establishconnection$and exchangeinformation. In this case,the proceduresarede-
fined more formatly and, consequently,are more restrictive. The formal rules of com-
munication between data communications equipment are usually referred to as a
-'protocol."
Data communications protocols typically include a definition of certain
control codes,code interpretations,messageframing, turn-aroundproceduresfor half_
duplex lines, error control, messagesequencing,fault control, and recovery.
Automated fault control and recovery proceduresfor communications networks
can becomequite involved and difficult to implement reliably. When individual voice
circuits malfunction (e.g.,becomenoisy or disconnected),the recoveryproceduresare
left to the users.They merely redial the connection and take up where they left off.
However, Iarge trunk groups or switching systemsmust be designedfor higher levels
of dependabitityand maintainability. The dependabilitycriterion ensuresthat failures
or malfunctions rarely occur or that they are circumventedautomatically by protection
switching' High levels of maintainability ensure that failures are repaired quickly
when they occur. within switching systems,most of the instructions and memory
words of the processorare dedicatedto hardwareand software performancemonitor-
ing, recovery procedures,and maintenancediagnostics.

7.6 NETWORK
MANAGEMENT
In addition to controlling individual connectionsand equipment, a communications
network must also manageits facilities on more macroscopiclevels. The basic goal of
network managementis to maintain efficient operations during equipment failures
and traffic overloads.The main considerationsare routing conffol and flow control.

7.6.1 RoutingControl

Routing conffol refers to proceduresthat determine which paths in a network are as-
signed to particular connection$.If possible, connectionsshould use the most direct
routes at the lowest levels of the network. The direct routes are obviously desirable
becausethey use f'ewer network facilities and generally provide better ffansmission
quality' However, economic considerations often limit the capacities of the
direct
routes so that alternate routes are needed to maintain suitably low blocking prob_
abilities between one switching machine and another.
lf a t.unk group between two switching machinescontainsenough circuits to pro-
vide an acceptablylow blocking probability, a significant number of the circuits in the
group are idle during averagetraffic loads.A more economicaldesign allocates
a lim-
ited number ofheavily utilized trunks in the direct route and provides alternateroutes
for overflow (alternately routed) traffic. In this manner the users are able to share
larger portions of the network. chapter 12 presentsbasic examplesof how a network
 377
7.6 NETWoHKMANAGEMENT

can be engineeredto minimize the transmission facilities while providing a given

grade of service (blocking probability). As discussedin Chapter l, the use of cenmal-
ized control for the network, with common-channelsignaling, provides signiflcant ef-
ficiencies of operation in congestednetworks.

7.6.2 FlowGontrol

ln the precedingsection,altematerouting is discussedas one aspectof managingtraf-

fic in a communications netwolk. Routing algorithms are concernedonly with the
utilization of paths or directions of travel within a network. Another requirement of
netWork management is to control the amount of traffic in a network' Managing the
rate at which traffic enters a network is referred to as flow control. A network without
effective flow control proceduresbecomesvery inefficient or ceasesto function en-
tirely when presentedwith excessivelyheavy traffic conditions'
The generalizedperformanceof a large, uncontrolled network is shown in Figure
7 .34 as a function of the offered traffic. As indicated, when light traffic conditions ex-
ist, the network caffies all traffic requestspresented.As the load increases,however,
some of the offered haffic is rejected becauseno appropriate circuits are available for
particular connections;that is, blocking exists. As the input load increaseseven fur-
ther. a network with no flow control eventually begins to carry less traffic than it does
when Iighter loads are presented.If the offered load increaseseven more, the network
may even ceaseto carry any tralfic at all.
The reason that the volume of carried traffic decreaseswhen the offered traffic ex-
ceedssomecritical value is that partially completedrequeststie up network resources
while trying to acquire other resourcestied up by other partially completed requests'
Thus a form of dynamic deadlockoccurs.Prior to the developmentof centralizednet-
work control, this situation would often arise on busy calling days (e.g., Mother's
Day). In a network with distributed control all sourcesof traff,rcare serviced by suc-
cessively seizing trunks to intermediate switching nodes until the destination is
reached.If heavy traffic exists, request$emanating from all sidesof the network en-

,9
E
E
I

Figure 7.34 Traffic caffied versus traffic offered for a network with no flow contol.
 378 NETWoRKsYNcHRoNIzATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

counter congestionsomewherenear the middle. At that time, the partially completed

connections are tying up facilities neededby other requests.In the limit, when
ex-
tremely heavy traffic exists, all network resourcesare held by partially completedre-
questsand no complete connectionscan be established!
Another exampleof the needfor flow control is automobilehaffic at a metropolitan
intersection' Have you ever encounteredan intersection in which your lane of
traffic
was blocked by cross traffic backed up into the intersection?In essence.the driver
blocking your direction of travel seizeda cornmon resource(the middle of the inter-
section) without being able to obtain the next resourcerequired (the other side
ofthe
intersection).Bumper-to-bumpertraffic in one direction can significantly
degradethe
throughput in other directions. With heavy traffic in all directions, total throughput
can grind to a halt until the congestionis relieved from the periphery inward.
The fundamentalprinciple demonstratedby theseexamplesis th;t efficient use
of
the common resourcesof a heavily loaded network requires some form of
flow con-
trol. In the automobile example, smooth operation of an inter$ectiondepends
on each
driver looking ahead and not entering an intersection unless he can g*t ull tt
* *uy
across.A telecommunicationsnetwork must use the samebasic principle (it
is hoped
with more discipline). The control elementsat the periphery or ihe networt must
be
aware of the intemal status of the network and conhol the flow of haffic from its
sources.
More than one level of flow control is sometimesimplemented within a network.
In a data communicationslink, some form of flow conhol is required to keep
a source
terminal from overloading the terminal at the other end of the link. The receiving
ter-
minal usesa reversechannel (sometimeswith a lower bit rate) to inform the
source
when to ceaseand when to begin transmissions.This level of flow control in
a circuit-
switched network involves the terminals themselvesand is of no concern to the
net-
work since the traffic flows within an establishedconnection. of more concem
ro a
circuit-switched network is how to control the flow of connectionrequestsinto
the in-
terior of the network. In setting up a long-distanceconnection, the first few
circuits
required should not be seizedunlessthere is a reasonablechancethat all ofthe
circuits
necessaryto complete the connection can be obtained. Partially completed
circuits
only degradethe network capacity by increasingcongestionwithout satisfying
a serv_
ice request.Network flow control i$ greatly simplified with common-channel
signal_
ing support for cenffalizednetwork control. The following paragraphsdescribe
basic,
uncentralizedflow control techniquesand how cenhalized conffol simplifies
their im-
plementation.

Trunk Directionalization
Theoperationof tuunl<
circuitscanbeclassified
accordingto two differentwaysof
controlling
seizures
for particular
calls.Two-waytrunkscanbeseizedat eitherend.
one-way trunks, on the other hand, can be seizedonly at one end. (Notice
that this has
nothing to do with the direction of messagetransferon establishedconnections.
which
is always in both directions.) when one-way trunking is used,the trunk group is
usu-
ally partitioned into one group that can be seizedat one end and one group that can
be
 379
7.6 NETwoRKMANAGEMFNT

seizedat the other end. Two-way trunk gfoups areobviously more flexible in servicing
fluctuating traffic patterns, but they are more difficult to control since the possibility
of simultaneousseizures(called glare) at both ends must be resolved'
A useful feature to incorporate into two-way trunks is the ability to directionalize
them by marking them busy at one end and effectively creating one-way trunks. With
this mechanism,a distant,overloadedswitching node can be relieved of additional in-
coming traffic while providing it sole accessto the trunk group for outgoing traffic'
Thus the overloadednode relieves its congestionwhile inhibiting new anjvals.
When the network as a whole experiences heavy haffic loads, trunk directionali-
zation can be used to reduce the flow of connect requestsinto the interior of the net-
work while establishing one-way trunks from the interior to the periphery. Thus
connect requests that manage to get to the interior have a much better chance of ob-
taining all facilities required for the complete connection'

Cancellation ol Alternate Routing

Alternaterouting of traffic accommodates localizedoverloadsby transferringtraffic
to underutilized routes. During networkwide overloads,however,altemateroutingis
undesirablefor two reasons.First, alternateroutesimply that a greaternumberof
transmission andswitchingfacilitiesareneededfor a connection. If thesesamefacili-
tiescould be a.rsignedto two or more direct connections, the total numberof links per
call could be reduced and the network could carry more traffic.
Second,the probability that an alternatelyroutedcall canacquireall the necessary
resources is relativelylow. Trying to setup a connectionwith a largenumberof fa-
cilitiesis undesirable ifthe probabilityofgettingall ofthe facilitiesis low (particularly
so,if some facilitiesare fruitlesslytiedup whilelessdemanding requests alepending)'

Code Blocking
Codeblockingrbf"rt to artificially blockingcalls intendedfor specificdestination
codes.If the calls areblockedat originatingend offltcesbeforethey acquireinternal
networkfacilities,the destinations arerelievedof incomingtraffic withouttying up
facilitiesthatmaybe neededfor outgoingrequestsfrom the specifiedareas.
The methodof flow conhol is particularlyusefulin times of naturaldisasters,
which typically stimulatelarge numbersof calls both into and out of the areaof the
disaster.[n theseeventsa networkcontrolcentercaninitiatecodeblockingfor all, or
a largepercentage, of thecallsinto thearea.Theprincipleof givingpreference to the
outgoingcallsservestwo pufposes. First,no networkfacilities are seized unless there
is a reasonablechanceof obtainingall facilities necessary.It is the runks into or out of
thedisasterarreathatarethefocalpoint of networkcongestion. Once oneof these fiunks
is seized,therestof theconnectioncanprobablybeestablished. Second,codeblockingis
usefulbecause outgoingcallsareprobablymoreimpoftantthanincomingcalls.

Centralized Connectlon Eontrol

All of theflow controlprocedures previouslyaredesigned
described to eliminatesei
zures of common resoulcesif thedesired has
connection a low completionprobability.
 380 NETwoRKsyNcHHoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Becauseof the distributed natureof network control implied by theseoperations,

these
control proceduresare necessarilyprobabilistic. To maintain a certainamount
of net-
work efficiency, the network is purposely operatedat less than maximum capacity.
A more desirablemode of operation,from a throughputpoint of view, is
to allocate
network facilities from a single centralized conhol node. Since this central
node has
accessto the statusof all network resources,no facilities are assignedto a pafiicular
requestunlessall facilities neededfor the completeconnectionare available.
Network
hansmission links are assignedin a manner that is analogousto the assignment
of in_
temal links of common control switches.
Complete centralizeclconfrol of a network as large as the public telephonenetwork
is obviously infeasible from the point of view of maintaining statusoi
all interstage
links within end office switchesand from the point of view ofiurvivability
of the ne1-
work when the control node tails. However, many aspectsof centralizedcontrol
have
beenimplementedin North America and around the world with common-channel
sig_
naling (CCS)' For example, INWATS call requestsare routed ro a cenrral
node that
determinesif the destination is busy or not. If the destinationis busy,
the originating
end office is instructedto return the busy tone without any of the int#al mansmission
links ever being seized'This mode of operationis particularly useful for 800
numbers
oNwATS) that occasionally experiencevery heavy traffic flow becauseof national
television announcemenrs.
without ccs, the previous mode of operation was to return a busy tone ail the
way
through the network from the place at which the busy circuit or subscriber
is located.
Thus the path through the network was tied up during the time the busy tone
was being
returned' CCS allows the originating office to return the busy tone so internal
network
facilities can be releasedand reassignedimmediately upon detecting
the busy condi_
tion.

REFERENCES
I M. Decinaand U- deJulio,"InternationalActivitieson NetworkSynchronization
for
Digital communication,"IEEE Intematiotutlcommunications conference,lg7g,
2 J. R, Pierce,"synchronizingDigiral Networks,"Bel/ systemTechntualrournal,
Mar.
1969,pp.615-636.
3 c. J' Byrne,B. J. Karafin,andD. B, Robinson,"systematicJitterin a chain of Digitar
Repeaters," Bell System TechnicalJournal,Nov. 1963,pp.2679_2714.
"Digitally
4 DejirteringLaserDiscplayers,"IEEESpectrum,Feb. 1990,p. 14.
5 F. M. Gardner,PhaselockTechniques,2nd ed.,Wiley, New york, 1979.
6 E. D. sunde,"self-Timing Regenerative Repeaterc,,,
Bell systemTechnicalrournal,
July 1957,pp.891-938.
7 D. L. Duttweiler,"The Jitterperformanceof phase-Locked t oopsExtractrngTiming
from BasebandData waveforms,"BerI systemTechnicalJournal, Jan. 1976,pp,
37-58.
8 "carrier-to-customer
Installation-DSlMetallic Interface," ANSI Tl. 403_l9gg,
AmericanNationalStandards Institute,New york, 19g9.
 REFERENCES381
"synchronizationFailuresin a chain of PLL
9 H. Meyer, L. Popken,andH. R. Mueller,
Synchronizers ," IEEE Transadions on Communicatiazs, May 1986,pp' 436-445'
1 0 P. R. TrischittaandE. L. Varma,finer in Digital TransmissionSystems,Artech House,
Norwood,MA, 1989.
"The Accumulationof Pattern-Dependent Jitter for e
l l P, R. Trischitta and P. Sannuti,
Chain of Fiber Optic IEEE
Regenerators," Transattions on Communications, June
pp.76r-765.
1988,
"No' 4ESS:
12 J, F. Boyle, J. R. Colton,C. L' Dammann,B' J' Karafin,and H' Mann,
Transmission/Switching Interfacesand Toll Terminal Equipment,"Bell System
TechnicalJountal,Sept.1977, pp' 1057-1097-
r3 J.E. Abate,E. W. Butterline,R. A. Carley, P. Greendyk,A' M. Montenegro, C' D' Near'
"AT&T's New Approach to the Synchronieation of
S.H. Richman,andG. P.Zampetti,
Telecommunication Networks," IEEE Communications Magazine, April 1989' pp.
35-45.
"The Effects of Slips on Data Modems," IEEE
H. Drucker and A. C. Morton,
InternationalConference on Communitations, 1987,pp. 12'4.I-12'4'3'
..Identificationof Digital Impairmentsin a voicebandchannel,"IEEE
t 5 J. F. Ingle,
InternationalConference on Communicarions, 1989,pp. I 2'3'I - I 2'3'5'
"The Effect of slips on FacsimileTransmission," IEEE
l 6 J. E. Abateand H. Drucker,
Intemational Conferenc e on Communicalions, 1988,pp' 32'3.1-32'3'4'
"The switchedDigital
t7 J. E. Abate,L. H. Brandenburg, J. c. Lawson,andw. L, Ross,
NetworkPlan,"Bell SystemTechnital Joumal,Sept.1977,pp. 1297-1320'
l8 ..Digital synchronizationNetwork Plan," Bellcore TA-M1,000436, Issue 1, Bell
Communications Research, Morristown,NJ' Nov' 1986.
19 ,.synchronization Interfacestandardsfor Digital Networks,"ANSI Tl. 101*1987'
AmericanNationalStandards Institute,New York, 1987.
Technical staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Transmission systems for
Communications, Bell TelephoneLaboratories, Winston-Salem' NC' 197I'
zl ,,Impact of Jitter on the second order Digital Multiplex at 6312 kbit/s," AT&T
Submittalto CCITT studygrouponjitter, GreenBook,Vol. 3, pp. 861*869'
22 D. L. Dutrweiler,..waitingTime Jitter,"Bell systemTechnical Joumal,Jan.1972,pp.
165*207.
23 "PlesiochronousOperationof InternationalDigital Links," CCftT Recommendation
G.LLI, OrangeEook,Geneva,Switzerland'1976.
"Performance of a Systemof Mutually Synchronized Clocks," Bell
24 J. P. Moreland,
System Tethnical Joumal, Sept.197l, pp. 2449-MM'
"synchronizationof theDigitalNetworkin theUnited
ZS p, A. MitchellandR. A. Bourler,
Kingdom," IEEE Intemational conferences on communications, 1979,
pp.l1.2.1-11.2.4.
26 C. A. Cooper, "synchronizationfor Telecommunications in a SwitchedDigital
on
Network."IEEE Transactions July
Communications, I9?9, pp' 1028-1033'
"AT&T SynchroniaadonNetwork Architectureand Operations,"
2':. C. Olszewski,
hesentation to 1999 NIST-TD{I Workshop on Synchronization in
Systems,Boulder,CO, March9-ll' 1999'
Telecommunications
 382 NETWoRKsYNcHRoNIzATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

PROBLEIT,IS
7.1 Determinethesizeof anelasticstoreneededto accommodate a velocityshift of
*10fi) km/hrthatlastsfor l0 secif thedatarateis l0 Mbps.(Thespeedof light
is3xl08m/sec.)
7.2 How manybitsareneededin anelasticstoredesignedto interfacetheEl digital
signalof ITU-T to a digital switch?what is rhemaximumslip rateif the line
clock andswitchclock differ by +50 to -50 ppm (themaximumrecommended
offsets)?
7.3 what is the maximum(ggvoprobability)phaseoffset(in signalintervals)pro_
ducedby ajitter powerof + I 0 dB relativeto I radz?
7.4 Determinethe rateat which DSr signalsin a DS2 multiplexloseframing
be_
causestuff codesof a DS2 signalareincorrectlyinterpreted. Assumethechan_
nel BER is l0-3.AssumetheBER is 10-6
7'5 What wouldthe rateof incorrectDSZstuff codeoccurrences be if a 5-bit stuff
codewereusedinsteadof the3-bit stuffcode?AssumethechannelBER is l0-3.
7.6 A digitaltransmission link is to beusedto hansmitblocks(packets) of datawith-
out slips.If thetransmission link is autonomouslytimedwith,"spe"t to there_
ceivingterminal,whatis themaximumallowableblocklengthif theclocksvary
by +50ppmeachandan elasticstoreof 16bits existsin thereceivingterminal?
Assumetheelasticstoreis initializedto half full betweeneachblock.
7.7 Assumethesystematic jitter from a singlerepeaterproducesa symmeffic,worst
casephaseslopeof 300 rad/secfor I msec.what is the peak-to-peak jitter in
decibelsrelativeto a unit intervalat theendof a line with 200 suchrepeaters?
7.8 RepeatExample7.j for DSZsignalsin a DS3.
7.9 A jiuer powerof 20 dB relativeto I radzis observedat the receivingend
of a
digitalmicrowavelink. Whatis theprobabilitythatthephaseoffsetwill exceed
14.0 symbolintervals?
7.10 Determinetheamountof phaseshift injectedinto a 2400-Hzcarier signal
by a
slip of onePCM sample.
7.tl Determine the TIE and the MTIE at the end of a 10-secinterval produced
by a
DS3 signal that has a constantoffset of one part in 106.
7.12 RepeatProblem 7. I I but assumea l -MHz jitter component is added
that has a
peak-to-peakamplitude of 8 uls. Assume the starting phaseof thejitter
compo-
nent is 0o.
7.13 Comparethe slip rateof $tratum3E with stratum3 clocksin holdover
condi-
tions.
7.14 what is theoscillatoraccuracy(in ppm)impliedby theholdoverrequiremenr
of
a stratum3 clock?
 OPTIC
FIBER
SYSTEMS
TRANSMISSION

The evolutionof the commonequipmentportionsof the public telephonenetwork

from analogtechnologyto digitaltechnologybeganandendedwith digitaltransmis-
sionsystems:Tl systemsfor short-haultrunksandfiber optic systemsfor long-haul
kunks.If fiber optic technologyhadnot emerged,extensivedigitizationof thelong-
distancenetworkwould not haveoccurredasrapidly.High-bandwidthcoaxialcable
transmission systemsaretoo expensiveto universallyreplaceradiosystems, andana-
log radiosare more efficient than digital radiosin termsof voice circuitsper pre-
viouslyavailablebandwidth.Eventhoughhigh-densitydigitalmodulationtechniques
and sophisticatedvoice compressionalgorithmscanmakeup for the bandwidthinef-
ficienciesof digitizedvoice,anyultimateadvantage of digital radiosoveranalogra-
diosis not nearlygreatenoughto walTantwholesalereplacement of the analogradio
backbone.Fibertransmission systems, on theotherhand,providesuchdramaticsav-
ings in equipmentand operationalcoststhat wholesaledeploymentof high-density
routeswith fiber systemswaseconomically justified'
"photophone," pat-
As a noteof historicalinterest,Figure8.1showsa diagramof a
entedby AlexanderGrahamBeIl in 1880.BeIl developedseveraltechniquesfor
modulatinga light source(thesun)so asto directlyvary theresistance of a selenium
cell detectorandtherebycreateananalogelectricalcurrentfor the speaker-Themodu-
lation mechanismshownin Figure8.1 is a mirror thatis vibratedby acousticenergy
to deflectmoreor lesslight to thereceiver.It wasalmostexacfly100yearslaterthat
a suitableuansmission mediumandsuitablesourcesmadeopticaltransmission practical-
The par"ticularcharacteristicsof optical fibers that makethem so useful for frans-
missionsy$tems arelow loss,high bandwidth,smallphysicalcrosssection,EMI im-
munity, and security.

Fiber Attenuation
As a resultof the inventionof the laserin 1960,materialsscientistsbegansearching
for opticaltransmissionmediathatcouldbeusefullyappliedasa communication sys-
tem.Thefirst instanceof a practicalopticalfiber wasannouncedl0 years laterin 1970
383
 384 FIBEHOPTICTRANSMISSIONSYSTEMS

l. d. DELr.
Apprntur for Bignrlhg rld 0onmulortll3,orlhl
pLotopLoar.
t{o. ?3$rl9g. Frlrltrd D.c_ r_ rlrn

j1

l :

Figure 8.1 AlexanderGrahamBell's photophone.

[l]. This announcementdescribeda silica-basedfiber with .,only" 20 dB/km attenu_

ation. In just a little less than l0 more years!commercially viable optical fibers with
0.2 dB/km attenuationhad been developed [2]. such remarkably low attenuation
at_
tracted immediate attention becauseit meant intercity transmission links
could be
traversed with very few repeaters,implying a dramatic savings in equipment
and
maintenance.
As shown in Figure 8.2, the attenuationof an optical fiber is very dependenton
the
wavelength of the light signal in use. Two wavelengthsthat experienceparticularly
low attenuationin contemporaryfibers are 1300 and 1550 nm. Rlpresentative
attenu_
ations at these wavelengths are 0.35 and 0.2 dB/km, respectively. with
an easily
achievablenet loss of 20 dB the latter attenuation value allows 100 km between
re_
peatersor amplifiers. Because0.2 dB/km is close to the minimum theoretical
attenu-
ation at 1550 nm, additional reductions in attenuation cannot be realized without
going to higher wavelengths.If fibers and associatedelectronicscan
be developedto
operateat higher wavelengths,much lower levels of attenuationmay be achieved
in
the future. The main application of such systemswould be in submarinecables
where
the avoidanceof repeatersis most desirable.
 SYSTEMS 385
FIBEROPTICTRANSMIS$ION

to to
5 5

E 2
{ i I
fA
E . 5 .5
.s
8
5
. 2
6.r .t
d

8oo looo tt* 18oo

***l#r, (n.l16ffi

Figure t.2 Fiber attenuationver$uswavelength.

Bandwidth
Whencomparedto elechomagnetic transmissionmedia,thebandwidthof an optical
fiber is mind boggling:a singleopticalfiber operatingat 1300or 1550nm of wave-
lengthhasa potentialbandwidthof 20 THz (20 x totz Hz), which is enoughfor 312
million 64-kbpschannels.Bandwidthlimits of fiber optic transmission sy$temsare
mostly determinedby the electro-opticdrivers and receiversor the electronicinter*
facesto thesedevices.As describedin Section8.I . l, multimodefibershaveaninher-
ent distance-dependent bandwidthlimitation,but this particularlimitationis avoided
in single-modefibers. Single-modefiber systemsalso have a distance-dependent
bandwidthlimitation.but this limitationis asmucha limitationof theopticalsources
asit is a limitation of the fiber.

Small Physical Croee Sectlon

One of the most beneficialfeaturesof Tl systemsis their ability to relieve over-
crowdedcableductswith a 12+o-I savingsof copperpairscompared to two-wireana-
log transmission.Fiber systemsprovide the sameadvantagewith respectto Tl
$ystems, only to a greaterdegree.A 25-paircoppercablehasapproximately thesame
crosssectionasa fiber cablewith 24 fibersand somecopperpairsfor line-powered
repeaters or amplifiers.The latter can easilycarry 100,000voice circuits.Further-
more,fibersy$tems cansometimes beupgraded for morecapacityby merelyinstalling
higher speedelecrronicsor wavelengthdivision multiplexing(WDM). Thus, after
coppercableis replacedby a fiber cable,duct congestionis unlikely to reappear
unlessextensiveuse of broadbandservicesgreatlyexpandsthe needfor fiber fa-
cilities.

Electromagnetic lnterference lmmunity

Becauseglasshasa very high resistance to electricity,the f,rberitself cannotpick up
interferingsignalsor noiseor propagateharmful or damagingtransientsto personnel
andequipmentat the endpoints.The immunity to interferencealsomeanscrosstalkis
 386 FIBERoPTIcTRANSMIssIoN
SY$TEMS

nota problembetweenmultiple-fibercables.In systems utilizingline-powered repeat-

ers,however,someamountof copperis includedin the cableto carry power,im-
plying that the immunity, particularlywith respectto hazardousvoltages,is
compromised.
Theimmunityof fibersto externalinterference suchasnoiseandcrosstalkimplies
thereis no crosstalk-inducedlimit from high poweredtransmitters or moresensitive
receivers'Receiversensitivityis ultimatelylimited by internalnoisein thephotode-
tectors,and transmitpowerhastechnologylimits due to spectrumspreadingin the
sourcesandnonlinearitiesin thefiber.Until theselimits arereached, however,theab-
senceof crosstalkbetweenfibersallowsthecapacityor transmission distanceof a fi-
ber systemto be increasedby merely upgradingthe electronics,not the fiber.
Althoughcrosstalkfrom one fiber to anotheris nonexistent, crosstalkcanarisebe-
tweenseparate channelswithin WDM channelsof a singlefiber.

Security
Becauseopticalfibersradiateno energy,noninvasiveeavesdropping ofthe signalis
impossible.Furthermore,invasivetapsaremorediffrcult to implementthanarewire-
linetaps,whichmerelyrequirebridgingacrosstheconductors with a sufficientlyhigh
impedanceto removea usablebut unnoticeable amountof signalenergy.A similar
processis possiblewith opticalfibers,but it requiresbendingthefiber a veryprecise
amountto allow a smallamountof energyto escapeandbe amplifiedby a tap.Not
only doesthis processallow passivelytappinga fiber,but alsosignalscanbeinjected
into thefiber throughsucha bend.This techniquehasbeenusedasa meansof locally
testingthe effectiveness
of a fiber spliceandhasbeenconsidered asa meansof im-
plementingdistributed,passivetapsfor fiber distributionto thehome
[3].

8.1 FIBEROPTICTRAN$MISSIONSYSTEMELEMENTS

As shownin Figure8.3,thebasicelementsof a fiber optictransmission systemarethe

electrical-to-optical
transducerin thetransmittingterminal,theopticalfiter itself,the
optical-to-electrical
transducerin thereceiver,andsignalprocessing circuitryfor am_
plifitcation,clockrecovery,anddatadetection.Regenerative repeaters
requireoptical-
to-elechicalconversionfor the signalprocessingfunctionsand conversionback to
opticalfor transmission.Direct optical amplificationwith erbium-dopedfiber am-
plifiers (EDFAs) areusedin lieu of repeaters,particularlyfor wDlftransmission
links.

Flgure 8.3 Fiberoptictransmission

systemelements.
 ELEMENTS
SYSTEM
8.1 FIBEHOPTICTRANSMISSION 387

Jsket

Figure 8.4 Opticalfiber construction.

The systemdepicted in Figure 8.3 is not necessarilya digital one. Although all of
the fiber applications for telephony have utilized digital signals,analog hansmission
is possible.Analog FM modulation of optical signalshas been successfullyapplied to
feeder applicationsof CATV systems[4]. Furthermore, sy$temsthat carry 80 chan-
nels of AM video on fiber to residenceshave been developed, a capability that al-
lows analog television set$to receive fiber-based cable TV without a digital video
decoder.

8.1.1 OpticalFiberFundamentals

of anopticalfiberis shownin Figure8.4.Boththecoreand

Thebasicconstruction
the cladding aretran$parentto the desiredlight signal but the cladding is designedwith
a lower index of refraction, which causesmost light waves in the core to be reflected
back into the core. As shown in Figure 8.5, whether or not a ray is reflected back into
the core is dependenton the angle at which it strikes the sore-cladding boundary. If
the angle is too sharp, the ray is not reflected but passesthrough the cladding and
is absorbed by the opaque, protective jacket. The sharp angles can occur at two
places; (l) near the sourcewhere all of the source'$output is not focusedinto the
center of the fiber and (2) at bends, splices, or other imperfections in the fiber.

tllultimode Flbere
to there-
to deliverasmuchsignalenergyaspossible
Althoughit is usuallydesirable
ceiver. waves that reflect back and forth before reaching the receiver may be undesir-
able if they experiencetoo much delay with respectto the primary ray traveling down
ttre center of the frber. An optical fiber that allows rays to arrive at the receiver via mul-
tiple paths is referred to as a multimode fiber. Multimode fibers have core diameters

Jack6t
Chdding

Core

Figure 8;5 Fiber with multimode propagation.

 388 FTBER
oplc rRANSMtsstoN
sysrEMs

that are large comparedto the wavelengthof the signal.A typical multimode fiber will
have a 50-pm core diameter and a 125-pm cladding diameter (such a fiber is desig-
nated as a 5oll25 fiber). The delayedrays causepulse spreadingreferred to as multi-
mode dispersion.The significanceof the spreadingdependson the width of the pulse
or, conversely,the datarate being used.Multimode dispersionthereforecreatesan in-
herent operationallimit defined as a bandwidth-di$tance product (BDp). The BDp of
a typical step-indexmultimode fiber is 13 Mbps-km [5].
The previously describedmultimode fiber is referred to as a step-index fiber be-
causethe index of refraction in the core is constantwith a stepchangein the index oc-
curring at the core-cladding boundary. Multimode dispersion can be significantly
reducedby varying the index of refraction within the core so that a high value occurs
in the center and a low value occurs at the edge.Becausethe speedof propagationof
light is higher in lower indices of refraction, rays that reflect back and forth within the
core ffavel at an average speed that is greater than a primary ray that remains entirely
within the center. Thus, if the index of refraction is carefully graded wirhin the core,
all rays can be made to arrive at the receiver with the same amount of delay. such a
fiber is refened to as a graded-indexfiber. A representativeBDp of a graded-index
fiber is 2 Gbps-km [6]. Notice that this is an improvement of more than two orders of
magnitude over typical step-indexmultimode fibers.

Example 8.1. Derermine the loss limir and the multimode dispersion limit of a
graded-indexmultimode fiber systemoperatingat 820 nm and providing a bandwidth
of 90 Mbps (enough ro carry two DS3 signals). Assume that the difference between
the available output power from the source and the input power required by the
receiver for an acceptablemaximum error rate is 42 dB.

solution. From Figure 8.2, the attenuationof a multimode fiber operatingat g20 nm
is approximately 3 dB/km. Thus,

.. 42
Losshmit=8.0=t+ttt't

Using2 Gbps-kmasa typicalBDP of a graded-index

multimodefiber,themultimode
dispersiondistancelimit is determinedas

limit =
Dispersion = ZZ.2km
#
Theresultsof Example8.I arerepresentative capabilitiesof first-generation
fiber
systemssuchastheFT3c systemof AT&T [7]. In actualpractice,repeaterspacing
wouldbe lessthanthe l4-km losslimit to allow marginfor, for example,compo-
nenttolerances,
splicing,andaging.The first FT3c system,which beganservice
betweenNew York city andwashington,DC in February19g3,hadrepeaterspac-
 8.1 FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSIONSYSTEMELEMENTS 389

ing of 7 km-the location of repeatersin a coaxial cable system replaced by the fiber
system.

Slngle-Mode Fibars
werebeingbtoughtinto servicein thelong-
fiber systems
As thefirst-generation
distancenetwork,opticaltechnologyhadalreadyadvancedto the point that deploy-
mentof second-generation systemswasunderway.Onekey technologyof thesecond
generation wastheuseof single-modefibers(SMFs)thatprovidetwo distinctadvan-
tages.First,SMFshavesmallerdiametercores(8 pm typically)thatrestrictpropaga-
tion to a fundamentalmodeandthereforeeliminatemultimodedispersion.Second,
SMFshavelessinternal(Rayleigh)scattering, whichreducestheattenuation by about
the
50Vo16,81.For example, attenuation of an SMF operatingat 820 nm is about2
dB/km,asopposedto 3 dB/kmfor a multimode fiber.
Anotherkey development of second-generation$ystemsinvolvedtheuseof longer
wavelengths (1300nm), which,asshownin Figure8.2,experience significantlyless
attenuation thanthe 800-900-nmwavelengths usedin first-generationsystems.Use
ofthesewavelengths requirednewtechnologyfor sourcesandreceivers,asdescribed
in Sections 8.1.2and8.1.3.

ChromaticDlsperaion
The combinationof eliminatingmultimodedispersionandusinga wavelengthwith
muchlower signalattenuationrevealedanotherffansmissionlimitation referredto as
chromaticdispersion.Chromaticdispersionariseswhen a photonicsignalcontains
more than one wavelengthand the individual wavelengthspropagateat different
speeds. Thus,chromaticdispersionis thephotonicequivalentofphasedistortion(also
calleddelaydistortion)in electromagnetic (wireline)propagation. Dispersionlevels
arequantifiedby a dispersioncoefficient of picoseconds per nanometer perkilometer'
A representative valuefor the SMF at 1550 nanometers is 16 psec/nmkm.
Theeffectof chromaticdispersionis minimizedby usingoneor moretechniques.
First, operationcan be centereclabouta wavelengththat exhibits a small amountof
chromaticdispersion.Typical silica fibers,for example,produceapproximately15
timeslesschromaticdispersion at 13fi) nm thanat 1550nm.Second,anopticalsource
shouldbe chosenthat is as $pectrallypureas possible(e.g.,hasa naffow spreadof
wavelengths). Third, nalrow retum-to-zero(RZ) pulsescan be usedto preventin-
tersymbol Fourth,a dispersion-compensating
interference. fibercanbeincludedin the
path
transmission that has a dispersionslope in oppositionto themainfiber.Whenjust
thefirst two techniquesareused, BDPs of 250 GHz-km are possible[6]'

Exampte8.2. Determinethe loss limit and the chromaticdispersionlimit of a

high-performanceSMF optical fiansmissionsystemoperatingat 1300 nm and
providinga bandwidthof 417Mbps (enoughto carry nine DS3 signals).Assumea
narrowband$ourceis usedwith an output power that is 42 dB gteaterthan the
minimumacceptable receivepower(i'e., assumethe systemgainto be 42 dB).
 390 FIBEH
oPTIcTRANSMISSIoN
$YSTEMS

solution. As indicated in Figure 8.2, the attenuation of a single-mode fiber

operating at 1300 nm is approximately 0.35 dB/km. Thus,

.. 42
Lossllmit = = 120km
0j5

Using 250 Gbps-km as the BDp of a silica, single-modefiber,

limit =
Chromaticdispersion km
#:600

Whenthedispersionlimit is muchhigherthanthelosslimit, asis thecasein Exunple

8.2,it indicatesthattheopticalsourcesareprovidinga niurowerspecffumthanis nec-
e$sary. Thus,the systemdesigncouldbe changedto uselessexpensivesourcesor the
poweroutputof the sourcecouldbe increased to get a longerlosslimit. (Increasing
thepoweroutputof the$ourcemay widenits spectrumandtherebyreducetheBDp.)
Thesystemparameters of Example8.2arerepresentative of thesecond-generation
FT seriesG systemsdeployedby AT&T [9]. ttre Fr seriesG systemshadmaximum
repearerspacingof 48 km (29 miles),indicatingthat theinitial systemscouldbe in-
stalledwith significantmarginfor reliabilityandfutureupgrades. Many of theroutes
were,in fact, upgradedto 1.7Gbpswithoutchangingthe fiber tIO, I il. Evenat the
higherdatarates,the FT seriesG routeshadsignificantlossmarginfor splicingand
the insertionof wavelengthdivisionmultiplexersasanothermeansof upgradingthe
system.wavelengthdivisionmultiplexingis describedin section9.3.
Example8.2 showsthatattenuation is thelimiting distancefactorin 1300-nmsys-
temsoperatingat low andintermediate datarates.To operatewith evenlongerdis-
tances,Figure8.2 indicatesthat 1550nm shouldbe used.with typical silica fibers,
thelimiting factorat 1550nm wouldbechromaticdispersion. To ouirco-" this limi-
tation,two othertypesof fiber havebeendeveloped;a dispersion-shifted single-
modefiber (DS-SMF)that hasminimal dispersionar 1550nm and a dispersion-
flattenedsingle-mode fiber (DF-sMF) that haslessdispersionacrossa rangeof
wavelengths.Figure8.6contraststhedispersionof bothof thesetypesof fiberswith
a conventional SMF' EventhoughFigure8.6indicateszerodispersionexistsat 1300
nm on thesMF andat 1550nm on theDS-SMF,someaffountof dispersionhasto be
assumeddue to fiber manufacturingvariationsand uncertaintyof the actualcenter
wavelengthproducedby a source.valuesof l-3.5 psec/kmnm aretypicallyusedas
thedispersioncoefficientat the "zero"dispersionpoints.

8.1.2 Electrical.to.Optlcal Transducers

Two basictypesof semiconductordevicesconvertelectricalsignalsinto opticalsig-

nalsandcanhavetheoutputcoupledinto anopticalfiber:laserdiodes(LDs)andlight-
emittingdiodes(LEDs).LDs generallyprovidebefterperformance in termsof higher
outputpower'Breaterbandwidth,andnarrowersignalspectrum.LEDs, on the other
 sYsrEMELEMENTS391
oprc rHANsMlsstoN
8.1 FIBER

20
E
Ero
J
t
E
.E 0
.t -to
a
-20

Wrydength(nml

Figure 8.6 Dispersion of SMF and DS-SMF fibers.

hand,arelessexpensive,requireonly simpleinterfacecircuitry, afe moretolerantof

environmental conditions,andaregenerallymorereliable.ThusLDs areusedfor long
transmissiondistancesandLEDs areusedwhenruggedness andinterfaceco$tsare
moreimportantthanperformance.
To achievemaximumdistancesbetweenrepeater$, it is necessary to minimize
chromaticdispersionby usingnarrowbandsources.Various forms of LDs havebeen
developedthatcomecloseto achievinga spectrallypureoutput.Figure showsthe
8.7
"single-ftequency" devices:
typicaloutputspectrumof onethemostpopulartypesof
a Fabry-Perotlaserdiode.Anothertype of diodewith a very nalrow spectrumis a
diskibuted-feedback LD (DFB-LD). As indicated,the dominantmodeof a Fabry-
Perotdiodeis typically10dB strongertltantheadjacentmodes.To maintainthespec-
to tightly confol the operationalenvironment
trum indicated,it is generallynece$sary
(biaspoints,modulationlevel, and temperature). Otherwise,modulation-dependent
effectsbroadenthe spectrumor evencausevery shoftdurationmodesshiftsthatpro-

6
s
$
D
-2
d
E
.E

- 2 - l o + t + 2
Wwsler|g8hlrom Cenurwarbltngth (nml

Ftgrrre 8.7 Representative laser output $pectrum.

392 FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS

parametersof VarloueOpticalSources
TABLE8.1 Repreeentatlve

Launched
Output FWHMSpectrum
DeviceType (nm)
Wavelength Power(dBm) Width'(nm)
Si LED 850 -16 50
Ge LED 1300 -19 70
InGaAsPLED 1300 -10 120
DFBLD 1300 -5 1.0
DFBLD 1550 -5 0.4
IUDFBLD 1550 +2 0.8

ducea dominantmodeat oneof theadjacentwavelengths. This latterphenomenon is

referredto asmodepartitionnoise[12], which cancausea halvingof the BDp of a
system[6]. Thespectralwidth of an opticalsourceis commonlyspecifiedasthefull-
width at half-maximum(FWHM), which representsthe spreadbetweenthe wave-
lengthsat whichthe specrrumis arhalf themagnitudeof thepeak.
To achievegreaterdistancesin loss-limitedsystems,eithera more sensitivere-
ceiveror a higherpoweredsourceis necessary.* Laserdiodesprovidethe highest
availablepowers,asindicatedin Table8. l, which listsrepresentative parametersof
variousLD andLED source$. Systemsthataredispersionlimitedcannoibeimproved
by higher output powersbecausethe intersymbolinterferencedominatesthe imper-
fectionsin thereceivedsignal.
The effectivetransmitpower dependson the couplingefficiencybetweenthe
sourceandthe fiber. The couplingefficiencymay be aslow as l%oin thecaseof an
unfocusedLED connecred to a single-mode fiber. High-efficiencycouplingsof 6ovo
arepossiblewith focusedsources.The launchedpowervaluesprovidedin Tableg.I
includethecouplingefficiencies.

Bandwi dth-Dlstance Prod ucte

Thebandwidth-distance factorof a fiber systemresultingfrom chromaticdispersion
is determined from thefiberdispersion coefficientandthespectralwidthof thesource.
Themaximumacceptable amountof pulsespreadingwith an NRZ line codeis typi-
cally specifiedto be one-foufthofa bit intervalT. Thus.

DL AL!0.257 (8.1)

whereD = dispersioncoefficientof fiber (psec/kmnm)

Z= distance(km)
A.l,= spectrumwidth of source(nm)
7= durationof a bit interval(psec)

Transmit power cannot tle increased arbitrarily without encountering nonlinear phenomena in the fiber
itself. The optical power threshold where nonlinear effects begin to occur may bJas low as l0 mW
[6],
 8.1 FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSION ELEMENTS 393
SYSTEM

Using the relationshipthat the bandwidth(B) is the reciprocalof the bit interval, the
BDP is determinedas

NRZ-BDP=Bi

(8.21
-< 250 Gbps-km
DAl.

A50VoRZ line codeallowstwiceasmuchpulsespreading energyin onein-

because
tervalis half a bit periodfrom energyin the next interval. Thus

(8.3)
RZ-BDP. Gbps-km
#
TheRZ line codesareobviouslyprefenedin dispersion-limitedsy$temsbut areinfe-
thereceivermustdetectpulse
rior to NRZ line codesin loss-limitedsystemsbecause
with half asmuchenergy(assumingthepeaktransmitpoweris heldconstant).

Example8.3. Determinethe BDP of a 1550-nmSMF systemand a 1550-nm

DS-SMF$ystemusingthe 1550-nmDFB LD sourceidentifiedin Table8.1.Assume
an NRZ line codeanda "zero" dispersionvalueof 3.5psec/kmnm to allow relaxed
tolerancesfor the fiber andthe sourceoperatingwavelength.

Solution, From Figure8.6,the dispersioncoefficientof an SMF fiber at 1550nm

is 16psecflrmnm. FromTable8.1,the spectralwidth of the sourceis 0.4 nm. Thus,

?qn
NRZ-BDP=ffi=39GbPs-km

"zero" dispersionvalue,the BDP of the DS-SMFsystemis deter-

Using the given
mined as

NRZ-BDP=5ft= 179
Gbns-km

8.1.3 Optical-to-ElectrlcalTransducers

Two basicfypesof photodetectorsare availableas transducersto convertthe optical

energyat the receiverto electricalenergyfor amplificationandotherprocessingsuch
asclockrecoveryanddatadetection.Siliconbasedp-i-n diodeswerethefirst photode-
tector$to be used,operatingin systemsusingwavelengths of 800-900nm. Thesedi-
odes are inexpensiveand reliable and provide good performance.Their major
drawbackis that they do not operateat higher wavelengthswherefiber loss is mini-
394 FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSIONSYSTEMS

TABLE8.2 RspresentativeParametersof OptlcalDetectors(BER= 1g-tt1a

DeviceType Wavelength
(nm) ReceivePower(dBm) DataRate(Mbps)
SipFn 850 -48.0 50
Si APD 850 -58.0 50
InGaAspr:n 1310 -35.0 420
InGaAsAPD 1310 -43.0 420
InGaAsAPD 13 1 0 -26.0 8000
InGaAsAPD 1550 -37.5 678
InGaAspr-n 1550 -37.0 1200
InGaAsAPD 1550 -33.0 4000
aThedetectorsensitivities
assume an NF|Zline code. The sonsitivitiesdecrBaseby g dB for (S0%)BZ codes.

mized. Germanium devicesfunction at the higher wavelengthsand are more sensitive

but are more temperaturedependentand less reliable.
The secondbasic type of photoderectoris an avalanchephoto diode (ApD), which
enhancesthe receiver sensitivity becauseit operateswith internal gain. (A p-f-n diode
does not have internal gain and therefore requires all amplification to be externally ap-
plied, which raisesthe noise level.) The amplification inherent in the ApD's conver-
sion from an optical signal to an electrical signal is useful becauseit meansthe ApD
can be 10-15 dB more sensitivein detectinglow-level signals at a given error rate. A
major drawback of an APD is ttrat it needsa high supply voltage to operateand is very
sensitiveto temperature.APDs tend to have somewhatlower GBps thanp-i-n diodes,
which restricts their use in very high data rate systems.Table g.2 lists various types
of photodetectorsand provides representativeperformanceparametersfor each.

6
E

.E
,E
6
a

-60L
.001 .01 .1 .2.4 t 2 4
OEtrR{te (Gbm}

Figure 8.t Receiversensitivityversusdatarate.

 8.2 LINEcoDESFORFIBERoPTICTHANSMISSIoN 395

Bothtypesof receiversutilizedirectdetection,whichmeansthattheymerelymea$-
urethepresence or ab$ence of opticalenergyto detectdata.Becausehigherdatarates
imply lessenergyper bit, the sensitivitydecreaseswith datarate.As a first approxi-
mation,a doublingof the datarateimpliesthereceiverbecomes3 dB lesssensitive.
Thegeneralformulafor determiningthechangeof sensitivity(in decibels)asa func-
tion of a changein thedatarateis

SensitivityR = SensitivityRo+ tot"*,.[ftJ (8.4)

where R = new data rate

Ro = data rate at given sensitivity

Figure 8.8 plots the receiver sensitivity ofrepresentativep-i-n diode detectorsand

APD detectorsas a function of the data rate for both NRZ and RZ line codes.

8-2 LINE CODESFOR FIEEROPTICTRANSMISSION

Line codesfor fiber optictransmission (FOT)systemsmustsatisfythe samebasicre-

quirements astheline codesin electrical(wireline)transmission sy$tems described in
Chapter4. Somefiber systemsusethe line codesdescribedpreviously.A few line
codesdeveloped specificallyfbr fiber applications aredescribed here.Opticalsources
anddetectors areprimarilyusedin nonlinearmodesof operationwith significantgain
andthresholdvariations,which impliestheyarebestsuitedto operatingin only two
states:on or off. Hence,a two-levelline code(on-off keying)is mostnatural.Con-
sideringthe wide bandwidthavailable,multilevelline codesareusuallyunnecessary
andextratiming transitionscanbe includedin theline codewithoutsignificantpen-
alty.An exceptionto theavailabilityof "free"bandwidthoccursin submarine systems
wheremaximumrepeaterspacingis achievedby minimizingthebandwidthof theop-
tical signal.Thesesystemsaretypicallydispersionlimitedbecause theneedfor ultra-
high reliabilityprecludesthe latestsingle-frequency laserswith unprovenlongevity.
A particularlyusefulpropertyofdirect detectionopticalreceiversis theabsence of
any polarity ambiguity,which meansthe transmitterandreceiverare inherentlydc
coupledsodifferentialencodingis unnecessary. Eventhoughthe opticalsignalis in-
herentlydc coupled,the dc balanceof the line codemay still be a consideration be-
causethe gain of somephotodiodes (particularlyAPDs)is sometimes dependent on
thedc levelof theline code.Furthermore, it is usuallydesirableto accoupleamplifier
stagesin thereceivers[3], which meanselectricalpulseamplitudesat thedetecting
comparator$ aredependent on opticalpulsedensities. In all, theseconstraintsaretypi
cally easierto dealwith thantheircounterparts in wirelinesy$tems, so line codesfor
fiber systemsgenerallytolerateBreateramountsof dc variation.Noticethat,in fiber
systems,both a Manchester and a CMI line codehaveunvaryingdc levelsequalto
one-halfof the pulse amplitude.A numberof otherline codesusedin fiber systems
allow somevariationin theaveragedc level.Becausethesevariationsarecontrolled,
396 FIBER
opTtcrRANsMtsstoN
sysTEMS

theline codesaresometimes refemedto as"dc-constrained" line codesasopposedto

beingperfector near-petfect "dc-balanced" line codes.Thedc variationsthatdo exist
in theseline codeseitheraretoo smallto causeproblemsor areaccommodated by pro-
viding someform of dc restoration[14].
For applications thatdo notrequiremaximumrepeaterspacingor maximumdata
ratestypically useManchester(diphase)or cMI line codesbecauseboth of these
codesprovidestrongtiming contentanda completelyconstrained dc level (502oon).
An early exampleof the useof cMI is a high-speedintraofficelink developedby
NTT of Japan[5].
Manchester andCMI line codesexperience theworstcaseof boththelosslimit and
thedispersionlimit. The worst-case losslimit arisesbecause thereceivermustdetect
opticalpulseswith durationequalto half thebit interval(i.e.,with a sensitivityof an
RZ code).The dispersionlimit of a Manchester or CMI line codeis actuallyhalf of
theNRZ dispersionlimit because thesymbolrateis essentiallydoubled.(Eachbit in-
tervalis dividedin half, with the needto derecra pulseor no pulsein both halves.)
Thus,theManchester or CMI BDP canbe determinedas

=#
MC-BDP Gbps (8.s)

Fromthepreviousdiscussion it canbe seenthatwhenperformance is moreimpoftant

thanlow cost,someotherline codeis needed.Threebasicline codesarecommonly
used:scrambledNRZ, scrambledRZ, or somevariationof a codereferredto as an
mBnB line code,described below.Thechoiceof anNRZ or RZ line codeis primarily
basedon whetherthe systemis losslimited or dispersionlimited.Loss-limitedsys-
temsuseNRZ line codeswhereasdispersion-limited systemsuseRZ codes.A scram-
bleris typicallyusedto enhance timingrecoveryandcontroldc wanderin a statistical
sense(but not in an absolutesense).Often,overheaddatapatternsin thedatastream
providessomeassurance thatthedatastreamcannotexactlymatchthe scramblerse-
quenceso a ceftainminimumnumberof transitionsare assured.This is the casein
SONETtransmission systems describedin Section8.5.

8.2.1 mBnB Line Codee

As an alternativeto relying on scramblersfor ensuringtiming transitions,a classof

line codeshasbeendevelopedthatencodes rn binarydatabits into blocksofn binary
line bits (mBnB),wherenr < n. Becauseonly 2* datacodesmustbe selected from 2,
codesin eachblock,thereis codingflexibility for conhollingtiming anddc wander.
For example,if m = 4 andn = 5, sixteendatacodesmustbe chosenfrom the setof
thirtytwo 5-bit line codes.A specificchoiceof thesecodesis providedin Tableg.3,
whichdepictsthe datacodesandcontrolcodesselectedfbr thefiber-distributed data
interface(FDDD standard[6].
The significanta$pects of thecodingassignments in Table8.3 are:
 g,z LINEcoDEsFoRFIBEH
oFTrcTRANSMtssroN397

TABLE8.3 FDDI4BSBLlneCodee

LineGode

Decimal Binary Symbol Name Assignment

Functional

0 00000 o Quiet Linestatesymbol

1 00001 V Violation Oisallowed
2 00010 V Violation Disallowed
3 00011 V Violation Disallowed
4 00100 H Halt Linestatesymbol
5 00101 L Startdelimiter
6 00110 V Violation Disallowed
7 00111 R Re$et Controlindicator
E 01000 V Violation Disallowed
I 01001 1 Datasymbol0001
10 01010 4 Datasymbol0100
11 01011 5 Datasymbol0101
12 01100 V Violation Disallowed
13 01101 T Enddelimiter
14 0 11 1 0 E Datasymbol0110
-l
15 01111 Datasymbol0111
16 10000 Violation Disallowed
17 10001 K Startdelimiter
18 10010 B Datasymbol1000
q
19 10011 Dalasymbol1001
20 '101 2 Datasymbol0010
00
21 10101 3 Datasymbol0011
22 10110 A Datasymbol 1010
23 10111 B Datasymbol1011
24 11000 J Set Startdelimiter
25 11001 S Set Controlindicator
26 11 0 1 0 c Datasymbol 1100
27 11011 D Datasymbol1101
28 11100 E Datasymbol1110
29 1 11 0 1 F Datasymbol1111
30 11110 o Datasymbol0000
31 11111 I ldle Linestatesymbol

L The code spaceis used for control as well as data.

2. When transmitting data,the minimum pulse density is 40Voand there can never
tre more than three intervals without a pulse.
3. The dc componentis constrainedto fall between a minimumof 40Vopulsesand
a manimum af 60Vopulses, a range that is one-fifth of an unconstrained random
data stream.
398 FIBERoPTIcTHANSMISSIoN
SYSTEMS

TABLE 8.4 Digital Blphaee (Manchester)lB2B Line Code

LineCode

Binary Functional
Assignment
0 00 Disallowed
1 01 Data symbol 0
2 10 Data symbol 1
e 11 Disallowed

The featuresofthe 4B5B line code describedabove are achievedat the expenseof
a25vo inweasein the line data rate. By way of comparison,a digital biphase (Man-
chester)line code and the cMI line code describedin chapter 4 can both be repre-
sentedas lB2B line codeswirh the coding assignmentsprovided in Tables 8.4 and g.5,
respectively.Notice that both of thesecodescome at the expenseof a lfi)7o increase
in the line datq rate.
Becausethe 4B5B line codedefined for FDDI is intendedfor a specific application,
it contains codes for control as well as for data. The 5B68 codes given in Table 8.6
areintendedfor transmissiononly and thereforedo not allocatecode spacefor control.
Notice that the 5B68 code assignmentsare made in such a way that the dc level is
fixed at 507opulsesbut the maximum run length of no pulsesis 6. Thus, tighter control
of the dc level comes at the expenseof increasing the worst-caseduration between
pulses.5868 and TBBB line codeshave been used exten$ively in Europe. Examples
of 7B8B usageare a 565-Mbps rerrestrial system developedby British Telecom [17]
and a 280-Mbps NLI submarinesysremdevelopedby src of Great Britain [18].
The 4B5B and 5B6B examples use output blocks that are only I bit greater than
the input blocks. considerably more coding flexibility is achieved when the ourput
block is more than I bit longer than the input block. As an example, a 6B88 code al-
lows all 64 input codesto be encodedwith an output code containing exactly four I's
in every code. (The number of combinations of four I's in 8 bits is 70.) Thus dc wander
can be maintained without having to altemate between low-density and high-density
codesbut coding efficiency is sacrificed.

TABLE8.5 CodedMarkInversion(CMl)1B2BLineCode

LineCode

Binary Functional
Assignment
0 00 Datasymbol1 (if 11 previously
sent)
1 01 Datasymbol0
2 10 Disallowed
3 11 Datasymbol1 (if00 previously
sent)
 8.2 LINEcoDE$ FoB FIBEHOPTI0THANSMISSIoN 399

TABLE 8.6 5868 Line Code Aesignrnentss

58 lnput 68 Output 5B Input 68 Output

00000 011101/100010 10000 111010/000101
00001 101110/010001 10001 100011
00010 010111/101000 10010 100101
00011 000111 10011 100110
00100 101011/01 0100 10100 101001
00101 001011 10101 101010
0 0 11 0 001101 10110 101100
0011'l 001110 1 0 111 0l1011/100100
01000 110101/001010 11000 110001
01001 010011 11001 110010
01010 0 10 10 1 11010 110100
01011 010110 1 1 011 101101/010010
0 11 0 0 011001 11100 111000
01101 0 11 0 1 0 11 1 0 1 110011/001100
01110 011100 1 1' t1 0 101101/0't0010
0 11 1 1 110110/001 001 11111 100111/011000
aA code 1/code0 output must alternatebetweenthe code with four 1's and the code wlth two 1's to mainlain
dc balanc€.

An 8B 108 coding affangementfl 9, 201hasbeen defined asthe fiber channeltrans-

mission standard(ANSI X3.230-1994). As indicated in Table 8.7, each input byte is
separatedinto a 5-bit field and a 3-bit field that are respectivelyencodedusing a 5B68
and 3B4B algorithm. In some cases,two codewords are provided for encoding par-
ticular input data. The choice of one code in a pair (which are complementsof each
other) is made to maintain dc balance.[f the previously transmitted unbalancedcode
had more I 's than 0's, the code with fewer 1's is chosen.If the previously transmitted
unbalancedcode had more 0's than I's. the code with fewer 0's is chosen.*

8.2.2 Bit InsertionCodes

The mBnB block codesdescribedin theprevioussectionhaveonesignificantdisad-

vantage:They aredifficult to implementon very high speeddatastreams.(In lower
speedapplications, decodelogic or tablelookupin a smallread-onlymemoryis triv-
ial.) Very high speedlinks thereforeuseanothertypeof codereferredto asbit inser-
tion codes.Thesecodesareactuallyspecialcasesof mBnB codeswith n = m + 1 and
thecodesselectedsothecoding/decoding logic is greatlysimplified.
Thefirst bit insertioncodeto beconsideredis theMB lP code,whichmerelyinserts
anoddparitybit aftereveryrz bitsof sourcedata.Oddparityensuresthatat leastone
*Two
special cases exist that may alter the rule when 001 I I is 5B6B encoded or 0t I is 3B4B encoded.
400 FIBEBOPTICTHANSMISSIONSYSTEMS

I is includedin theparity field of m + I bits.As a point of reference,

noticethat the
digitalbiphase(Manchester) line codeis a 18lP line code.An exampleof theuseof
a 24BlP line codeis theTransPacificsubmarinecable system(Tpc-3) put into serv-
icein December 1988by AT&T andKDD of Japan[21].
An evensimplerbit insertioncodedescribedby engineers of NTT in Japan[22] is
the mB I c code,which merelyinsertsa bit aftereveryru sourcebits-the valueof
whichis thecomplement of theiilrmediatelyprecedingbit. Thus,theaddedbit always
forcesa datatransitionandis veryeasyto implement.An obviousdisadvantage of the
simplicityis thelossof performance monitorabilityoverthefirst rn- 1bitsof a block.
Againnoticethata diphaseline codeis a degenerate caseof an mBlc line codewith
ru = L An exampleof theuseof a l0BlC line codeis theF-1.6Gsysremof NTT in
Japan[23].

TABLE8.7 88108 FlberChannet

Codtng

58 Input 68 Output 58 Input 68 Outpul

0 (00000) 100111/011000 16(10000) 011011/100100
1 (00001) 011101i10001
0 1 7( 1 0 0 0 1 ) 10001 1
2 (00010) 101101/010010 1 B( 1 0 0 1 0 ) 0 1 0 011
3 (00011) 110001 1 9( 1 0 0 1 1 ) 110010
4 (00100) 110101/001010 2 0( 1 0 1 0 0 ) 001011
5 (00101) 101001 2 1( 1 0 1 0 1 ) 101010
6 (00110) 011001 2 2( 1 0 1 1 0 ) 011010
7 ( 0 01 1 ) 111000/000111 2 3( 1 0 1 1 1 ) 111010/000101
I (01ooo) 111001/000110 24 (11000) 110011/001100
I (01001) 100101 25(11001) 100110
1 0( 0 1 0 1 0 ) 0 10 10 1 2 6( 1 1 0 1 0 ) 010110
1 1( 0 1 0 1 1 ) 110100 2 7 ( 11 0 11 ) 110110/001001
1 2( 0 1 1 0 0 ) 001101 28(11100) 001110
1 3( 0 11 0 1 ) 101100 2e(11101) 101110/010001
14(01110) 0 111 0 0 3 0( r 1 1 1 0 ) 011110/100001
1 5( 0 1 1 1 1 ) 010111/101000 3 1( 1 1 1 1 1 ) 101011/010100
38 Input 48 Outout
0 (000) 0100/1011
1 (001) 1001
2 (010) 0101
3 ( 0 11 ) 1100/0011
4 (100) 0010/1 101
5 (101) 1 0 10
6 (110) 0 11 0
7(11) 0001/1 110
 DIVISION
8.3 WAVELENGTH MULTIPLEXING 401

8.3 WAVELENGTHDIVISIONMULTIPLEXING

Wavelengthdivision multiplexing(WDM) is the basictechniqueusedto establish

multiple,independent opticalchannelson a singlefiber. The conceptof WDM is il-
lustratedin Figure8.9 showingthecoupling(multiplexing)of separate sourcesinto a
fiber andtheseparation (demultiplexing) of the signalsout of the fiber. Prismaticre-
fractionis depictedasthebasiccouplingmechanism at bothendsof thelink. Refrac-
tion is usable only for channelswith relatively large wavelengthseparations.
Diffractive gratingdevices,on theotherhand,canoperatewith channelspacingon the
orderof 1-2 nm [24]. All WDM devicessharethe commoncharacteristics of being
purelypassiveandbeingreversibleso anyparticulardevicecanperformeithermul-
tiplexingor demultiplexing functions.Otherthansomeopticalinsertionlossandsome
crosstalkfrom imperfectseparation,the multiplexing/demultiplexingoperationsare
transparent to the individualchannelsignals.The insertionlossesof the diffraction
gratingdevicescanvaryfrom I to 7 dB dependingon fiber size(multimodevs. single
mode)andnumberof channels[24].
When the f,rrstfiber routeswereinstalled,WDM wa$not usedbecausea single
high-speed transmitterandreceiverwasgenerallylessexpensivethanseparate pairs
of lower speedtransrnitters and receiversand accompanying WDM devices.Thus,
WDM wouldtypically be installedasa subsequent upgradeto increasethecapacity
of a systemwithout laying new fiber. For example,the original 90-Mbps,820-nm
FT3C systeminstalledin 1983by AT&T in the northeastcorridorwasupgradedin
1984by addingan additional180Mbpson a 1300-nmcarrier[25].In addition,refer-
ences[9] and [0] describehow the FT SeriesG canhaveits capacityincreased by
multiplexinga 1550-nmsystemonto an existing 1300-nmsystemand/oradding
higherspeedelectronicswithouttakingtheexistingsystemout of service.
The passivepropertyof WDM devicesis a dominantattractionfor someapplica-
tions suchasfiber to the home.Allocatingindividualfibersfrom a cenffaloffice to
eachhomeis expensive, impJyingtheneedfor someform of fiber sharing.Theoutside
plantenvironment(-40-70"C) andtheneedfor remotepowerfor activecomponents
imply thatpassiveWDM devicesareprefened.Theuseof WDM in this application
is sometimes referredto asthepassivephotonicloop (PPL) [26].
WDM is fundamentally identicalto FDM asusedon electrical(copper)or electro-
magnetic(radio)transmission systems.In fact,usingthefollowingrelationshipallows
wavelengths to be relatedto frequency:

v =,fl (8.6)

Flgure 8.9 Wavelengthdivisionmultiplexing.

 4OZ FIBER
oplc rHANsMtsstoN
sysrEMs

where y= velocityoflight,= 3 x 108m/sec

,f = frequency(Hz)
L.= wavelength(m)
optical systemsaredefinedin termsof wavelengthasopposedto frequencybecause
optical$ourcesaretraditionallyspecifiedin termsof thewavelengths
of theiroutputs.
Nevertheless,systemswith extremelyclosewDM channelspacing(on the orderof
0.04nm) aresometimes referredto asFDM systems[27].
systemsthat useelectronicmultiplexingto producedelectricalFDM signals
for modulationof a singleopticalcarderarereferredto assubcarriermultiplexing
systems.Becausethe individualchannelsof thesesystemsaretypicallycloseto-
getherin frequency,andhencein wavelength, passiveseparation
is usuallyinfea-
sible.

Example8,4. Determinethe differencein wavelengthof two optical signals

separated
by 2GHz andcenteredat 1500nm.

Solution. The frequency(in freespace)ofa 1500-nmsignalis

f=#-=2oo,oooGHz
-
1500x l0-o

Thusthe upperandlower frequencies

aredeterminedas200,001and 199,9g9GHz,
respectively.
Thecorrespondingwavelengths
are

3xlOE
Ir= = 1500.007
nm
199.999
x l0e

^ 3x108
n': = 1499'992
nm
too.oot ^, ,t

andthediff'erencein wavelengths is 0.015nm.

Example8.4 showsthatevenwhensubcarriers areseparated by zGHz,the result-
ing wavelengthdifferenceis small-too smallfor passivedemultiplexing.
Wavelengthdemultiplexingwith passivediffuactiondoesnot inherentlycausea
lossof signalpowerin the individualchannels.An altemativeapproachto demulti-
plexingis shownin Figure8.10,whichinvolvespowersplittingof thereceivedsignal
followedby wavelengthfilteringto extractindividualchannels. This approachis pas-
sive and functionallyidenticalto diffractive separationbut is wastefulof optical
power.Its mainadvantage is thatpowersplittingcanbe implemented aspassivetaps
distributedalongthefiber roure.Thus,it is a usefultechniquein applications
(like lo-
cal areanetworks)wheredistancesarelessimportantthanflexibility in networkto-
pology.
 DESIGN 403
8.4 FIBEHSYSTEM

Figure 8.10 WDM with powersplining/filtering.

DenseWavelengthDivisionMultiplexing
Majoradvances in WDMtechnology occurred primarilyin response
in thelate1990s,
to theneedsof commoncarriers expand
to dramatically of theirfiber
thebandwidth
facilities for high-bandwidth data networking. In contrastto previous systems,which
carried a small number of WDM channels,the newer systemscarried a large number
of closely spacedwavelengths.Thesesystemsare generallyreferredto as densewave-
length division multiplexing (DWDM) systems. An example of a first-generation
(1996) DWDM systemis the MultiWave 1600 $ystemfrom Ciena Corporation. This
systemprovided 16 channelsspaced0.8 nm apafr in the region of 1550 nm. DWDM
systems are enabled by optical amplifiers (EDFAs) that transparently amplify all
wavelengthsin the band and by fiber Bragg gratings fabricatedinto glassfiber for de-
multiplexing and filtering in a receiver.
DWDM usefulnessis not confined to retrofitting of existing plant. DWDM may be
the only possibleway to achieveextremely high bandwidths.A 4O-channelsystemop-
erating at 2.488 Gbps (OC-48) per channel provides an aggregatebandwidth of 100
Gbps-a difficult speedfor a single TDM channel,particularly on dispersionlimited
fibers and with other high-speedlimitations such as polarization mode dispersion.An
additional advantagesof DWDM is the inherent transparencyof individual wave-
lengths, which allows transmission and interoperability of mixed types of services.
Yet another advantageof DWDM is the inherent reliability provided by separateelec-
tronics for each wavelensth interface.

8.4 FIEERSYSTEMDESIGN

The examplesin the previoussectionshighlightonly the mostbasicaspectsof fiber

optictechnology.This sectionprovidessystem-level for thedesignof
considerations
practicalFOT systems.As is the casewith anytransmission technology,the system
designis stronglydependenton systemavailabilityrequirements andcostof mainte-
nance.At the low endof theserequirements f,rberconnections
areeasilyaccessible to
individualworkstationswithin a singlebuilding.At theotherendof the spectrumof
reliabilityrequirements
aresubmarine cablesthatareobviouslyveryexpensiveto re-
pair. Repairsareminimizedby usingonly ultrareliablecomponents.Eventhoughsub-
marinecablesareimmuneto bacftfioes* and gophers, theymustcontendwith oceanic
'Some
outside plant enginecrsofthe telephoflecompanieswouldprobablynot be too surprisedifabackhoe
could somehow get to a submarinecable.
404 FTBER
oplc rRANsMtsstoN
sy$rEMS

counterparts:fishing trawlersandsharks(which seernattractedto electromagnetic ra-

diation).AT&T developed a "seaplow"for buryingsubmarine cablesin areasof large-
scalefishingactivity[28].Abouttheonly advantage thatsubmarineapplications have
in their favor is theconstant,relativelylow temperature
environmentfor repeaters/am-
plifrers.

8.4.1 Fiber Connectors and Sptices

Threebasictechniques ofjoining fibersareconnectors, mechanical splices,andfusion

splices[29]. connector$areusedfor terminalconnectionrr, patchpanels,or otherin-
stanceswhereloss(0.4-l dB) is lessimportantthaneaseof maintenance andrecon-
figuration.
Mechanicalsplicesinvolvemechanicalalignmeutandclampingof two adjoining
fibers.Therearemanydifferenttypesof mechanicalsplicingequipmentthatprovide
variouslevelsof lossdependingon thefiber size(multimodeor singlemode)andin-
stallationtime.Splicescanbemadeon individualfibersor in bulk on fiber bundlesor
ribbons.Two basicsplicingprocedures arepossible:passiveor active.Passivesplices
arefasterbecausethe craftsperson merelyplacesthe fibersin the alignmentsleeves
andclampsthefibersin place.Activealignmentinvolvespassinga signalthroughthe
spliceandmakingfine mechanicaladjustments to minimizethe lossbeforethe final
clampis applied.A singlefiber splicedescribedin reference[30] providesanaverage
of 0'2 dB losswhenpassivelyinstalledand0.05dB losswhenactivelyinstalled.The
installationtimesare5 and7 min, respectively.
Fusionsplicesprovidethelowestlossesbecause theyessentially form onecontinu-
ousfiber that is almostasgoodas a single-drawn fiber. In fact, submarinefibersare
pretestedat the factory for tensilestrengthandfusedat the weakpointswherebreaks
occur[28].Thisprocessensures thatthefiberscanwithstandthetensilestressencoun-
teredwhenlayingandrecoveringthefiber cablebut introducesslightlyhigherlevels
of averageattenuation in the fiber. For example,the I 04-kmrepeaterless systemin-
stalledbetweenTaiwanandtheislandof PengHu has0.24dB/kmar 1550nm includ-
ing all splices [28]. Fusion splicing equipmenris availablerhar is completely
automated with high-resolution TV usedto alignthefibersandestimatethespliceloss
by measuring themisalignment afterfusion[29].Fusionlossescanvarybetween0.01
and0.I dB. For undersea applications, only valuescloseto 0.0I dB areaccepted.

8.4.2 Protection Switchlng

Protectionswitchingwithin an FoT systemis basicallythe $ameasin otherhigh-

capacitytransmission $ystemswhereinonespareline, includingtransmitters, repeat-
ers,and receivers,can be switchedinto serviceif one of Nmain lines fails (l : N
protection).Thereare,however,a few uniqueconsiderations for protectingfiber sys-
tems,arisingprimarilybecause of thehighcapacityof thesy$tems. First,a systemcan
be installedwith lower cost(lowerperformance) optoelectronic deviceswith an up-
gradefor higher performanceanticipatedat a later date.In this case,the protection
 8.4 FIBEH DESIGN405
SYSTEM

switchingprocedures andpackagingconceptsshouldallow one-at-a-time upgrading

of electronicswithoutdisruptingservice[11].
A moresignificantanddifficult aspectof protectionswitchingarisesbecause fiber
routestend to carry large-traffic volumesrepresentingaggregationsof traff,rcthat
would otherwisebe carriedby separate route$.One-for-Npro-
facilitieson $eparate
tectionof mostfiber systemsis of no usewhena backhoecutsanentirecable.Protec-
tion from the lossof a completefacility requiresnetwork-levelroutingdiversity,a
featureof a networkthattendsto disappear whenusingfiber andlargeswitchingsys-
temsto their maximum economic advantage-large hubsfed by largetrunk groups.
A networkarchitecture thatprovides 1 ; I routediversifyandno hub dependence is a
SONETring describedlaterin this chapter.

8.4.3 System Galn

The fust stepin determiningthe repeaterspacingof an FOT sectionis to determine

the difTerence betweenthe launchedoutputpower of a hansmitterand the receive
powerrequiredfor a designated minimumBER.In analogous fashionto thesameterm
introducedfor radio systems,this parameteris referredto asthe systemgain. Notice
thatthesystemgainincludescouplinglossesat theopticalsourceandopticaldetector.
The systemgainmustbe greaterthanthesumof all thelossesin thepath.Sourcesof
loss include inherentattenuationof the fiber, splicing/connector losses,bending
losses,WDM devicelosses,andphotonicswitchlossesif any.Splicinglossesthatoc-
cur atregularintervalsduringtheinstallationof thefiber areoftenaddedinto thefiber
attenuationsothereis only onedistance-dependent parameterinvolvedin determining
repeaterspacing.Thedifferencebetweenthesy$temgainandthesumof all thenomi-
nal lossesis the lossmargin.In anyparticularinstallation,the lossmarginallowsfor
equipmentmanufacturing powerpenalties
tolerances, dueto dispersion,unanticipated
splices,componentaging,andpossibleWDM upgrades.

Example8.5. Determinethesystemgain,theBDP,thedispersionlimitedrepeater
spacing,andthe lossmarginfor an FOT systemwith the following parameters:
data
= = =
rate 565 Mbps, line code 5BdB RZ, wavelength 1550nm, source = -5 dBm
DFB-LD with 0.4nmFWHM, fiber= SMF,detector=InGaAsAPD,repeaterspacing
= 65 km, andsplicinglo$ses= 0.2 dB/km.

Solutinn, Theuseof the5BdBline codeimpliestheIinedatarateof 565(6/5)= 67t

Mbps.Thereceiversensitivityfor 678Mbps is determinedfrom Figure8.8or Table
8.2as-34.5 dBm.Thus.

Systemgain= -5 - (-34.5)= 29.5dB

an RZ line codeis in use.

Because
406 FIBEH
oplc rRANSMtsstoN
sysTEMS

BDP: :;so?, =73.6Gbps-km BDPspacing

=m: l09km
17xO.4

Pathloss= (0.2+ 0.2X65)= 26 dB Lossmargin=29.5- 26 = 3.5dB

Example8.5is representative of the565-Mbpssystemdevelopedby Fujitsuof Japan

for carryinganE5 digital signal(565.148Mbps)[3 I ]. Thefactthattherepearer
spac-
ing is 607oof theBDP limit impliesthatdispersionpenaltiesaresmall(estimatedto
be 1.2dB).

8.5 SONET/SDH

Thefirst generations of fiber opticsystemsin thepublictelephone networkusedpro-

prietaryarchitectures,equipment,line codes,multiplexingformats,andmaintenance
procedures. Somecommonalitywith othersystemsin thenetworkcamefrom suppli-
erswho alsosupplieddigital radio system$. In thesecases,the multiplexingformats
andmaintenance protocolsemulatedcounterparts in theradio$ystems, whichalsohad
proprietaryarchitectures. Theonly thingin commonwith all of theradioandfiber sys-
temsfrom all of the supplierswasthat the interfaceto the networkwa$$omenumber
of DS3cross-connect signals.Proprietarymultiplexingformatsfor multipleDS3sig-
nalsevolvedbecause therewasno higherlevelstandardcompatiblewith theapplica-
tions. A DS4 signal, which is composedof six DS3 signals,requirestoo much
bandwidthfor radiosystemsandcarriesa largercrosssectionof channels(4032)than
neededin manyapplications.
TheRegionalBell operatingcompaniesandinterexchange carriers(IXCs),theus-
ersof theequipment,naturallywantedstandards sotheycouldmix andmatchequip-
ment from different suppliers.This becameparticularlyimportantas a result of
competitionamongtheIXCs who desiredfiber interfacesto thelocalexchange carri-
ers(LECs)but did not wantto necessarily buy from the samesuppliersastheLECs.
(It mightbe necessary for an lxc ro interfacewith a differentsupplierat eachLEC.)
To solvetheseproblems,andothers,Bellcoreinitiatedan effort that wa$latertaken
up by the Tlxl committeeof theExchangecarriersstandardsAssociation(ECSA)
to establisha standardfor connectingonefiber systemto anotherat theopticallevel
(i.e.,"in the glass").This standardis referredto asthe synchronous opticalnetwork
(soNET) t32, 331.In the laresragesof thedevelopment of this srandard,ccITT be-
cameinvolvedso thata singleinternationalstandardexistsfor fiber interconnect be-
tweentelephone networksof differentcounties.Internationally, thestandard is known
asthe synchronous digitalhierarchy(sDH) t341.ThesoNET srandard addresses rhe
following specificissues:

l. E$tablishesa standardmultiplexingformatusingsomenumberof 5l.84-Mbps

(STS-1)signalsasbuildingblocks.
2. Establishesan optical signal standardfor interconnectingequipmentfrom
differentsuppliers,
 8.5 SONET/SDH 407

TABLE8.8 SONET$ignal Hlerarchy

NorthAmericanDesignation

Electrical
Signal OpticalSignal DataRate(Mbps) ITU-TDesignation
STS-1 oc-1 51.84
STS-3 oc-3 155.52 STM.1
srs-12 oc-12 622.08 STM-4
STS.24 oc-24 1244.16 STM-8
STS-48 oc-48 2488,32 STM-16
STS-S6 oc-96 4976.64 STM-Sz
STS-19? oc-192 9S53.28 STM.64

3. Establishes extensive operations, administrations, maintenance, and

provisioning(OAM&P) capabilitiesaspartof thestandard.
4. Defines multiplexing formats for carrying existing digital signals of the
asynchronous multiplexinghierarchy(DSl, DSlC, DSz, DS3).
5. SupportsCCITT (ITU-T) digitalsignalhierarchy(E1,E2, E3, E4).
6. Definesa DSOidentifiablemappingformatfor DSI signals.
7. Establishesa flexiblearchitecturecapableof accommodating otherapplications
suchasbroadband ISDN with a varietyof transmission
rates.
Wide-bandwidth
signals(greater by
than5l.84 Mbps)areaccommodated concatenating multiple
STS-1signals.A STS-3csignal,for example,is an 155.52-Mbps signalthat is
treatedby the networkasa singleentity.

The dataratesandsignaldesignationsof the SONEThierarchyareprovidedin Table

8.8.At thelowestlevelis thebasicSONETsignalreferredto asthesynchronous trans*
port signallevel I (STS-I).Higherlevel signalsarereferredto asSTS-Nsignals.An
STS-Nsignalis composedof Nbyte-interleaved STS-1signals.Theopticalcounter-
partof eachSTS-Nsignalis atropticalcarrierlevel N signal(OC-N).Table8.8 also
includesITU nomenclaturefor the SDH, which refersto signalsassynchronoustrans-
port modulesN (STM-N).Becausecorlmon applications of theITU signalhierarchy
cailrot efficientlyusea 51.84-Mbps signal,the lowestlevel STM signalis a 155.52-
Mbps(STS-3c)signal.*
AlthoughtheSONETspecification is primarilyconcerned with OC-Ninterconnect
standards, STS-1andSTS-3electricalsignalsrwithin theSONEThierarchyareuseful
within a switchingoffice for interconnectingnetworkelements(e.g.,multiplexers,
switchingmachines,andcross-cormect systems)t35, 361.

.A
51,84-MbpsSTS-I SONETsignalis sometimes referredto asa STM-OSDH signal.
TAnSTS-1electical signalusesa B3Zs line codeand a STS-3electricalsignalusesa CMI line code.
408 FIBERoPTIcTRANSMISsIoN
SYSTEMS

44.738 Mbpe 51,84OMbpB

sTs-t
81"840Mbpl
Byte
Interlosrrgd
Mux
CEPT'4
139,?64Mhpr

Figure 8.11 Functional block diagram of SONET multiplexing.

8.5.1 SONET Multiplexlng Overview

The first stepin the soNET multiplexingprocess(shownin Figureg.ll) involves

generationof a 51.840-MbpssTS-l signalfor eachtributary.The sTS-l signalcon-
tainsthetributary(payload)trafficplustransportoverhead.
As indicatedin rhefigure,
a variety of tributary type$areaccommodated;

1. A single DS3 per srs-l that can be a srandardasynchronous DS3 signal

generatedby anM13 or M23 multiplexer.Asynchronous DS3inputsarepassed
transparentlythroughthe systemto a DS3 output.Becausethis transparent
option exists, arry4.736-Mbps signal can be carried within the payload
envelope.
2. A groupof lowerratetributariessuchasDSl, DSlc, DS2,or El signalscanbe
packedinto the STS-I payload.
3. A higher rate (wideband)signal can be packedinto a multiple numberof
concatenated srs-l signals.Prevalentexamplesof higher rate signalsare
139.?64-Mbps fourth-levelmultiplexesof ITU or a broadbandISDN signalat
150Mbps.Eachof theseapplications requiresthreeSTS-1signalsconcatenared
togetherto form an sTS-3c signal.Higher levels of concatenation(to form
srs-Nc signals)are possiblefor higherratetributaries.concatenaredsrs-l
signalscontainintemalcontrolbytesthatidentifythe signalasa componentof
 8.5 soNET/$Dn tt09

a higher speed channel so the integrity of the concatenateddata can be

maintainedasit passes
througha network.

An STS-Nsignalis createdby interleavingbytesfrom N STS-l signalsthataremu-

tually synchronized. All timing (frequency)adjustmentis donein generating eachof
the individualSTS-I signals.STS-I signalsthat originatein another SONET node
with a possiblydifferentfrequencyarerateadjustedwith theequivalentofbyte stuff-
ing (describedlater)to becomesynchronized to theclockof thelocalnode.No matter
whatthenatureof thetributarytraffic all STS-I kibutariesin a STS-Nsignalhave
is,
the samehigh-levelformatanddatarate.
Opticalcarrierlevel-Nsignalsaregenerated by first scramblingthe STS-Nsignal
(exceptfor framingbytesandSTS-IDbytes)andthenconvertingtheelectricalsignal
to an opticalsignal.Otherthanscrambling,the OC-N signalis generated with direct
conversionto anopticalsignal.Thus,thedatarates,formats,andframingof theSTS-
N andOC-N signalsareidentical.
A SONET$ystemis definedas a hierarchyof threelevels-sections,lines,and
paths-as indicatedin Figure8.12.Eachof theselevelshasoverheadbandwidth dedi-
catedto administeringand maintainingthe respective level. As indicatedin Figure
8.11, oneof theoverheadfunctionsprovidedwithin an STS-Nsignalinvolvescalcu*
lationandtransmission of a paritybytefor theentireSTS-Nsignal.Parityis alsode-
fined for theotherlevelsofthe architecture asdescribedin the following section.

8.5.2 SONET Frame Formats

Theframeformatof anSTS-1signalis shownin Figure8.13.As indicated,eachframe

consistsof9 rowsof90 byteseach.Thefirst 3 bytesofeachrow areallocatedto trans-
poft overheadwith thebalanceavailablefor pathoverheadandpayloadmapping.The

Path Line Scction S€ction Line PEth

Terminating Terminating Torminatirg Terminating TBrminsting Terminating
Equipment Equipment Equipment Equipfiont Equipment Equipment

Figure 8.12 SONETsystemhierarchy.

410 FIBERoPTIcTRANSMIsSIoN
SYSTEMS

Tranrpon sTs-l
Ovshord lnformstionPayload

At ta. c1 J1
Sction 81 El FT B3
O\rrrhrld Dt 02 D3 c2
Hl HZ H3 Gl Path I Rowe
82 K1 K2 F2 Owrhear
Llno D4 D6 D6 H4
Owrheld 07 D8 D9 B
D10 Dlt D12 z4
z1 t2 E2 z5
3 Columns 87 Columns

Figure 8.13 STS-I frameformat.

tran$port overhead is itself composed of section overhead and line overhead. Path
overheadis contained within the information payload as indicated.
The 9 rows of 87 bytes (783 bytes in all) in the information payload block is re-
ferred to as the envelopecapacity.Becausethe frame rate is 8 kHz, the compositedata
rate of each STS-I signal can be representedas the sum of the transportoverheadrate
and the information envelopecapacity:

STS-1 rate = overheadrate + information enveloperate

= 9 x 3 x I x 8000+9 x 87 x 8 x 8000

= I-728x 106+ 50.112x 106

= 51.840Mbps (8.7)
The internalformatof theenvelopecapacityis dependenton thetype of tributarytraf-
fic beingcanied.one aspectof theenvelopeformatthatis commonto all typesof traf-
fic is the 9 bytesof pathoverheadindicatedin Figure8.13.The actuallocationand
purposeof this overheadaredescribedin thenexttwo sections.
As a specificexampleof a higherlevel(srs-N) signal,Figure8.14depictsthede-
tailsof an srs-3 signalthatalsorepresents theSTM-I signalformatin rru terminol-
ogy. Transmission of the bytesoccursrow by row andleft to right. Thus,the first 3
bytesof an srs-3 framearethethreeframingbytesAl, Al, Al. Most of thesecrion
andline overheadfunctionswithin an sTS-3 signalarecarriedin the srs-l number
I overhead. Thusmanyof thecorresponding bytesof theothersrs-l signalsareun-
usedandaresodesignated with anasterisk.Notice,however,thatpathoverheacl is in-
cludedin theinformationenvelopefor eachof theSTS-I signals.
After a frameof an srs-N signalis scrambled, a paritybyte (BIp-8) is generated
thatprovidesevenparityovercorresponding bitsin all bytesof thesTS-Nframe.This
paritybyte is insertedinto the sectionoverheadof the first STS-I signalof the next
STS-Nframe.
 8,5 SONET/SDH 411

TrunsportOverhead ST$"3 lnformrtlon Payload

\ l A r A r A 2 A 2 A e C l C l C l Jl Jl Jl
81 El FI 83 83 83
D l * r D 2 D 3 c2 c2 c2
HI Hl Hl H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3 Gl Gl Gl
82 82 82 t(1 r + l(2 F2 F2 F2
D 4 D S r r D e H4 H4 H4
07 D8 D9 z3 z3 23
D 1 0 " D l l r * p 1 2 t z4 7A 24
21 z1 21 zt z2 22 E2 z5 z5 z5
:1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2)
I Columns 261 Columns

Flgure 8.14 STS-3frameformat.

8.5.3 SONETOperations,Adminietratlon,and Malntenance

The SONET standaldplacessignificant emphasison the need for operations,admini-

shation, and maintenance(OAM) of an end-to-endsystem.As shown in Figure 8.15,
the OAM architecture is based on the section, Iine, and path Iayers described pre-
viously. OAM standardizationis a requirementfor mixing equipment from multiple
vendors and easeof managementof all levels of a system(an individual repeatersec-
tion or an end-to-endpath).

SectlonOverhead
in eachSTS-1frame
Thefunctionalallocationof the 9 bytesof sectionoverhead
shownin Figure8.13are;

Al Framingbyte= Fd hex(l1110110)
A2 Framingbyte= 28 hex (00101000)
Cl STS-l ID identifiestheSTS-lnumber(1, . . . ,1f)for eachSTS-lwithin
an STS-Nmultiplex
B I Bit-interleavedparity byteprovidingevenparity overpreviousSTS-N
frame after scrambling
El SectionJevel64-kbps PCM orderwire(localorderwire)
Fl A 64-kbpschannelsetasidefor userpurposes
D1-D3 An 192-kbpsdaia communications channelfor alarms,maintenance,
control,andadministration betweensections

Thefactthatthereis sucha richnessof maintenance supportat thesectionlevel (from

onerepeaterto another)is indicativeof therecognizedneedfor extensiveOAM fa-
cilities andthe availability of economicaltechnologyto provideit.
 E
a?
$
(t
p
u
h

o
ts
o
F
rrl
z,
(n
ln
od
P
AD
ll

412
 8.5 sONEr/SDn 413

Llne Overhead
Thefunctionalallocationof the l8 bytesof line overheadin eachSTS-I frameshown
in Figure8.13areasfollows:

Hl*H3 Pointerbytes usedin frame alignmentand frequencyadjustmentof

payloaddata;thefunctionsof thesebytesaredefinedin detailin Section
8.5.4
82 Bit-interleavedparity for line-level error monitoring
Kl, K2 Two bytes allocated for signaling between line-level automatic
protectionswitchingequipment
D4*D12 A 576-kbpsdata communications channelfor alarms,maintenance,
conffol, monitoring,andadministrationat the line level
ZI.ZZ Reservedfor futureuse
E2 A 64-kbpsPCM voicechannelfor linelevel orderwire

Notice that the line-level OAM facilities are similar to thoseavailableat the section
levelwith the additionof theprotectionswitchingsignalingchannelandHl, H2, and
H3 pointerbytesusefor payloadframing andfrequencyadjustment.

Path Ovarhead
As indicatedin Figure8.I 3, thereare9 bytesof pathoverheadincludedin everyblock
(9 x 87 bytes)of informationpayload.Theimportantaspectof thisoverheadis thatit
is insertedwhenthe tributary dataarepackedinto the synchronouspayloadenvelope
(SPE)andnotremoved(processed) Thus,it pro-
until thetributarydataareunpacked.
videsend-to-endOAM supportindependent ofthe paththroughthesynchronous net-
work, which may involve numerousintermediatemultiplexers,cross-connect
switches,or add-dropmultiplexers. Theexactlocationof these9 byteswithin thepay-
loadenvelopeis dependent onpointervaluesdefinedin thenextsectron. Thefunctions
of the path overheadbytesare:
Jl A 6a-kbpschannelusedto repetitivelysenda 64-bytefixed-length
stringso a receivingterminalcancontinuouslyverify the integdtyof a
path;thecontentsof themessage areuserprogrammable
83 Bit-interleaved parityat thepathlevel
CZ STS path signallabel to designateequippedversusunequippedSTS
signalsand,for equippedsignals,thespecif,tcSTSpayloadmappingthat
mightbe neededin receivingterminalsto interpretthepayloads
Gl Status byte sent from path-terminating equipment back to
path-originatingequipmentto conveystatusof terminatingequipment
andpathenor performance(receivedBIP error counts)
F2 A 64-kbpschannelfor pathuser
H4 Multiframe indicatorfor payloadsneedingframesthat arelongerthana
single STSftame; multiframe indicatorsare usedwhen packinglower
ratechannels(virtualtributaries)into the SPE
Z3-ZS Reservedfor future use
414 FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSIONSYSTEMS

8.5,4 PayloadFramlngand FrequencyJu$tification

Payload Framing
The locationofthe 9 bytesofpath overheadin the sTS-l envelopeis not definedin
termsof the srs-l transportframing.Instead,thepathoverheadis considered to be
thefirst columnof a frameof datareferredto asthespE, whichcanbeginin anybyte
positionwithin the sTS-l payloadenvelope(seeFigure8.16).Theexactlocationof
the beginningof the sPE (byteJl of the pathoverhead)is specifiedby a pointerin
bytesHl andH2 of theSTSline overhead. NoticethatthismeansthatanSPEtypically
overlapstwo STS-1frames.
Theuseof a pointerto definethelocationof the SPEframelocationprovidestwo
significantfeatures.First,SPEframesdo nothaveto bealignedwith higherlevelmul-
tiplexframes.It maybethatwhenfirst generated, anSPEis alignedwith theline over-
headat the originatingnode (i,e., the poinrervalue is 0). As the frame is carried
througha network,however,it ardvesat intermediatenodes(e.g.,multiplexersor
crossconnects)havingan arbitraryphasewith respectto the outgoinghansportfram-
ing. If the sPE hadto be framealignedwith theoutgoingsignal,a full spE frameof
storageanddelaywouldbe necessary. Thus,theavoidance of framealignmentallows
SPEson incominglinks to be immediatelyrelayedto outgoinglinks withoutartificial
delay.Thelocationofthe sPEin theoutgoingpayloadenvelopeis specifiedby setting
theHl, H2 pointerto thepropervalue(0-782).
The secondadvantage of the pointerapproachto framingspE signalsis realized
whendirectaccessto subchannels suchasDSls is desired.Becausethepointerpro-
videsimmediateaccessto the startof an SPEframe,any otherpositionor time slot
within theSPEis alsoimmediatelyaccessible. If thetributaryusesa byte-synchronous
mappingformat,individualchannelbyteshavefixedpositionswith respectto thestart
of thesPE.This capabilityshouldbe comparedto theprocedures requiredto demul-
tiplex a DS3 signal.In a DS3 signalthereis no relationshipbetweenthehigherlevel
framingandthe lower level DS2 and DSI framingpositions.In essence, two more
framerecoveryprocesses areneededto identifya DSOtime slot.Theuseof pointers

87 Columnr--+

.fl H;

Frame0 F
9 Row* { h

'Psth
Overherd

Frame I =
I Eowe ],".-
87 Columnr

Figure 8.16 Representative

locationof SPE.
 8.5 SONET/SDH415

in the SONET architecture eliminates the need for more than one frame recovery proc-
esswhen accessingbyte-synchronouslower level signals.

FrequencyJ uetiflcatlon
Althoughit is generallyintendedthatSONETequipment to each
be synchronieed
otheror to a cofilmonclock,allowancesmustbe madefor theinterworkingof SONET
equipmentthat operateswith slighfly differentclocks.Frequencyoffsetsimply that an
SPEmay be generatedwith oneclock ratebut be carriedby a SONETtransportrun-
ning at a differentrate.Themeansof accommodating a frequencyoffsetis to accept
variableSPEframeratesusingdynamicadjustments in the SPEpointers.Pointerad-
justmentsallow SPEframesto float with respectto thetransportoverheadto maintain
a nominallevel of storagein interfaceelasticstores.Figure 8.17 showsthe basic
meansof accommodating a slow incomingSPE.If the elasticstorebeginsto empty,
positivebyte stuffingis invokedto skip oneinformationtime slot (the slot immedi-
atelyfollowingtheH3 byte)andsimultaneously incrementing thepointertodelaythe
SPEframeby onebyte.
Negativebytestuffing,to accommodate a fastSPEclock,requiressendinganextra
SPEbytewhenevertheelasticstorebeginsto fitl. As indicatedin Figure8.18,theH3
slotcarriestheextrabyteof data,whichrequiresthepointerto be simultaneously de-
cremented,therebyadvancingthe SPEframeby I byte. To protectagainsterrorsin
misinterpreting byte-stuffingoperations,theneedto incrementor decrement a pointer
is redundantlyencoded,*andthe new pointervalueis transmiffedfor a minimumof
threeframesfollowingtheframein whichthepointeradjustment occurs.This implies
that a l-byte adjustmentcanbe madeonceeveryfour frames(onceevery500 psec).
For an analysisof the effectsof channelerrorson SONETpayloadpointers,seeref-
erence[37].

by
Example 8.6. Determinetherangeof SPEdataratesthat canbe accommodated
thebyte-stuffingoperationdescribedabove.

Solution. FourSPEframesnominallycontain4 x 9 x 87= 3132bytesof data.Thus,

thenominalSPErateis 8 x 3132x 2000= 50.112Mbps.Whenpositivebytestuff,rng
is usedto accommodate a slowincomingSPErate,313I bytesof dataaretransmitted
in four frames.Thus,the lowest,slip-freerateis

Minimum sPE rate= 8 x 3131x 2000= 50.096Mbps

Whennegativebyte stuffingis usedto accommodate a fast SPErate,3133bytesof

dataaretransmittedin four frames.Thus,the highest,slip-freerateis

MaximumSPErate= 8 x 3133x 2000= 50.128Mbps

.During
the a jusrnent frame only, 5 even-numbered bits of the pointet value are invefied to indicate a
negative stuff (data in byte H3). When a positive stuff occurs, 5 odd-numbercd bits of the pointer arc
inverted,
416 FIBER
oplc rBANSMtsstoN
sysrEMS

STS-Frsme
I
-----l*-- -
I 0p
Strn of ST*t SynchronourEmretope

Frlme z

FredGn + |

Pwlth 1
bi$ invtrted

Fromen + 2

Pffi -P+ |

Ftlme n * 3

50Orr

Figure8.17 Positive justificationoperation.

STS-I pointer

Example8.6 demonstrates that the SONETclock accuracyrequiredfor maintaining

sPE datais 50.112t 0.016Mbps-a very wide torerance of f320 ppm.In compari-
son,a soNET nodeis specifiedto maintaina minimumtimingaccuracyof z0 ppmif
it losesits reference.
Thus, the frequencyof timing adjustmentswas chosenmore
from a desireto simplify theprocessthanfrom just assuringa marginfor slip-free
operations.
The useof byte stuffingto accommodate timing differencesintroduceswaiting
timejitter into SPEpayloads, just asbit stuffingintroduces waitingtimejitter intoDSI
signalsbeingasynchronously multiplexedinto DS2or DS3 signals.If thespE is car-
rying DSl traffic, the effectof byte sruffingat the spE rateis aboutone-fourrhof a
bit intervalattheDS1rate.(Because theSPJE rateis 32timestheDSI rate,theduration
of an sPE byte is one-fourththe durationof a DSI bit.) Noticethat this amountof
 B.s $oNET/SDH 417

STS-l Framd
Poimgr I
V r l u e( P | -l*
I 0rtg
Start of $TS-l Synchronous

Fremea

Frame il + I

Pwith D
bits ifiYErt€d

Fremea * 2

Frerne r + 3

500 gr

Figure8.18 Negative justification

STS-I pointer operation.

phasejitter is comparableto the amountintroducedby bit stuffinga DS2 signalinto

a DS3 signal.

8.5.5 Virtual Trlbutaries

usessub-
To facilitatethetransportof lowerratedigital signals,the SONETstandard
STS-I payloadmappingsreferredto asvirtual tributary(VT) structures,asshownin
Figure8.19.ThismappingdividestheSPEframeinto sevenequal-sized subframesor
VT blockswith 12 columns(108bytes)in each.Thus,the subframes accountfor
7 x 12= 84 columnswith thepathoverheadandtwo unusedcolumns(reserved bytes
R) accountingfor the remainderof the 87 columnsin an SPE.The rateof eachVT
structureis determinedas 108x I x 8000= 6.912Mbps.
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 S.5 SONET/SDH 419

TABLE8.9 SONETVirtualTributarles

VT Numberof Numberin VT Maximum

TributaryType Designation Columnsper VT Group Numberin SPE

DS1 wl.5 3 4 28
E1 w2.0 4 3 21
DSlC VTs.O b 2 14
D52 VT6.O 12 1 7

TheVT structures canbeindividuallyassigned to carryoneoffour typesofsignals.

Dependingon thedatarateof a particularsignal,morethanonesignalmaybe caried
within a VT structureas a VT group.All signalswithin a VT groupmustbe of the
samet)?e, but VT groupswithin a singleSPEcanbe differenttypes.The particular
lower ratesignalsaccommodated asVTs arelistedin Table8.9.The lastcolumnin-
dicateshow manyof thelowerrate$ignalsarecarriedin a singleSPEif all sevenVT
groupsarethe sametype.
VT-SPEpayloadsareallowedto float within an STS-I SPEin thesamefashionas
pointersto SPEpayloadsareallowedto float at theSTS-1level.Thus,a secondlevel
of pointerlogic is definedfor VT payloads.Again,a floatingVT-SPEallowsfor mini-
mal framingdelaysat intermediate nodesandfor frequencyjustificationof VT-SPEs
undergoing transitionsbetweentimingboundaries. High-rateVT-SPEsareaccoillmo-
datedby insertingan informationbyteinto V3 while slow-rateVT-SPEsareaccom-
modatedby stuffing into the informationbyte immediatelyfollowing V3 when
necessary.
The mappingformatfor a VTl.5 is shownin Figure8.20.EachVTI.5 usesthree
columnsof datato establish108bytesin a VT1.5 payload.Therearefour suchpay-
loadsin a l2-columnVT group.TheVl, V2, V3, V4 bytesof thepayloadhavefixed
positionswithin theSTS-I payload.Theremaining104bytesof theVT1.5 signalcon-
stitutetheVTI.5 payload,the startof whichis theV5 bytepointedto by Vl andV2.
Figure 8.21depictstwo differentmappingsfor a VTl.5 payload:an asynchronous
mappinganda byte-synchronous mapping.

Aeynchronous Mapping
The asynchronous operationis identicalin conceptto the bit-stufflngoperationde-
scribedin Chapter7. TheDSI bit streamis insertedinto the informationbits (I) with
no relationshipto the VT-SPEframeor byteboundaries. As indicated,therearetwo
stuffingopporhrnities (Sr and52)availablein everyfour-framesuperframe. Thus,the
VTl.5 superframe carries771,772,or773 informationbits dependingon thevalueof
the stuff controlbits C1andC2.The nominalnumberof informationbits in eachframe
is 193x 4=772. Nominalframescarryinformationin 52whilestuffingin 51.
Because theasynchronous operationis compatiblewith theasynchronous network,
it is the formatusedin mostSONETapplications. The majoradvantage of the asyn-
chronousmodeof operationis thatit providesfor totallytransparent fransmissionof
 42O FIBERoPTIcTRANSMISSIoN
$YSTEMS

eCoUmfiB
l--fr4.l
rooooffi

)offiool
ilEeR.un
nmootl0

ffin tr I Rorva

ffil1

ffin tr g Rorys

l) A Wl.f rm lhreemluffir of m SPE fr f 08 bytcain a j00 Dre. f,perFrffio.

?) Vl , V2, V3, V4 bytcr hsveffrfid locdiilB h I $ptsidmified by tho hf t$o b&BdH4.
3) Vt ed V2 poid' to V5 qftirh is rhe fr* tryteofba flocing WiJ Sff.
4) SEEoncrtod bl,tff V5, .E!,26, Z7 mr h idediaal rd*ive porilima of m SFE.

Figure E.20 Superframe sffucture for VTI.S kibutaries.

the tributary signal in terms of information and in terms of information rate. The major
disadvantageof the asynchronousmode is that 64-kbps DSO charurelsand signaling
bits are not readily extracted.

Eyte-Synchronous Multip I exlng

In contrastto the asynchronous mapping,the byte-synchronous payloadmapping
shownin Figure8.21ballocatesspecificbytesof rhepayloadto specificbytes(chan-
nels)of theDSI tributarysignal.Hence,this modeof operationovercomes themain
drawbackof theasynchronous modein that64-kbpsDSOchannelsandsignalingbits
within the payloadareeasilyidentified.In fact, whenthe DSl tributaryarisesfrom
legacyapplications, the signalingbits of a DSI aremovedfrom the leastsignif,rcant
bit (LSB) of everysixthframeof respectivechannelsandplacedin dedicatedsignal-
ing bit positionswithin rhevr-sPE. Thusbyte-synchronous multiplexingoffersan
additionalfeatureof convertingfrom in-slot signalingto out-slotsignalingfor DSI
signals.
Al importantaspectof thebyte-synchronous formatshownin Figure8.21bis the
absence of timingadjustments for thesourceDSI signal.Thus,theDSI interfacenec-
essarilyrequiresa slip bufferto accommodate a DSI sourcethatmaybe unsynchron-
ized to the local soNET clock.Althoughslipsin byte synchronously mappedDSI
 s.5 soNET/sDn421

v5 \15
t"-
R R R R R R I R R P n$ S " S n $ r F R
lffi I htts ClS0clHnneh
24 Eyteg (1-24)
(246)
J2 J2
2 Byte8
c.Go o o o I R R P ^s r s " s " g , F R
lga I bftB DSOchannels
24 BytEs (1-24
(246)

z6 2 Eyteg
ze
c.Go o o o I R eP"S'S"9"$rF R
194 | bltl DSo chann€l8
24 Byt€B (1-24't
(2/sd)
z7 z7
2 B!,toB
c . c ' RR R q S R F. P" Sr Sr8.g, F R

lm I bfts DSOchsnnolB
24q,tss (r.24)
(24d)
1(}{Bytee

No, oflixod informdim bils = 4(19?) +3(1, = 77 I
$1,$1- Surfflinfrnuatim bitr
Cr, c! -Sutrmgor*rot bits
R bitc ffe SxEdrtlfftte (uupdcifiod)
O bits arsrctcrved fm futurupurpo*e
(a)
Sr, Sr" $r, 8r - Chmel-asso+iEtrd sigtalingbiB
P1,Ps= Si8nrlingphuc indicdsr bits
F=DSl *aftinebit
R bih $e ItuEdsrtrbitr (uspociffed)
(b)

Figure 8.21 DSI mappings in VTl.5 SPE: (a) asynchronous;(b) byte synchronous.

signalsmayoccurattheSONETnetworkinterface(e.g.,SONETgateway),slipscan-
not occurwithin the SONETnetworkbecauseinternalnodesrateadjustthe VT1.5
payloadswith pointeradjustments.-

El Mappinge
El signalsaremappedintoVT2 signalswith thesamebasicprocedures usedfor DSls.
As shownin Figure8.22,the VT2 signalis composed of four columnsof bytesin an
STS-l thatproducea totalof 144bytes.After removingtheVl, V2, V3, andV4 bytes,
theVT2 payloadhas140bytes.Formatsfor asynchronously mappedEIs andbytesyn-
chronouslymappedEls areshownin Figure8.23.Noticethat thebyte-synchronous
mappingfor a 30-channelEl carrieschannel-associated signalingin slot 16-the
form of out-slotsignalingdesignedinto El signalsat theirinception.The samebasic
format supportscommon-channelsignaling,which is sometimesreferredto as a
'
The original specifications for SONET included a locked timing format for VT-SPEs that eliminated the
VT pointers so DSO channels could be identified directly within the STS-1. This mode of operation has
since been abandoned,
 422 FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSIONSYSTEMS

I H{-l 4Columne

toooootr
I Rorrs

noom0l

n tr gRUfYE

EoomdO

ffin il E 9RsrYs

Ndcr:
)ffi|1

ffiI n H eRorw

l) A VTz'|H fo|f oolumr o,fm $pE fu 144bytesitr r Jfi) rxe, speftfi€.

2) Vl, VA V3, V4 byta havefi xedlocd,iqs in r SPEi.ft'niffd by th€ lrd two tfrs of H4.
3) Vl sd V2 psid' to Vi wtid is the fir* byAaofihe f,o*hg Vfit $fB
4) SFEovcrfad b]ics V5, J2,26, Z7 ooon h iders,icnlrddilo porttime of m SpE .

Figure 8.22 Superframe skucture for VTZ tributaries.

3l-channelEl format.In this casechannel16is theccs channelandchannelsl-15

and 17-31 arethebearerchannels.Thus,themultiplexmappingis not changed, just
the nomenclatureof the channelsandthe spE typedesignation
in the vr pathover-
headbyte V5.

8.5.6 DS3 Payload Mapping

Theprevioussectiondescribes severalalternatives for packingvirtualtributariesinto

an sTS-l envelope.when all sevenvrs in an envelopearevrl.Ss, a total capacity
of 28 DSls is provided-rhe sameas a DS3 signal.Thusonemethodof carryinga
DS3 signalinvolvesdemultiplexingit into its consrituentDSI (or DSZ signals)and
packing the constituentsas virtual fributaries.This approachis attractivein that the
virtual tributariesare individually accessiblefor cross-connect or add-dropmulti-
plexersystems.If theapplicationdoesnot needto accesstheindividualtributaries.it
is simplerto packtheDS3 signaldirectlyinro an sTS-1,asindicatedin Figureg.24.
The payloadmappingin Figure8.24treatsthe DS3 signalsimplyasa 44.736-Mbps
datastreamwith no impliedintemalstructure.Thus,this mappingprovidestranspar-
ent transportof DS3-ratedatastreams.
Eachrow ofa nine-rowsPE envelopecontains87 x 8 = 696bits, whichcancarry
621or 622DS3databits dependingon thevalueof theC bits.Noticerhatthisformat
 8.5 SONET/SDH 423

v5 t**
\,8
R R R R R R R R H B R R R R R R
256| btts UnusedelotO
Saqf€s
@6) Chahnels1-31

R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R SByt€ R R R R R R R R
c.Go o o o R R R R R R R R R R
Unus€dsk*O
258I blt$
(sa6)
R R R R R R R R
T Chanreb l-31
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R SBytE€ R R R R R R R R
c.Go o o o R R E P ^ R R R R R R
Unus€dalot0
256 | blte
(ffi| SaBytes
Chanrtelst.91
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
4Bytee
C.GR R R R R q R R R R R R R R
$tt I I I | | | Unu*dstoto
248| bltE Channcls
1+1
flq€B
(31)€)

R R R R R R R R lgE- R R R R R R R R
1/0 B!/t68

No.offixed informdim btc : 4t256) -l - 1023 CA$bitgindund 16

$r, Sr - Strffinfqfidiqr bits Pl, Po: SiEnrlinEFa$Ebdiodor bits
Cr, Q = Stuffhrgodrol bit$ R biteffcfixed *uffbttc (lE+€Eifiod)
R bits arcfillcd friffbiu (uspecificd)
O bits arer€Bffvedfm finm PuPocee

(a) (b)

(b)bytesynchronous'
in VT2SPE;(a)synchronous;
Figure8.23 El mappings

hasfive C bits,whichallowsfor singleanddoublebit errorcorrection.Thepathover-

head(POH)bytescarrythe9 bytesof POH asdefinedin Section8.5.3.
Determination of theminimumandmaximumDS3ratesis left asanexerciseat the
endof thechapter.

8.5.7 E4 Payload Mapping

one exampleof a soNET supenatemappingis shownin Figure8.25for a 139.264-

Mbps fourth-levelITU-T signal(E4). This signalis packedinto a 155-52-Mbps
STS-3c(or STM-I) signal.Figure8.25showsonly thesynchronouspayloadenvelope
424 FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSIONSYSTEMS

87(8) -096 Bit$

8 1 1 1 1 1 1 111 l 11rr11
POH R c I R CCRBRRRR R ccRRooRs I

POH R c I R CCRRRRRR I R ccRRooRs I

POH: Path overheadh^e I
R; Fixed etuff bit (realed) 69
C: Stutf controt bit s
l: lnformstion (paytoad) bit 621
S; Stuff opportunity bit l
O; Ovsrheadcommunications bit 2
Totalbie 6S
NotF: $ contains information when CCCCC - 00000.
S is a stuff bit wh€n CCCCC= fl 111.

Figure 8.24 Asynchronous 44.736-Mbps (DS3) payload mapping.

l+87(3)=261 Bytes

x 121 Y r2l Y t2l Y 121

\
1 POH 131 x 121 Y 12r z tzl

I FOH 131 x t2l Y 121 z 121

POH: Prth ovrhead bVte l

t : Information (payload) byte 241
X: CRRRRROO 5
Y; R R R R R R R R 13
Z: iiiiiisR 1
Toral bytec IEI
C: Stuft control blt
R: Fix€d stuff bit
o; Overheadcommunlcationsbir
S; Stuff opportunity bit
i: Infomation bit
Noto: S contslne informstion when CCCCC:00000.
$ ie s atuff bit whon CCCCC* t1 tlt.

Figure 8.25 Asynchronous 139.264-Mbps (E4) payload mapping.

 B,s soNET/sDu 425

(SPE-3c),not the 9 bytesof sectionandline overheadin eachrow. Noticethat there

is only onecolumnof POH within the SPE-3cenvelope.ThePOH bytescarrythe 9
bytesof overheadasdefinedin Section8.5.3.
Thepayloadmappingin Figure8.25treatsthe 139.264-Mbps signala$a transpar*
entdatasfteamwith no impliedinternalstructure.Eachrow of a nine-rowSPE-3cen-
velopecontains87 x 3 =261 bytes,whichcancarry 1934or 1935databits depending
on the valueof the C bits. Noticethatthis formatalsohasfive C bits, which allows
for singleanddoublebit errorcolrection.

8.5.8 SONETOpticalStandards
"mid-span-meet" of $ONET equip-
The optical interfacestandard[36Jdefinedfor
mentallowsfor eitherNRZ or RZ line codeson single-mode fibers.Generation of the
OC-N signalfromtheSTS-Nsignalrequiresa scrambleras showninFigure8.26.The
scrambleris synchronized to eachSTS-Nframeby presettingthe shift registerto all
I's immediatelyafter transmittingthe lastCl byte of the STS-Nsectionoverhead.
Thus,the framecodes(A1,A?) andSTS-I ID (Cl) codearenot scrambled. A mini-
mum level of timing contentis assuredby the Al, A2, andCl bytesalongwith the
staticoverheadbits of theSTS-Nframethatareanticoincident with thescramblerse-
quence.Because thescrambler is presetatthe$amepointof everyframe,everybit po-
sition in successiveframesexperiencethe samescramblervalue.Thus,when static
overheadis "exclusiveored" with the scrambler,the samedatavaluesarise.(The
scramblermerelyconvertsfixed overheaddatainto a different patternof fixed data.)
The BER objectiveis I x l0-I0 fbr opticalsectionsof 40 km or less.Equipment
from separatemanufacturers can be freely interchangedfor applicationswith dis-
tancesup to 25 km. Longerdistances mayrequirejoint engineering. (Transmitters and
receiversfrom separatesuppliersmust be jointly specifiedto supportlonger dis-
tancefr.)
SONETsystemsarespecifiedto operatewith centralwavelengths at 1310nm with
sMF fibersor at 1550nm with Ds-sMF fibers.operationat l3l0 nm with Ds-sMF
fibersor at 1550nm with SMFfibersis not disallowedbutmustbejoinfly engineered.
A rangeof laserwavelengthtolerancesand maximumallowablespectralwidthsis

DEIEIn

Figure t.26 SONETscrambler.

 4?;6 FIBEHOPTICTRANSMISSIONSYSTEMS

TABLE8.10 FepreeentativeMaximumSpectratWidthsof SONETSources",0

SONETSource Bate (Mbp$) <25km <40km

oc-1 51.84 30nm 25.0 nm
oc-3 155.5? 1Snm 1 0 . 0n m
oc-9 466.56 1Onm 7.5 nm
oc-12 622.08 Bnm 6.0 nm
eThe spectral width
of a $ource is determinedas the wavelBngthdif{erencebetweenth6 p6ak mod€ and the
farthBstmode thet iB 10 dB b6low the peak.
DThese
specificationsare for lasBrsop€ratingwithin 10 nm of th6 c€ntral wav€lBngths(1310 end 1550 nm).
Lasef,swith greater deviation lrom the c€ntral wavelength
- are allowed but haG nariower sp€crratwldth
sp€cificationsto compensatetor or€aterfib€r di8perslon.

specifiedfor both 1310and1550nm.Table8.l0 providesrepresentative

valuesof the
specifications.

8.5.9 SONET Networks

A basicblock diagramof a soNET networkis shownin Figureg.27.Gatewaynet-

work elements(GNEs)provideinterfacesto external(asynchronous) digital signals.
Thesesignalsare mapped(synchronized) and unmapped(desynchronized) by the
gatewayusingtheappropriate mappingformar.At this point only bit stuffingis used
to synchronize theasynchronous tributariesto SONET.No pointera-djustments occur
in theGNE.As thesTS-Nsignalspropagate tluoughthenetwork,pointeradjustmenrs
in pointerprocessing(PP) interfacesnury be appliedat internalnetworkelements
(NEs),but thelower level interfacemappingsthatoccurat theGNEsareuntouched.
If a particularNE accessesvr payloads,vr payloadsin rhesamevr grouprharpass
throughthenodemayexperience vT pointeradjustments.otherwise,vlr pointerad-
justmentsdo not occur(onlythesTS-l levelsignalsarerateadjusred). Thefottowing
paragraphs summarize pointerprocessing aspectsof a SONETnetwork:

I' Pointerjustificationevents(pJEs)neveroccurin an originatingGNE.

2. A desynchronizerexperiencescontinuouspJEs only as a result of a
synchronization differencebetweenthe originatingGNE and the terminating

Figure t.27 soNET network elements:s, synchronizer;pp, pointer processor;D,

desynchronizer,
 8.5 soNEr/sDn 427

GNE.* SynchronizationdifferenceVfailures at intemal nodesof a SONET

networkproducecontinuous pointeradjustments, but thesegetremovedwhen
the SPEpassesthrougha nodethatis synchronized to the sourceGNE.
3. PJEburstsoccurfor two possiblereasons.The first is a resultof a reference
switchanda subsequent phaseadjustment of a node'slocalclockto alignit with
the phaseof the newreference. Burstscanalsooccurasa resultof clocknoise
in multiplenodesproducingnear-simultaneous pointeradjustments. In orderfor
all of theseadjustments to propagate to a desynchronizing gateway, all of the
elastic storesin the path be
must at the appropriate threshold. This can only
happenif the sourceGNE haspreviously produced some abnormal behavior
suchasa lossof a referenceor sustained a ratherlargeamountof wander.
4. A pointeradjustmentat the SPElevel doesnot affecta VT signalunlessit is
passedto a nodethataccesses theVT andthatparticularadjustment haPpens to
causea pointer movement at the VT level. Even when this occurs,the VT
pointeradjustmentmustpassthroughthe network(withoutabsorption)to the
desynchronizing gatewayto affectthe outgoingtributarysignal.On average'
oneof every30 PJEsat the STS-1levelproducesa PJEat theVTl.5 level.

Figure8.28showsa blockdiagramof anSPEsynchronization circuit (PP)depict-

ing two halvesof pointer processing: one half (desynchronizes)
exhacts theSPEpay-
loadfrom a receivedsignalandtheotherhalf synchronizes the SPEto the localSTS-I
frame rate. The RX pointer processingblock extractsthe payload data from the re-
ceivedsignalandpasses it to theelasticstore.TheTX pointerprocessing blockmoni-
tors the fill level of the elastic store and makespointer adjustmentsto maintain a
nominallevelof storage.The sizeof theelasticstoreonly needsto be on theorderof
8 bytesin length,not a full frame.Theability to usea relativelysmallelasticstore(as
comparedto frame-lengthelasticstoresin theasynchronous network)is oneof thefea-
turesof a pointer-based synchronization The payloadsare allowedto
architecture:
float with respectto theSTS-l frameboundaries'

Frequency of Palnter Justlllcation Events

If all NEsof a SONETislandusea timingreference thatis traceable to a commonpri-
maryreference source(PRS),PJEsoccuronly asa resultof distribution-induced clock
wanderthatproducesno sustained frequencyoffset.Thus,whenall NEs aresynchro-
nizedto the samereference,PJEsoccurat randomtimesandhaveequalnumbersof
positiveandnegativevaluesoverthelongrun.
ContinuousPJEsoccuronly whenthereis a referencefailureat someNEs within
a SONETislandor theislandis intentionallydesignedto operatein a plesiochronous
mode.If thereferencefailureoccursat someinternalnodeof the SONETisland,the
resultingPJHsareremovedat the next nodein the paththat is still lockedto the same
referenceas the gatewayNE. Thus,a tributarydesynchronizef at a GNE mustdeal
*This
statement assumesthat the terminating GNE synchronizes incoming SPEs to a local clock before they
urrive at the desynchronizer.
 428 FIBEHoPTIcTRANSMIsSIoN
SYSTEMS

Odrr SPEe

Ovtrterd datr

Flgure t.28 Block diagramof SPEsynchronizing

equipment:RX, receiver;TX, transmitter.

with continuous PJEs only when there is a referencefailure in either the originating
GNE or in the rerminating GNE.

SONETDetynchronizers
soNETdesynchronizers
arenecessarily
designed
withverylowclockrecovery
band-
widths to smooththe effects of (l) isolatedpointer adjustments,(2) continuouspointer
adjustments,(3) pointer adjustment bursts, or (4) combinations of the latter two. A
pointer burst is defined as the occurrenceof multiple pointer adjustmentsof one po-
larity occurring within the decaytime of the desynchronizercircuit (i.e., the reciprocal
of the desynchronizerclosed-loop PLL bandwidth). Thus. it is ironic rhat as the clock
recovery bandwidth is narrowed to smooth the effect of a burst, the probability of a
burst occurrenceis increased(by definition only). Extremely nrurow pLL bandwidths
are easiestto implement using digital filtering techniquescommonly referredto as bit
leaking. Bit leaking is essentiallya mechanismfor converting byte-sizedpointer ad-
justments into bit- (or fractional-bit-) sized timing adjustmenrs.
Figure 8.29 shows a block diagram of a microprocessor-controlledDSl desyn-
chronizer. The microprocessoris used to perform long-term averaging ofphase ad-

DSI
ertrrctlon

Ml3 multlplerer

Figure 8.29 VTl.5 desynchronizer

hardwarefunctionalcomponents.
 8.6 SONETRINGS 425

justmentsin lieu of dedicatedlogic thatrequireslargecountersandwide word sizes

for low-bandwidthDSPfiltering.Thefirst functionof thernicroprocessor is to deter-
mine theaverageDSI payloadfrequencyoffsetrepresented by all frequencyadjust-
mentevents(bit stuffs,vT pointeradjustments, andsTs pointeradjustments). After
the averagefrequencyadjustmentis determined, a stuff ratio valueis calculatedthat
allowsinsertioninto a DS3signalasshown.(TheM12 stageis embedded in theM13
multiplexer.)The elasticstorefill level is usedfor very long term adjustments in the
outputfrequencythatarisefrom finite precisionlimits of theDSPcalculations andfor
accommodating variationsin theDS3clock,whichis typicallynotsynchronized to the
SONET line clock.

8.6 SONETHINGS

As hasbeenmentionedearlierin this book,the development of largeswitchingma-

chinesand transmission systems with extremely large cross sectionshasimpacted
telecommunications network architectures with a trendtoward fewerhierarchical lev-
els.An undesirable consequence of this trend is increased dependence on the opera-
tional statusof individual switchingmachinesand fiansmissionpaths.A SONET
self-healing ring, or moresimplya SONETring,is a networkarchitecture thatspecifi-
cally addresses networksurvivability.Two basictypesof self-healing rings areshown
in Figure8.30:a unidirectionalring anda bidirectionalring. Themaindifferencebe-
tweenthetwo typesof ringsis how thetwo directionsof a duplexconnectionaree$-
tablished.
In a unidirectional ring a singletimeslotof theentirering is assigned to bothhalves
of a connection.As indicatedin Figure8.304,traffic is normallycarriedonly on the
(unidirectional) workingpathwith thecounterrotating pathusedfor protection.In the
example, an STS-1 (out of an OC-48) might be carried directlyfrom A to B, but the
returningSTS-1 would be carried from B through C and D to A. A bidirectionalring,
on the otherhand,establishes both halves ofthe duplex connection overthe shortest
pathin the ring. Thus,no fiber is identified as a pure working fiber andanotherasa
pureprotectionfiber.Because bidirectionalrings provide shorter round trip delaysfor
mostconnections andallowreuseof time slotson thering, is the it prefened modeof
operationfor interofficenetworks.Rings for subscriberaccessapplicationsdo not
carry muchtraffic betweenADM nodesand thereforearemore suitedto a unidirec-
tionalmodeof operation.

8.6.1 Unidirectlonal Path-Switched RIng

As shownin Figure8.31,a unidirectionalpath-switched ring (UPSR)[38] transmits

the sameinformationfrom A to B in both directionsaroundthe ring. Normally, only
theworkingpathis accessed by thereceivingnode;If a failureoccurs,a nodecan$e-
lectthedataon theprotectionchannel.Noticethatin theexampleshownselectionof
theprotectionpathactuallyleadsto a shorterpathfor theconnectionfrom A to B'
 430 FIBEHoPTIcTRANSMISSIoN
SY$TEMS

Prot€c{ionpsth

(*)

(b)

Figure 8.30 (a) Unidirectionaland(b) bidirectionalrings.

8.6.2 Bldirectlonat Line-$witched Ring

Bellcoredefinesrwo versionsof bidirectionalline-switchedrings (BLSRs)

I39l: a
two-fiberBLSR anda four-fiberBLSR.on a two-fiberBLSRprotecrionis provided
by reservingbandwidthin eachof two counterrotating fiber paths(Figureg.32).If all
trafficis to beprotected,
only 507oofthe totalsystemcapacitycanbeused.Undernor-
mal conditionsconnections betweentwo nodesutilize the shortestpathbetweenthe
nodes'If a fault in eitherdirectionof hansmissionoccurs,the nodesadjacentto the
faultperformring switchesasindicated.A ring switchinvolvesswitchingtrafficfrom
working channelsof thefailed facility to sparechannelsof theotherfacility on the side
of the nodeon which the fault occurs.The protection-swirched traffic propagate$all
theway aroundthering,beingignoredby interveningnodes,until it is switchedback
 8.6 SONETRINGS 431

Wofting Path ProtoctionPath

PathTerminatlon

FigureE.31 UPSRprotection
swirching.

to theworkingchannelsby the othernodenextto thefault.Noticethatall nodes(in-

cluding thenodesadjacentto the fault) communicateon working channelsin the same
mannerasthey did beforethe protectionswitching.That is, the pathterminationsare
not partof theprotectionpath.Themainimpactof theprotectionswitchis anincrease
in delay for affectedtraffic (and a momentaryinsertionof exkaneousdatawhen the
switchoccurs).
On a four-fiberBLSR(Figure8.33)two pairsof fibersareprovidedfor eachdirec-
tion of kansmission-one bidirectionalworking pair and anotherpair for protection
of the first pair. Thus,working andprotectionchannelsarecarriedon differentphysi-
cal facilities.Again,connections arenormallysetup to usethe shortestdistanceof

ion Switches

.if:-*-

West Esst West East

nodes nodes nodes nodes
Figure 8.32 Two-FiberBLSR protectionswitches
 432 FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSIONSYSTEMS

Protgdion

*\
\
Prt""tion p"i,

Working Pair/ \ wo*ing e"ii

RlngProtsdlon$rritches

Figure 8.33 Four-FiberBLSRprotectionswitches.Notethata ring switchanda spanswitch

cannotcoexistwithoutchannelswitchinganda reductionin capacity,

travel for each side of a connection.If a failure occurs on only a working facility, pro-
tection switching occurs similar to "span switching" of a point-to-poini system:The
traffic is merely switched to and from the protection facility by nodesadjacent
to the
fault. However, if a fault affects both the working and the proiection facilities,
a ring
switch is neededas shown. Again, protection-switchedtraffic propagatesall the way
around the ring without being accessedby intervening nodes.eil traffic accessesstill
occur on the working channelseven though the sameinformation is passingthrough
the nodesin the protection path.
A four-fiber BLSR obviously requires more facilities rhar a two-fiber BLSR
but
has numerousadvantages.First, the protectedcapacity of the systemis twice as large.
second, fiber failures on only the working pair can be accommodatedby a spanswitch
with minimal disruption to traffic. Third, multiple separatefailures can tccur on work-
ing pairs and be accommodatedby multiple span switches.Fourth, the presence
of a
spare pair simplifies maintenancetesting and possible upgrading of facilities. For
thesereasons,a four-fiber BLSR is generally favored.

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PROBLEMS
8.1 Determine tle attenuationg, in decibelsper kilometer such that the loss limit of
a Sfi)-Mbps fiber system is exactly equal to the dispersion limit. Assume the
transmitteroutput is 30 dB abovethe receiverthresholdfor the desirederror rate
and that the systemhas a BDp of g0 Gbps-km.
 PROBLEMS 435

8.2 An 850-nm,graded-index, multimode,So-Mbpsfiber systemwith 2 dB/kmloss

buslocalareanetwork.Assumethe
in thefiber is to beusedfor a token-passing
systemusesthe first entriesin Tables8.1 and 8.2 asa source-detector pair. If
theBDPof thefiberis 500Mbps-km,how many passivetapswith 0.4 dB of loss
canbeinsertedperkilometerwithoutaffectingthedistance between transmitters
andreceivers.
8.3 Whatis thedistancelimit (withouttaps)of thesystemin hoblem 8.2if thedata
rateis reducedto l0 MbPs?
8.4 A graded,multimodefiber exhibits 100psec/kmnm of chromaticdispersionat
850nm. Determinethe BDP of a NRZ systemusingan LED having40 nm of
specrralwidth.
8.5 A WDM SMF systemusing 1300and 1550nm is dispersionlimited at both
wavelengths. How mustthe spectralbandwidthsof the two $ourcesbe related?
(AssumeD= 3.5pseclkmnm at 1300nmandD 17'5 = psec/kmnm at 1550nm')
8.6 What is the minimum and maximumpulsedensityof mBlp and mBlC line
codes?
8.7 What is the longeststringof no pulsesthat canoccurin mBlP andmBlC line
codes?
8.8 A 486B line codecanencodeall4 bitsof sourcedatawith 6-bit line codeshav-
ing exactlythreepulsesin everycode.How manydc-balanced codesare left
overfor link control?
8.9 Determinetheminimumandmaximumdatarateof an asynchronously mapped
DSI signalthatcanbe caried within a VTI-5 envelope.
8.10 Determinetheminimumandmaximumdataratesof anasynchronously mapped
El signalthatcanbe carriedwithin a VT2 envelope.
8.11 Determinetheminimumandmaximumdataratesof anasynchronous DS3pay-
loadthatcanbe carriedwithin an STS-1envelope.
8.12 Determinethe minimumandmaximumB[ dataratesthat canbe accommodated
within an STS-3cenvelope.
8.13 Determinethe averageframeacquisitiontime of an STS-1signalassumingall
nonframingbits haveequallylikely randomvaluesof 0 or 1'
8.14 RepeatProblemL13 for an STS-3csignal'
8.15 Determinethepayloadcapacityof a STS-3c(STM-1)signal.
 DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

A basicconceptofa cellularsystemis to provideever-increasing capacityby dividing

cellsinto smallerandsmallersizesto increase frequencyreuse.Unfortunately, thecell
divisionconcepthasprovento be impracticalin termsof findingsuitablelocationsfor
basestationantennasandfor gettingrepeatedconstructionauthorizationsfrom gov-
erningorganizations. Theexplosivedemandfor mobiletelephones in theearly1990s
within the United States and elsewhere in the world helped stirnulatethedevelopment
to
of new Sy$tems accommodate the demand. Two basic approaches havebeenpur-
sued:expanding the channel capacity of existing $y$tems and allocating new fre-
quencybandsto cellularmobilephoneservice.All of thenew systemsutilize digital
transmission in lieu of theanalogFDM transmission usedby analogcellularsystems
suchas AMPS in North America, TAcs in Great Britain,andNMT in scandinavia.
Commercially viable digital cellular systems areenabledby theavailabilityof low-
costdigital signal processing technology to provide solutions to problemsin several
key areas.First, it is necessary to compress a digital speech signal into a low enough
bit ratethatdigitalvoicetransmission does not impose a spectrum penalty with respect
to analogsystem$. As discussed in Chapter 3, speech compression algorithms havead-
vancedto the point thatdigitization can, in some cases, provide Sreater spectrum ef-
ficiency than analogsy$tems. Second, the application of digital transmission to a
mobileenvironmentrequires a sophisticated equalizer to overcome the effectsof dy-
namic multipathtransmissionimpairment$.Third, the susceptibilityof the speech
compressionalgorithmsto channelerrorsrequiressophisticatederror conection and
controlmeasures. Lastly,the low-bit-ratevoicecodersandthe digital systemarchi-
tecturesintroducesignificantartificialdelayinto thevoicechannel,whichimposesthe
needfor echocancelersfor acceptablevoice quality'

9.1 NORTHAMERICANDIGITALCELLULAR

NorthAmericanDigital Cellular(NADC),alsoknownasUS Digital Cellular(USDC)

or Digital-AMPS(D-AMPS),repre$ents a digital upgradefrom the previouslyde-
ployed analog cellular system referred to as AdvancedMobile Phone Service
437
 438 DIGITAL
MoBILETELEPHoNY

(AMPS).The D-AMPS sysremis designedto be compatiblewith AMps. In fact. a

D-AMPS $ysteminstallationcancoexistwith an AMPS installation,thusallowinga
gracefulmigrationfrom an all-analogserviceto an all-digitalservice.An analog_to-
digital migrationis supportedby a dual-modephonethat can operateas an AMps
phonein onecall andasa D-AMPSphoneon thenextcall. D-AMpS is standardized
by EIA/TIA asInterimStandards IS-54and15-136.

9.1.1 D.AMPSTransmlssion Format

The most significanraspectof maintainingcompatibilitywith AMps is the needto

adhereto theAMPSFDM channelstructure.Thischannelstructureuses30-kHz-wide
channelsin therange824-8g4MHz.within each30-kHzFDM channelIS-s4defines
six digitalchannelsoperatingin a timedivisionmultiple-access (TDMA) modeof op_
eration,asshownin Figure9.1.Transmission from a basestationto themobilesis ac-
complishedwith a continuousTDM streamwith six time slots.Transmission from
eachof themobilesoccursin databurststhataretimedto arriveat thebasestationin
separate, nonoverlapping time slotssynchronized to theoutgoingtime slots.Associ_
atedwith eachburstfrom a mobileis a guardtime to preventoverlapandprovidea
traxsmitterramp-upprecedingthe data.The guardtime betweentime slotsis mini-
mizedby adjustingthetransmittime of the mobileswith controlmessages from the
basestation.Theseadjustments aredynamicto accommodate mobility.
The TDMA digital transmission frameformat within each30-kHzchannelcon-
tainssix time slotswith a total of l9zl4 bits. The repetitionrateof eachframeis 25
framesper second,whichleadsto an aggregate bit rateof 49.6kbpsin the30 kHz of
bandwidth.The modulationformat is r/4 shifted,differentially encoded,quadrarure
phaseshift keying.This formatis essentially4-psK modulationwith two four-point
constellations offsetfrom eachotherby nl4 radians.By alternatingbetweenconstel-
lations,a symboltransitionof at leastn/4 radiansis alwaysassured-a propertythat
helpsin symbolclockrecovery.
Full-ratevoicecodingutilizestwo time slotsin eachframefor the voiceinforma-
tion. Thus,the systemcapacitywith full-ratevoicecodingis threetimesthat of an
AMPS systemsincetherearethreeTDM voicechannelswithin eachFDM channel.

Baee , r ilrobiles
station*- fJ ff f-J +-
*-- | r-f f-r l+E
Fig're 9.1 TDMA transmission format of NorJh American dieital cellular.
 9.1 NORTHAMERICAN CELLULAR 439
OIGITAL

If half-ratevoicecodinggetsimplementedin the future,the capacityexpansionwill

be sixfold.

9.1.2 D-AMFS$peech Godlng

Thespeech-coding algorithmis vectorsumexcitedlinearpredictive(VSELP)coding

[], which is describedin Chapter3. The D-AMPS VSELP algorithmprocesses the
speechwaveformin segments of 20 msecduration.Eachspeechsegmentis repre-
senredby 159bits.Sincetherearetwo VSELPframesin eachTDMA frame,theraw
datarateof the voiceis 2 x 159x 25 = 7950bps.To the raw bit dateis added5050
bpsofredundancyencodingfor errorcorrectionanddetectionto producea composite,
aggregatedatarateof 13 kbpsfor a voicechannel.As shownin Figure9.2, thereare
the
260 datachannelbits and64 overheadbits in eachtime slot.Table9.1 describes
basicuseof eachdatafield within thetime slots,

9.1.3 D-AMPSControlGhannel

In additionto providinga threefoldcapacityexpansion, thedigitalnatureof D-AMPS

providesotheradvantages thatarenotpossibleor atleastdifficult to achievein anana-
log systemsuchasAMPS.The first of theseis useof theCDVCC channelto ensure
that a basestationmaintainsconnectionswith intendedmobiles.AMPS utilizes a
similarfeaturewith supervisoryaudiotones(SATs).A SAT is a toneat 5970,6000'
or 6030Hz thatis insertedandremovedfrom theaudiosignalspecificallyfor detect-
ing fadesand ascertaining connectionintegrity.The availabilityof only threetones
and the complexityof inserting,detecting,andrepeatingthesetonesare significalt
limitationsof AMPS.
A moresignificantadvance providedby thedigitalnatureof D-AMPSinvolvesthe
useof theSACCHchannelembedded in eachtime slot.Becausethischannelis always
present,it is quite useful for communicatingconkol and supervisioninformation
while speechis activelyin progress.Specific,advantageous usesofthis contol chan-

It0 rs0 t2

sYl{c EACG}I DATA CDYCC DATA HFVD

Brrt thtlon to Mobl|t

tt n t2 12 lfr

F G DATA 8YI{G DATA SACCH eDvcg DATA

MobllotoBrrt sftd|on

f igure9.2 Timeslotformatof NorthAmericandigitalcellular.

 440 DtctrALMoBtLE
rELEpHoNy

TABLE9.1 DataFietdFunctionsof D-AMPSTImeStots

CDVCC codeddigilalv9rifhationcolorcode.A uniquecodesentby a basestationand
returnedby eachmobilefor basestationconlirmation of connectionintogrity.
DATA Application bearerchannelbit$(voiceor data).can alsobe usedfor a fast
associated controlchanne_l
(FAcc) whenthereis no activeapplication or a
situationariseswhenapplication transmission
needsto be usurped.
G Guardtime.Mobiletransmitter is off.
R Ramptim€.Mobiletransmitter rampsup to assigned powerlevel.
BSVD Reserved (unused).
SACCH slowassociated controlchannel. A continuous
channelusedto sendconhol
andsuperuisory information.
SYNC synchronization channel.Usedfor synchronization,
equalizer training,
andtime
slotidentification.

nel involve authentication, additional connection integrity, transmit power control,

channelquality mea$urementreports,handoffs to a new cell, keypad depressions,and
calling number identification. The SACCH control channelis also usedfor timing ad-
justments specific to the TDMA operation.
A particular example of the usefulnessof the SACCH channelis its supportof mo-
bile assistedhand off (MAHO). If a mobile with an establishedconnection moves
from one cell to another,the processof handing the mobile off is performed with much
more control and reliability than is possible in AMps. The MAHO processbegins by
the base station telling the mobile to make channel quality mea$urementson the cur-
rent chatrneland on candidatechannelsfor a potential handoff. Channel quality meas-
urementsinvolve received signal power levels and bit error rates(BERs). The TDMA
nature of D-AMPS facilitates measurementsof candidatechannelsby tuning to the
candidatefrequency during an inactive time slot. After each set of measurementsthe
mobile sendsthe results to the basestation (via SACCH) whereuponthe basestation
can determine if a handoff is justified.

9.1.4 D.AMPSErrorControl

There are three mechanismsincorporated into D-AMPS for mitigating the effects of
channelserrors: elror correction, error detection,and interleaving. Enor correction is
implemented with a half-rate convolution coder for the perceptually most significant
bits of the voice. There are 77 such bits out of a frame size of 159 bits. The half-rate
convolution coding processthereforeadds77 more bits to the channel.Of the 77 bits,
12 are particularly important. A 7-bit CRC check sum is addedfor rhesebits to deter-
mine if any of these 12 bits are received in error. when a cRC enor occur$.certain
critical parametersfrom the previous error-free frame are used to reconsg.uctspeech
to avoid use of aberrant values. If several CRC errors are received in successive
frames,the reconstructedspeechis muted. The generalterm for theseoperationsis bad
frame masking.
The third error control mechanism involves separatingthe data in a single speech
frame, interleaving it with datafrom adjacentspeechframes,and transmitting it in two
 sysTEMFoRMoBtLE
s.a GLoBAL coMMUNtcATloNS441

time slots. This processreducesthe possibility that a burst of errors will circumvent
the error corection capabilitiesofthe convolutional coding. A drawback to interleav-
ing is the delay it addsto the channel,which must be accountedfor in echo cancelers.

9.2 GLOBAL SYSTEMFOR MOBILECOMMUNICATION$

GlobalSystemfor Mobile Communications (GSM) [2] is a cellularmobilecommu-

nicationssystemdeveloped in Europeafld standardized by theEuropeanTeleconrmu-
nicationStandards Institute (ETSI). GSM hassubsequently beenadoptedworldwide
astheintemationaldigitalmobilestandard. Initial work GSM standardization
on be-
ganin 1982.Thefirst field trial of a GSM system occuffedin 1991.
The InternationalTelecommunication Union (ITU) allocatedfrequencyspectrum
at 935-960MHz for thedownlink (basestationto mobile)and890-915MHz for the
uplink (mobileto basestation).Eventhoughsomeof thisspectrumwa$beingusedby
establishedanalogsystems,therewasno attemptto be compatiblewith the existing
frequencyplan. (The incumbentanalogsystemsin the variousEuropeancountries
wereincompatiblewith eachotherandamaingoalof GSMwasto establisha coflrmon
standardsobackwardcompatibilitywasnot a consideration.)

9.2.1 G$MChannelStructure

Startingwith anopen-spectrumplan providedGSM systemdesigners with morefree-

domin system designthan was available to D-AMPS designers. The most significant
differencein GSM with respect to D-AMPS is the use of 200-kHz-wide digital RF
as
channels opposed to the 30-kHz-wide D-AMPS RF channels. Each GSM RF chan-
nel operatesat 270.833 Mbps using GMSK modulation. As mentioned in Chapter 6,
GMSK modulationis fairly closely related to 4-PSK modulation asused in D-AMPS.
GMSK modulationdoes,however,requiremorebandwidttrthantightly filtered4-PSIE
asevidencedby an informationdensityof 270.8831200 = 1.35bps/Hzfor GSM and
=
48.6/30 1.6?bps/Hz for D-AMPS. The GMSK modulation formatof GSMprovides
a constant-envelope RF signal that is more efficientfor RF power generation thanis
tightly filtered4-PSK modulation used by D-AMPS. This efficiency is most important
for hand-heldbatterylife..
As shownin Figure9.3,a GSM RF channelutilizesdigitalTDMA with eightfull-
rate voicechannels,in contrastto threefull-rate voicechannelssuppor.ted by a single
D-AMPS RF channel.The ability to terminate more TDMA channels on a single
transceiver providesa costadvantage for GSM base stations. (The cost of a 270'833-
kbps TDMA transceiveris no differentthan the cost of a 48.6-kbpsTDMA trans-
ceiver.)
The GSM systemcarrieseightfull-ratevoicechannelsin 200 kHz of bandwidth,
whichamountsto 25 kHz per voicechannel,a specffumefficiencyidenticalto Euro-
*As
discussed below, GSM uses Iess speech compression than does D-AMPS, which Ieads to a higher rate
digital channel for voice and in tum requites more ftansmit power.
 442 DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

Baee | . Mobilee
r-l G
+- | ff l{-
Figure 9.3 TDMA transmission
formatof GSM.

pean analog FDM systemsof the time. Thus, the introduction of the GSM systemdid
not provide spectrumefficiency improvementsas D-AMps did. A GSM systemdoes,
however, provide cellular systemefficiencies in that digital transmission,in general,
and strong error correction, in particular, allow operation at lower signal-to-noisera-
tios' Greater noise or interference tolerance leads to longer transmission distances
and/or greateramounts offrequency reuse.
The burst period of a GSM systemis l?0/26/8 = 15126ms. This burst period is de-
rived from a 120-ms superframe consisting of 26 TDMA frames and g bursts per
TDMA frame' Twenty-four frames of a 26-friune super frame are allocated to traffic
(e.g.' voice) transmission while one of the frames is allocated to a SACCH control
channel for each traffic channel. The last TDMA frame of a superframe is reserved.
A unique aspectof GSM, with respecrro D-AMps, is that a TDMA burst format is
usedin both directions of transmission,as opposedto only on the uplink from the mo-
bile to the basestation.The format of thesebursts is shown in Figuie 9.4, where it can
be seenthat there are 148 bits ofdata and an idle guard time correspondingto the pe-
riod of 8'25 bits. The burst transmissionrate of a taffrc channel can now be determined
as 156.25/r5D6= 270.833kbps.The fields within the burst areidentified in Table 9.2.
The use of multiple bursts in the downlink direction, as opposed to continuous
ffansmission,is advantageousin that it inherently allows tuming off the base station
transmitterduring idle channels,which in turn reducesthe total amount of interference
betweencells in a widespreadand congestedinstallation. An advantageof continuous
transmission,as used in D-AMPS, is the relative easeof implementation and greater
performanceof the digital receiver in the mobile.

15/26=0.577msec

Figure 9.4 Time slotformatof GSM burst.

 9,2 GLOBAL FORMOBILE
SYSTEM COMMUNICATIONS443

TABLE 9.2 Data Field Functlons of G$M Tlme Slot

Flag A singlebitusedto signifyvoiceor FACCHcontentin an associated

TCHfield
Guard ldleperiodof 8.25bitsinterualstimingmarginbetweenbursts
Tail 3 "0"bitsfor equalizer
training
TCH Fieldfor transporting
bearerdataor FACCHdata
Train Fieldof fixeddatapatternusedto trainequalizers
andacquirea dataclockfor
theentireburst

9.2.2 GSM Speech Coding

GSM usesregularpulseexcited-linearpredictivecodingwith a long-termpredictor
loop (RPE-LTP)[3]. TheRPE-LTPalgorithmis described in Chapter3. Speechis di-
vided into 2O-msecsamples,eachof which is encodedas260 bits, giving a total bit
rateof 13kbps.This is the original,full-ratespeech-coding
algorithm.An enhanced
full-rate (EFR) speech-coding algorithm has been implementedby some North
AmericanGSM 1900operators. EFRis saidto provideimprovedspeech qualityusing
theexistingl3-kbpsbit rate.

9.2.3 GSM ChannelCoding and Modulation

GSM utilizeserrorcontrolmechanisms similarto D-AMPS.First of a]l. the 260 bits
of a speechframeatedividedinto threeclasses:

ClassIa, 50 bits-most sensitiveto bit errors

Classlb, 132bits-moderately sensitiveto bit errors
ClassII, 78 bits-least sensitiveto bit errors

ClassIa bits havea 3-bit CRCaddedfor errordetection.If anerroris detected, the

frameis replacedby a slighfly attenuated versionof the previouscorrectlyreceived
frame.The50 ClassIa, 3 CRC, 132ClassIb, anda 4-bit tail sequence (a total of 189
bits) areprocessed by a half-rateconvolutionalencoderfor errorcorrection.The out-
put of theconvolutionalencoderis addedto the 78 ClassII bits to producean ag-
gregatespeechframe of 456 bits. Thus, the redundantlyencodedspeechrate is
456tO.OZ0 = 22.8kbps.
To furtherprotectagainstthebursterrors,eachsampleis interleaved. The456bits
of outputby the convolutionalencoderaredividedinto eightblocksof 57 bits, and
theseblocksarespreadacrosseightconsecutive time slotbursts.Sincea timeslotburst
carriestwo 57-bitblocks,eachburstcontainsraf,fic from two differentspeechsamples.

9.2.4 G$M Mobile Station

The GSM mobilestation(MS) consistsof themobileequipment(theterminal)anda
smartcardcalledthe SubscriberIdentityModule(SIM). The SIM providespersonal
mobility,sothattheusercanhaveaccessto subscribed of a spe-
servicesirrespective
cif,rcterminal.By insertingthe SIM cardinto anotherGSM terminal,theuseris able
 444 DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

to receivecallsat thatterminal,makecallsfrom thatterminal,andreceiveothersub-

scribedservices.
The mobile equipmentis uniquelyidentifiedby the InternarionalMobile Equip-
ment Identity 0MEI). The SIM card containsthe IntemationalMobile Subscriber
Identity(IMSI) usedto identifythe subscriber
to the system,a secrerkey for authen-
tication,andotherinformation.The IMEI andthe IMSI areindependent, therebyal-
lowing personalmobility. The sIM cardmay be protectedagainstunauthorized use
by a passwordor personalidentitynumber.

9.2.5 GSM FrequencyHopplng

Themobilestationis inherentlyfrequencyagile,meaningit canmovebetweena trans-

mit, receive,andmonitortime slotwithin oneTDMA frame,all of whicharenormally
on differentfrequencies.
GSM makesuseof this inherentfrequencyagility to imple-
mentslow frequencyhopping-the mobileandBTS transmiteachTDMA frameon
a differentcarderfrequency.The frequency-hopping algorithmis broadcaston the
broadcast controlchannel.sincemultipathfadingis dependent on carier frequency,
slow frequencyhoppinghelpsalleviatetheproblem.In addition,cochannelinterfer-
enceis morerandomthanwhenfixed-frequency allocationsexist.

9.2.6 GSM Short Message $ervice

ShortMessageService(SMS)is an integrated bidirectionalmessagingservicethatal-

lows GSM cellularsubscribers, andvariousPCSofferings,to sendandreceivedata.
Individualmessagerr (with GSM)canbeup ro 160bitsin length.Because thesAccH
is usedfor sMS datatransmission, messages canbe receivedor tran$mitted duringa
voicecall. Initial applications
of SMSfocusedon alphanumeric pagingserviceswith
fundamentaldifferences:SMS is bidirectionaland message deliveryis guaranteed.
subsequent applicationsservedby sMS arevoicemail notification,e-maildelivery,
stockquotes,anddownloading/updating of SIM cards.

9.3 CODE DIVISIONMULTIPLE.ACCESS

CELLULAR

The two digital cellularsystemsdiscussedin the previoussections,D-AMps and

GSM,utilizea combinationof frequencydivisionmultiplexingandtimedivisionmul-
tiplexing+asa methodof partitioninga blockof allocatedfrequencyspectruminto in-
dividual communication channels. This section discussessystems with a
fundamentallydifferentapproachto channeldefinition-code divisionmultiple ac-
cess(CDMA)-that belongto a classreferredto asspreadspectrumcornmunications
systems[a]. The term spreadspectrumrefersto thefact thattransmissionbandwidth
*Within
a particular GSM cell it is conceivablethat a single FDM channel supportingeight TDMA channels
is sufficient for sufficiently low traffic situations. Irr this case, the particular cell utilizes only TDMA.
Nevertheless, the mobiles still suppott FDM operations so they can move to different cells and switch
freouencies.
 9.3 CODE
DIVISIoN
MULTIPLE.AG0ESS 445
CELLUI.AR

usedby anindividualchannelis muchwiderthantheinherentbandwidthrequiredby

themessage beingtransmitted. Spread$pectrumsystemshavetraditionallybeenused
in militaryapplicationswheretheincreased complexityof implementation isjustified
by two particularfeatures.First, it is relativelydifficult to detectthe presenceof a
spreadspectrumsignalbecause the signalenergyis spreadacro$$a wide bandandis
oftenmaskedby backgroundnoise.Second,it is moredifficult to jam a spreadspec-
trum signalbecause thejammingsignalenergymustbe spreadacrossa wide bandas
opposedto beingfocusedinto a relafivelynarrowband.Theperformance of a spread
spectrumreceiveris comparableto the pelformanceof receiversfor traditional nar-
rowbandsignalsaslong asthe spreadspectrumreceiverknowsandcansynchronize
to themethodbeingusedto spreadthespectrum.
Two generalcategoriesof spreadspectrumcommunications arefrequency-hopping
systemsanddirect-sequence modulationsystems. A frequency-hopping systemis one
in whichhansmission at anyparticularinstantis confinedto a relativelynarow band
of frequencies commensurate with theinherentbandwidthof themessage. Insteadof
staying within oneparticularband as a conventional communications system does,a
frequency-hopping system jumps of
betweennarrowbands frequencies within a large
blockof spectrumin someprescribedmanner.As mentionedin theprevioussection,
a GSM cellularsystemhastheability to operatewith frequencyhopping(specifically,
slowfrequencyhopping).

9.3.1 CDMA Channel Establishment

A contemporarycellular CDMA system,as developedby Qualcommand stand-

ardizedby EIA/TIA in Interim StandardIS-95 [5], usesdirect-sequerce rtpectrum
spreading.One particularmethod of implementinga direct-sequence spectrum
spreadingsystemis shownin Figure9.5.In this systemthe sourcedatais "exclusive
ored"with a relativelylong digital codeword.In essence,the "exclu$iveor" process
replacesa I of thesourcedatawith thegivencodewordwhile a 0 of thesourcedatais
replacedwith thebitwisecomplement of thecodeword.If a codewordcontainsn bits,
theoccupiedspectrumof thehansmittedsignalis n timesaswideasif thesourcedata

Chip Rste Clock

Oanier

generation
Figure 9.5 Direct-sequence of spreadspectrumsignal.
446 DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

were directly transmitted.Signals of other CDMA channelsoccupy the sameband of

frequenciesbut do so with different speckum-spreadingcodes,which allows separa-
tion of the signals in the signal processingcircuinry of a receiver.
The basic processof separatingCDMA channelsin a receiver involves correlating
a received signal with each of the various codewords (i.e., channels)assignedto the
cell. The correlation processproduces a correlation measurementby subtractingthe
number of mismatchesin a codeword from the number of matches.Table 9.3 lists an
example set of codewordswith particularly useful correlation properties.As indicated
in the table, a codeword has sevenmatcheswith itself and no mismatchesfor a net cor-
relation of +7. A sourcedata value of 0 producesno matchesand sevenmismatches
for a net correlation of -7. The measurementweights for all other codewordsareeither
+ 1 or - I , dependingon the valuesof the sourcedata. If all sevenchannelsdefined in
Table 9.3 are active in a single cell, the worst-caseinterferencebetweenthe codespro-
ducesan interferencevalue ofeither +6 or -6. Thus, the desireddata can be recovered
with a discrimination threshold of 0 for each channel. (The worst-casenet measure-
ment valuesare +l for a I and *l for a 0.) Notice that samecorrelation propeftiesexist
for all channel codeswith respectto the other codesin the table.
Example basebandwaveforms for the seven-channelCDMA sy$temof Table 9.3
are shown in Figure 9.6. Notice the channel0 receivermeasurementis positive, which
implies a data value of l. In this example interferencefrom the adjacentchannelsac-
tually enhancedthe channel 0 measurementfrom an expectedvalue of 7 to 9.
Discriminating between nominal measurementvalues of +7 for a desired signal
and +6 for worst-caseinterferenceis obviously very tenuous,particularly becausethe
individual channels will be received with different power levels. It i$ importanr ro
note, however, that an interferencevalue of +6 can arise only if the data values of all
intedering channelsdestructively coincide. on average,the composite interference
hasan averagevalue of0. The length ofa spectrum-spreadingcode in IS-95 is actually
64 bits long, which meansthat the example worst-caseinterferencewould be 63 in re-
lation to a desiredchannel value of 64. The chancesof destructiveinterferencefrom
all 63 channels,or even a large number of channels,is astronomically small.

TABLE9.3 ExampleDlrect-$aquenceSpectrum-Spreading
Godesa
Numberof Numberof
ChannelNumber ChannelCode Matches Mismatches Net Correlation
0 111 0 0 1 0 7 0 +7
1 0111001 3 4 -1
2 1 0 111 0 0 3 4 -1
3 0101110 3 4 -1
4 0 0 1 0111 3 4 -1
c 1 0 0 1 011 3 4 -1
6 11 0 0 1 0 1 3 4 -1

aspectrum-spreading
code of d€sirBdchannel: 1110010.
 9.3 CODEDIVISIoNMULTIPLE-ACCESS
CELLUTAR 447

Chf,nn€loCdi
Chnffid ftti
Numbcr Vf,hr$

(0) {

(1) 0

fr) 'l

(3) 0
"-.'
({) o 1

*i--j
(5) 0

(6) |

Clilnn€l0 Mtsrruttffil

Figure 9.6 Example seven-channelCDMA encoding and decoding.

Example9.1. Determinetheprobabilityof maximuminterference of a 64-channel

CDMA system with 64-bit spreadingcodes. Also determine the effective
powerratio of the sameCDMA sy$tem.Assumeall channels
signal-to-interference
operateatthesameeffectivepowerlevelatthereceiverandthatall channelcodeshave
a cro$scorrelationof+l bit.

Solution. The probabilityof 63 destructiveinterferersis merelythe probabilityof

occurrenceof 63 equallylikely binary events:prob(maxinterference)= (0.5)63=
of a codeword
I x 10-1e.The valueof a desiredreceivesignalis the autocorrelation
with itself andcanthereforeberepresentedasa valueof 64. The interferencelevel is
the sumof 63 binaryrandomnumberrtwith equallylikely valuesof tl. Eventhough
a singleinterfererdoesnot producea Gaussian probabilitydistribution,the sumof a
large numberof independent randomvmiablesapproaches a Gaussiandistribution
(centrallimit theorem).The meanand varianceof an individual interfererareeasily
determinedto be 0 and l, respectively.Themeanandvarianceof a sumof 63 such
variables are 0 and 63, respectively.The signal-to-interference ratio is now
determinedas

F'42
S I R =l 0 t o g r o t i = l s d B

As presentedin Chapter6, the 18-dBSIR resultof Example9.1is quitesufficient

to supportan acceptableelror rateif the effective powerlevel of all channelscanbe
448 DIGITAL
MoBILE
TELEPHoNY

maintained to be equal. In actual practice, a CDMA deployment does not use all pos-
sible codesin a single cell, just as an FDM sy$temdoes not use all frequenciesin one
cell. Thus, the amount of interFerencein a cell is limited by the number of codes as-
signed to the cell and a lesseramount of interferencefrom adjacent cells (assuming
the adjacentcells do not use identical, synchronousspectrum-spreadingcodes).The
effect of varying power levels in the interfering channelsis coveredin someproblems
at the end of the chapter.

9.3.2 CDMA Multlpath Tolerance

A primaryadvantage of a CDMA transmission systemis its robustness

in thepresence
of multipathconditions.The basicreasonfor multipathtolerancecanbe appreciated
by examiningtheexamplecodesgivenin Table9.3.Noticethateachcodeis a cyclic
shift of all othercodesin the table.Becausethe selectedcodeshavelow correlation
with eachother,a delayedversionof anyparticularcodehasthesamelow correlation
with anundelayedversionof itself.Thus,theeffectof a multipathdelayof morethan
one spreadspectrumbit (referredto asa chip) is no morethanthe effect of the inter-
ferencefiom anothercDMA channel,evenif thedelayedversionis at the$amepower
level astheprimarysignal.
Theeffectof a multipathconditionon a D-AMPSchannelmaybemuchmoredele-
terious.Becausea D-AMPS systemoperatesat a relativelynEurowbandof frequen-
cies,it is possiblethat a completefadeoccursfor a particularchannelat a particular
physicallocation.If theusermovesthroughthephysicallocation,theeffectof thefade
is a momentarydropout.If theuserdwellsat thelocation,theconnectioncanbe lost
unlessa handoffoccur$(to a new frequencyand/oran adjacentcell). The slow fre-
quency-hopping featureof GSM ameliorates the effectof a completemultipathfade
to a greaterdegree,but not aseffectivelyasa cDMA system.In GSM theremay be
momentarydropouts,but theyarenot longenoughto causea droppedconnectionand
do not requirea handoff,evenif a userdwellsin a physicallocationwhereonepar-
ticularfrequencyis totally lost.In essence, thefrequency-hopping processofGsM is
equivalentto repeatedandautomatichandoffsto different frequencies.
Froma somewhat philosophicalpointof view,thebasicintentof a GDMA system
is to equalizetheperformance of all channelsin thesystem.In a FDIvI/TDMAsystem
it is likely thatsomechannels operatewith veryhighperformance whileothersoperate
at very low performance or cannotbe usedat all. Theexistenceof high-performance
channelsdoesnot compensate for the existenceof low-performance channels.Thus,
a systemthat equalizesthe performance of all channelshasa greatertotal capacity.
The primaryreasonfor variablechannelperformance in FDIWTDMA is multipath
fading.An FDM/TDMA transmittertypically operateswith a certainamountof ex-
cesspowerreferredto asfademargin.Theexcesspoweris notmuchof aproblemwith
adjacent-channel intetferencebecauseit is relativelyeasyto isolateFDM channels
with frequencyguardbandsandTDM channelswith time guardbands.cochannelin*
terferencefrom onecell to anotheris the crux of theproblem.If a particularchannel
 9.s coDEDrvrsroN cELLUIAR 449
MULTTpLE-AccEss

is operating at an exce$$power level, that channel cannot be reusedexcept at a rela'

tively larger distance.

9.3.3 CDMAPowerControl

Effectivetransmitpowercontrolof themobileunitsin a CDMA systemis botha re-

quirementanda benefit.It is a requirement because a mobiletransmitterthatis close
to a basestationreceiverwill obliterateothermobilesin the samecell thatarefarther
away.Thisis referredto asthenear-farproblemof CDMA. If thetransmitpowerlev-
els of all mobilesin a CDMA sy$temarecontrolledto be no higherfhanabsolutely
necessary, thechannelscanbe reusedmoreoften.Althoughpowercontrolis usedin
FDM/TDMA systems,it is not possibleto operatewith bareminimumpowerlevels
because thesystemcannotrespondfastenoughto adjustthepowerlevelsfor fastmul-
tipathfades.A sidebenefitof usingminimumpowerlevelsin a CDMA mobileis in-
creasedbatterylife.
The powerlevelsof a mobile are controlledin two ways;openloop and closed
loop.In theopen-loopmode, amobilecandetermineits transmitpowerlevelbymeas-
uring its receivedpower levelundertheassumption thattransmission lossesareequal
in both directions.This assumptionis reasonablefor a CDMA systembut not for a
FDM/TDMA systembecausethe latter aremuchmore$usceptibleto independent
frequency-selective fading(multipath).Closed-looppowercontrolinvolvesbasesta-
tion measures of mobilereceivedpowerandadjustments to themobilepowerlevels
with thecontrolchannel.Powerconftolin IS-95CDMA is described in references[6*8].
Table9.4lists thebasicparameters of theIS-95CDMA digitalcellularsystemfor
the 800-MHzcellularband.The speechcompression algorithmusesQCELP(Qual-
commcodeexcitedlinearprediction).Thefirst commercialinstallationof CDMA oc-
curredin HongKong in 1995.

9.3.4 CDMA Soft Handoff

A uniquefeatureof a CDMA systemis the ability of a mobileto simultaneously

re-
ceive from more than one source.Becauseeachcell in a CDMA cellularnetwork

TABLE 9.4 lS-95 CDMA Moblle Telephone Sy8tem Parameters

Channelbandwidth
Voice-Coding Rate
Errorcontroloverhead
Aggregatechannelrate
Codelength
$preadspectrumchannelrate
format
Modulation
1.25MHz
9.6kbps(maximum)
9.6kbps(downlink)
19.2kbps(uplink)
19.2kbps(downlink)
28.8kbps(uplink)
64 chips
1.2288Mbp$
otfsetQPSK(mobileto base)
QPSK(baseto mobile),
450 DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

transmits in a common frequency, a common RF receiver inherently receives the

spreadspectrumsignal from all adjacentbase$tations.Signalsfrom multiple basesta-
tion$ can then be acquired with multiple basebandcode correlatorsor by time sharing
a single correlator with the separatecodes.In a soft handoff operation the samevoice
signal is distributed to selectedcells adjacentto a currently active cell. An active mo-
bile can then comparethe quality of the signals and switch to the best one before dis-
connecting from the establishedbase station.
A "make-before-break" operation is not feasible in an FDIIfITDMA 'rystem
wherein adjacentcells utilize separatefrequenciesthat require separateRF receivers.
FDIVf/TDMA system$inherently usehard handoffs, which require disconnectingfrom
one basestation before connecting to a new one. Notice, however, that a soft handoff
operation in a CDMA system increasesthe background interferencebecauseof the
multiple active signals for a single connection.

9.4 PEHSONALCOMMUNICATION
SYSTEM

A personalcommunication system(PCS)is a cellularsystemoperatingin a bandof

frequencies at 1.9GHz.Theoriginalconceptfor PCSincludedmultiple,newfeatures
andservicesbeyondthoseofferedby a basiccellularsystem.Someof theenvisioned
featuresweresingletelephone numberfor multipleservice$ (voice,data,fax) anduser
mobility for homeor office useandlocationdetermination. Althoughsomecommer-
cial PCSofferingsprovidesomenew userfeatures,initial North AmericanFCSsys-
tem$afebasicallycellularsystemsutilizing a newbandof frequencies.
when the FCC allocatedthe PCSfrequenciesfor the united states,they did so
withoutstipulatingwhichtypeof systemshouldbe deployed.Thus,anyorganization
that bids for andreceivesa franchisefor PCSspectrumis free to choosewhatever
type of systemit want$for providingserviceto the public.As a result,North American
PCS systemshave beendevelopedwith threedifferent transmissionformats:
D*AMPS,GSM,andCDMA. TheD-AMPSimplemenration followsEIA/TIA stand-
ard 15-136,which is basicallya revisionof IS-54 that incorporatesdigital control
channels.(IS-54definesthe useof an analogcontrolchannelfor compatibilitywith
AMPS.)

9.5 VOICE PBIVACYAND AUTHENTICATION

Ensuringprivacyofconversations andpreventingfraudaretwo criticalaspects

ofcel-
lular telephonesystems thatareaddressed morecompletelyin thedigitalsystemsthan
in the originalanalogsystems.An FDM analogsystemis particularlyvulnerableto
casualeavesdropping becausea relativelysimplescannercanbe usedto identify an
activechannelandtune into the conversation. If the scannerhastwo receivers.the
eavesdropper canlistento bothsidesofthe conversation,assumingtheeavesdropper
is in a high enoughlocationor closeenoughto the activemobilethat it canreceive
theuplink signal.
 e.6 rRtDruM 451

Digital signalsare inherently more complicatedto intercept becausean eavesdrop-

per may needto monitor the connectionestablishmentproces$and not just tune in af-
ter a conversation has started. Explicit encryption parameters for optional voice
privacy is establishedduring call establishment,or pos$ibly during a conversation,by
exchanging privacy control messagesin the control channel. An eavesdroppermust
receive the relevant information $entin both directions before eavesdroppingis pos-
sible. Even without explicit encryption, an eavesdroppermust be located somewhere
near the basestation to properly receive both sidesof a TDMA conversafion.At other
locationswithin a cell the eavesdropperwill encounteroverlapping time slotsthat will
inflict bit errors into the eavesdropper'sreceived data. A CDMA system produces a
similar effect when the phaseof two specffum-spreadingcodesfrom two separatemo-
biles coincide.
Authentication of a valid mobile stationis significantly $trengthenedin digital sys-
tems. A major problem in analog cellular systemsis the processof cloning, in which
disreputable persons monitor call establishment handshakeprocedures to acquire
valid mobile equipment electronic serial numbers (ESNs) and program them into
counterfeit mobile units that are then used to place calls. Part of the improved fraud
prevention involves maintaining a more up-to-date databaseof valid mobile ESNs.
The strongestpnrt of the fiaud prevention involves determining authorization codes
basedon past call history in both the base station and the mobile. The authorization
code determined by the mobile and sent to the base station must coincide with the
authorizationcode calculatedby the basestationbefore serviceis allowed. Additional
stepsmay require entry of accesscodesby the user or, in the caseof GSM, the mag-
netic data card called the SubscriberIdentification Module (SIM).

9.6 lRlDlUM
Iridium is a satellite-basedsystem for telephone and two-way paging services.The
satellitesystemis a Low Earth Orbit Satellite (LEOS) $ystem,which meansthat signal
powers and antennasizescan be reducedwith respectto conventional geostationary
satellites.(The Iridium sy$temorbits are less than 500 miles, versusthe 23,000 miles
for geostationary satellites.) In addition to enabling lower power ffansmission, a
LEOS avoids the propagationdelay of a geostationarysatellite, which is a minimum
of 500 msec.A basic disadvantageof a LEOS systemis the continuousmovement of
the satelliteswith respectto ground locations.Becauseof this, Iridium provides a large
number of satellites(66) so continuous coveragefrom at least one satellite is always
available.
Iridium phones are dual-mode phones. A phone first makes an attempt to place a
call over a terresffial cellular system*but will default to the satellite network if local
cellular coverageis not available. When communicating through the Iridium system,
a user first gets connectedto the nearestavailable satellite. From there the communi-
cation might retum to the ground or be relayed through multiple satellitesbefore re-
.Multiple
versions of hanclhelds are available to operate on mMA, GSM, or CDMA cellular networks,
452 DIGITAL
MoBILETELEPHoNY

TABLE9.5 lrldlum SystemParameters

Numberof satellites 66
Satellite
orbit 485 miles (780 km)
Orbitperiod 1 0 0m i n
Transmission protocol FDMA/TDMA
RFmodulation QPSK
Speechdatarate 2,4 kbps
Radiofrequency 1.6 MHz handheldto satellite
23 GHz satelliteto $atellite
19 GHz uplinkto satellite
29 GHz downlinkfrom $atellite

turningto theground.Thesecondgroundlink mightbe directto anotherIridium user

or it may involvea basestationwith interconnection
to a public telephonenetwork.
Systemaspectsof theIridium systemareprovidedin Table9.5.

9.7 TRUNKEDRADIO

The term trunkedradio generallyrefersto PrivateMobile Radio(pMR) communica-

tionsnetworks.Originally,usersof PMR equipmentwereallocatedspecificoperating
frequencies dedicatedto eachuser(or organization). Suchallocationswereobviously
inefficientin termsof bandwidthutilizationwhenthe usersdid not havecontinuous
needfor radiocommunications. Significantimprovements in efficiencyareachieved
whenthe$eparate channelsareplacedin a groupandsharedby a largergroupofusers
on anas-needed basis.Whena userof a trunkedradiosy$temneedsservice,theradio
equipmentaccesses anidle channelthatbecomes temporarilyassigned to thatuser.As
soonastheusersof a particularchannelceaseto transmit,thechannelbecomes avail-
ablefor otherusers.Accessto a communications channelutilizesa controlchannel
anda centralizedcontrollerfor resourceallocation.
A trunkedradiosystemis not a cellularsystembut doesutilize a centralnodere-
ferredto asa repeater. Therepeaterreceivesa signalon onefrequency,shiftsit to an-
otherfrequency,andtransmitsthesignalon thenewfrequency.Thus,endu$ersdo not
communicate directlywith eachother.*Transmission throughtherepeateris moreef-
fectivebecause thetoweris locatedat a highpointin thecoverageareautilizinga rela-
tively high transmitpowerthatfacilitatescommunications betweenenduserswho are
likely to not havean adequate pathbetweenthem.
In a generalsense,trunkedradiosystemsarePMR systemsthatprovideradiocom-
municationsdirectly betweenuserswithout use of the public telephonenetwork.
However,thedistinctionbetweena trunkedradiosystemanda cellularsystemhasbe-
*$ome
ffunked radio equipment does support a (special) two-way mode of operation in which the users
cofiununicate directly with each other. This mode of operation is generally reserved for communication s
in outlying areas where the rcpeater cannot prbvide seryice.
 HEFERENCES 453

comeblunedwith U.S.offeringsfromcompanies like NextelandOeotek.Thesecom-

paniesutilize technologydevelopedby Motorolathat augments the useof spectrum
previouslyusedfor privateradio servicereferredto as SpecializedMobile Radio
(SMR).SMR applications typicallyinvolvefleetoperationssuchastaxi cabsandde-
livery vehiclesin needof dispatchserviceswhereinmultiplemobilessimultaneously
heartransmissions on a courmonchannel.SMRradiosutilizeanalogFM/FDM trans-
missionwith 25-kHzchannels.
Thenewequipment, genericallyrefenedto asEnhanced SpecializedMobileRadio
(ESMR),upgrades analogSMR transmission to digitalTDM transmission in thesame
mannerthat D-AMPS upgradesAMPS. ESMR transmission protocolsallow for six
digital TDM channelsin each25-kHzchannel.ESMR systemssuppor"t conventional
dispatchapplications andothersimilarspecialized $ervicessuchasprivategroupcall-
ing. Most importantly,for this chapter,an ESMR systemcanprovideconnections to
the public telephonenetwork-referred to as an interconnectfeature.With this fea-
ture,anESMR systemcanfunctionasa cellulartelephonesystem.

9.8 CELLULAR DIGITAL PACKET DATA

CellularDigital PacketData(CDPD)[9] is a systemdesigned to providedataservices

up to 19.2kbpsasan overlayof an AMPS installation.The primaryserviceconcept
is to ofTerfixedandmobiledataservicesindependent of theneedto upgradeanAMPS
sy$temto a D-AMPS system.CDPD usesAMPS channelsthat are not being used
for voice.Because it is a packet-oriented
dataservice,multipleuserssharea single
30-kHzchannel-a significantsavingsin spectrumusageartcomparedto the use
of connection-oriented voicechamelsfor data.Principalapplicationsfor CDPDare
mobileInternetaccessandcreditcardverification.
Accessto the sharedchannelis accomplished with Digital SenseMultiple Access
with CollisionDetection(DSMA/CD) which is similarto CSMA/CDof otherradio
systemsandEthernetLANs. CDPDusesGMSK modulationwith RS(63,47)forward
errorconection.

REFERENCES
"Vector SumExcitedLinearPrediction(VSELP)7950Bit PerSecondVoice Coding
Algorithm,"TechnicalDescription,Motorola,Schaumburg, Illinois, Nov, 14,1989.
M. Rahnema, "Overview of the GSM Systemand Protocol Architecture,"IEEE
Communications Magazine,Apr. 1993,pp. 92-100.
P.Vary, K. Hellwig,C, Galland,M. Russo,J. Petit,andD. Massaloux,"SpeechCodec
for the EuropeanMobile RadioSystem,"in IEEE GLOBECOM1989,Nov, 1989,pp.
29.8.2.
R. Dixon,SpreadSpectrumSystemt with Commercial Applications,Wiley, New York,
1994.
"Mobile Station-Base
Station Compatibility Standardfor Dual-Mode Wideband
SpreadSpectrumCellularSystem,"EIA/TIA./IS-95,Washington,DC, July 1993.
454 DIGITAL
MOBILE
TELEPHONY

A. Salamasiand K. S. Gilhousen,"On the SystemDesignAspectsof CodeDivision

Multiple Access(cDMA) Applied to Digital cellular andpersonalcommunications
Networks,"Praceedingof the Forty-FirstIEE VehicularTechnology Conference,
May
1991,pp.57-62.
A, J. Viterbi and A. M, Viterbi, "Erlang Capacityof a Power Conrolled CDMA
System,"IEEE Journal on SelectedAreas of Comtnunitations,Nov. lgg3, pp.
882-890,
K. S. Gilhousen,L M. Jacobs,R. Padovani,A. J. Viterbi, L. A. Weaver,and C. E.
Wheatley,"On the Capacityof a CellularCDMA System,"IEEE Transactionson
VehitularTechnology,May 1991,pp. 303-312.
"Packet
A. K. Salkintzis, DataoverCellularNerworks:The CDpD Approach,"IEEE
Communications Magazine,June1999,pp. 152-159,

PROBLEMS
9-1 what is theavailablebearerrareof a half-ratedigiralchannelin a D-AMps sys-
tem?
9.2 what is thedatarateof the slow associated controlchannelin a D-AMps sys-
tem?
9.3 what is theavailablebearerrarea full-ratedigitalchannelin a GSM sy$tem?
9.4 what is thedatarateof the slowassociated controlchannelin a GSM system?
9.5 Determinethereceiveroutputmeasurements for channelsI and2 for theGDMA
exampleof Figure9.6.
9.6 what is theeffectivesignal-to-interference ratioof a singlecDMA uplinkchan-
nel operatingat a distancethat is twice asfar from the basestationas62 other
channels? Assumea codelengthof 64, crosscorrelationsof +1, andall trans-
mitters operateat identicalpower levels. (a) Assumeall interferersare active.
(b) Assumehalf theinterferersoperatewith a,25qodataratebecause of no voice
activity.
9.7 In a CDMA systemwith a codelengthof 64 determinethesignal-to-interference
ratioof a singleuplinkCDMA channelif thereare16activeinterferingchannels
operatingat aneffectivereceivepowerlevelthatis 12dB higherthatthedesired
channel.
 10

DATAANDASYNCHRONOUS
TRANSFERMODENETWORKS

Theprimaryfocusof this bookis to describehow andwhy digitalelectronictechnol-

ogy is usedto communicate voice,a fundamentally analogsignal.Naturally,thedigi-
tal telephone networkcanaccommodate inherentlydigitalinformation(data),butonly
if datacanacceptor be adaptedto servicecharacteristics established for voice.This
chapterdiscusses digitaltechnologyandnetworksspecificallydirectedto supporting
datacommunications seruices.Ironically,thelaterpartof this chapterdescribes how
the data-oriented networks to
areadapted carry voice.
Communication of discretemessages (data)is actuallyanancientpractice.In early
timescommunication over distances greaterthanthe rangeof the humanvoicewas
providedby sightor soundof discretesignals(e.g.,heliographs, smokesignals,flags,
andhorns).Furthermore, the first practicalcommunication systemto useelectricity,
thetelegraph, is inherentlydigital.As telegraphyevolvedfrom theoriginal,manually
basedsystems to fully automated systems, theydeveloped into whatarecommonlyre-
ferredto asme$sage-switching networks.Modem message switchingis discussed in
the first sectionof this chapter.
As theneedfor modemelectronicdatacommunications arose,it wasonly natural
that thepublictelephonenetworkwouldbe usedfor datakansmissionservices.The
availabilityovershadowed numeroustechnicalshortcomings of a networkdesigned
primarilyfor voicecommunications Themaindeficiencies
services. of a conventional
telephonenetworkfor datatransmissionare:

1. Needfor signalhansducers (modems)on analogaccesslines

2. Limited datarates
3. High errorrates(in the olderanalognetwork)
4. Inefficientcircuitutilizations

As datacommunicationsrequirements so did thejustificationfor more

increased,
solutions.Onesolutionto reducingdatatransmis-
datacommunications
cost-effective
455
 456 DATAANDASYNcHHoNoUSTFANSFERMoDENETWoRKS

sion costswas to improve circuit utilizations through the use of packet-switchingnet-

works. The technology of packet switching was pioneeredby the Advanced Research
Projects Agency of the u.s. government. This agency developeda network referred
to as the ARPANET []. In addition to ARPANET, which was used only by govern-
ment, educational, and industrial research institutions, a number of public packet-
switching networks were also developedin the United Statesand around the world.
ARPANET developmentseventually evolved into what is now known as the Internet.
A secondapproachto improving data communicationsinvolves developing sepa-
rate networks specifically designedfor digital ffansmission (no analog circuits with
modems).The first major enterpriseof this type in the United Stateswas a nationwide
digital microwave network developed by Digital rransmission corporation (DA-
TRAN). Becausethe data communicationsmarketplaceof the time could not support
a separate,dedicatednetwork for data, DATRAN ran into financial difficulty and de-
clared bankruptcy in 1977.
Another, more successful,data-networking approach was the Dataphone Digitat
Service (DDS) offering of AT&T. This serviceutilizes digital technology of the tele-
phone network for strictly data applications.DDS circuits are dedicatedto data serv-
ices, but the facilities and routes are sharedwith telephonenetwork facilities. A major
hurdle for DDS is achieving digital accessto DDS circuits. If a subscriberis ourside
the range of digital transmissionfacilities of a DDS serving office, a voiceband mo-
dem over an analog line is required.
A fourth approachto satisfying datacommunicationsservicesinvolved developing
meansfor directly accessingthe digital ffansmissionand switching equipment of the
telephonenetwork. The first widespreadapproachof the telephonecompaniesfor pro-
viding universal digital accessis the Inregrated services Digital Nerwork (ISDN).
ISDN provides digital accessto the digital facilities of the telephonenerwork for voice
or data services on a call-by-call basis. ISDN digital subscriber lines and other
methods of digital accessto digital networks such as the Internet are described in
Chapter I L

10.1 MESSAGE
SWITCHING
As one telegraphsystemafter anotherwas installed in the countriesaround the world,
nationwide communications networks evolved. A messagecould be sent from one
point to anothereven if the two points were not servicedby a common telegraphline.
In this case,telegraphoperatorsat intermediatepoints would receive a messageon one
line and retransmit it on another.When a telegraphoffice had severallines emanating
from it, the processof hansferring a messagefrom one line to anotherwas, in essence,
a switching function.
The processof relaying, or switching, a messagefrom one telegraphline to another
becamesemiautomatedwhen teletypeswith paper tape punchesand readerswere de-
veloped. An incoming messagecould be punched automatically onto a paper tape by
one teletypeand subsequentlyreadby anotherteletype for transmissionon the appro-
 10.1 MESSAGESWITCHING457

priateoutgoingline.Theprocessof transferringa message from oneline to anotherin

this mannerled to thesesystemsbeingreferredto astorn-tapemessage switches.
One of the world's largestme$sage switcheswascompletelyautomated in 1963
when Collins Radio Companyof CedarRapids,Iowa, installeda computer-based
me$$age switchfor theairlinecompanies of NorthAmerica.This systemandthemore
recentsuccessors eliminatepapertapetransfers by storingincomingmessages direcfly
into a computermemory(disk file) andforwarding themautomaticallyto the appro-
priateoutputline whenavailable.Hencethis modeof operationis oftenrefenedto as
store-and-forwardmessage switching.
Includedwith eachmessage is a headercontaininganaddress andpossiblyrouting
informationsothemessage proce$sor at eachnodecandetermineto whichoutputline
to $witchthemessage. As indicatedin Figure10.1,theprocessor in eachnodemain-
tainsmessage queuesfor eachoutgoinglink. Thesequeuesarenormallyservicedon
a first-come,first-servedbasis.However,priority informationcan$ometimes be in-
cludedin eachheaderto establishdifferentclasses,or gradesof service,therebyal-
lowing tirne-criticalmessages to be placedat theheadof a queue.
A message-switching networkis fundamentally differentfrom a circuit-switching
networkin that the sourceanddestinationdo not interactin real time. In fact, most
message-switching networkscoulddelivera message on a delayedbasisif a destina-
tion nodeis busyor otherwiseunableto accepttraffic. In a message-switching net-
work thereis no needto determinethestatusof thedestination nodebeforesendinsa
message, asthereis in circuit switching.

Figure 10.1 Message-switching

network.
 458 DATAAND
ASyNcHHoNous
THANSFER
MoDENETwoRKS

Message-switchingnetworks are also fundamentatly different from circuit-switching

networks in their responseto traffic overloads.A circuit-switching network blocks or
rejects excesstraffic while a message-switchingnetwork normally acceptsall traffic
but provides longer delivery times as a result ofincreased queuelengths.
Another importaxt distinction of a message-switchingnetwork is that the transmis-
sion links are never idle while traffic is waiting to use them. In a circuit-switching net-
work, a circuit may be assignedto a particular connection but not actually carrying
traffic. Thus, some of the transmissioncapacity may be idle while someuser$are de-
nied service.In contrast,utilization of the transmissionlinks of a message-switching
network is directly related to the actual flow of information. Arbitrarily high utiliza-
tion efficiencies are possible if increased store-and-forwardqueuing delays are ac-
ceptable' Chapter 12 provides basic results of queuing theory that relate utilization
efficiency to queuing delay.

10.2 PACKETSWITCHING
The circuit-switched telephonenetwork is ill-suited to interactive data traff,rcbecause
it is fundamentally designed for less frequent service requests with comparatively
long holding times (3-4 min on average).Neither the control elementsin the switches
nor the capacity of the signaling channelsare capableof accommodatingfrequent re-
questsfor very short messages.The result is that connection setuptime may be many
times greaterthan the holding time of a data message.Obviously, more efficient utili-
zation of the network requires greater control channel bandwidth and increasedcall
processingcapacitiesin the switches. Beyond this, however, interactive data traffic
with low-activity factor$ requires a network operation that is fundamenta-llydifferent
from a conventional circuit-switched network, The most appropriatemode of opera-
tion for traffic that comesin bursts is more closely related to a message-switchednet-
work than to a circuit-switched network.
Figure 10.2 depicts both the conceptualstructure and the conceptualoperation of
a packet-switchednetwork. A single messageat the sourceis broken up into ..packets"
for transmissionthrough the network. Included in each packet is a headercontaining
addressand other control information. Each packet is relayed through the network in
a store-and-forwardfashion similar to a message-switchingnetwork. At the destina-
tion node, the packetsare reassembledinto the original contiguous messageand de-
livered.
The main feature of a packet-switchingoperationis the marurerin which the tran$-
mission links are sharedon an as-neededbasis.Each packet is transmitted as soon as
the appropriate link is available, but no transmission facilities are held by a source
when it has nothing to send. In this manner, a large number of relatively inactive
sourcescan sharethe transmissionlinks. In essence,link utilization is improved at the
exPenseof storageand control complexity in the nodes. A circuit-switched network
ha$ conffol overheadassociatedwith connection setup but very little control thereaf-
ter' In contrast,packet-switching nodes must processthe headerinformation in each
packet as it arrives. Thus a long messagein a packet-switchednetwork requires more
 ro,? PAoKETSWTToHTNG
459

fonsrrd nod*r

Flgure10.2 Packet-switching
network.

conhol overheadthanif it wereservicedin a circuit-switchednetwork.Considering

thedecliningcostof digitalmemoryandprocessing, theincreased controlcomplexity
becomes lessandlesssignificantasdigitaltechnologyadvances. As discussed laterin
this chapter,one particularvariationof packetswitching,AsynchronousTransfer
Mode (ATM), is designedto specificallysupporthardwareimplementations of con-
trol intensivefunctions,therebysupportingvery hightraffic volumeswith low delay.
As the traffic load in a packet-switchednetworkincreases, the averagetransmis-
sion delayincreases correspondingly. ln contrast,a circuit-switchednetworkeither
grantsserviceor rejectsit. Thereis no gracefuldegradation in service.Conversely,
whenonly a few circuitsarein usein a circuit-switchednetwork, muchnetworktrans-
missioncapaciryis idle.Whenthereis a light loadon a packet-switched network,the
activeusersbenefitby shorterthanusualdelaytimes.Hencefrom a user'sgrade-of-
servicepoint of view, the two networktypesarefundamentallydifferent.
Using automaticrepeatrequest(ARQ error control,packet-switching networks
(e.g.,ARPANET)traditionallyprovidedessentiallyerror-freetransmission for each
node-to-node transfer.Thisprocessrequiresthereceivingnodesto monitorredundant
checkbits appendedto eachpacketto determineif the packetwasreceivedcorrectly.
Wheneruorsaredetected, a retransmission
is requested(message NAK). Hencetrans-
mitting nodesmusthold all transmitted packets in memoryuntil a positiveresponse
(messageACK) is retumedby the receivingterminal.Fufihermore,an entire packet
is usuallyreceivedandcheckedfor errorsbeforeforwardingit to anothernode.
Customers typicallyaccesspacketnetworksby way of leasedlinesor dial-upcon-
nections.Dial-upconnections areusedby infrequentusers,while leasedlinesarepre-
ferredby heavyusersto achieveconstantavailability,higherdararates,andpossibly
lower errorrates.
Despitethe similarityto a me$sage-switching operation,a
work is differentin two impodantre$pects:
 460 DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWORKS

l. The store-and-forwarddelay through a packet-switcheclnetwork is relatively

short. Thus interactive communicationscan occur in much the samemanner as
if a dedicated,end-to-endcircuit is established.
2. A packet-switchednetwork doe$not provide $torageof messages,except in an
incidental manner while relaying packets from one node to another. The
network is designedto provide switched communication between two nodes.
both of which are actively involved in the communications process. A
packet-switching network does not normally store a me$sagefor later delivery
to an inactive or busv terminal.

One reasonfor breaking messagesinto packetsis to allow transmissionof the first

segmentof a long messagewhile other segmentsare in transit. If the entire me$$age
had to be received at each node befbre forwarding it to the next node (as in message
switching), the delaysthrough the notlesmight be too large. Another reasonfor break-
ing the mes$agesinto packets arises from operational simplifications derived from
storing, processing,and transmitting smaller and possibly fixedJength blocks of data.
In addition, if long message$are transmittedintact, short messagesexperienceexces-
sive delays when queuedbehind long messages.Packetizationallows shon messages
to get through a transmissionlink without waiting behind long messages.This same
principle occursin multiprogrammed computers,which use time slicing to allow short
jobs the opportunity of finishing before previously startedlong jobs. one more moti-
vation for packetizationis that when a ffansmissionblock is too long, it is unlikely that
the entire messagewill be received correctly. Packetizationprovides a means of re-
transmitting only those portions of a messagethat need to be retransmitted.

10.2.1 PacketFormats

The format of a packet in a packet-switchingnetwork can vary significantly f'rom one

network to another. Some formats include numerou$ fields fbr control infbrmation
while other system$rely more heavily on special control packetsto transmit control
information. Generally speaking,the conffol information associatedwith a particular
messageor link is included in the headerof a mes$agepacket.Less frequent,network-
related control information is communicatedtlrough special control packets.
As indicated in Figure 10.3, a packet contains three major fields: the header,the
message,and the redundancycheck bits. some packet$may not contain a message
field if they are being used strictly for control purposes.Although a variery of tech-
niques for generating redundancy checks are possible, the most popular technique
usescyclic redundancychecks (cRCs). Basically, a cRC is nothing more than a set
of parity bits that cover overlapaing fields of messagebits. The fields overlap in such
a way that small numbers of errors are always detectedand the probability of not de-
tecting the occurrenceof 2 large number of errors is l in 2M, where M is the number
of bits in the check code.
A headertypically containsnumeroussubfieldsin addition to the necessarvaddress
field. Additional fields sometimesincluded in a headerare:
 IO,2 PACKETSWITCHING /161

Hcdtr Trxt cRc

rR
To
iddtr|8
Op
coda
From
EddrG$
$tq BytE
count

Figure 10.3 Typical packetformat,

I , An operationcode to designatewhether the packet is a message(text) packet or

a control packet.In a sensethis field is a pat"tof the destinationaddress,with the
addressspecifying the control element of a switching node.
z. A source address for recovery purpo$es or identification of packets at a
destination node that is capable of simultaneously accepting more than one
message.
3. A sequencenumberto reassemble messages at the destinationnode,detect
faults,andfacilitaterecoveryprocedures.
4. A lengthcodeto indicatethelengthof a packetwhenlessthana standardsize
packetis transmitted.Someprotocolsinsertspecialdelimiters(flags)at the end
of a packetandthereforedo not usea lengthcount.

10.2.2 Statittical Multiplexlng

The digital time divisionmultiplexingtechniquesdescribedin thepreviouschapters

providemultiplechannelsby periodicallyassigninga time slot to eachchannel.The
time slotsareassignedwhetheror not the respectivesourceshaveanythingto send.
Channelassignments maybealteredon a connection-by-connection basis,but for the
durationof a "call" a particulartime slotis dedicatedto a respectiveconnection. Be-
causeof thecontinuousmannerin whichtime slotsoccurfor eachchannel,this form
of multiplexingis sometimes referredto as synchronous time divisionmultiplexing
(STDM).In this sectionwe describeanotherform of multiplexing,variouslyreferred
to as asynchronous time divisionmultiplexing(ATDM)- or statisticaltime division
multiplexing (statmux).This form of multiplexingis mentionedherebecauseof its
closerelationshipto packet-switching techniques.
Statmuxesoperatewith framingformatsthat arebasicallyidenticalto STDM fram-
ing formats.The majordifferenceis that a statmuxperiodicallyredefinesthe length
of its framesto changethe numberof time slotsand,hence,the numberof channels.
Whereasan STDM systempermanentlyassignsa time slot to eachof its sources,a
"Here
useof the termssynchronousandasynchronous.
is alother context-sensitive Il the contextof d igital
telephony,"synchronousmultiplexing" refersto combiningtributary signalsthat havebeensynchronized
"asynchronousmultiplexing"
to each other as in upper layer SONET multiplexing. Corrospondingly,
refersto the useof pulsestuffing to accofimodateunsynchronizedtributaries,
 462 DATAANDASyNcHHoNousTHANSFERMoDENETwoHKs

statmux assignsa time slot only when a sourcebecomesactive. A time slot is elimi-
nated (the frame shoftened)when the respectivelrourcebecomesinactive.
statmux $ystemshave been primarily used to provide line sharing for a multiple
number of interactive terminals communicating with a host computer. when only a
few sources(terminals) are active, each sourcehas a relatively high data rate channel
available to it. As the number of active sourcesincreases,the frame length increases
so individual channel rates decrease.some systems limited the number of active
sourcesto ensurecertain minimum data rates.
The purpose and performance of statmux systems are very similar to the purpose
and performance of a packet-switching link. The main difference is that a packet-
switching link hansmits larger blocks of data with a header included in each block.
Each time slot of a statunux$ystem is shorter and contains only source data. Figure
10.4 contraststhe basic operation of messageswitching, packet switching, and statis-
tical time division multiplexing. The messageswitch transmitseachmessagein its en-
tirety in a f,rrst-come,first-served manner. packet switching breaks messagesup to
allow interleaving of packets from other sources. Thus short mes$agesnever ger
queuedbehind long messagessuch as file transfers.The statmux system breaks the
messagesup into even finer blocks (words) of data and addsperiodic frame rlefinition
messagesso that receiving terminals can properly identify the individual time slots
and switch the incoming data accordingly.
As indicated in Figure 10.4, a packet-switching operation becomesvery similar to
a statmux operationif the size of the packetsis small. In fact, commercially available

irhrr|[e rwitohing

A
HI
B B B B 8 A 8 C B . C
- trII trDtrDEDtrDEDEtrEDtrU
c Ptrket sinching
-t

iEdGflnltiod

f igure 10.4 comparison of message-switching,packet-switching,and statistical

multiplexing.
 10,?PACKET
swrTcHrNc 463

statisticaltime divisionmultiplexerscanbe usedto build up a packet-switchingnet-

work. In additionto the multiplexers,however,a packet-switching nodeneedssuffi-
cient storageto accumulatean entire packet,checkit for errors,processit, and
retransmitit. Strictlyspeaking,a statisticalmultiplexerdoesnot accumulate
anentire
message or packet.It switchesthe incomingdataasthey arereceived.Error control
functions(redundancy checkingandrequests for retransmission)
areimplementedbe-
tweenendpointsof a "connection"insteadof betweennodes.In summary,a statmux
is strictlya multiplexer/demultiplexer.A packet-switching nodeprovidesmultiplex-
ing functionsaswell asmessage-level andnetworklevelconholfunctions.

10.2.3 Routlng Control

Muchdiscussion andexperimentation havebeenundedaken regardingvariousproce-

duresfor routing packetsfrom sourcesto sinksthrougha packet-switchingnetwork
allowfor a certainamountof adaptation
[2]. All routingtechniques routing
or alternate
to circumventline or nodefailures.The varioustechniques differ, however,in how
fasttheyrespondto failuresandwhetheror not theycircumventnetworkcongestion
aswell asequipmentfailures.Thebasictechniques arethefollowing:

l. Dynamicrouting
2. Virrual circuitrouting
3. Fixed-pathrouting

Eachof thesetechniquescanbe implementedin a varietyof waysand can assume

ofthe otherroutingcontrolprocedures.
someofthe characteristics

Dynamlc Routing
Dynamicroutingis implemented on a distributedbasiswith networknodesexamining
thedestinationaddress ofeachreceivedpacketto determinetheappropriate outgoing
link. The outgoinglink is selectedby processing locally storedinformationto deter-
mine which path providesminimum delayto the destination.Therouting criteria are
routinelyupdatedto includeboth the operationalstatus(health)andthe sizeof the
queuesin the neighboringnodes.The routingdecisionsareadjustedrapidly enough
thatindividual packetsof a singlemessage may follow dffirent pathsthroughthenet-
work. Dynamicrouting,with its ability to respondquicklyto changesin networkto-
pology or traffic conditions,is one of the original featuresespousedfor packet
switching.In fact, dynamicroutingwas $ometimes consideredto be inherentin the
definitionof a packet-switching network.
In spiteofthe obviousattractionofbeing ableto adjustto rapidfluctuationsin traf-
fic patterns,dynamicroutinghasa numberof significantdrawbacks. Oneimplication
of allowingsuccessive packetsin a message to follow differentroutesthroughthenet-
work is thatpacketsmay arriveat a destinationout of sequence. Althoughsequence
numbersareusedto rearrange thepacketsproperly,thereassembly processis compli-
 464 DATAANDASYNCHFIoNoUSTHANSFEFMoDENETwoFKS

cated, particularly since the destination does not know if a missing packet is merely
delayedor lost entirely.
Another drawback to dynamic routing is the possibility of oscillation occuring in
the routing decisions.Ifthe bandwidth assignedto updating the routing control algo-
rithms is too small, a lightly loaded node will attract more traffic than it can handle
before neighboring nodes are informed of the change in the traffic flow. In this in-
stance,a packet might even wind up at a node from which it has previously been sent.
Purely distributed control, in general,and dynamic routing, in particular, also pre-
sent difficulties with respect to flow control in a packet network. As mentioned in
chapter 7, alternate routing in the switched telephone network is sometimes sus-
pended when the network as a whole becomesoverly conge$ted(alternateroutes re-
quire more resources).obviously, the same principle applies to a packet-switching
network' Flow control in packet networks is discussedin later sections.
Dynamic routing is most appropriatefor small networks or in a military environ-
ment where survivability of the network in the presenceof muttiple-node failures is a
requirement' A military network i$ typically more concernedwith reliable 4d timely
completion of a few important messagesthan with achieving the highest possible
throughput from a given amount of resources.

Virtual Circults
A virtual circuit network embodiessome of the basic aspectsof both circuit switching
and packet switching. The transmissioncapacity is dynamically assignedon an ,.as-
needed"basis,but all packetsof a multipacket messagefollow the sarneroute through
the network. Before interactive communication begins, a route is establishedthrough
the network, and all participating nodesare informed of the "connection" and how to
route the individual packets that follow. From then on, all packets flowing between
the two end points follow the sameroute through the network. In essence,a virtual cir-
cuit is a logical concept involving addressesand pointers in the nodesofthe network
but no dedicatedtransmission facilities. At the end of a connection (or ..session"in
datacommunicationsterminology), a virtual circuit is releasedby a ..disconnect"me$-
sagepropagating through the network.
Except in the caseofpermanent virnral circuits, separateconnections,or sessions,
involving the sametwo endpoints do not necessarilyuse identical paths thrcugh the
network' Each virtual circuit is establishedduring the call establishmentphase de-
pending on the traffic pattern$at the time. Thus a virtual circuit network can respond
to network failures or changing traffic patterns,but in a longer time frame than a dy-
namically routed network. When virtual circuits are changedfrom one connectionto
the next, the mode of operation is sometimesreferred to as a switched virtual circuit
networkby direct analogy to conventional circuit swirching.
Virtual circuits can be establishedusing either distributed or cenffalized conffol.
when distributed control is used,the call establishmentmessagepropagatesthrough
the network with eachnode making a local decision as to which outgoing link should
be selected.
 10.2 PACKET
swtrcHtNc 465

As discussedin Chapter7 concerningconventionalcircuit-switched networks, cen-

tralized call establishmenthas the basic advantageof being able to setup circuits with
a networkwide view of network statusand traffic patterns.The TYMNET network of
the United States[3] and the DATAPAC network of Canada[4] are examplesof vir-
tual circuit, packet-switchednetworks with centralizedconffol.
Sincethe call establishmentphaseofa virtual circuit representsexcessiveoverhead
for single-packetme$sages,a virtual circuit mode of operationis obviously most use-
ful when a network servicesa relatively large number of multiple-packet messagesor
$essions.Thus a dual-mode network is suggestedrequiring vittual circuits for longer
messagesand immediate transmission with dynamic routing for single-packetmes-
sages.In this instance, the single-packetmessagesare usually referred ta as data-
grams.
One of the main advantagesof a virtual circuit operation is its ability to provide
more orderly control of packet delivery. If a node in a virtual circuit never forwards a
packet pertaining to a particular connection until the previous packet has been ac-
knowledged,packetscannotarrive out oforder. A secondadvantageofa virtual circuit
is the reducedaddressingrequirementsof individual packets.Once a virtual circuit has
been established,complete destinationaddressesare no longer neededin the packets.
In place of destination addresses,virtual circuit identifiers can be used that are local
to each link. In essence,virtual circuit identifier$ are pointers to memory addressesin
the call processorsof the packet-switching nodesor to look-up tables in ATM nodes.
The designatedmemory addressescontain the pertinent information conceming the
actual source,destination,and routing of the packets.Another important feature of a
viftual circuit operationis its inherent ability to aid in flow control, as discussedin the
next section.
The main disadvantageof a virtual circuit operation is the possibility of greater
transmission delays. When a path for a virtual circuit is established,it is chosen to
minimize the delay through the network under the traftic pattems at that time. If the
traffic pattems change,packets pertaining to a particular virtual circuit may experi-
encelong queuing delays on some links while alternatelinks are more lightly loaded.
Yum and Schwartz [5] report that analysesof routing techniquesfor severalsmall net-
work configurationsindicate a packetdelay improvement of lA-ZlVa is possiblewhen
adaptiverouting is used in lieu of a fixed routing rule.
When first considered,call establishmentmight seemto be a disadvantageof a vir-
tual circuit network. Actually, however, flow control considerationsrequire sometype
of query/responsemes$ageto determine the statusof the destination nodes before a
$ourceis allowed to begin sendinga packet $trearn.Thus the control overheadand the
"connection" is
delay associatedwith settingup a usually a fundamentalrequirement,
even in a dynamically routed network.

Fixed-PathRoutlng
Fixed-path
routingembodies of a virnralcircuitnetworkex-
thesamebasicconcepts
ceptsuccessive or sessions,
connections, between
anytwoendpoints alwaysusethe
 466 DATAANDAsyNcHRoNousTHANsFEBMoDENETWoRKS

samepath' In essencea fixed-path network is one that assignspemanent virtual cir-

cuits to eachpair of endpoints.
One attractive f'eatureof a fixed-path network is the absenceof the call estab-
lishment phaseof a virtual circuit network. However, unlessthe necessaryresources
are perrnanently allocated, a "clear-to*transmit" messageis needed before sending
packets.Inactive virtual circuits do not tie up network resource$in the samemanner
as conventional circuits, but each virtual circuit does require transmission capacity
and store-and-forwardbuffers in a probabilistic sense.If minimum gradesof service
(delay times) are to be guarauteed,a network mu$t limit the number of virtual circuits
existing at any particular time. Hence clear-to-tranrrmitsignals are neededbefbre a
fixed-path circuit becomesactive. of course,a network can provide two modesof op-
eration: permanentlyactive (hot line) virtual circuits and virtual circuits activatedand
deactivatedas needed.
An obvious disadvantageof a purely-fixed-path network, as describedso far, is its
vulnerability to node or link failures. To circumvent this problem, a network control
centerusually assignssemipennanentpathsthrough the network that arechangedonly
when necessaryfor failure survivability or maintenance.Some older message-switching
networks were implemented with fixed-path routing in the strict sense.This mode of
operationwas more appropriateto merrsage-switchingnetworks becausemessagede-
livery was less time critical and could be deferred while repairs were undertakenfor
inoperative equipment.

10.2.4 Flow Control

As discussedin ChapterT concerningconventionalcircuit-switched networks, routing

and flow control are two closely related operationalrequirementsof any communica-
tions network. The same basic principlb fbr controlling the flow in circuit-switched
networks also appliesto packet-switchednetworks. Namely, wheneverthe network is
experiencingexcessivesffess,either from a loss ofcapacity due to failures or from an
abnormally heavy demand fbr services,new service requestsmust be blocked at the
periphery of the network before they tie up common reriourcesand compoundthe con-
gestion. In a packet-switchednetwork, the common resourcesare store-and-forward
buffers and transmissionlinks.
Flow control in a packet network is primarily concernedwith buffer managemenr.
For example, if all store-and-forwardbuffers in adjacent nodes become filled with
packetsdestinedto eachother, the nodesare unable to receive additional packets,and
a deadlockexists.Recall that, in pure packet switching, a node doesnot releasea buff-
er as soon as it transmits a packet.The buffer is releaseclwhen an acknowledgmentis
returned from the adjacentnode. If a receiving node has no availablebuffers, it cannot
accepta new packet and thereforecannot acknowledgeit. (Framerelay anclATM net_
works describedlater do not provide node-by-nodeerror control so they do not save
copies of messagesin internal nodesof the network.)
Flow control requirementsimply that interface nodesin a packet-switchednetwork
are aware of overload conditions and refusenew requestsfor service until the conges-
 SWITCHING467
10.2 PACKET

tion is relieved. A parficularly attractive feature of a virtual circuit network is that the
call establishmentphaseprovides an automatic meansof determining whether or not
a particular requerttshould be serviced.If no path through the network can be estab-
lished becausethe interior nodes are too conge$ted,the request is rejected. On the
other hand, if a virtual circuit is established,there is reasonableexpectation that the
entire requestwill be serviced in a timely manner.
Unless network nodes are very conservativein acceptingrequest$for new virtual
circuits, the ability to set up a circuit does not guaranteethe avoidanceof excessive
congestion or deadlocks.A node acceptsa new virnral circuit based on an expected
load and its capacity to service that load. If the tratfic volume and pattems happento
exceedthe expectedload, excessivedelay or congestionis possible.
Virtual circuits are an effective means of conrolling the flow of multiple-packet
mes$ages,but they representtoo much overheadfor single-packetor datagramflow
control. If a virtual circuit network must supporta significant number of single-packet
mes$ages,it can allow immediate transmissionof thesemes$agesand forego the call
establishment phase. In terms of transmission overhead, a datagram is not much
greater than a call establitrhmentpacket. Thus, from this point of view, the packet
might as well be sent immediately and be consideredits own circuit setup message.
In terms of store-and-forwardbuffers, however, a single-packetmessageis much dif-
ferent from a call establishmentpacket.A call establishmentpacket requiresa certain
amount of storage and processing by the call processor of each network node it
reaches,but it does not compete for store-and-forward buffers as does a me$sage
packet. Ifnecessary,a call establishmentmessagecan be ignoredby an overloadednode,
and the originating node times out waiting for the network respon$eand reissuesthe re-
quest.The time out should be long enough that the network has had a chanceto rela,r.
In confrastto call establishmentpackets,if a messagepacket is ignored by an over-
loaded node,congestionmigratesto the node that last transmittedthe packet,sincethis
node is holding a copy of the rejectedpacketin a buffer. The buffer cannotbe released
until an acknowledgmentis received.Hence datagram$cannot be allowed to enter the
network unlessa reasonablechancefor complete passageexists.When the network is
heavily congested,attemptsto set up virtual circuits might also be suspended.
A conventional circuit-switched network is unconcerned with flow control be-
tween the endpoints of a connection since, once the circuit is established,the activity
or inactivity ofthe endpointshas no effect on other connectionsor on the network as
a whole. End users necessarily administer flow control between themselves so the
sourcedoesnot overrun the receive buffers of a sink. Theseproceduresconcern only
the endpoints.
In contrast,the very nature of a packet-switching network implies direct involve-
ment with endpoint activity. If a sourcepumps excessivetraffic into a network, other
users experiencedegradedperformance.Hence interfacesto a packet-switching net-
work necessarilyinclude flow control for respecfivesources.Source flow control es-
tablishesa maximum data rate for a network, If a sink acceptsdata at a lower rate for
a sustainedperiod of time, this fact must be communicatedto the network node serv-
ins the sourcein order to slow the sourcedown.
468 DATAANDAsyNcHRoNoUsTRANSFEHMoDENETwoRKS

store-and-forward buffers of a packet-switching network are neededfor commu-

nications purposesand are not used as a storagemedium for messages.If a packet-
switching network also provides message-switching services, message srorage
functions should be implemented separatelyfrom the communications buffers. Then.
the packet-switching network is used to transfer data to the message$toragefacility.
Another implication of maximizing store-and-forwardbuffer utilization is the need
to wait until a sink is ready to acceptdata before a sourcebegins sending.Ifa sink is
not ready, packetsget stuck in store-and-forwardbuffers at the far end of a network
and cause congestion. Thus some form of request-to-transmit/clear-to-transmitse-
quence is needed before messagetransmission begins. This requirement is inde-
pendentof the routing algorithms employed in the network. Hence,in actual practice,
the setting up of a virtual circuit may not representa time penalty.
single-packet meri$ages(datagrams)can be an exception. If they are ffansmitted
without a clear-to-transmitsignal, they may be discardedat the destinationnode if the
sink is inactive or has no receive buffers available.The destinationnode then needsto
return a rejection messageto the sourceindicating the statusof the sink. In this man-
ner, the messageitself is a requerrt-to-transmitsignal. The ARpANET useda flow con-
hol strategy wherein single-packetmessagesserye a$ their own requestsfor buffer
storagebut multiple-packet messagesrequire preallocatedbuffers in groups of eight
at the destination[6, 71.
Flow control in TYMNET is implemented in a different mannerbecauseof its ex-
clusive use of virtual circuits for all messages.Before any node in the network can
send a packet to a neighboring node, it must receive a clear-to-transmit signal from
the neighboring node for the particular virtual circuit. The clear-to-transmit signal is
an indication that a specified number of store-and-forwardbuffers are being held in
reseryefor that particular virtual circuit. After a node sendsthe specified number of
packets,it sendsno more until anotherclear-to-transmitsignal is received (indicating
the previous packetshave been forwarded or more buffers have been allocatedto the
virtual circuit). By using the samenode-to-nodemethod of flow control at the inter-
face betweenthe network and the users,a very solid end-to-endflow control strategy
is established.
The TYMNET flow control strategyis somewhatconservativein that it may allo-
cate store-and-forwardbuffers to one virtual circuit while another virtual circuit has
more use for them (possibly causinga decreasein line utilization). This conservatism.
however, provides a number of useful features:

l. Networkwide flow control is established automatically by the flow control

within each virtual circuit.
2. Under light traffic conditions, packet flow within each virtual circuit adjusts
automatically to the maximum rate that the sourceand sink can support.If only
a few virtual circuits exist, a relatively large number ofbuffers can be assigned
to each circuit, allowing the retum of more frequent clear-to*transmitsignals.
3. If a sink stopsacceptingpacketsfor somereason,this condition propagatesback
to the sourceby way of cessationof clear-to-transmit signals. Thus the source
 SWITCHING 469
10.2 FACKET

stopssendingwhenall allocatedbuffersarefuIl. This principleof operationis

sometrmes referredto asbackpressure.
4 . As long as a nodeneverovercommitsits buffers,store-and-forward lockups
cannotoccur.Ifseveralsinksstopacceptingdata,the$tore-ard-forward buffers
assignedto the particularvirtual circuits get filled and becomeunavailable.
Othervirtual circuits,however,can maintaintransmission throughtheir own
assigned buffers.
5 . The mechanism is fail-safe in the $ense that positive indications
(clear-to-transmit signals) are needed before packets are forwarded to
neighboringnodes.Whennetworklinksareoverloaded, flow controlbandwidth
requirementsare minimal. If flow control signals stop altogether,packet
transmission stops.

10.2.5 X.25

X.25 is an ITU standardprotocolestablished in 1976for accessing a public packet-

switchingnetwork.The datalink layer of X.25 is link acce$sprocedurebalanced
(LAPB) usinghigh level datalink control(HDLC). HDLC is a bit-orientedprotocol
basedon thepreviouslydefinedSynchronous DataLink Protocol(SDLC)established
by IBM for Synchronous NetworkArchitecture(SNA) networks.HDLC hasbeconte
thedatalink protocolof choicefor numerousdatacommunications applications.The
balancedaspectof LAPB refersto a peer-orientedoperationbetweenthe two endsof
thelink. In anunbalanced modeof operationa primarynodecontrolsthelink for one
or moresecondary nodes.
Thebasicformatof anHDLC packetis shownin Figure10.5.As indicated,packets
aredelimitedby a staflingandan endingfiag (01I I I I 10).The datastreambetween
the flagsis precludedfrom includinganinadvertentflag by azerobit insertionalgo-
rithm. Whenevera stringof five ls occurin thedatastreama 0 is insertedby the source
node.The receivingnoderemovesa 0 occurringafterfive ls. If a 1 is presentafter
five ls, it mustbe the sixth I of a flag andis thereforenot removed.
Theaddress field is typically8 bitslongbutcanbeextended in incrementsof 8 bits.
The informationfield canbe anynumberof bits long,but specificapplications typi-
cally define a maximumlength.The informationfield is nonexistentin a conhol
packet.Theframecheckfield containsa l6-bit CRCbut canbe 32 bits long in some

Fleg AddruE$ Control lnformation I Frums ch6ck Flag

01111110 0 11 11 1

0 N(S) rtf N(R)

l-forffat mntrol fi6ld

Figure 10.5 HDLC frameformat,

 47O DATAANDASYNCHHoNoUSTFANSFER
MoDENETWoRKS

applications.The control field is 8 or 16 bits long. Informarion in the control field is

formatted in various ways dependingon whether the packet is an information packet
or a control packet.control formats are designatedby a leading l. Figure 10.5 shows
the format for a information packet (I-format) as designatedby the leading 0 in the
control field. The P/F field is a single bit used for polling.
The N(S) and N(R) fields contain sequencenumbersusedfor both error conffol and
tlow control. The length of N(s) and N(R) is 3 or 7 bits dependingon the size of con-
hol field in use.* For illusftative purposes,the following discussionassumesthe use
of 3-bit fields. Every time a source sendsa packet containing information, it incre-
ments N(S) modulo 8. When a destination receives a packet with a valid check sum
and the next expectedsequencenumber, it returns that sequencenumber to the source
in its outgoing N(R) field. Thus, a sourcenode knows that the destinationhascorrectly
received every hansmitted packet up to and including the packet with the sequence
number N(R) in its incoming packets.If one or more packetshave been received in
error, the value of N(R) returnedto a destinationdoesnot changeuntil the sourcetimes
out and reffansmits the packets beginning with the last received N(R) value plus I.
[All packetsafter a lost or comrpted packet are retransmittedbecausethe destination
ignores packetswith an out-of-sequencevalue in the incoming N(S)].
with a 3-bit length for N(s) a sourcecan have a maximum of sevenpacketsout-
standing at any particular time. (A particular sequencenumber cannot be reuseduntil
an acknowledgmentfor the previous one has been received.) Beyond the maximum
number of outstandingpackets determinedby the length of the sequencefields, par-
ticular applicationsmay be configured for a smaller number of outstandingpacketsfor
flow control and reducing the amount of memory neededby a sourceto hold copies
of unacknowledgedpackets.Whateverthe value of the maximum number of outstand-
ing packets is, a destination is expectedto be able to receive that number as a burst.
The destinationdoesnot have to immediately acknowledgea valid received packet if
it is congestedand wants to free up rerrourcesbefore receiving more packets.If a sys-
tem is configured with a maximum number of outrrtandingpacketsthat often exceeds
the capacity of a receiver,the systemworks but the sourcespendsa lot of time retrans-
mitting packets that were discarded by the destination becauseit had no resources
(memory) to store them,
x.25 permits a user on an x.25 network to communicatewith a number of remote
locations simultaneously. connections occur on logical channels of two types:
switched virtual circuits (svcs) or permanentvirtual circuits (pvcs). svcs require
a connection establishmentprocessbefore data can be transferred.A PVC is similar
to a leasedline in that the connectionis permanently establishedby network admini-
stration. Therefbre, data can be sent without connection setup.
To establish a connection on an svc, the originator sendsan x.25 call request
packet, which includes the addressof the remote destination.The destinationdecides
whether or not to acceptthe call (the call requestpacket includes the originator's ad-
dress and possibly other information that the destination can use to decide to accept
-Use
ofHDLC on high-speedfiber links has led to the use ofeven larger sequencenumbers becausea large
number of frames can be in fiansit on the link.
 SWITCHING 471
10.2 PACKET

the call). A call is acceptedby returninga call acceptedpacketor rejectedby returning

a clearrequestpacket.

10.2.6 Frame Relay

As local areanetworksandfile $erversevolvedto providedataprocessing functions

within a corporation,somemeimsof interconnecting LANs at separate sitesbecame
necessary. Figure10.6illustratesthreewaysof accomplishing LAN interconnection
to implementa colporatewideareanetwork(WAN). Thefust methodutilizesa public
(X.25)packet-switching networkto relaymessagesbetweentheLANs. This approach
is a usefulonefor limitedamountsof inter-LANtaffic. It alsofacilitatesinterconnect-
ing two or moredissimilarLANs (suchasEthernets, tokenrings,or tokenbuses)-

Public packet network

(a)

LAI{ I Lsas€d digital lire LA}-I2

(b)

Frame relay network

(c)

Figure 10.6 LAN-Io-LAN interconnectron methods:(a) through x,25 packet-switching

netowrk;(b) throughleasedline; (c) tfuoughframerelaynetwork.
 472 DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWoRKS

becausethe X.25 interface of each LAN acts as a data link layer protocol converter.
The main drawback is the cost and slow responsefor high-bandwidth ffansfers.
The secondapproachof interconnectingthe two LANs is to use a leasedline. ob-
viously this approachis more cost effective if large amountsof dataare transferredbe-
tween the two locations. The LANAVAN interface equipment used to connect to the
leased line will vary depending on the nature of the individual LANs and how the
LANs and WAN are administered.Functional possibilities for the LAN-WAN inter-
face are bridges, routers, or switches.The speedchosenfor the leasedline inevitably
requires compromising performanceobjectives with cost.
The third method of interconnectingthe LANs is to use a frame relay service of a
common carrier. Framerelay serviceswere developedspecifically to addressLAN in_
terconnection and are available from all major common carriers. Frame relay is a
packet-rtwitchingprotocol but is faster than traditional X.25 networks becauseit does
not provide error control. Error control at the data link layer (e.g., HDLC of x.25) re-
quires receipt of an entire packet before it can be forwarded from one link to another.
Frame relay also supports shortenedaddressprocessingwith a data link connection
identifier (DLCI) field in rhe headerwhich identifies a pvc. The frame relay prorocol
is defined by the ANSI Tl.618 standardand ITU Recommendation
e.922.
The PVC feature of frame relay permits the functional equivalent of a leased-line
connection but much more cost effectively for high-rate, bursty traffic. Furthermore,
a single frame relay accessdevice (FRAD) can achieve connectivity to multiple re-
mote LANs by using a different DLCI for eachremote LAN.
Frame relay nodescan processthe simpler addressformat and switch an incoming
messagedirectly to an outgoing line as it is being received. The elimination of error
control- at the datalink layer of a network protocol reflects the fact that the underlying
transmissionfacility, fiber, is essentiallyerror free. In this environment it is more
ef-
ficient to move effor control to a higher level (e.g., an application layer). when infre-
quent errors occur, the application can invoke error control as appropriate
to the
application.

Example 10.1. Determine the amount of transmission capacity required to

refransmitframesof1000bitsof datainanetworkwith l0tandemlinkseachof which
has bit error probability IO"t. (a) Assume link-by-link enor conrrol. (b) Assume
end-to-endenor control. (c) Repeatthe calculationsfor a bit error probability of l0-5.

Solution,
(a) with link-by-linkerrorcontroltheprobabilityof abit errorin
a frameis 1000x
10-8= l0*s. Theexpectednumberof bits of transmission
capacityrequiredto
rerransmiris l0-5 x 1000= 0.01bit/link.
(b) with end-to-end error conffol the probability of a comrpted frame is
10x tO-s = l0+. The expectedretransmission capacityrequiredis lO-a x
1000= 0.1biilink.
CRCsareincludedin framesof framerelay data,but a framerelay nodedoesnot requesta retransmission
if an error is detected.
 SWITCHING 473
10.2 PACKET

(c) With a bit enor rare of 10-5, the respective calculations are 10 bits/link for
link-by-link conffol and 100 bitsflink for end-to-endcontrol.

Example 10.I illustrates that with very Iow bit error probabilities both forms of error
conffol require insignificant amounts of transmissioncapacity for frame retransmis-
sions.Thus, from a transmissioncapacity point of view there is no reasonto use link-
by-link effor control. On transmission links with higher rates, a$ in Tl lines with
marginal error perfbrmance,link-bylink error control is obviously desirable,pruticu-
larly in a packet network where packetsmight be larger than 1000 bits.

10.2.7 TCP/IP

The original networking protocol of the ARPANET was designatedNetwork Control

Protocol (NCP). While this protocol addressedthe needsof a single network, it could
not be usedas a meansof communicating from one network to another.The desireto
develop a protocol that would allow communication from a node in one network to a
node in another network led to the eventual development of Transmission Control
Protocolflntemet Protocol (TCP/IP) [8]. TCP/IP replacedNCP in ARPANET hostson
JanuaryI, 1983.
TCP/IP is a protocol that can be used within a network, but more importantly, it
can be used as a prOtocolto Communicatehetween two netwOrks'"Thus, the Internet
is composedof many networks that communicatewith eachother using TCP/IP. Fore-
most among these many networks are LANs. The Internet is yet another way for in-
terconnecting LANs. ftr conftast to fhe creafion of a corporate WAN using frame relay,
LAN interconnection via ttre Internet is primarily intended to crossco{porateboundaries.
As defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), TCP/F usesvariable-
length packetsthat are processedwith basically one class of service:best-effort rout-
ing. A user datagramprotocol (UDP) replacesTCP when real time servicessuch as
voice or video are carried. UDP has no reffansmissions.Before Voice on the Infernet
(VoIP) can be realized for somethingapproachinguniversal service,the routers must
be extencledto support a new class of service: one with controlled delay, delay vari-
ation, and delivery guarantees.A first attempt to addressthe quatity-of-service issue
was a propo$edmodification of TCPIP with a Reservation Protocol (RSVP). This
ap-proac:h was determinedunsatisfactorybecauseit required changing all nodes in a
"differentiated service"
network simultaneously [9]. A more practical approachis a
(DiffServ) enhancementto TCP/IP.
When considering the viability and expected quality of service of packetized
speech,it is worthwhile to consider the difTerencebetween IP telephony and Internet
telephony. IP telephony refers to carrying packetizedspeechin an IP network. Ifthis
network is wholly containedwithin one organization,commonly referred to as an in-
tranet, it is more likely that a relatively high level quality of service can be provided.
Packetizedspeechcarried over the Internet that traverse$multiple, autonomou$net-
*Th"
m,r*t *pp*unt aspectof TCP/IP to a uscr is the Universal ResoutceLocator (URL), with the following
format: filetype://www.address.tld/resource.The address.tld (.top level.domain) identifies a location on
the web while everything after thc back slash identities a resource(e.g., a frle) inside the location.
 474 DATAANDASyNcHRoNousTRAN$FEHMoDENETWoHKS

works is much more difficult to rnanage,particularly when economic considerations

for allocation ofcosts and revenuesare considered.For a description ofmany ofthe
technical considerationsforpacketized voice seereference
[10].

10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTHANSFERMODE NETWORKS

In contra$tto TCP/IP,theAsynchronous TransferMode(ATM) networkarchitecture

incorporated featuresfor supportingreal-timetraffic suchasvoiceandvideoin thein-
itial implementation.Theprincipalaspectsof ATM directedto real-time$uppofiare
short,fixed-sizedpackets(cells),shortheaders, andno link-byjink errorcontrol.*
ATM is a standardized architecture
of packet-oriented transmission
andswitching
originallyproposedfor a BroadbandIntegraredservicesDigital Network(BISDN).
ATM hassincebeenexpandedin scopeto supporta wide varietyof seruicetypes;
wideband,narrowband, bursty,non-reartime,andrealtime.The synchronous TDM
(circuit-switched) networkthatevolvedprimarilyfor voiceservicessupportsthesame
serviceswith externaladaptations, but theadaptations comefrom u u*i"ty of suppli-
ersnecessitating theneedfor multiple,nonintegrated, nonsiandardized
equipmentand
support.ATM standardizes thewide rangeof servicesby definingquality-of-service
re_
quirementsfbr variousnaffic qrpes.The quality-of-servicepu*-rt ru specifically
in_
tendedfar voiceservicesaremaximumdelay,delayvariation,andcell losi probability.

10.3.1 ATM Cells

TheATM transmission formatconsistsof fixed-sizecellsof 53 byteseach.As shown

in Figure10.7,therearefive overheadbyteswithin eachcell, wtrichteadsto 4g bwes
of payloadper cell' The useof fixed-sizedcells for all applicationsfacilitateshard-
ware-onlyimplementations of switchingfunctions(queuingandtransfer;.

Cell Loss Prlority

Thecell losspriority (CLP)bit in thecell headeris usedto identifyrwo basicclasses
of servicewith respectto discardingof cellswithin a network.when a cell with a cl-p
valueof I arrivesat a heavilycongested networkelement,thatcellcanbediscarded to
relievecongestionfor higherpriority traffic (e.g.,cellswith cl-p = 0). cells with a cl-p
valueof 0 areneverdiscardedunlessatl cellswith lowerpriority areaheadydiscarded.

10.3.2 ATM Service Gategoriee

ATM servicesarecategorized (by theATM forum Il l, 121)into thefollowing caregories

relatedto the statisticalnatureof thedataraterequirementsof therespectivesourcesand
thequalityof selvice(Qos) thatthenetworkcanprovidefor those$ervices:

-TCP/IP
also defets eror control to the application but has variable-sized packets and
a relatively
complicated header format.
 MODENETWOHKS 476
TRANSFER
10,3 ASYNCHRONOUS

Bits
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

FloruControl VidualPathldentifier

VirtualPath tdentifier

ViduafCharrnelldentifier 3

PayloadType CLF 4
Byr"*
HeaderEnorCheck 5

Payload I

5S
Payload

FlgureI0.7 ATM cellformat;CLP,cell lossprioriry'

Constant-bit-rate(CBR) services
(VBR) services
Variable-bit-rate
Availablebit rate(ABR) services
Unspecifiedbit rate(UBR) services

Con stant-Bit-Bate Servl cee

An applicationrequestinga CBR serviceis guaranteed a specifieddatarateassuming
the servicerequestis accepted(i.e.,ttrenetworkcanpreallocatesufficientresources
for therequest).Thus,a CBR serviceis similarto a synchronous TDM service.CBR
servicesare specificallydesignedfo emulatecircuit switching.A CBR application
send
cannotexceedthe specifiedrate(i.e.,thepeakcell rate)but neednot necessarily
dataat the specifiedrate.In this sense,CBR servicesaredifferentfrom synchronous
TDM services-if a sourcehasperiodsof time in which thereareno dataavailable,
the channelcapacitymay be releasedfor otherapplications'

Va riable-Eit-Rate Se rulcee
VBR servicesareseparated into two distinctcategories:realtime (rt-VBR) andnon-
realtime (fft-VBR). Thert-VBR servicesarefor burstyapplications with tightly con-
straineddelayand delayvariation requirements sqch asvoice or video.The main QoS
 476 DATAANDASyNcHRoNousTRANSFEFMoDENETwoRKS

parameterof an rt-vBR serviceis the maximumcell transferdelay(maxcTD).

The
nIt-VBR servicesarefor burstydatatransmission
applications with no particularde-
Iay requirements.
wheneveran rt-vBR or nrt-vBR servicerequestis accepted, the foltowingthree
parameters areagreeduponfor sourcetransmissionstatistics:

Peakcell rate(pCR)
Sustainablecell rate(SCR)
Maximumburstsize(MBS)

As long asthe sourceadheresto the abovestatisticalparameters,the networkis com-

mitted to carryingthe traffic.

Avallable Blt Rate Serulces

ABR servicesareintendedfor non-real-time applicationsthatoperatebetweena mini-
mum andmaximumdataratespecifiedby a minimumcell rate(MCR) parameter and
a PCRparameter' An essential aspectof ABR servicesis theneedfor feedbacksignals
within thenetworkto controltheflow of datafrom theABR sources. Thenetworkdv-
namicallyallocatesadditionalresources to ABR services(beyondthosefor MCn,up_
port)whentheadditionalresources areavailableandsoinformstheABR sources with
thefeedbackmechanism.

Unspeclfled Blt Rate Seruices

UBR servicesareinherentlyintendedfor non-real-time applications
whereinno ripe-
cific qualityof serviceis desiredor implied.Neitherdelayparametersnor cell lossra-
tios (cLRs) are specified.If a networkbecomesoverly ctngested,cells from uBR
applicationsarediscardedby the network(asopposedto confrollingthe flow of the
UBR source)'when a UBR applicationnegotiatesa connection,a pcR parameter
valuemay be providedby the network,whichprovidesthe applicationwith an indi-
cationof thethroughputthatcanbe expected. Thefollowinginoicateswhicheos pa_
rametersarerelevantto theATM classesof service.

QoSParameter CBH N-VBH nrt-VBR

Gelllossratio(CLR) X X
Celltransitdelay(CTD) X X
Celldelayvariation (CDV) X X X
Peakcellrate(PCFI) X X X
Sustained cellrate(SCR) X X
Bursttolerance(BT) X X
Flowcontrol
 477
10.3 ASYNGHHONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWORKS

10.3.3 ATMGonnectlong

ATM networksareconnectionoriented,which meansthat a sourcemustmakea re-

questfor servicebeforetransmittingcells.Networkcontroldetermines aroutethrough
(in
thenetworkandallocatesresources a statisticalor probabilistic
sense)in response
to eachservicereque$t.In cOntrast, in a
LANs typicallyoperate connectionless mode
whereina $ourcesendsunconskained datato a destinationwheneverthe need arises'
ATM supportstwo typesof connections: virtualchannelconnections(VCCs)and
virtualpathconnections (VPCs).A VCC is a virtualcircuitbetweentwo user$repre-
sentinga singlestreamof cells.WhentherearemultipleVCCsbetweentwo common
endpoints,a VPC canbecreatedasa bundleof VCCs.Theuseof VPCssimplifiesnet-
work management andthe operationsof intermediatenodesof an ATM networkbe-
causea VFC is processed as a singleentity as opposedto individualVCCs.Thus,a
VPC is analogous to a trunk groupin a circuit-switched network'

10.3.4 ATM Switching

Thebasicrequirement of an ATM switchingfabricis to transfercellsarrivingon one

physicallink to anotherlink. Becauseincomingheadersmustbe processed beforean
incomingcell can be fiansferredthrougha switchand becausean outgoinglink is
likely to bebusy,ATM sffucturesalwaysprovidesomeamountof delayin the switch-
ing process.Thus,ATM switchesprovideboth spaceandtime switchingfunctionsin
a similarmannerasTDM circuit switchesdescribedin Chapter5.
A significantdifference,and complication,of an ATM switch servicingstreaffr
traffic suchasvoiceor videois that,in contrastto TDM channels, ATM cellscanar-
rive at irregularintervals.This phenomenon greatly increases the likelihood that a par-
ticularcell encounters blockingon a sharedinterstage link of a switching network. The
basicsolutionto this problemis to addcell buffersa$a queue for blocked cells until
the necessary path is free. Simplefirst-in, first-out (FIFO) queuingoperationsare
readilyimplemented in hardwarebut betternetworkefficiencyoccursif theFIFOdis-
ciplineis modifiedto allow a cell in thequeuewith anopenpathto bypassablocked
ennl fl3, 141.Thus,morecomplicatedhardwareimplementations aredesirable.
The principalaspectsof an ATM switchthat are differentfrom a TDM circuit
switchare:

incomingtime slot soheaderinformationneedsto be

t . Thereis no preassigned
extractedandprocessed to know whereto transferincomingcells'
2. There is no preassigned outgoingtime slot for outgoingcells so the delay
with waiting
involvedin transferringcellsis a variablequeuingdelayassociated
until theoutgoinglink is idle.
The headerinformationin an outgoingcell is generallydifferentthanwhat is
receivedsotheswitchmustinsertappropriateheaderinformationinto thetraffic
stream.
 478 DATAANDAsYNcHHoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETwoRKs

ATM ltlemory Switch

As is thecaseof TDM circuitswitches,
ATM switches
usememoryswitching to the
maximum extentpo$sible.
Aslongasthememoryspeedssupport
thetraffic,themost
economicaldesignis onein which all traffic is writteninto anareadfrom a cornmon
memory.In additionto the switchingfabric,a high-speed ATM switchmustimple_
mentothercell processing functionsin hardware.Thesefunctionsareheadere*t ac-
tion,headererrorchecking,tablelookupfor routeinformationusingreceivedvirtual
pathindicator(VPD or vcc, recordingof traffic usagestatisti"r,""ll queuing/rejec_
tion, insertionof outgoingvpl/vcc, andoutgoingchecksumgeneration.

Example10.?. Determinethe memoryspeedrequiredfor an ATM switchfabric

using a shared-memory archite*urein supportof 12 srs-3 (oc-3) bidirecrional
ports' Also determinethe numberof voice connectionsthat
can-becarriedby this
switch.Assumethatanactivevoicesignalrequires12kbpsandthattheactivity
factor
is 40Vo.

solution. Exceptforthegbytesofpathoverhead, alrbyresofan srs-3 payloadcan

be usedfor ATM cells. Thus, each srs-3 input rink provides 260 x g/s3 -
44
cells/frame.(A partialframeis not carriedsocell boundaries canbe alignedwith the
startof thesrs-3 payload.)If a S3-byte-wide memoryis usedfor storingthecells,rhe
total accessratefor l2 bidirectionalporrsis 12x z x,44 xg000 = g.++t rralt.

sinceeachATM cell provides4g bytesofpayload,the numberofvoice connec_

tionsthatcanbe supported by onesTS-3 is a4 x 4g x g x g0fi)/12,000/0.4 = 2g,160
connections. Thetotalcapacityof the switchis 337,g20voicecalls.
It is interestingto comparetheresultsof Example10.2with a circuitswitch
design
for 64-kbpsvoicechanners. using a standardsoNET multiprexingformat,a single
srs-3 caniesthreeDS3 signals(2016voicechannels).sirnitarty,*asrs-3 (e.g.,
an
srM-1) carriesa singleB$ signalwith 1920voicechannels. In eithercase,thecapac_
ity of eachATM link is over10timesthecapacityof theconventional circuit-switched
architectureusingthe samedatarate.The advanfege comesfrom a combinationof
compressing the speechandtakingadvantage of voiceinactivity.
A memoryswitchfor 12x 2016= z4,rgzchannelsrequiresan accessrateof
3g7
MHz, whichis muchgreaterthantheg.44g-MHzaccess rateof theATM switch,even
thoughthetotalcapacityis muchless.Thereasonfor thehighaccess rateofthe circuit
switchis thatonly 8 bitsarebeingswitchedat a time.rr muttiptebyteswereaccumu-
latedand switchedthrougha wider memory,asin the eru case,ttreaccess
rateof
the circuit switchwouldbe reducedaccordingly.circuit switcheshavenot been
im_
plementedwith wider ffansfersto preventthe insertionof extra
circuit delay.Voice
interfacesto ATM networksnecessarily requireanechocancelerto accommodate the
delay.
Example10'?is a nonblockingswitchasfar asinternaloperations of theswitchare
concerned'However,if a largeburstof kaffic arrivesat oni particularoutputport,
it
maybe thatsomecellsarediscardedbecause thequeuefor thatparticularport is full.
 4Ig
10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWORKS

Noticethat if traffic is beingqueuedfor someports,otheroutgoingportsareoperating

belowtheircapacity.
The amountof variationin the traffic flow on outgoingATM links is a directfunc-
tion of the connectionadmissioncontrol(CAC) processinvolvedin settingup con-
nections.If all connections areVPCsandtheseVPCshaverelativelyconstantarrival
rates(becausethe aggregatedatarateof multiple, independentvariable-ratechannels
is fairly constant),thetransmission resources of thenetworkwill beefficientlyutilized
with modest queue If
sizes. the traffic arrivalsarehighly variable,largerqueues(and
consequently largerdelays)arerequired achievehigh transmission
to link utilization.
Whenthereis a mixtureof traffic types,the time-critical typesare given priority so
cell lossandlong delaysareconfinedto non-real-time-critical cells.

Spac*Memory Switch
The implementationof large ATM switchesrequiresmultiple stagesof spaceand
timesswitching(e.g.,buffering)in the samemannerthatlargetime divisionswitches
described in Chapter5 areimplemented. Oneparticularlyusefularchitecture involves
a front-end TDM bus as a $pace switch followed by separate output queues' aS shown
in Figure10.8.The inputbus is synchronized to series-to-Parallel(S/P)circuits ofthe
input portssothat a time slot is assigned for every received cell. Thus, the bus must
operateat rhetotal speedof all incomingsignals.Each header is decoded via a table
look-upto selecttheappropriate outputsotheoutputmemoriesstoreonly cells for re-
spectiveoutputports.
The main attractionof the multiple-output-memoryarchitectureshownin Figure
10.8is its ability to scaleto a largerangeof switchsizes.Furthermore, broadcasting
andmulticastingareeasilysupported by havingtheheaderdecodelogic enablesimul-
taneou$ writesinto multiplebuffer$.Unfortunately,thisarchitecture doesnotdo much
to solvememory speed problems. Output accessesonly need to support theoutputport
transmission rate,but input accesses must suppofr successive time slots on the bus.
Memoryspeedrestrictionscanbe somewhatalleviated with high-speed caches acting
asspeedbuffersbetweenthebusandlarger,sloweroutputbuffels,as shown in Figure
10.9.Thecachesdo notaddmuchcell delaybutdorepre$ent a sourceofcell losswhen
onefills up because of a burstto therespective outputline'

Figure 10.t Input bus/outputbufferATM swirch.

 480 DATAANDASYNCHBONOUS
THANSFEHMODENETWORKS

Figure 10.9 Inputbus/outputbufferATM switchwith caches.

Memory-SpaceSwitch
Anotherversionof a two-stage
ATM switchis shownin Figure10.10wherein
all in-
coming cells are available to all output ports via separatepaths for each input. Each
input path in each output port module is terminated in a separatecell buffer. Associ-
ated with each buffer is a table look-up function that selectsonly those cells destined
to the respectiveoutput port$. Output data are selectedfrom the $eparatebuffers as a
cornmon queue,thereby pedorming a spaceswitch function.
The main advantageof the configuration shown if Figure I 0. I 0 is that all data paths
and memories operateat the external link speed.The basic disadvantageis the need
for AP buffers (and AP headerprocessors),where N is the number orplrts. cell loss
occurs when an incoming cell encountersa full buffer. The probability of this occur-
ring is conkolled by how much traffic for a particula-r output is accepted from a par-
ticular input. The use of multiple, individual queues leads to smailer group sizes,
which leadsto more total memory for a given cell loss probability. However, because
the memories operateat relatively low speeds,the cost impact is minimizea. Notice
that delay probabilities are determined by the total traffic ur.*pt-d for an ourput port
in the samemiutner as previous con_figurations.*

Mem ory-$ pace-l,ilemory Switch

ATM switcharchitectures with singlestagesof spaceandmemoryswitchingareim-
practicalin termsof speedand/orhardwarerequirementswhenvery large$ysrem$
are
desired.As is thecasewith circuit-switching
architecture$,morepractic-aVeconomical
structuresrequiremultiple memorystagesor multiple spacestages-or both. one
such architectureis a counterpartto a TST switch, the memory-space-memory
(MSM) implementation shownin Figure10.I L Theinpurmemorystageof anMSM
bufferscompletecells of informationthat arequeuedfor transfeithroughthe space
stageandthenbufferedagainfor transferfrom the outputmemory.successivecells
of aparticularconnectionarenotnecessarily transfenedthroughthi spacesmgeat any
palticularpredetermined time. As eachcell is receivedinto an inpui buffer,a queue
entryis madefor rheappropriate transferthrough thespacestage.Supportormuitiple
*This
assumesthat the separatebuffers associated with each output link are managed as a single
FIFO queue
for output purposes.
 481
10.3 ASYNCHFONOUSTBANSFERMODENETWORKS

ATM swirch.
Flgure10.10 Multiple-memory

classesof servicereqUiremultipleinput queues(usuallysharinga coilunonmemory

element).
Beforea cell in an input buffer canbe transferredthroughthe spacestage,the de-
siredouput stagemustbe availablefor input.If the desiredoutputmemoryis busy,
the cell carnotbe transferredandhead-of-lineblockingoccurs.If anothercell in the
input queuecanbe selectedwhenoneor moreof the head-of-linecellsareblocked,
the impactof the blockingis minimized.Suchoperationsareea$yto implementin
computer-controlledstore-and-forwardswirchesbut must be implementedin hard-
ware in a large,high-speedATM switch. An altemativeapproachto determiningif
blockingexistsbeforea hansferis madeis to blindly fransfercellsthroughtheswitch
andhaveblockedcells reenteran input polt though a recirculationpath,asshownin
Figure 10.12.Determiningthe delay/celllossperformance of sucha systemis very
complicatedanddependenton theprobabilityof blocking andthenumberof cellsthat
canentertherecirculationbuffer(s).

ATM switch.
Figure 10.11 Memory-space-nremory
 482 DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTRANSFEFM0DENETWoRKS

Figurel0.l? Memory-space_memory
switchwithrecirculation.

For bestperformance, theinputcellsfrom all input linesof anMSM switchshould

be distributedacrossall input buffersusing a front-endshuffledistributionswitch
[15]' This processdecorrelatesthe enhiesin an input queuefrom the cell arrivalsof
anyoneparticularinput line. Recallthat a similaroperationis advantageous in TST
switchesto reduceblocking probabilitiesfor individual channelsof a busy trunk
group.
Thedesignof a spacestagefor anMSM switchmatrixcanfollow anyoneof a va-
.
riety of approaches, includinga single-stage squarematrix or a multipie-stage clos
network,asdescribedin chapter5. with eitherof thesedesignsthe probabilityancl
treatmentof outputblockingcanbe minimizedby runningthe spacestagefasterthan
the cell rateof the extemalports(i.e.,with the MSM equivalentof time expansion).
The existenceof expandedopporhrnities for spacestagetransfersreducesthe prob-
abilityof contentionfor anoutputbufferandminimizesthedelaywhencontentionoc-
curs.A very significantconsideration in the spacestagedesignis the complexityof
hardwarecontrol logic, particularrywhen multiple service
Irioriti", and multiple
pathsthroughthe switch areaccomrnodated.

Banyan Network Swltch

one approachto implementingmodularspacestagestructuresis a banyannetwork
U6l. As indicatedin Figure10.13,abanyannerworkis implemenred by inrerconnecr-
ing 2 x 2 switchingelementsin multiple,recursivestages.Noticethatthe g x g skuc-
tureis implemented astwo 4 x 4 structuresandanadditionalfront-endsrageto select
eitherofthe two 4 x 4 structures
from eachinput.Repeatedreplicationsandfirst-stage
additionsallow implementation of arbitrarysizednetworks.
A banyannetworkprovidesfull accessibilityin thatanyinputcanbe connected to
anyoutput.Noticethatthereis a uniquepathbetweenanyinputandanyoutput.How-
 483
10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFEFMODENETWORKS

-l-
r-t -Et*
Slraight Cross
(a)

(b)

Figure 10.13 Banyanswirchingnetwork:(a) 2 x 2 switchingelementconnectionstatesl(b)

8 x I network.

ever,thenetworksarenot nonblocking.If thefirst inputis connected to thefirst out-

put,for example,thesecondinputcanonlybeconnected to oneofthe bottomfourout-
puts.Onemethodof overcomingtheblockingaspectsof thebanyannetworkinvolves
cascadingtWosuchsectionsto producewhat aregenerallyreferredto asBenesnet-
works[17]. A Benesnetworkis strictlynonblockingif rearangementof connections
is utilized.Anotheraugmentation of a banyannetworkis to concatenate a Batcher
sortingnetwork[18] with a banyannetwork. The front-end sortingprocessorders the
cellssotheycanall betransferred throughtheswitchwithout blocking.Another modi-
ficationto a banyannetworkto address blockingproblemsis to addparallelnetworks
referredto as switch planesto provide more pathsto an output.This latter approach
is identicalto addingmorecenterstagesto a multiple-stage switchdescribed in Chap-
ter 5. Unfortunately,thisapproach compromises thesimplicityof uniquepathrouting.
The basicattractionof a banyannetworkis the modularsimplicityof its control.
When a cell it to be transferredthroughthe network,the table look-up processpro-
ducesa sequence ofbits for internalroutingthroughthenetwork.Thefirst bit defines
theselectionof thefirst-stageelement.Thesecondbit deflnestheselectionof thesec-
ond stageand so on. The routing information is appendedto the front of the cell and
thecompositemessage is transferredthroughtheswitchonestageat a time,with lead-
ing bits deletedasthey areused.Thus,a banyannetworkutilizesdirectprogressive
controlreminiscentof anelectromechanical step-by-stepswitch,described in Chapter
5. Unfortunately,modificationsto the basicbanyanarchitectureto provide multiple
pathscompromisesthe simplicity anddistributedaspectof the hardwarecontrol.
A wide variety of otherATM switch architecfureshavebeenproposedanddevel-
oped[19-23].
484 DATAAND
ASYNcHRoNoUS
THANSFER
MoDENETWoHKS

10.3.5 ATMApplicarions

Although the basic ATM architectureis primarily directed to servicing data commu-
nications, the ATM architectureincludes provisions for other servicessuch as voice,
video, and multimedia. Supportfor the various servicesis included in various versions
of ATM adaptationlayers (AALs). service adaptationoccursat the periphery of a net-
work in edgesswitches.Internal nodesof an ATM network (core switches)are uncon-
cerned with the nature of the traffic other than supporting the
eos objectives of the
generalclassesof service.The role of AALs are shown in the functional layers
of Fig-
ure 10.14 of the (ATM) Multi-service switching Forum (MSF) The generat
[?4].
classesof service and the adaptationlayers to support theseservicesare identified as
follows:

AALI: Transport of cBR rraff,rc (program audio, video, and emulation of

TDM-basedcircuits (i.e.,DSl, El).
AAL2: Protocol standard for low-bit-rate and time-dependentvariable-bit-rate
(VBR-rt) connection-orientedtraffic (compressedvoice anclpacketizedvideo).
AAL3/4: Protocol standard for supporting both connectionless and
connection-orientedvBR traffic [primary application, switched Multimesabit
Data Service(SMDS)1.
AALS: Transport of vBR traffic anclsignaling messages(packet data, Ip, frame
relay, LAN emulation).

CircuitEmulatlon Serulces
A circuitemulation
service
(cES)t25lis usedto transport
TDM-based channels
such
asDSO,DSl, or El signals.
cESsareprocessed accordingto anAALI protocol.
A

Applications

Gontrol
plf,ne

Switching
plane

Adaptation
plsne

Extemelinterfaces
Figure 10.14 ATM functional implementation layers.
 485
10.s ASyNcHFoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWoBKS

critical aspectof a CES serviceinvolvesrecoveryof the sourceclock at the egress

point of the ATM network.Figure 10.15depictsthreedifferentclock recoverysce-
nariosdependent on the natureof the networksynchronization. The mostdesirable
situationis shownin Figure 10.154,in which the entirenetwork,includingthe data
source,is synchronized to a commonprimaryreferenceclock (PRC).In this casethe
output dataclock is derivedfrom the PRC andthereforehasthe sameaveragevalue
asthe source.As long astheATM networkmeetscell delayvariation(CDV) criteria,
the cell buffer in the egressAALI equipmentabsorbscell arrivalvariationsandno
dataarelost.If cell arrivalvariationsexceedCDV requirements, dataslipsmayoccur.
As is the casein TDM networksthe slipsshouldbe controlledto consistof integral
numbersof framesof theunderlyingdata(e.g.,193bitsfor DSI or 256bitsfor El) to
precludelossof framingin the underlyingcircuit.
Figure l0.l5b showsa networkconfigurationwhereinthe ATM networkis syn-
chronizedto a commonPRCbut the datasourceis timedfrom someotherreference.
For this situation,ATM networksutilize synchronous residualtime stamps(SRTSs).
SRTSsareperiodicallyinsertedinto the overhead ofa cell datastreamat an ingress
AALI. TheegressAALI candeterminetheaveragedatarateof thesourceby dividing
theamountof sourcedatareceivedbetweensuccessive SRTSsby thetimeintervalde-
finedby the SRTSs.Noticethatthe useof SRTSsdependson the ingressandegress
equipmentbeingsynchronized to a commonPRC.
Figure 10.15cdepictsthe most undesirable casein which the ingressand egress
nodesarecontrolledby separate references(PRCI andPRCZ).In this case,adaptive
clockingis utilized to recoverthe sourcedataclock. Adaptiveclockinginvolvesa
phase-locked loop (PLL) with the fill levelof thecell bufferprovidinga phasemeas-
urement. very low bandwidthfilter is usedto determinethelong-termaveragefill
A
level,which in tum establishes the recoveredoutputclock of the VCO. Jitterin the
derivedclockis easilycontrolledhy usinga large-cell-buffer andnarrow-bandwidth
PLL. However,low-frequencyclock variations (wander) caused by irregularcell ar-
rival timesareunavoidablyransferredto thederived clock. Dependingon the appli
cation,thewandermay or may not causedownstream problems. If a DSI signal,for
example,is immediatelydemultiplexedinto analogsignals,no impairmentsto voice
channelswill arisebut high-speed voicebandmodemsmaybe adverselyaffected(be-
causeof impairments to thecarrierreference phase).If theDSI signalis insteadpassed
to a switchingmachine,thewandermaycontributeto slipsin theelasticstoreinterface
of theswitch.Again,slipsdo not impairvoicesignalsbut significantlycomrptvoice-
banddata.

LAN Emulatlon
To providecompatibilitywith LAN protocolsandestablished theATM
applications,
Forumcreateda protocol,calledLAN Emulation(LANE), which defineshow Eth-
ernet(IEEE802.3)andtokenring LAN (IEEE802.5)datacanbecarriedoveranATM
network.Figure10.16showhow anATM networkcanprovideLAN-to-LAN connec-
(ATM to thedesktop).Thecon-
tivity aswell asconnectivitydirectlyto workstations
nectionlessnature of contemporaryLANs is simulatedin a manner that first
 DATAANDASYNCHRONOUS
TRANSFERMODENETWOFKS

(a)

(b)

lPRcTl
.;

(c)

Figure 10.15 Synchronization

of circuitemulationservices:(a) fully synchronized
network;
(D)unsynchronized
source(sRTsderivedclock);(c) unsynchronized ATM gateways(adaptive
clocking).
 487
10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWOBKS

EnterpriseLAtl

usingATM LAN emulation.

Figure 10.16 LAN interconnection

determinesif a connection(SVCor PVC)to an addressed stationalreadyexists.If so,

anATM message andthen
is sentto thestation.Otherwise,anSVCis first established
the message is sent.A LAN Emulationclient (LEC) is established in everyLAN at-
tachmentto the ATM network.Severaltypesof LAN Emulationserversareusedto
configuretheLECsandprovidecontemporary LAN functions$uchasmulticastand
broadcastservices.

Low-Bit-Rdte Voice
Althoughvoicecanbecarriedas64-kbpsPCM channels in a CESmode,greatsavings
in bandwidthare achievedby transmittingcompressed voice. Transportof com-
pressedvoiceis particularlyappropriatefor ffansmission to andfrom digital cellular
basestationswherevoiceis alreadycompressed or aboutto becompressed. Similarly,
transportof a groupof compressed voicechannelsbetweenPBXsof a ptivatenetwork
is advantageous. As shownin Figure10.17,individualvoicechannelscanbe serviced
as VBR-rt (AAL2) switchedvirtual circuitsby packingmultiple framesof low-bit-
rate$peechinto ATM cells.The particularexampleshownin Figure 10.17assumes
G.729ConjugateStructuredAlgebraicCodeExcitedLPC (CS-ACELP)voicecom-
pressionwith 80 bits per lO-msecprocessing ftame.Noticethatcell packingputs4.8
ACELPframesinto anATM cell,whichincreases thevoicelatencyby asmuchas40
msecin eachdirectionof transmission.
The voice latencycanbe reducedby forming a trunk groupandpackingmultiple
compressed voicepacketsinto individual48-bytecell payloads.A singlecell canthen
carry four lO-byteCS-ACELPpacketsin a frameandnot adda lot of delayto the in-
 488 DATAANDAsyNcHRoNoUsTRANsFEHMoDENETwoRKS

Ftgure10.17 Packing
low-bit-rate
voiceintoATM.

dividualchannels. This approachis particularlyusefulfor fixed networktransportof

digital cellulartraffic, which inherenflyinvolvesmultiple connectionsto and from
basestations.

Example10.3. Dererminethe probabilirythat the delay of an ATM voice cell

exceed$l0 msecif the cell is carriedon a DSI accesslink to an ATM network.
Assumetheaccesslink is 907outilizedon averase.

solution. The solutionto this problemutilizes queuingtheory as presentedin

chapter12 wheremoreproblemsof this typeareprovided.It involvesdetermining
. theprobabilitythattheDSl acce$squeuecontainsenoughcellsto representl0 msec
of transmissiontime. Assumingall but the framingbit of the DSI signalis usedto
carryATM cells,theservicetime (f.) of a singlecell is determined
as

53x8
t = = 276Psec
rgt; Booo
Therefore,l0 msecof delayrepresentslo/0.2j6= 36.2cell times.Equation12.25of
Chapterl2 is usedto geta solution:

P(>t)= Ps-(l*P)t/rn

p(>10msec): (0.9)e(14'e)36'2
= 0.025

Example10.3indicatesthat2.5vo of the cellswill be delayedby morethan l0

msec'Tenmilliseconds of delayon anacce$s link is quiteacceptable
consideringthere
arepresumablyonly two accesslinks in a connection.Delaysof this magnitudeare
not acceptable
on internallinks of an ATM network,but the internallinks havevery
highbandwidthsandassuchvery shortservicetimessoqueuingdelayof voicecells
 10.3 ASYN0HHONOUSTRANSFEHMODENETWORKS
489

is not muchof a consideration-aslong as voicecellsget adequate priority andthe

CAC limits thenumberof voicecallson a link.
The solutionto ExampleI0.3 involvesa coupleof simplifyingshortcuts. Thefirst
of theseis the useof Equation12.25,whichis intendedfor exponentialservicetimes
as opposedto constantservicestimesimpliedby fixedJengthcells.As discussed in
Chapter12,constant-service-time analyses are generally not appropriate for ATM cell
traffic because the cellsarenot statisticallyindependent. A Iargefile or extendeddu-
ration talkspurtcreatesa burst of cells that havean effect comparableto a variable-
lengthmessage-hencethe useof an exponentialservicetime model.
A secondsimplificationof the solutionof Example10.3is an assumption of ho-
mogeneous traffic-all voicecells.Multiple voice sourcesare reasonablywell be-
havedfrom a traffic statisticspoint of view becauseno one sourcecanproducean
instantaneous burstof cellsascana file transfer.Whena mixtureof traffic typeswith
a mixtureof arrivalstatisticsandserviceprioritiesexist,theanalysisis quiteinvolved
andtypicallyrequiressimulation(asopposedto time-honoredanalyticalsolutions).
Otherfactorsthatinfluencethe analyses arethequeuesize,thequeuediscipline(pri-
oritiesandorderof service),cell discardalgorithms,flow controlalgorithms,andthe
specificCAC algorithm(whatpercentage of a link is allocatedto realtime versusdis-
cretionarytraffic). An extensiveamount researchhasbeenundertakento analyze
of
theperformance of variousATM switchstructures andprocessing algorithms.Refer-
ences[26-28] aresomegoodexamples.
The conditionof 907oloadingof voice channelsin Example10.3is requiredto
achievea controlledamountof delay.If 700Vo loadingof voicechannelsis attempted,
asimpliedby Example10.2,theaverage queuingdelayis unbounded. Thechannelcan
still be 1007oloadedif theadditional107ois discretionary, non-real-time traffic. The
solutionrequiresvoicetraffic to be givenpriority in a mannerthatneversendsdiscre-
tionarytraff,rcif thereareany voicecellsin the queue.Otherwise,the discretionary
traffic impactsthe queuinganalysis.Cell lossfor thediscretionary(e.9.,besteffott)
haff,rcwill be significantif a link is allocatedat closeto 100%of capacity.

Traffic Shaping
Traffic shapingis a termusedto denotethe controlof $ourcesof an accessnodeso
thattheyconformto a panicularsetof traffic statistics(e.g.,SCRandPCR).Traffic
shapingmay involveflow controlfor sometypesof fiaffic or cell discardingfor oth-
ers.Becausethe statisticsof a groupof sourcesis lessvariablethanthe statisticsof
individualsources, haffic shapingcanbe implemented with lessimpacton individual
traffic streamsif a groupof sources(VCC$)arepackedinto a groupandshapedasa
VPC.If a VPC creationprocesshasaccess to thesourcesof theindividualVCCs(e.g.,
64-kbpsPCM voicechannels), additionalpossibilitiesfor traffic shapingoccur.In this
casethecompression processes for theindividualVCCscanbe controlledto achieve
a constafltcompositedataratewith speechqualitydegradation distributedacrosseach
of thechannelsasopposedto degradation occurringto an individualconnectionasa
resultof cell lossor excessive delay.For a descriptionof othertechniques of traffic
shapingandan associated analysisofdelay andcell lo$s,seereferences [29 and30].
 490 DATAAND ASYNCHHONOUS
THANSFEFMODENETWORKS

TABLE10.1 Uncompressed
Blt Ratesof DlgltlzedStandards
$tandard Pixels/Line LineVFrame Frames/sec pixels/sec Mbps
NTSC 640 480 30 9.216 221
PAL s80 575 50 16.675 400
HDTV 1920 1080 30 62.208 1493

This principle can also be applied to MpEG-z video encodingof multiple, real-time
video signalst3l, 321.Maintaining a constantcompositedatarate of multiple inde-
pendent channels complicates the multiplexing process becausea figure of quality
most be preparedand comparedacrossthe multiple sourcesto determinewhich source
is least affected by a lower bandwidth allocation. Undoubtedly, this processalso adds
delay to the channelssince double-passencoding may be required.

Video
Tablel0' I identifiesthreemajortelevisionstandardsandthebit ratesrequiredto digi-
tally encodethemwith no compression andusing24bitsperpixel.Thethreestandards
areNTSC for North AmericanbroadcastTV, PAL for Europeanbroadcast TV, and
high-definitionTV (HDTV).
Two ver$ionsof digital compression encodinghavebeendefinedby the Motion
PicturesExpertGroup:MPEGI andMPJG2. MPEGI is intendedfor vHS-quality
videoandaudio.MPEG2addresses higherqualityrequirements of broadcast-quality
videoand audioaswell asHDTV. Becauseof the encodingcomplexity,MpEG2 is
primarilyusedin broadcast applicationswheretheencodingcostis sharedacrossmul-
tiple destinations.(MPEC2decoders arerelativelyinexpensive.) Dataratesarevari-
abledependingon thenatureof thesourcematerial(amountof movement). Themean
bit rateof MPEG-I is I.544 Mbpswhile MpEc-? hasa meanbit rateof 5 Mbps.
The ATM Forumhasdefinedhow MpEG-2 TS packetsareto be packedinto a
AALS-CBR frame.The useof AALI layeris advocatedby the rru oru-T J.gz).
However,ITU-T hasagreedto incorporate ATM ForumdefinedAALS-cBR packing
into its document.Accordingto the ATM Forum,AALS servicesare adequatefor
MPEG-2streamsbecauseMPEG-2includesa prograrnclock reference(FCR) and
thereforedoesnot needthe SRTSsprovidedby AALI.

10.4 INTERNETPROTOCOLTRANSPORT

The Internetevolvedfrom a packet-switching networkconsistingof hostcomputers

connectedwith leasedlinesto IntemetProtocol(IP) routersthat were,in turn,inter-
connected with leasedlines.As this evolutionoccurred,high-speed digital networks
alsoevolved.FigureI 0.I 8 depictsthesituationwhereinthesetwo developments have
cometogetherin variousways.Whatis shownis five differentmeansof providingIp
transporJusingvariouscombinationsof networks:ATM, soNET, framerelay,and
directphysicallayerfiber.
 10.4 TNTEBNETpnoTocoLTHANSpoRT491

| " , l
lAtl4 I I tr ll F ll F I
Am,,I llF'-".t'yll
f sotrEr@ lsoltEr/spHll p I
Fiber plant physical layer

F'igure 10.18 Intemet transmissionlayer altematives.

Other than IP transport directly over fiber, IP over SONET [33] is the most etfi-
cient. The most inefficient situation is IP on top of ATM. A straightforward approach
to reconciling the two protocol layers is to use a relatively static configuration for the
ATM network with permanentvirtual circuits. ln this manner the IP network thinks it
is using leasedlines. An AAL5 interfaceconvertsthe IP packetsinto fixed-length cells
and ships them through the ATM network to an ATM destination node. At the desti-
nation node the packet is recon$tructedand passedto the IP layer. Ifthis IP node is the
final destination,all is well and good. More often than not this is not a final destination
becausea direct virtual connectionbetween all nodesin a large network is very diffi-
cult to manage.(Tl1enumber of paths grows arrthe sguareof the number of nodesand
nodes are constantly being added and removed.) When the,first ATM node is an in-
termediatenode, the IP packet is passedback down through an AALS interfaceto get
back into the ATM network. and so on.
An altemative procedureinvolves having the ATM network set up SVCs for each
packet so the ATM destinationcoincideswith the IP destination.This approachavoids
the multiple trips up and down the adaptationlayersbut introducesan extremeamount
of control overheadwithin the ATM network.
To minimize IP over ATM problems, Cisco systemshas developeda networking
procedurereferred to as "tag switching" that mergesIP and ATM protocols. A tag is
essentiallyan ATM destinationaddressthat gets attachedto eachpacket (addressand
all) at a tag edgerouter. The compositemessageis passedthrough the ATM network,
which provides tag switching, until it gets reconstructedand delivered to the destina-
tion where the tag is removed. The simplification occurs becausea tag is easier to
processthan IP adfuessingand routing. The IETF has standardizedthe basic concept
of tag switching as multiprotocol label switching (MPLS).
As indicated on the far right of Figure 10.18, the overheadof multiple network lay-
ers is avoided by directly connecting one IP node to anotherIP node with a dedicated
fiber link. There are, however, limitations with direct connections.lP networks have
been traditionally implemented with leasedcircuits that are managedand maintained
by a common carrier. These leased-line services include provisioning, performance
monitoring, and protection switching. Common-carrier provisioning allows rearrang-
492 DATAANDASYNcHRoNoUsTEANSFERMoDENETWoHKS

ing networkinterconnections usingSONETcross-connect equipment.performance

monitoringallowsautomated identificationandisolationof faulty or marginalequip-
ment.Physicallayerprotectionswitchingassures an applicationwith a reliablecon-
nection despite equipmentfailures or cable cuts. when direct physical layer
interconnect is used,the IP applicationmustimplementapplicationlayerprotection
switchingto circumventtransmission link failures.
Another,possiblymoresignificantlimitationwith Ip "overglass"is thepotential
for a lackofcarrier-$upportedsignalregeneration. Althoughtransparent opticalhans-
mission(on fibersor wavelengths) is a seeminglyatmactive serviceoffering,a trans-
parentchannel,by its definition,cannotbe supportedwith regeneration. Thecariers
could offer transparentopticalchannelsfor limited distanceapplications,but long-
distanceapplicationsthroughopticalmultiplexingand switchingsy$temscannotbe
realizedwithoutregeneration. Regeneration is whatallowsa telephoneuserto "hear
a pin drop."

HEFERENCES

I R.E,Kahn,"Resource-sharing
computercommunications s,"proceedings
Network of
IEEE,Nov.1972,pp.1397-1407.
2 H. Rudin and H. Miiller, "More on Routingand Flow Control,"National
Telecommunications
Conference,1979,pp.34.5.l-34.5.9.
3 J' Rinde,"RoutingandControlin a CentrallyDirectedNetwork,"l{afional Computer
Conference, 1977, pp.603-608.
4 s. c. K. Youngandc. I. McGibbon,"The control systemof the DatapacNetwork,"
Internati onaI Conferente on Communicatio ns, lg76, pp, I 37- I 4 I .
5 T. s' Yum and M. schwartz, "comparison of Adaptive Routing Algorithms for
ComputerCommunicationsNetworks,"National Telecommunications Conference-
1 9 7 8p, p . 4 . 1 . 1 - 4 . 1 . 5 .
6 F, E. Heart,R. E. Kahn, S. M. Omstein,W. R. Crowther,and D. C. Walden..'The
Interface MessageProcessorfor the ARPA computer Network," spring Joint
ComputerConference, 1970,pp. 551-556.
7 L. Kleinrock, "Principles
and l,essonsin Packetcommunications,"proceedingsof
IEEE,Nov, 1978,pp. 1320-1329.
I Internetstandard3, "Requirementsfor InternetHosts: IETF RFC 1122," Internet
EngineeringTaskForce,lg9B.
9 J' McQuillan, "Beyond 'Best-Effort' Routing," BusinesscommunitationsReview,
May 1998.
l0 M. Hamidi, O. Verscheure,J. p. Hubaux,L Dalgic, and p. Wang, ..VoiceService
Interworking for PSTN and IP Networks," IEEE communicationsMagazine, May
1999,pp. 104-111.
I I TheATM ForumTC, "Traffic Management specificationversion 4.0," April 1996.
12 N. Ghani,s. Nanukul,and s, Dixit, "ATM Traffic Managementconsiderationsfor
FacilitatingBroadbandAccess,"IEEE communicationsMagazine,Nov. 199g,pp.
98-105.
 REFERENcES493

IJ P. Newman,"A FastPacketSwitchfor the IntegatedServicesBackboneNetwork,"

IEEE Joumal on SelectedAreasof Corununications,Dec. 1988.
L4 K. Sarkies,"The BypassQueuein FastPacketSwirching,"IEEE Transactionson
Communications, May 1991,pp. 766-7'74.
1 5 F. M. Chiussi,J. G. Kneuer,andV. P. Kumar,"Low-CostScalableSwitchingSolutions
for Broadband Nefworking; The ATLANTA Architecture and Chipset," IEEE
Communications Magaline,Dec. I 997,pp.44-53.
t 6 S. C. Knauer and A. Huang, "STARLITE: A WidebandDigital Switch," IEEE
Nov. 1984.
Glohecom,
t 7 V. E. Benes,MathematicalTheoryof ConnectingNetworks,AcademicPress,New
York, 1965.
r 8 K. E. Batcher,"SortingNetworksandTheirApplications,"Proteedingsof SpringJoint
ComputerConference, 1968,pp. 307-314.
l 9 Y-S. Yeh, M. G. Hluchyj, and A. S. Acampora,"The KnockoutSwitch:A Simple,
Modular Architecture for High-PedonnancePacket Switching," IEEE Joumal on
Selected
Areasof Communications, Oct. 1987,pp. 1274-1283.
20 E. W. Zegura, "Architectures for ATM SwitchingSystems,"IEEE Communications
Magazine,Feb.1993.pp. 28-37.
2l "NonblockingArchitectures
A. Pattavina, for ATM Switching,"IEEE Communicatians
Magazine,Feb.1993,pp. 38-48.
M. de Prycker,Asynchronous TransferModeSolutionfor BroadbandISDN,Prentice
Hall, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ, 1995.
R. Y. Awdeh andH. T. Mouftatr,"Surveyof ATM SwitchArchitectures,"Computer
Networksand ISDNSystems, Vol. 27, 1995,pp. 1567-1613.
24 "MultiserviceSwitchingForumImplementation Agreement,"msf-architecture-Ol.00,
ATMForum,Nov. 1998.
25 CircuitEmulationSeniceInteroperabiliry
SpecificationVersian2.0,
af-vtoa-fi)?8.000,
ATM Forum.Ian. 199'7.
26 B. Steyaert,Y. Xiong, and H. Bruneel, "An Efficient Solution Techniquefor
Dirlcrete-TimeQueuesFed by Heterogeneous TrafFrc,"InternationalJoumal of
Communications ,9ystens,Mar./Apr.1997,pp. 73-86.
27 A. Ia Corte, A. Lombardo,and G. Schembra,'?nalysis of Packet Loss in a
Continuous-Time Finite-BufferQueuewith MultimediaTraffic Stream,"Intemational
fournal of Communitations,Mar./Apr.199'1,pp. 103*115,
"A
28 J. ChoeandN. B. Shroff, Cental-Limit-Theorem-Based Approachfor Analyzing
QueueBehavior in High-SpeedNetwork," IEEE/ACM Transactionson Networking,
Oct. 1998,pp. 659-671.
K, Sriram,T. G. Lyons,andY, T. Wang,'AnomaliesDue to DelayandLossin AALZ
PacketVoiceSystems: ModelsandMethodsof Mitigation,"IEEEfournal
Performance
Jan.1999,pp.4-17.
on SelectedAreasin Communications,
K. Sriram and Y, T. Wang, "Voice over ATM Using AAL2 and Bit Dropping;
Performanceand Call Admission Control." IEEE Joumal on SelectedAreas in
Communications,Jan.1999,pp. 18-28.
494 DATAANDASYNCHRONOUS
TRANSFEH
MODENETWOHKS

3l S. Gringeri, K. Shuaib, R. Egorov, A. L,ewis, B. Khasuabish, and B. Basch...Traffic

shaping, Bandwidth Allocation, and Qualilty Assessmentfor MpEG video Distribu-
tion over Broadband Networks," IEEE Nen+ork,Nov./Dec. 1g98.
32 M' Krunz, "Bandwidth Allocation strategiesfor Transporting variable-Bit-Rate video
Traffic," IEEE CommunicationsMagazine, Ian. 1998, pp. 40*46.
33 J. Manchester,J. Anderson,B. Doshi, and S. Dravida, ..Ip over SONET." /EEE
Communications Mag,azine,
May I998, pp. 136-142.

PROBLEMS
l0.l Determinethe averagetransmission capacityrequiredto rehansmit50-kbyte
mes$ages if theyaretransmitted intactacrossa singletransmissionlink with a
bit errorrateof 10-6.what is the averageretransmission capacityrequiredif
themessages arepacketizedinto ?-kbyrepackets? (Ignorethesizeof thepacket
headers.)
10.? RepeatProblem10.1with 2 bit errorprobabilityof l0-a.
10.3 Determinethe total numberof bits in an HDLC frameif an informationfield
containsnothingmorethan4 bytesof all 1's. Assumetheminimumsizefor all
fieldsof overhead. Includetheopeningandclosingflag in thecalculation.
10.4 Determinethenumberof 2 xz switchingelementsin a 32 x 32 banyanswitch
matrix.
r0.5 Determinethe transmission efficiencythat resultswhen a singlechannelof
G.723.r compressed voice is packedinto ATM cells and transmittedwith
minimal delay.G723.1utilizes30 ms processingframes.Assumethe higher
of the two standmdrates(6.3 kbps).How muchdelayis addedro rhe voice
channelif theATM cellsarepackedwith closeto l00zoof capacity?(Ignore
speechactivityconsiderations. )
 11
DIGITAL ACCESS
SUBSCRIBER

By theearly1990sthepublictelephone networksof theworldhadconvertedto digital

technologyin virnrallyall of the internaltransmission andswitchingequipment.To-
wardthe latterhalf of the 1990snew digital applicationsfor traditionalanalogtech-
nologyfocusedon providingcustomeracces$to the digital network.The Integrated
ServicesDigital Network(ISDN) digital subscriber loops,definedin themid 1980s,
represent oneapproachto digitalaccess. AlthoughISDN hasbeendeployedin many
markets,it hasnot achievedwidespread penetrationfor variousreasons. This chapter
contrastsISDN accesswith altemateapproaches for accessingthe digitalnetwork.
Broadlyspeaking,therearefour basictransmission technologies usedin providing
local digitalaccess:copperwire pairs,fiber,coaxialcables,andwireless.Copperac-
cessutilizestelephonywire pairsby replacinganalogffansmission with digitaltrans-
mission for both voice and data (e.9., ISDN), adding digital transmissiononto
conventional analogvoicetransmission (e.9.,ADSL), or carryingdigitalsignalsin the
existinganalogloop usingmodems.Therapidadvancement of modemsfor realizing
transmission ratesof 33.6kbpsin a V.34 voicebandmodemor roughly56 kbpsfor a
V.90 modemis a mainreasonfor lessthanexpectedISDN usage.
Wide-bandwidth transmission on copperpairsinstalledfor analogPOTSserviceis
complicatedby severalfactors.First,loadingcoils on longerloopsmustbe removed.
Second,it maybe necessary to removebridgedtapsfor adequate performance. ISDN
basicrateacces$ typicallyrequiresbridgedtap removal,but newerapproaches such
as ADSL utilize more sophisticated channelcharacterization andequalizationtech-
niquesto accommodate bridgedtaps.Crosstalkandinterference at high frequencies
areotherconsiderations. A few wire pairsin a cablecancar4ithehigh-frequency sig-
nals,but if a largenumberof pairstry to be activeat thesametime,crosstalkbecomes
a significantlimitation.Interference from externalsourcessuchasAM radiostations
is a consideration athigherfrequencies (e.g.,I MHz). Somehigherrateaccess systems
aredesignedto detectnarrowband interference andmaskit out.
Coaxialcableaccessinvolvesaddingdatatransmissiononto unusedfrequency
bandsof a cableTV system.Fiber accesshasthe potentialfor providingvery wide
bandwidthsbut requiresinstallationof new transmissionfacilitiesdedicatedto the
new services.Wirelessaccessinvolvesmicrowavedistributionsvstemslike mul-
4S5
496 DIGITAL
SUBSCRIBER
AccESs

tichannel
multipointdishibution
service(MMDS)andlocalmicrowave
distribution
system(LMDS)or satellite-based
services
suchasDSS.

11.1 INTEGRATED
SERVICES
DIGITALNETWORK
In addition to the digitization of the internal portions of public telephonenetworks, a
lesserknown but also significant changeinvolved the development of common-channel
signaling (CCS) for network control. Both the digitization and the use of CCS srafred
at internal portions of the network and migrated toward the periphery. Except for some
special data service offerings and a few network-basedfeaturesderived from the sig-
naling network, thesefacilities provided no direct benefit to the end users.As shown
in Figure I I . I , ISDN i s a serviceoffering that extendsaccessto both of thesefacilities
to the end user. Access to the digital transportfacilities occurs on 64-kbps bearer (B)
channelswhile accessto the signaling network occurs on l6- or 64-kbps signaling (D)
channels.Major featuresor benefits made availableby thesechannelsare listed in Ta-
bles 1l.l and 11.2,respectively.
Two levels of digital accessto the ISDN network havebeenstandardized:basic rate
accessand primary rate access.As shown in Figure I1.2, the (worldwide) basic rate
interface (BRI) $tandardis also referred to as a 2B + D interface. In North America.
the primary rate interface (PRI) standard is sometimes referred to as 238 + D while
the ITU-T counterpartis 30B + D. The North American pRI is fundamentally a L544-
Mbps DSI signal with the D channel replacing one of the 24 messagechannels(usu-
ally the last one). To achieve a 64-kbps clear channel capability, a BSZS line code is
used to eliminate one's density requirementsand common-channelsignaling frees up
the signaling bits so the full 64-kbps bandwidth is available for user data. The ITU-T

----- / a \ -*
f-ffiif-

ISDN
AccEte
I Line

-----.-/

Figure 11.1 IntegratedServicesDigitalNetworkaccess

to circuits,channels,
leasedlines,and
common-channel signaling.
 11..I INTEGRATED NETWoRK
DIGITAL
SERVICES 497

TABLE 11.1 Features of ]SDN B Channels

1 . End-to-endfour-wiredigitalcircuits:no loss or echoesfor voice circuitsusingdigital

instruments
2. $hared network access for voice, data, and leased lines
3. Flelativelyhigh bandwidthdata channel$ (64 kbps)
4. Lower error rates than typical voiceband modems
5. In"seruiceperformancemonitoring
o. Possibleexpansionof speechbandwidthbecauseeliminationof tandemencodingsallows
greaterone-timequantizationBrrors

PRI is a 2.048-Mbps El digital signal with the D channel occupying the signaling
channel (time slot 16). Becausea single D channel can support more than one PRI,
248 and 3lB interfacesare allowed for additional PRIs in a group of PRIs.

11.1.1 ISDNBasicRateAccessArchitecture

An ISDN basic rate accessline is a standardcopper pair that has been specially con-
ditioned to support a bidirectional 160-kbps aggregatedata rate. Transmission tech-
nology required for basic rate accessis generally refened to as the digital subscriber
loop (DSL). Complications arise when using existing analogpairs. The principal con-
siderationsare bridged taps and wire gaugechanges,both of which causereflections
that impact higher speeddigital signals.To allow flexibility in the selection and de-
ployment of the DSL, the ITU-T basicrate specification I I ] doesnot define a two-wire
transmission $tandard.Instead. it establishesan interface standardthat assumesthe
presenceof a network termination module that converts any chosentransmissionsys-
tem to the standardinterface.In the interestof supportingderegulatedcustomerprem-
ises equipment, the Exchange Carriers Standard Association in the United States
establisheda basic rate transmissionstandard[2] so CPE equipmentcould connectdi-
rectly to the transmissionlink or select network termination modules f,rom alternate
vendors. Figure 11.3 depicts the architectureand associatedterminology of a North
American BRI.

TABLE11.2 Featuresof ISDND Channels

1 . Signaling
simultaneous withactiveconnections
2. Callingnumberidentification
3. Far-end superuision
4 . User-to-user
messagetransfer
5 . Telemetry
forfirealarms,$ecurity,
meterreading,etc,
A Accessto packet-switching network
7. $upportfor nelwork$eruices suchas multiple numbers
directory sharingoneor moreB
trunkgroupblocking
channels, andidentification
statistics, of callingnumberfor
abandoned or blockedcalls
498 DIGITALSUBSCHIBEFACCESS

Prim8ry Rete Accgrs

l 2
B I B l . . . l Bl D

238+D ISDN
N6twgrk

-rTpT BTil
2B+D
Ba$ic Rate AccBBB

Figurell.2 Basicrarcandprimaryrateaccess
to ISDN.

ModuleDefinitions
NTI : A networkterminationmodulefor layer I functionsthatprovidesphysical
and electricalterminationof the transmissionlink only. In essence,the NTI
isolatesthe userfrom thetransmission technologybut doesnot demultiplexor
processD channelmessages.
NTZ: A secondlevelof networkterminationthatimplementsfunctionsassociated
with layers2 and3 of theosl protocolstack.Thus,NTZequipmentextractsand
processes D channelmessages. NTZ equipmentincludespBXs,
Representative
multiplexers,or LAN gateway$.
TEl: Type I terminalequipmentsuchasa digitaltelephone thatcomplieswith the
ISDN S interfacerecommendation.
714.'Terminaladapterusedto convertfrom an arbitrary(R) interfaceto the ISDN
S interface.
TEZ: A non-ISDN terminal that requiresa terminal adapterto interfaceto the
ISDN S interface.Prevalentexamplesof a TE2 equipmentare analog
telephones or asynchronous (RS-232)dataterminals.

ReferencePoints
U; Interfaceto thetwo-wiretransmission
line.

ISDN
Network

Figure 11.3 Basic rate interface architecture.

 111 TNTEcRATED
sEnvtcEsDrcrrAL
NETWoHK 499

T: CCITT ISDN interface defined in RecommendationI.430.

S; Interface to NTZ equipment identical to a T interface.
R.' A non-ISDN interface such as an analog tip and ring.

11.1.2 S/T Interface

The S/T interfaceis definedin ITU-T recommendation 1.430to be suppliedby net-

work terminationequipment(NT2A{TI). It is intendedfor customerpremisesinstal-
lationsonly. (No overvoltageprotectionis prescribed.)
The mostsignificantaspects
of the S/T interfaceare;

1 . Four-wirefacility (onepair for eachdirection)

2. Onekilometermaximumrequireddistance
J - Alternatespace inversionline code(whichis the inverseof an AMI line code:
seeFigurel l.4)
4 . Point-to-pointor point-to-multipoint
configurations
5 . Datarateof 192kbpswith 48 kbpsof framing,control,andsynchronization

The frame rttructureat referencepoints S and T is shown in Figure 11.5.As indicated,

each 250-msecframe contains 48 bits. Thirty-eight of thesebits are cornmon to both
directions of transmissionand are defined as follows:

16 bits in first B channel(Bl)

16 bits in secondB channel (82)
4 bits in the D channel
I bit in the framing channel F
I bit in the auxiliary framing channel F4

The remaining l0 bits are assigneddifferent functions dependingon the direction of

transmission.From the TE to the NT all remaining 10 bits are defined as L bits, which
are used to maintain dc balance.The definition of the 10 bits from the NT to the TE
are:

2 L bits for maintainins dc balance

l r l o l o l o l t l o l r l o l

_ J L _ _ n _---Lr
-l_r _
1r-
Figure 11.4 Altematespaceinversionline code.
500 DIGITALSUBSCHIBERACCESS

48 Bits ln 260

NT to TE
F L Brrr tl gr Br tr Brrr E D A F^r E?tt!tt2B? |2r?t2 f, u H !t rl rl rt rr BtB2t0LFt.

FJ._J._J
LtttlllllllllllllLoLr^LlrttBt!2828282!lL0LBlElEtltrlElBluLDL12ultit12uu|0LDttL

lr-
Figure 11.5 S/T framestructure,

4 E bits that echo D bits received from the TE(s)

I A bit for activation
I N bit, which is the complement of the Fo bit
I M bit far multiframe identification
1 S bit for S channel

Figure I I.5 indicatesthat the framing bit F is always a binary 0. Even though a posi-
tive voltage level is indicated, either a positive or negative voltage is allowed so the
receiversare not sensitiveto wiring polarity. A transmitter always producesthe same
level, however, so the receiver always receivesthe samepolarity in every framing bit.
As an aid in rapid acquisition of the framing pattem, the framing bit always represenm
a line code violation (it is the samepolarity as the previous 0). To maintain dc balance,
an L bit with the opposite polarity of the F bir always follows the F bit. The first 0 in
a data block following the L bit is encodedwith the samepolarity as the L bit, which
implies another line code violation. Direct-current balancing of this violation is the
purpose of the L bit at the end of each data block, which also assuresthat the next
(fixed-polarity) F bit producesa line code violation.
The reason for the additional L bits in the frame from the TE to the NT arises be-
cau$emore than one TE can be connectedto the S intedace as a passivebus (Figure
I 1.6). Becausethe TEs transmit independently of each other, each individual trans-
mission (D channelbits and B channelbytes) is individually dc balanced.
Passivebus operationsare also the reasonfor the existenceof the NT-to-TE E bits.
Multiple station accessto the D channelis controlled by having a terminal wait for an
idle code on the NT-to-TE D channelbefore hansmitting on the TE-to-NT D channel.
when a terminal begins D channeltransmission,it monitors the incoming E bits. If an
incoming E bit does not match the previously transmitted D bit, that terminal stops
transmitting and waits to seize the channel at a later time. Two levels of priority are
defined for accessingthe D channel. signaling informarion is the highest priority
 11.1 INTEGHATED DIGITAL
SERVICES NETWORK 501

s
TEl

a
a u
I
NTt

TET

TEl
J
Ftgurell.6 S-busconnections.

while userpacketmessages arethelowerpriority.All terminalson a passivebushave

equalprioritieswithin eachlevel.

Example 11.1. Determinethe distancelimit imposedby theneedto echoE bits in

a BRI S/T inteface.Assumethe speedof transmission of a signalon a pair of wires
is one-thirdthespeedof light in a vacuum.Ignoretransmitterandreceiverfilter delays
andassumeno appreciable delaysin theNT logic circuitry.

Solutian. From Figure I I.5 it can be seenthat the minimum delay betweena
terminalhansmittinga D bit andreceivingit backin the followingE bit is sevenbit
times(thisis theTE to NT D bit followingthefirst 82 byte).At a 192-kbpsdararare
the durationof a bit is 5.2 psec.Thus,the total round-trippropagationtime is 7
x 5.2 = 36.4p sec.Assumingno appreciable circuitrydelaysin the NT,

Maximumwire length= (36.4x 10*6)x + (3 x 108)m

Becauseround-trippropagation
involvesbothdirectionsof transmission

= x 3.64= 1.82Lrn
Maximumdistance ]
Example1l.I showsthatthe BRI standardhasa fundamentaldistancelimitation
thatis not far abovethe minimumtransmission
distancespecification
of 1 km.

11.1.3 ISDN U Interlace

Prior to the e$tablishmentof a standardU interfaceby the ExchangeCarriersStand-
ardsAssociationin NorthAmericaa numberof basicratetransmission sy$temswere
developedby telephoneequipmentsuppliersaroundthe world andput into service.
504 DrcrrAL
suBscHtBER
AccESS

one of theseinvolvestheuseof timecompression multiplex(TCM).TcM, developed

by NEC in Japan[3], providesfull-duplextransmission on a singlepair of wiresby
alternatelytransmittingburstsof datain eachdirection.For thisreasonit is sometimes
referredto as"ping-pong"tralsmission.one big advantage of rCM transmission is
thatnear-endcrosstalkis avoidedbecause a stationis neverreceivingwhile transmit-
ting' Thebig disadvantage is thattheburstdataratemustbe morethantwicethe de-
sireddatathroughput.
AT&T in the united statesalsodevelopeda BRI transmission systemfor the
No. 5 ESSend office switchingsystemavailablewith genericreleases5E4 and
5E5 t4l. This systemhasa 160-kbpsdararateutilizinga 50zodutycycleAMI line
code.Full-duplextransmission is achievedby simultaneous transmission in both
directionsusinghybridsandechocancelers(ECs)to separate the two signals,as
indicatedin FigureI I.7. Beginningwith generic5E6theNo. 5 ESSsupporrs both
the AT&T (Lucent) u interface(referuedro as a 5E4l5E5 u interface)and the
ANSI U interface.
Like the 5E4l5E5U interface,the ANSI U interfaceusessimultaneous ffansmis-
sionin bothdirectionswith echocancelers anda datarateof 160kbps.Themajordif-
ferenceis the useof a four-levelline codereferredto as2B1e (two binarydigits in
onequaternary digit).Thus,thesymbol(baud)rateon theline is 90,000symbols/sec.
Becausethe line codeitself doesnot preventdc wander,dc restorationis necessary.
Reference [5] describes animplementation with adaptivequantizedfeedbackasbeing
thebestapproach. A 2BlQ line codewaschosenprimarilybecause thelower symbol
rate minimizesthe two dominanttransmissionlimitationsin this application;in-
tersymbolinterference andnear-endcrosstalk[6].
The frame format and superframestructureof the ANSI U interfaceareshownin
Figure11.8.Eachframeconsistsof 240bits containinglg framingbits, 216payload
bits (12 fieldsof I I 2B + D databits),and6 overheadbits.Becausetheframerateis
667frames/sec thedatarateis 160kbps.The6 overheadbits areorganizedasa block
of 48 bits in an eight-framesuperframe. Functionsincludedin the overheadbits are
24 bits of embedded operations channel,I activationbit, I deactivation bit, I far-end
block errorbit, l2 cRC bits, and9 fixed I bits. All bits exceptthe framingbits are
scrambled fbr transmission.

Figure 11.7 ISDN DSL TX/RX blockdiagram.

 11.2 HIGH-DATA-RATE SUBSCRIBER
DIGITAL LOOPS 503

t8 18 18

I rsw 28+D 28+D 28+D Mr-M"

z sw 28+D 28+D 28+D Mr-M.
3 svv 28+O 28+D 2 8 +D Mr-M"
4 sw 28+D 28+D 2E+D Mr-M.
5 SW 28+D 28+D 28+D Mr-M.
6 svlf 28+D 2B+D ?B+D Mr-M"
7 sw 28+O 28+D 28+D Mr-M"
E sw 28+D 28+D 28+D Mr-Mt

S W- S y n cW o r d= + 3 + 3 - 3 * 3 - 3 + 3 - 3 + 3 + 3
I S W : I n v w u d$ W = - 3 - 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 - 3 + 3 - 3 - 3
2 B + D * l B , l B " l D l ( l 8 l 8 f2 )
Mr-M" * Ovdrlrosdbitr
Dataar€encoded as0O= -3. 01 = -1, 11 : +1, 10 = +3

Figure 11.8 ANSI U interfaceframe and superframestructure.

11.1.4 ISDN D Channel Protocol

TheD channelprotocolis definedin two separate seriesof ITU-T recomrnendations;

theI seriesandtheQ series.Thedatalink layer(LAPD) is definedin L441or Q.921.
This protocolis similarto LAPB of theX.25 standard exceptQ.921allowsmorethan
onelogicallink. (Thereforeseparate "connections"canexistfor signaling,packetnet-
work, or far-endterminals.)The main functionsof the datalink layer aremessagese-
quencing,error checkingand retransmission, and data layer link recovery.The
networklayerof the D channelprotocolis definedin I.451 or Q.931. This layerpro-
videsconnectionsetup,alerting,routing,andreleaseof ISDN calls.Whena B channel
accesses a packetnetwork,theX.25 protocolis usedwhile in theconnected state.

11.2 HIGH.DATA.RATEDIGITALSUBSCRIBERLOOPS

A basicrateISDN digital subscriberloop providesan aggregate, bidirectionaldata

rateof 160kbpson a singlepair of wires.This sectiondescribes severaltransmission
techniquesthatallow muchlargerbandwidthson copperwire pairs.Thesenewtech-
niquesare enabledby the availabilityof low-cost,high-performance digital signal
processing.Severalversionsof high-speed digital subscriberlineshavebeendevel-
oped.Thevariousversionsarecollectivelyreferredto asxDSL (seeTableI 1.3).

11.2.1 Asymmetric Dlgital Subscriber Line

ADSL allowsfor high dataratesto the subscriberandmoderateto low dataratesfrom

the subscriberto thenetwork,ADSL technologywasoriginallyconceivedasa means
of deliveringswitcheddigitalvideoservicesovera copperloop [7], whichobviously
Althoughvideoapplications
do notrequirehigh dataratesfrom thesubscriber. did not
 504 DIGITAL
SUBScFIBEH
AccEsS

TABLE11.3 Versloneof DlgltalSubscrlberLines

DSL DigitalSubscriber
Line(ISDNbasicrate)
ADSL Asymmetric DSL(9 Mbpsdownstream, 640 kbpsupstream)d
HDSL High-bit.rate
DSL(T1lE1serviceon two pairs)
SDSL DSL(T1/Elserviceon onepair)
Single-line
VDSL VeryhighbitrateDSL(52Mbpsdownstream, 2.8Mbpsupstream)d
'List€d
data rates ere maximum posslblevalues. Downstreamls toward the subscriber.Upstr6emis toward
the network.

materialize,the asymmehic datarate is also suitedfor Internet access.The philosophy

behind the asymmetric data rates is that subscriberstypically need to reieive high-
bandwidth data (for lntemet file downloads) but normally need to rransmir (query) at
a relatively low data rate. The subscriber'sreceive data rate on ADSL varies between
1.5 and 9 Mbps while the subscribertransmit rate varies between 16 and 640 kbps.*
The specific data rate utilized dependson the transmissionquality of the particular
wire pair.
In contrastto ISDN channels,which representextensionsofthe digital facilities of
the public switched telephone nerwork (psrN), ADSL channelsare separatedfrom
the public nerwork at rhe line inrerface of the psrN. As shown in Figure I l.g, ADSL
lines terminate at a telephonecompany central office (or remote terminal) where the
data streams are forwarded to and received from a facility that is separatefrom the
telephone network. Transmission between the line interface and an intemet service
provider, for example,is typically provided with an ATM connection.
ADSL has two major advantagesover IsDN access.First, ADSL data rates pro-
vided to the subscriberare significantly higher than the lZg-kbps ISDN basic rare.
second, ADSL piggy backs digital transmissionon a standard*atog telephonewire
pair. Thus, existing analog telephonesare retained on ADSL but are either replaced
by digital phonesor are connectedthrough conversiondeviceswhen ISDN is utilized.
Two versionsof ADSL transmissionlinks have beendeveloped:carrierlessampli-
tude and phase(CAP) modulation and discretemultitone (DMT) modularion. CAp is
the first version deployed but DMT has been selectedas the standard
[g]. Because
DMT makes more intensive use of Dsp, a DMT implementation typically requires
more power-a significant considerationfor remote terminal deployment. cAp, on
the other hand, its not generally considered to be as flexible as DMT in achieving
maximum data rateson some wire pairs or in some interferenceenvironments.For a
thorough comparisonof the two alternatives,seereference[9].

DMT lmplementdtion
Basicparameters of the standardADSL DMT implementation areprovidedin Table
I 1.4.A block diagramof an end-to-endDMT implementationis shownin Figure
I I.10. As mentionedin chapter6, a DMT implementation
utilizesan inverseFFT as
*A
less ambitious vetsion of ADSL rcferred to as G.Lite only attempts to achieve 1.544 Mbps
clownstream
and 384 kbps upstream.
 11.2 HIGH.DATA.RATEDIGITALSUBSCRIBERLOOP$ 505

P$TN

Switcl'tmetrix

Lineinterfaces

multiplexer
Subscriberloops
Splitters

volce volCc

Figure 11.9 ADSL networkconfiguration.

Param€ters
TABLE11.4 AD$L DMTlmplementatlon
Subchannel$eparation 4.3125kHz
Maximumbits/$ubchannel 15
Downlink
Numberof subchannelsa 255
FFT sample size 512samples
Cyclic prefix 32 samples
Total numberof samples s44 (512+ 32)
Sample rate 2,208MHz(51?x 4312,5)
FFT frame duration 246.377x 10a sec (5,+4/2,208
x 106)
Pilot frequency 276kHz(subchannel 64)
uplink
Numberolsubchannels 31
FFTsamplesize 64 samples
Cyclicprelix 4 samples
Totalnumberof samples 68 (64+ 4)
$amplerate 276kHz(64x 4312.s)
FFTframeduration ?46.977x 104 sec(68/0.276
x 1Oo)
Pilotfrequency 69 kHz(subchannel16)

the number of subchannFl8dBpendson the amount of matgin tor PoTS filterlngand

on choice of echo canc€lingor FDM to isolatethe two directionsol transmission.
506 DIGITAL
sUBscRIBER
AccESs

a modulator and an FFT as the correspondingdemodulator.The following paragraphs

identify the basic funcrion of eachblock in Figure I I . 10:

PRSsource: A pseudorandomsequencegeneratorprovides a prescribedsequence

for characterizing the channel during a training period. Characteristicsof the
channel that are determined during the training periorl are attenuation and phase
distortion across the band, noise/interferencelevels across the band. and the
information capacity of individual subchannels.
Channel Allocation: Provides assignmentof data bits to individual subchannels
according to the subchannelcapacity determinationsobtained during training.
FEC: A combination of Reed-solomon and convolutional coding.
IFFT QAr4 Modulation: conversion of data values to quadraturechannel signal
amplitudes and conversion to a time-domain waveform using an inverse FFT.
D/A : Digital-to-analog conversion.
TX Filter: Bandpassfilter to preventinterferenceinto the voicebandand to smooth
the discreteDSP samples.
POTS Splitter" Used at both ends of the line to separatethe analog voice from the
data.(Simpler versionsof ADSL incorporatethe splitter function in the modems
to simplify installation.)
AGC.' Automatic gain control to adjust overall receive level.
sktpe/Delay Equaliption' A front-end equalizerro partially flatten the frequency
responseand equalizeextreme delay variations in the chaanel
[10].
,4./D.' Analog-to-digital conversion.

Source data

Wire pair

Figure ll.l0 ADSL DMT block diagram

 11,3 DIGITAL CAFHIEB
LOOP SYSTEMS 507

FFT QAM Demodulation: FFT conversion of time-sampledwaveform to frequency

domain where data values are related to amplitudes of quadraturecarriers.
Clock Recovery: AID sample timing obtained by locking to pilot frequency. The
desired sampling rate is eight times the pilot frequency so 1-of-8 phase
ambiguity has to be determined by monitoring framing/synchronization bit
integrity.
Frequency-Domain Egualizer: Multiplication of complex (quadrature)
frequency $pectrumby amplitude and phaseequalization pararnetersobtained
during training period.
Data Detection and Interleaving: Slicing of quadrature amplitude values to
decodedata and subsequentgenerationof compositestreamidentical to original
sourcedata.

11.2.2 VDSL

VDSL is an expandedversionof ADSL to achieveevenhigherbandwidthson par-

ticularlyshortlinesaswouldbe availablefrom remoteterminalsof fiber to the curb
systems.A primarymotivationfor VDSL is potentialdistributionof HDTV signals.
Althoughseveraldifferentmodulationtechniqueshavebeenproposedfor VDSL, a
DMT versionrieemsto be favored[11].

11.3 DIGITALLOOP CARRIER$YSTEMS

As discussed in Chapter1,theprimarypurposeof a digitalloopcarrier(DLC) system

is to reduceor eliminatecopperpairsfiom a centraloffice to the vicinity of a group
of subscribers. Eventhoughthetransmission link from the centraloff,rceto theDLC
remoteterminalis digital,thetransmission links from theremoteterminalto thesub-
scribersaretypicallyconventional analog loops. Thus,themainpurposeof a DLC is
not to provide digital subscriberaccess. Nevertheless, someDLC systems(particu-
larly fiber-based DLC systems) provide options for T1, ISDN, or xDSL digitalinter-
faces. Moreover, the fact that fhe DLC remote terminal is relatively close to the
subscriber locationsfacilitatestheuseof theseinterfaces.(A shortcopperdropfrom
theremoteterminalhaslow attenuation andcrosstalkandis lesslikely to haveloading
coils,bridged taps,or multiplesections wire with varyinggauges.)
of Althougha DLC
is a naturalmechanismto provideenhanced servicesthroughISDN or xDSL digital
interfaces, mechanicalpackagingandpowerconsiderations of theseinterfacesrepre-
with
sentuniquerequirements respect to strictly POTS applications.

11.3.1 Universal Digltal Loop Carrier Systems

As shownin FigureI1.11,a universaldigitalloop carier (UDLC) system[12] canbe

interfacedto anyswitchingsystem:analogor digital.Theinterfacebetweenthelocal
 508 DtetrAL
suBscRlBER
AccEss

Customer
loops

COT RT
Figure 11.11 Universal digital loop carrier system.

switching system (end office) of the public network and the central office terminal
(coT) involves individual circuits (e.g., individual analog rip and ring connections).
The multiplexed digital transmissionlinks between the COT and the remote terminal
(RT) can be wire pairs or fiber. Each interface of a COT is paired with a corresponcling
subscriberintetface at the RT so the use of a UDLC is transparentto both the switch
and the subscriber.In its simplest mode of operation,the uDLC usespure multiplex-
ing betweenthe COT and the RT so that there i$ a one-to-onecorrespondencebetween
a particular TDM channel and the coT/RT interface pair. some systemscan also be
configured with concentration wherein the Cor/RT pairs are dynamically assigned
transmissionchannels.If the number of requestedconversationsexceedsthe number
of channels,blocking occurs. The possibility ofblocking introducesnontransparency
and implies that some means of returning a reorder tone (fast busy) is neededin the
RT.
UDLC installations are configured to match eachparticular interface of the central
office switch with a complimentary interface in the RT. A fully capablesystemmust
provide a wide variety of interfaces such as loop-start line, ground-start pBX trunk,
foreign exchangelines, and coin telephoneinterfaces.In someearly systemsthe con-
frguration processinvolved nothing more than physically installing matching inter-
facesin respectiveequipment slots of the CoT and RT. More recent.systemstypicatly
utilize line units with multiple-service capabilities. These systemscan be configured
electronically (i.e., no straps)with either a local or a remore manasementinterlace.

11.3.2 IntegratedDigitatLoop CarrierSystems

Whenevera universaldigitalloopcarriersystemis interfacedwith a digitalswitch,ob-

viousinefficienciesoccurin termsof back-to-back demultiplexing-multiplexing
and
D/A-A/D conversion.As shownin Figure 11.12,an integrateddigital loop carier
0DLC) systemeliminarestheinefficiencyby directlyconnecring theDLC TDM link
to the digital matrix. Typically rhe direct digital connectionsare eitherDSI or El
crorts-connect signals.Thus,a fiber-basedDLC systemwill typically interfacewith
theswitchthroughmultiplexing/demultiplexing equipmentassomenumberof digital
crostt-connect signals.
 11.3 DIGITAL
LOOPCARRIEH
SYSTEMS 509

Customer
loops

Figure11.12 Integrated
digitalloopcariersystem.

From a functionalpoint of view an earlyIDLC systemswasnothingmorethana

distributedswitchingsystemwhereinsomeline interfacesof the switcharemovedto
remotelocations.Most cenfialoffice switchmanufacturers providesucha capability-
sometimes assimplyasusingchannelbanksfor analogline interfaces thatcanbecolo-
catedwith the matrix or remoted.Central office switch vendorsalso offer remote
switchingmoduleswhereinsomeportion of the matrix itself is remotelylocated.
Theseconfigurations provideremoteconcentration for efficientuseof theconnecting
transmission link and,in somecases,pmvidelocal switchingin theremotemoduleso
connections betweentwo por"tsof a remotemoduledo not usethetransmission link.
(If remotelocalswitchingis notprovided,a connection betweentwo portsof a remote
modulerequirestwo channelsof thehansmissionlink.)
Remotemodulesof a particular switching systemvendorare often implemented
with proprietarysignalingandmanagement processesthatprecludeuseof DLC equip'
mentfrom othervendors(exceptwhena DLC vendordevelopsthe ability to emulate
a particularswitchvendor'sremotemodules).In the interestof openingIDLC appli-
cationsto competingvendors,Bellcore establishedan IDLC standardreferredto as
GR-303[13, 14] that compliantswitchingsystemvendorsmustsupport(possiblyin
additionto a proprietaryIDLC capability).Includedin the GR-303specificationare
definitionsfor signaling,provisioning,testing,alarmsurveillance, andperformance
monitoring.
Due,in part,to a moveto unbundleLEC local loop servicesGR-303hasassumed
a muchbroaderscopethanjust anIDLC application.Becausea GR-303capabilityin-
cludesbeingableto defineandadministera myriad of switch interfacetypes,theGR-
303 $tandardcan be usedfor interfacingother typesof equipmentsuchas xDSL
equipment.ETSI has establisheda similar IDLC standardfor intemational(ITU)
switchingequipmentrefenedto asa V5 interface[5, 16].

11.3.3 Next-GenerationDigital Loop Carrler Syetems

The term next-generationdigital loop carrier (NGDLC) hasbeenadoptedwithin the

industry to refer to DLc sy$temsfhat adhereto GR-303andprovide additionalcon-
figurationoptionsandinterfaces. Thereis no precisedefinitionof whatconstitutes
an
NGDLC system.Four basicattributesareadherence to GR-303,opticalfiber trans-
missioncapabilities(e.g.,SONET/SDH),generallylargerline sizes,andan ability to
interfacewith a cenhaloffice operationalsupportsystemfor diagnostics,alarms,and
 510 DIGITAL
SUB$CRIBER
AccESS

Figure ll.l3 Next-generationdigital loop carrier.

remoteprovisioning[l4]. other aspectscommonlyavailablein NGDLC systemsare

depictedin FigureI 1.13.
The mostimportantaspectof an NGDLC $ystemfrom a servicespoint of view is
theavailabilityof new servicessuchascopperor fiber digitalsubscriber interfacesin
additionto theconventional POTSinterfaces. Themostdesireddigitalinterfacesare
Tl/El, primaryrateandbasicrateISDN, ADSL, andvDsL. other digitalinrerfaces
mayalsobe providedfor serviceslike broadband dataanddigitalvideo.Althoughthe
diversityof interfacesbeliesuseof a singlemultiple serviceline intedacefor total
electronicprovisioning,the systemmust report inconsistencies betweeninstalled
hardwareandthe elechonicdatabase. A particularlydesirablefeatureof the system
shownin Figure I l. I 3 is drop-and-insert
capability,which allowsdistributedaccess
to a singlebackbonedigitalroute.GR-303identifiesstarconfigurations, linearADM
distribution,andADM ringsasdesirable topologies.NGDLC sysrems tharsupportad-
vancedinterfacesor topologiesnecessarily usea COTto separate outthespecialserv-
icesfrom thePors. In essence, thecor performscross-connect operations to groom
anddistributevarioustypesof traffic.

11.4 FIBERIN THE LOOP

Fiber in the loop (FITL) is a genericterm that refersto oneof threemore specificde-
scriptionsof the useof fiber for local distribution.The flrst categoryis fiber to the
cabinetor fiber to the neighborhood. Thesesystemsareofteninstalledby local tele-
phonecompanies aspartof thefeederportionof theirlocaldistributionfacilities.Tra-
ditional copper pairs for voice service extend from the cabinet to subscriber
residences. Becausea relativelylong copperpair is usedfor ,.thelastmile,,'they do
not providemuchopportunityfor enhanced serviceofferings.Theiruseandjustifica-
tion arestrictlybasedon reducingrhecosrof pOTSdisFibution.
The secondcaregoryof FrrL is a fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC) system.As the name
implies,thesesystems aredesigned to reachwithin 1000feetof a subscriber residence.
An FTTC systemis generallyintendedto provideenhanced servicessuchasvideoor
high-speed datausingADSL or VDSL. Distributionof theenhanced servicesfrom rhe
"curb" location
is caniedover wire pairsor coaxialcable.Thesesystemsareessen-
tially identicalto advanced DLC sysremswith opticalrransport.
Thethird categoryof FITL is f,rberro thehome(FTTH).Thesesysrems obviously
off'er oppornrnitiesfor extremelylarge bandwidthsto the homebut havesignifircant
 11.s HYBRTDFTBERcoAXSYSTEMS
511

deployment First,installationin established

obstacles. neighborhoods is expensivebe-
causeundergroundinstallations(understreetsanddriveways)arenormally required.
Second,providingnetworkpowerto subscriberequipmentis a majorproblem.The
lack of power for enhancedserviceapplicationsis not much of a considerationbut
power to telephonesis. Local exchangecarriersgo to great effotts to ensureinde-
pendence from commercialpowersystemsfor boththeiroffice switchingsystemsand
the connectedsubscribers.(A centraloffice typically maintainsenoughbatteriesto
keepa systemup for ?4 hoursif commercialpoweris lost.If poweris out for longer
than this, dieselgeneratorsare available.)A further complicationof providing tele-
phoneserviceoverFTIH is the needto converta digitalvoicechannelto analogfor
interfacingto conventionaltelephones-anadditionalexpenseandpowerproblem.
Batteriesareoften offered asan alternativeto line poweredtelephonesbut logistical
problemsremain;who maintainsthe batteryand what happensif the batteryis dead
whencommercialpoweris lost andsomeonewantsto diat 911?

11.5 HYBRIDFIBERCOAX SY$TEMS

The cableTV systemsinstalledaroundthe countrycan be augmentedwith down-

strearndatatransmission to subscribers by merelyadding"cablemodems"utilizing
unusedor displacedTV channelbandwidth.Upstreamtransmission from the sub-
scriberto a cableTV headendis muchmoredifficult. Although manycableTV sys-
tems were designedand installedwith upstreamtransmissionas an option, the
bandwidthavailableto theupstream channelsis generallylimitedandoftensubjectto
very high noiseand interferencelevels.Upstreamtransmissionlimitationscan be
somewhat alleviatedby utilizinga conventional telephone connectionwith voiceband
modemswith dataratesup to 28.8kbps.Thetelephonemodemconnectionis usedin
the samebasicmanneras the upstreamchannelof an ADSL while relativehigh-
bandwidthdownstrearn dataarecarriedon thecable.The disadvantages of this solu-
tion includethe needfor a subscriber telephone line, the cost of large numbersof
telephone channelconnection$ provider,
into a service and the need to coordinatedial-
up telephonecomectionswith particular cablechannelusers.
Thebasicconfigurationof a hybridfiber coax(tFC) $ystemis depictedin Figure
I 1.14.Thecoaxialcableportionsof CATV system$ areconfiguredastree-and-branch
topologieswith all customers receivingthesame,multichannel broadcast signal.Am-
plifiersarein$ertedwhereverthe signallevelgetsunacceptably low from attenuation
andbranchingloses.Bidirectionalamplifiersareshownin Figure11.14undertheas-
sumptionthat this sy$temis an applicationwith a returnpath from the residences.In
TV-only applications thereturnpath(if thereis one)is usedfor premiumchannelse-
lection.In expanded$erviceapplicationsthereturnpathcarriesvoice or datawith fre-
quencydivisionmultiplexedcablemodemsin a bandfrom 5 to 42 MHz.
The optical fiber transmissionportion of an HFC sy$temrepre$entsa replacement
of relativelylong haulcoaxialcablesectionswith numerousamplifiers.For this rea-
son,theopticaltransmittersandreceiversaredesignedto carrya widebandanalogsig-
nal. Noticethat the opticallinks aresharedby a largenumberof cu$tomers(anywhere
 512 DIGITAL
SUBS0RIBER
AccEsS

Fiber node

Figure 11.14 Hybrid fiber coaxsystemconfiguration.

from 100 to 1500). upgrading an IIFC system for new $ervices typically requires
Sreaterpenetrationof the optical frber portions so that fewer householdsare connected
to a common coaxial cable segment.In the limiting situation, wherein eachhouseholdis
connectedthrough a dedicatedcoaxial cable, an FIFC systembecomesan FTTC system.
Downstream digital servicescan utilize cable modems that typically pack 30-40
Mbps into a 6-MHz analog TV channel. 64-eAM modulation is commonly used.In
newer FIFC system.s,new downsfieam digital servicescan be canied at fuquencies above
450 MIJZ while the band from 54 ro 450 MHz is reservedfor haditional analog Tv.
A major impediment to upgrading an IIFC systemfor return channelservicesis the
shareduse of a coaxial cable segmentcommon to some number of households.The
network termination within eachhome is passiveand bidirectional, which meansthat
all noise and interferencewithin a home is passedonto the cornmon cable to all other
homes.Thus, a single sourceof interferencecan disrupt the signal to all other homes
served by the common coaxial cable. Furtherrnore,the noise and interferenceof all
householdsare additive, indicating the needto limit the number of householdsserved
by a single coax segment.An additional drawback of the sharedcable is the need for
some form of encryption for content security. TDMA return channelshelp minimize
the interferenceproblem by blocking all output energy from a residenceexcept when
an allotted time slot occurs.
using an HFC systemfor POTS hasthe samebasic drawbacksas an FTTH sy$tem
in that there is no inherent facility for line powering rhe telephones.Thus, FIFC might
not be used for primary ("lifeline") POTS distribution but could be quite effective in
providing secondarytelephoneapplications.The main attribute of HFC for enhanced
servicesis the ability to provide dynamic assignmentof high-rate digital downstream
channelsand relatively low rate full-period upstreamchannels.

11.6 VOICEBAND
MODEMS
voiceband modem technology improved dramatically in the early 1990swith the cul-
mination of 33.6 kbps becoming standardwith ITU recommendationv.34
[17]. The
 11,6 VOICEBAND
MODEM$ 513

rapidadvanceof voicebandmodemperformance wasdueto two primaryfactors;the

availabilityof economicalDSP technologyfor equalization/echo cancelingandthe
improvedquatityof thenetworkin termsof lowernoiseanddistortionresultingfrom
the near-all-digitalimplementation,In an all-digital network the only significant
sourceofnoise is thequantizationnoiseofthe analog-to-digital conversion.

Example 11.2. Determinethe theoreticalmaximum data rate of a perfectly

equalizedvoicebandmodemundergoinga singleA/D andD/A conversion.

ratio (SQR)is derivedin Chapter3 to be

Solution. The signal-to-quantizing-noise
on the orderof 36 dB, which conespondsto a powerratio of 3981.Usingthis value
in Shannon'stheoremfor thetheoreticalcapacityof a channelyields

C= lVlogz(l + SNR) bps

= 3100logr(l + 39Bl)

= 37 kbps
wherethe channelis limited by the transformercoupling,60 Hz eliminationfrlters,
andD/A smoothingfilters to extendfrom 300to 3400Hz.

11.6.1 PGMModems

As the previous problem indicates,a V.34 voicebandmodem provides data rates that
arenearthe theoreticallimit imposedby quantizationnoise alone.Recognition that the
principal sourceof noise in the end-to-endconnectionis the quantizationnoise of the
A./D convertersleads to alternative modem implementations that directly utilize the
digital 64-kbps channel and eliminate the quantization noise [18]. Thesemodems are
commonly referred to as PCM modems.
As shown in Figure 11.15, a V.90 PCM modem relies on the digital network to
carry an unaltered digital signal from a digital source to a digital-to-analog con-
version device (codec)at an analog subscriberinterface.The codecconvertsthe PCM
codewordsto PAM samplesthat are detectedby the receiving customerpremisesmo-
dem and convertedback to the original PCM data. Successfuldata detection requires
the receiving circuitry to adequately equalize the combined distottion of the D/A
smoothing filter and the transmission link, to know the quantization levels of the
codec,and to becomesynchronizedto the D/A conversionclock. The equalizationand
quantizationrequirementsare determinedduring an initialization proce$$while clock
synchronization requires processing of data transitions in the multilevel received
waveform.
It might seemthat a PCM modem could provide a data rate of 64 kbps. However,
severalfactors restrict the data rate to something less than 64 kbps. The first of fhese
is the bandpassfilter in the D/A codec (for 60 Hz elimination and samplesmoothing).
A secondconskaint is the possibility that the digital path through the network might
 514 DIGITAL
SUBSCHIBER
AccEsS

Tl or ISDN digitatlnterface
m1orrm 10mfi0010t10011
Dlgital network

Subscrlberloop
F

+'*.-.H*
mlor roo 1fiI}l roo 1oltmii

Figure 11.15 Downstream

V.90 modemconcept.

include a digital pad for changing the signal level of rhe assumedanalog signal.* A
third constraint is rhe possibility (in North America) that robbed bit signaling might
be in use on one or more of the digital links.
The fact that the overall bandwidth of the channelis slightly over 3kHz implies that
the maximum, intersymbol, interference-freepulse rate is just over 6 kHz. Thus, the
actual sample rate of 8 kHz implies that some amount of intersymbol interferenceis
inevitable (assumingthe PCM samplesare independent).
The lack of a low-frequency transmissionresponseis accommodatedby V.90 mo-
dems by utilizing every eighth pcM sample soreryfbr dc restoration.Thus, the maxi-
mum data rate is 56 kbps. If robbed bit signaling is present,its effects are minimized
by determining, during initialization, which frames in the six frame sequencesare sig-
naling frames and then using only 7 bits per samplein thoseframesund g bits p*r ru*_
ple in the nonsignaling frames. Digital pads can be accommodatedby detectins
their
presenceand modifying the digital codewords according to the particular amolunt
of
attenuationbeing insertedby the pad.
The v'90 uplink direction is implemented as a convenrional (v.34) modem.
thereby implying asymmetry in the data rates. It is conceivable that pAM signaling
could be usedin both directions,but the uplink is more complicatedto implement and
is often unnecessarybecausemost applications (e.g., Intemet access)are inherently
asymmehic in the dataratesrequired. It is also possibleto utilize analog PAM on both

-Dgital
pads are often included in the codecsfor digital setting of gain levels to
desired voiceban d sigflal
Ievels.
 11,7 LOCALMICHOWAVE
DISTFIBUTION
SEHVICE 515

endsof the connection(asopposedto just one end),but theseimplementations are

considerably morecomplicat€d[19, 20].
Themain attractionof PCM modemsis that theyprovidealmostthe samedatarate
asanISDN B channelbut do notrequirechanges in theline interfacesor specialtreat-
mentof thecustomerloop (e.g.,theeliminationof bridgedtaps).Whenthecustomer
loop is a shortdrop from a remoteterminalof a digital loop carrier,themaximumdata
rateof 53-56 kbpsis assured.

11.7 LOCAL MICROWAVEDISTRIBUTIONSERVICE

TheFCC hasallocatedtwo separate microwavefrequencybandsfor digitalradioac-

cesscommunications services. Thefirst of theseis MultichannelMultipointDistribu-
tion Service(MMDS), whichoperates at 2 GHz.MMDS is essentially a wirelesscable
sy$temand,as such,providesonly one-waytransmission. Reversechannelcommu-
nicationsrcquiresdial-upmodemconnections throughthe telephonenetwork.
Local MicrowaveDistributionService(LMDS) operatesat 28 GHz andprovides
cell-based, two-waycommunications. Bandwidthsavailablewith LMDS aredepend-
ent on a particularservice provider's frequencyplan.Typically,theseplansprovide
bidirectionaldatarate$ontheorderof 1.5-50Mbps,althoughthetotalallocatedband-
width of almost1 GHz canbe partitionedto providehigherrate$or asymmetricrates
if desired.InternationalLMDS allocationshavebeenmadein a rangeof 25-31 GHz.
Thesesystemsare also refbrredto as Local Multipoint Communications Systems
(LMCS) in CanadaandBrazil.
Theprincipalapplicationssupported by LMDS arevoice,video,andhigh-bandwidth
data.The immenseamountof bandwidthavailableis the main attraction.The major
costof anLMDS systemis associated with thesubscriber radioequipment. Thus,after
the cell sitesareestablished, additionalcostsareincurredonly assubscribers begin
payingfor service.This situationis in contrastwith newfiber-based facilitiesthatre-
quire major,up-frontinvestmentbeforerevenuesare realized.The mostimmediate
opportunityfor LMDS is to offer an alternativeto high-speed digitalleasedlinesfor
businesses. High-speed InternetaccessandHDTV to individualresidences aresecon-
daryopportunities.
The major disadvantages of LMDS are the needfor FCC licensing,line-of-sight
transmission, distancelimits of 2-3 miles,extremeattenuation in heavyrainfalls,po-
tentialinterferencefrom other servicessuch as satellitesin the samebands,andthe
needfor local power in all subscriber (telephone) sites. Fade margins or dynamic
powercontrolon the orderof 40 dB overcomeall but themo$tsevere rainfall rates.
Therequirement tbr line-of'-sight
transmission meansthata singlebasestationcan-
not communicate with all locationsin a cell (exceptmaybein WestTexasor theAus-
tralianoutback).Overlappingcellsprovidegreatercoverage, but somelocationsare
sureto be in theshadowofall basestationsunlessreflectorscanbeinstalled.Line-of-
sighttransmission canbefurthercompromised by theappearance of buildingsor trees
after initial deployment.
516 DtctrALsuBscRtBER
AccESS

11.8 DIGITALSATELLITESERVICES

Direct SatelliteService(DSS)hasrecentlybecomea viablealternativeto cableTV

services.BecausetheDSS systemutilizesdigitaltransmission for its TV channels, it
is straightforward for a DSSproviderto offer datacommunications servicesto theTV
subscribers. However,becauseDSS is a one-waycommunications service,dial-up
modemconnectionsthroughthe telephonenetworkare requiredfor two-way data
communications. DSSis alsolimitedro thetoralbandwidth(400MFIz)of thesatellite
transponders, which mustbe sharedby the Tv ffansmissions and any allocateddata
channels.
In contrastto DSS,whichusesgeostationary satelliteorbits,Low Earthorbit sat-
ellitesoflridium andTeledesicprovideopportunities for lowercost,bidirectionaluser
terminals.As mentionedin Chapter9, Iridium is primarilyorientedto relativelynar-
row bandapplicationssuchasvoice,messaging, andpaging.Teledesic,on the other
hand,is orientedto wide-bandwidth dataapplications.

REFERENCES

Recommendation I.430 ISDN user-NetworkInterface;Layer I Recommendations,

Fascicle IlL9,CCITTBlueBook,1988,pp. lll- 240.
AmericanNationalstandardsfor Telecommunications,,.Integrated servicesDigital
Network-Basic AccessInterfacefor use on Metallic Loopsfor Applicationon the
NetworkSideof theNT-LayerI Specification," ANSI TI.60l-1988.
R. Komiya, K. Yoshida,and N. Tamaki,"The Loop coveragecomparisonbetween
TCM andEchocancellerundervariousNoiseconsiderations,"rEEE Transactions
on
Communications, Nov. 1986,pp. 1058-1067.
sESs@.switch ISDN BasicRateInrerfacespecification,5E5 GenericprogramIssue
I.00,AT&T, Dec.1987,pp.II-B-t/15.
s. sugimoto' K. Hayashi,and F. Mano, "Design of 2Ble rransceiverfor ISDN
subscriberLoops,"IEEEIntemationalconferenteon communication,Iune19g9,pp,
8 . 1r.- 8 .1 . 5 .
J. w. Lechleider,"Line codes for Digital subscriberLines,"IEEE communications
Magazine,Sept.1989,pp.25-32.
w' chen andD. waring, "Applicability of ADSL to supportvideo Dial rone in the
CopperLttop,"IEEE Communications Magazine,May 19g4,pp, 102_109,
"Networkand
customerInstallationInterfaces-AsymmetricDigital subscriberLine
(ADSL)MetallicInrerface," ANSI Tl.4t3-1995,Aug. 1995.
B' saltzberg,"comparisonof single-carrierand Multitone Digital Modulationfor
ADSL Applications,"IEEE Communications Magasine,Nov. 199g,pp. ll4_lLL.
r0 w. Y. chen, DSL simulation Techniquesand standardsDevelopment Digital
for
subscriberLine,sysferns, MacmillanTechnicalpublishing,Indianapolis,l9gg.
n J. M. Cioffi, V. Oksman,J. J. Werner,T. polletr,p. M. p. Spruyt,J. S. Chow,andK. S.
Jacobsen,'-very-High-speedDigital subscriber Lines," IEEE communications
Magazine,Apr. 1999,pp.72-79.
 PROBLEMS 517

"FunctionalCriteria for Digital Loop Carrier Systems," Technical ft.eference,

12
TR-NWT-000057, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ, Jan. 1993.
"Integrated Digital Loop Carrier System Generic Requirements, Objectives and
t3
Interface," Generic Requirement, GR-NWT-000303, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ' Dec'
I 998.
"Generic
14 Operations Interfaces Using OSI Tools; Information Model for Integrated
Digital Loop Carrier and Fiber in the l,oop Systems," Generic Requirements,
GR-NWT-002833, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ, Dec. 1996'
"V-Interfaces at the Digital Local Exchange
r5 RecommendationG.964 (06194),
(LE)-VS.l-Interface (Basedon 2048kbiVs)for theSupportof AccessNetwork(AN)'
ITU, GenevaSwitzerland,
l6 RecommendationG.965 (03/95)-V-Interlaces at the Digital Local Exchange
(LE)-VS.2Interface(Basedon 2048kbit/s)for the Supportof AccessNetwork(AN).
ITU, Geneva,Switzerland.
"The V'34 High-Speed
t7 G. D. Forney,L. Brown, M. V. Eyuboglu,and J. L. Moran,
ModemStandard,"IEEE Communications Maga4ine,Dec. 1996,pp' 28-33.
l8 B. Townsend, "High Speed CommunicationsSystem for Analog Subscriber
Connections," U.S.Patent5,801,695,Sept.l, 1998.
"TheCapacityof PCM VoicebandChannels,"
19 I. Kalet,J. E. Mazo,andB. R, Saltzberg,
IntemationalCommunications Conference. 1993,pp. 507*51l.
"High Speed
E. Ayanoglu, G. Golden, R. Jones, J, Mazo, and D. Shaw,
Quantization-Level-Sampling Modem with Equalization Arrangement," U.S. Patent
5,528,625,June 18, 1986.

PROBLEMS
11.1 Determinethemaximumloop lengthof a ping-pongtransmission systemutil-
izing 8-kHzdataburstsof 50 psecdurationin eachdirection.Assumethe ve-
locity of propagationis one-thirdthe speedof light.
ll,2 Determinethemaximumtheoreticaldataratethatcanbe achievedby a voice-
bandmodempassingthroughthepublicnetworkanda singleuniversaldigital
loop carriersystem.Assumethereare no signalimperfectionsin the digital
poftionsof thefacilities.
r1-3 Determine the range of data rates achievable with a V.90 modem passing
"robbed bit" signaling.
through six Tl facilities with
11.4 Assume a multipair cable systemis used to carry bidirectional high-bandwidth
AMI signals and that near-endcrosstalk coupling from one pair to another is
IVo (-2O dB). If the systemis crosstalklimited, determinethe maximum num -
ber ofactive pairs for a bit error rate of 10-6.
marginfor noiseandotherim-
11.5 RepeatProblemI1.4 with a 3-dB interference
perfections.

t',t#Fi

It#t",*"
x
h't

\t'l\\
 12

TRAFFICANALYSIS

Exceptfor stationsetsandtheirassociated loops,a telephone networkis composed of

a variety of commonequipmentsuchas digit receivers,call processors, interstage
switchinglinks, andinterofficetrunks.The amountof commonequipmentdesigned
into a network is determinedunder an assumptionthat not all usersof the network
needserviceat onetime.Theexactamountof commonequipmentrequiredis unpre-
dictablebecauseof therandomnatureof the servicerequests. Networksconceivably
couldbe designedwifh enoughcommonequipmentto instantlyserviceall requests
exceptfor occurrences of very rareor unanticipated peaks.However,this solutionis
uneconomical because muchof thecommonequipmentis unusedduringnormalnet-
work loads.The basicgoalof traffic analysisis to providea methodfor determining
thecost-effectiveness of varioussizesandconfigurations of networks.
Traffrc in a communicatrons networkrefersto theaggregateof all userrequestsbe-
ing servicedby the network,As far asthe networki$ concerned, the servicereque$ts
arriverandomlyandusuallyrequireunpredictableservicetimes.The fluststepof traf-
fic analysisis thecharacterization of traffic arrivalsandservicetimesin a probabilistic
framework.Then the effectivenessof a network can be evaluatedin terms of how
muchtraff,rcit carriesundernormalor averageloadsandhow often the haffic volume
exceedsthe capacityof the network.
Thetechniques oftraffic analysiscanbe dividedinto two generalcategories: loss
fiystemsanddelay systems.The appropriateanalysiscategoryfor a particularsystem
depends on thesystem'streatmentof overloadtraffic.In a losssystemoverloadtraff,tc
is rejectedwithoutbeingserviced.In a delaysystemoverloadtrafficis heldin a queue
until the facilitiesbecomeavailableto serviceit. Conventionalcircuit switchingop-
eratesasa losssystemsinceexcesstraffic is blockedandnot servicedwithouta reffy
"lost" callsactuallyrepresenta lossofreve-
on ttrepartofthe user.In someinstances
nueto thecarriersby virtueof theirnot beingcompleted.
Store-and-forward messageor packetswitchingobviouslypossesses the basic
characteristics of a delaysystem.Sometimes, however,a packet-switching operation
canalsocontaincertaina$pects of a loss$ystem.Limited queuesieesandvirnralcir-
cuits both imply loss operations duringtraffic overloads.Circuit-switchingnetworks
also incorporate certainoperations ofa delay naturein additionto the loss operation
519
 520 THAFF|c
ANALysts

of the circuits themselves.For example,accessto a digit receiver,an operator,

or a call
proce$soris normally controlled by a queuing proces$.
The basic measureof performancefor a loss systemis the probability of
rejection
(blocking probability). A delay system, on the orher hand, iJ measured
in terms of
servicedelays' Sometimesthe averagedelay is desired,while at other times
the prob-
ability of the delay exceedingsome specified value is of more interest.
some of the analysespresentedin this chapter are similar to those presented
. in
chapter 5 for the blocking probabilities of a switch. chapter 5 is concerned
mostly
with matching loss-the probability of not being able to set up a connection
througir
a switch under normal or averagetraffic volumes. This chapter, however,
is mostly
concernedwith the probability that the number of active sourcesexceedssome
speci-
fied value' Typically, the specified value is the number of trunk circuits
in a route.

12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION

Becauseof theratrdomnatureof networktraffic,thefollowing analysesinvolve

cer-
tain fundamentals of probabilitytheoryand srochasticpro""r*r*. L tni, heatment
only the mostbasicassumptions andresultsof traffic analysisarepresented. The in-
tentis to provideanindicationofhow to applyresultsofhaffic analysis,not to delve
deeplyinto analyticalformulations.However,a few basicderivationsarepresented
to
acquainttheuserwith assumptions in themodelssotheycanbeappropriately applied.
In the realm of applied mathematics,where thesesubjectsare nlatea more for-
mally, blockingprobabilityanalysesarereferredto as congestiontheoryanddelay
analysesarerefenedto asqueuingtheory.Thesetopicsarealsocommonlyreferred
to astraffic flow analysis.In a circuit-switched network,the..flow" of messages is not
so much of a concernas are the holding times of cornmonequipment.A
circuit-
switchednetworkestablishes an end-to-endcircuitinvolvingvariousnetworkfacili-
ties (transmission links andswitching$tages)that areheldfor the durationof a ca1l.
From a networkpoint of view, it is the holdingof thesere$ources that is important,
not theflow of informationwithin individualcircuits.
on theotherhand,message-switching andpacket-switching networksaredirectly
concernedwith the actualflow of information,sincein thesesystemstraff,rcon
the
transmission links is directlyrelatedto the activityof the sources.
As mentionedin Chapter7, circuitswitchingdoesinvolvecertainaspects of traffic
flow in theprocessof settingup a connection. connectrequests flow from thesources
to the destinations acquiring,holding,andreleasingcertainresources in theprocess.
As wasdiscussed, controllingtheflow of connectrequestsduringnetworkoverloads
is a vital functionof networkmanagement.
Theunpredictablenatureof communicationstraffic arisesasa resultof two
under-
lying randomprocesses: call arrivalsandholdingtimes.An arrivalfrom anyparticular
useris generallyassumed to occurpurelyby chanceandbetotallyindependent ofar_
rivals from otherusers.Thusthenumberof arrivalsduringanyparticulartime
interval
is indeterminate. In mostcasesholdingtimesarealsodistributedrandomly.In some
applications this elementof randomness canbe removedby assumingconstanthold-
 tz.t rBAFFtc 521
cHAHAcrEFlzATloN

ing times(e.g.,fixedJengthpackets).In eithercasethetraffic loadpresented to a net-

work is fundamentallydependent on both the frequencyof arrivalsandthe average
holdingtime for eacharrival.Figure12.1depictsa representative situationin which
both the arivals and the holding times of 20 different are
sources unpredictable. The
bottomof the figuredepictsactivity of each individual while
source the top displays
theinstantaneous total of all activity.[f we assumethatthe20 sourcesareto be con-
nectedto a hunk group,theactivitycurvedisplaysthenumberof circuitsin useat any
particulartime.Noticethatthemaximumnumberof circuitsin useat anyonetimeis
16 andthe averageutilizationis a little underI I circuits.In generalterms,thetrunks
arereferredto asservers,anda trunk group is a serYergroup'

Traffic Measurementg
Onemeasure of networkcapacityis thevolumeof traffrccarriedovera periodof time.
Traffic volumeis essentiallythe sumof all holdingtimescarriedduringtheinterval.
Thetraffic volumerepresented in Figure12.1is theareaundertheactivitycurve(ap-
proximately84 call minutes).
A moreusefulmeasureof traffic is the traffic intensity(alsocalledtraffic flow).
Trafficintensityis obtainedby dividingthetrafficvolumeby theIengthof timeduring
whichit is measured. theaverageactivityduringape-
Thustraffic intensityrepresents
riod of time (10.5in Figure12.1).Althoughtraffic intensityis fundamentally dimen-
sionless(time dividedby time), it is usuallyexpressed in units of erlangs,afterthe
Danishpioneertlaffic theoristA. K. Erlang,or in termsof hundred(century)call sec-
ondsperhour(CCS).TherelationshipbetweenerlangsandCCSunitscanbe derived
by observingthatthereare3600secin anhour:

Es
I

E.E
!s
E E
t

Tims lfiinu$rl

Flgure 12.1 Activity profile of networktraffic (all callscanied).

 522 TRAFFICANALYSIS

I erlang= 36 CCS

Themaximumcapacityof a singleserver(channel)is l erlang,whichis to saythat

theserveris alwaysbusy.Thusthemaximumcapacityin erlangsof a groupof
servers
is merelyequalto thenumberof seryers.Because traffic in a losssysLmexperiences
infiniteblockingprobabilitieswhenthetrafficintensityis equalto thenumberof
serv-
ers,theaverageactivityis necessarilylessthal thenumberof servers.similarly,delay
rrystems operateat lessthanfull capacity,on average,becauseinfinite delaysoccur
whentheaverageloadapproaches thenumberof servers.
Two importantpalametersusedto characterizemafficarethe averagealival rate
-
L andtheaverageholdingtime t*. If thetrafficintensityl, is expressedin erlangs,then

a =fu* (12.1)

whereI' andf* areexpressed in like unitsof time (e.g.,callsper secondandseconds

per call,respectively).
Noticethat traffic intensityis only a measureof averageutilizationduringa time
periodanddoesnot reflectthe relationshipbetweenarrivalsand
holdingtimes.That
is, manyshortcallscanpraducethesametraffic intensityasa few longones.In
many
of the analysesthat follow the resultsaredependent only on the trathc intensity.In
someca|tes, however,theresultsarealsodependent on theindividualarrivalpattems
andholdingtime distributions.
Publictelephonenetworksaretypicallyanalyzedin termsof the average
activity
duringthebusiesthourof a day.Theuseof busy-hourtrafficmeasurements to design
andaralyzetelephonenetworksrepresentrr a compromisebetweendesigningfor tle
overallaverageutilization(whichincludesvirtually unusednighnimehours)
andde-
signingfor short-duration peaksthat may occurby chanceo, *, u resurtof rv com-
mercialbreaks,radiocall-inconte$ts, andsoon.
Busy-hourtrafficmeasurements indicatethatanindividualresidentialtelephone is
typicallyin usebetween5 and l0zo ofthe busyhour.Thuseachtelephone represenm
a traffic loadof between0.05and0.l0 errangs.Theaverageholdingtime is between
3 and4 min, indicatingthara typicartelephoneis involvedin oneoi two phone
calls
duringthe busyhour.
Businesstelephonesusuallyproduceloadingpatternsdifferentfrom residential
phones'First, a businessphoneis generallyutilizedmoreheavily.
second,the busy
hourofbusinesstraffic is oftendifferentfrom thebusyhourofresidential
traffic.Fig-
ute 12.2showsa typicalhourly variationfor both sourcesof traffic. The trunks
of a
telephonenetworkaresometimes designedto takeadvantage of variationsin calling
patternsfrom differentoffices.Toll connectingtrunksfrom residential
areasareoften
busiestduring eveninghours,and trunksfrom businessareasareobviously
busiest
duringmidmorningor midafternoon. Traffic engineering depends not only on overall
traffic volumebut alsoon time-volumetraffic patternswithin the network.
A certainafirountof caremustbe exercisedwhendeterminingthetotal traffic load
of a systemfrom theloadingof individuallinesor trunks.For example,sincetwo
tele-
 12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTEFIEAT|0N523

:I

F
t
o

rillAr'r2 3 . t 6 t t t l0 ll l2H I t 3 4 I 6 t I

ftuq ol dof

I oti(|;uomrdi*ia

t ofi* . *.ll.,ttot or'i"

on time of day.
Figure 12.2 Traffic volumedependence

phonesare involved in eachconnection,the total load on a switching systemis exactly

one-half the total of all traffic on the lines connectedto the switch. ln addition, it may
be important to include certain setupand rcleasetimes into the averageholding times
of some common equipment. A lQ-sec setup time is not particularly significant for a
4-min voice call but can actually dominate the holding time of equipment used for
short data messages.Common equipment setup times also become more significant
in the presenceofvoice traffic overloads.A greaterpercentageofthe overall load is
representedby call attempt$since they increaseat a faster rate than completions.
An important distinction to be made when discussingtraffic in a communications
network is the difference between the offered haffic and the carried traffic. The of-
fered trffic is the total traffic that would be carried by a network capable of servicing
all requestsas they arise.Since economicsgenerally precludesdesigning a network to
immediately cany the maximum offered traffic, a small percentage of offered traffic
typically experiencesnetwork blocking or delay. When the blocked calls are rejected
by the network, the mode of operation is referred to as blocked calls cleared or lost
calls cleared.In essence,blocked calls are assumedto disappearand never return. This
assumption is most appropriatefor trunk Broup$with alternateroutert.In this case a
blocked call is normally serviced by another tnrnk group and does not, in fact, retum.
The carried traffic ofa loss system is always less than the offered traffic. A delay
system,on the other hand, does not reject blocked calls but holds them until the nec-
essaryfacitities are available. With the assumptionthat the long-term averageof of-
fered traffic is less than the capacity of the network, a delay system caries all offered
 524 TRAFFIc
ANALYSIS

ffaffic. If the number of request$that can be waiting for serviceis limited,

however, a
delay system also takes on properties of a ross system.For exampre,if the queue
for
holding blocked arrivals is finite, requestsarriving when the queueis
full are cleared.

12.1.1 Arrival Distrlbutione

The mostfundamental assumption of classicaltraffic analysisis thatcall arivals are

independent.That is, an arrivar from one sourceis unrelatedto an arrival
from any
othersource.Eventhoughthis assumptionmay be invalid in someinstances,
it has
generalusefulness for mostapplications. In thosecaseswherecall arrivalstendto be
correlated,usefulresultscanstill be obtainedby modifyinga randomarrivalanalysis.
ln this mannerthe randomarrival assumptionprovidesJmathematicalformulation
that.catrbe adjustedto produceapproximate solutionsto problemsthatareotherwise
mathematically intractable.

Negatlva Exponenilal lnterarrlval Timeg

Designatetheaveragecall arrivalratefrom a rargegroupof independent
sources(sub-
scriberlines)as1,,Usethefollowing assumptions:

l. Only oneanival canoccurin anysufficientlysmallinterval.

2. The probability of an arrival in any sufficiently small iriterval is
directly
proportionalto the length of the interval. (The probability of an
arrival is l" lr,
whereAr is theintervallength.)
3. The probability of an arrival in any particularinterval is independent
of what
hasoccurredin otherintervals.

It is straightforward
[1] to showthatrheprobabilitydisnibutionof interarrivaltimes
is

P()(I"t) = e-M (r2.2)

Equationl?'2 definestheprobabilirythatno arrivalsoccurin a randomly
selected in-
tervalt' This is identicalto theprobability that f secondselapsefrom one
arrival to the
next.

Example12.1. Assumingeachof 10,000subscriberlines originate

one cail per
hour,how oftendo two callsarrivewith lessthan0.01secbetweenthemt

Solutinn. The averageanival rateis

l, = 3600/10,000
= 2.78arrivals/sec

FromEquationlZ.z,theprobabilityof no arrivalin a O.0r-secintervalis

 525
12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION

= 0.973
PoQ'0215): e4'o?78

'lhus
2.7Voof the arrivats occur within 0.01 secof the previous arrival. Since the arri-
val rate is ?.78 arrivatsper second,the rate ofoccurrence ofinteranival times lessthan
0.01 secis

2.78x0.027 = 0.075times/sec

Theflrst two assumptions madein derivingthenegativeexponentialarrivaldistri-

butioncanbe intuitivelyjustifiedfor mostapplications. The third assumptron, how-
ever,impliescertainaspectsof the sourcesthat cannotalwaysbe supported.First,
certainevents,Suchas televiSioncommercialbreaks,might stimulatethe sourcesto
placetheir callsat nearlythe sametime.In this casethe negativeexponentialdistri-
butionmay still hold but for a muchhighercallingrateduringthecommercial.
A moresubtleimplicationof theindependent arrivalassumption involvesthenum-
berof sources, notjust theircallingpattern$.Whentheprobabilityof ananival in any
small time intervalis independentof other arrivals,it implies that the numberof
sourcesavailableto generaterequestsis constant.If a numberof arrivalsoccurimme-
diatelybeforeanysubintervalin question,someof thesourcesbecomebusyandcan-
not generate requests.Theeffectof busysourcesis to reducethe averagearrivalrate.
Thusthe interarriva'ltimesarealwayssomewhatlargerthan whatEquation12.2pre-
dicts themto be. The only time the arrival rateis truly independentof sourceactivity
is whenan infinite numberof sourcesexist.
If the numberof sourcesis largeandtheir averageactivityis relativelylow, busy
$ources do notappreciably reducethearrivalrate.Forexample,consideranendoffice
thatservices10,000subscribers with 0.1 erlangof activityeach.Normally,thereare
1000activelinks and9000subscribers availableto generate newartivals.Ifthe num-
berof activesubscribers increa$esby anunlikely 507oto 1500activelines,thenumber
of idle subscribersreducesto 85fi), achangeof only 5.6Vo. Thusthearrivalrateis rela-
tively constantovera widerangeof sourceactivity.Wheneverthearrivalrateis fairly
constantfor the entirerangeof normal sourceactivity, an infinite $ourceassumptron
is justified.
Actually,someeffectsof finite $ourceshavealreadybeendiscussed in Chapter5
when analyzing blocking probabilitiesof a switch. It is pointed out that Lee graph
analyses overestimatetheblockingprobabilitybecause, if somenumberof interstage
links in a groupareknownto bebusy,theremaininglinks in thegrouparelesslikely
to be busy.A Jacobaeus analysisproducesa morerigorousandaccuratesolutionto
theblockingprobability,particularlywhenspaceexpansionis used.Accurateanaly-
sesofinterarrivaltimesfor finite sourcesarealsopossible.Theseareincludedin the
blockinganalyses to follow.

Poisson Arrlval Dlstributlon

Equation1.2.2merely providesa meansof determiningthedistributionof interarrival
times.It doesnot, by itself, providethe generallymoredesirableinformationof how
 526 TRAFFICANALYSIS

manyarrivalscanbeexpectedto occurin somearbitrarytimeinterval.using thesame

assumptionspresented,
however,theprobabilityofj arrivalsin aninterval, canbede_
termined[] as

r,{M)=p (12.3)
r-u
Equation12.3is thewell-knownpoissonprobabilitylaw. Noticethatwhenj =
0, the
probabilityofno arrivalsin an intervalr is ps(r),asobtainedin Equation
12.2.
Again,Equation12.3assumes arrivalsareindependent andoccurat a givenaver-
agerate1,,irrespectiveof the numberof arrivalsoicuning just prior to an interval
in
question'Tfius the Poissonprobabilitydistributionstrouldonty be
usedfor arrivals
from a largenumberof independent sources.
Equationl?.3 definestheprobabilityof experiencing exactlyjardvalsin, seconds.
Usuallythereis moreinterestin determiningtheprobabilityofj or morearrivals
in r
seconds;

p=Itu)
=Er,fUt
ej

./:l
: r -Er,flrt
r'{

= I _p*lftf) (r2.4)
whereP;(l,r)is definedin Equation12.3.

Example12.2. Given a message-swirching nodethat normally experiencesfour

arrivalsper minure,what is the probabilitythat eight or more arrivals occur
in an
arbitrarilychosen30-secinterval?

solution, Theaveragenumberof arrivalsin a 30-secintervalis

L r = xa # = ?
Theprobabilityof eightor morearrivals(whentheaverageis 2) is

=i ",,r,
P>8(2)
r=8
 I2.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION 527

7
=t-Lr,(z)
r{

=r-a{r " *' {'r!

)
)
= 0.0011

Exampte12.3. What is the probability that a 1000-bitdata block experiences

exactlyfour errorswhile beingtransmittedovera transmissionlink with alit enor rate
(BER) of l0-5?

Solation, Assuming independenterrors (a questionableassumptionon many

transmissionlinks), we canobtainthe probability of exactlyfour errorsdirectly from
the Poisson distribution. The average number of errors (arrivals) lut=
101x tO-s= 0.01.Thus

= P4(0.01)
prob(4errors) = - 4.125x 16-10
e-{'or
ry
An alternativesolutioncanbe obtainedfrom the binomial probability law:

: oo*Jtt t - p)ee6
prob(4errors)
[t
= 4.I01x 10-10 wherep= lfl-s

As canbe seen,thetwo solutionsof Example12.3arenearlyidentical.Theclose-

nessof the two answersreflectsthe fact that the Poissonprobabilitydistributionis
often derivedasa limiting caseof a binomialprobabilitydistribution.Becauseit is
easierto calculate,a Poissondistributionis oftenusedasanapproximation to a bino-
mial distribution'

12.1-z Holdlng Time Distrlbutions

Thesecondfactorofffaffic intensityasspecifiedin Equation12.1is theaveragehold-

ing time tr-.In somecasestheaverageof theholdingtimesis all thatneedsto beknown
aboutholdingtimesto determineblockingprobabilitiesin a losssystemor delaysin
a delaysystem.In othercasesit is necessary to know the probabilitydisribution of
the holdingtimesto obtainthe desiredresults.This sectiondescribesthe two most
commonlyassumed holdingtime disnibutions:constantholdingtimesandexponen-
tial holdingtimes.
 528 rRAFFtcANALysts

ConstantHoldlng Times
Althoughconstantholdingtimescannotbeassumed for conventional voiceconver$a-
tions,it is a reasonable assumption for suchactivitiesasper-callcall processing re-
quirements, interofficeaddresssignaling,operatorassistance, andrecorded-*ssag"
playback'Furthermore, constantholdingtimesare obviouslyvalid for transmission
timesin fixed-lengthpacketnetworks.
when constantholding time messages are in effect,it is straightforwardto use
Equation12.3to determinethe probabilitydistributionof activechannels.As$ume,
for thetimebeing,thatall requests areserviced.Thentheprobabilityofj channelsbe_
ing busyat anyparticulartime is merelytheprobabilitythat; arrivalsoccurredin the
time intervalof lengthr* immediatelyprecedingtheinstantin question.sincetheav-
eragenumberof activecircuits over all time is the traffic intensityA = l,f*, the prob-
ability ofj circuitsbeingbusyis dependent only on the traffic intlnsity:

P;(i.r-) = Pj(A)

=N7- "a (12.5)

where l, = arrival rate

fm = constflrltholding time
A = traffic inten$ity (erlangs)

ExponentlalHolding Tlmes
The most commonly assumedholding time distribution for conventional
telephone
conversationsis the exponential holding time distribution:

P(>t) = s-t/t^ (12.6)

yhere r* is the averageholdingtime. Equation12.6specifiesthe probabilitythat a

holdingtime exceedsthevaluer. This relationshipcan-bederivedfro* u few
simple
assumptions concerningthenatureof thecall terminationprocess.Its basicjustifica-
tion, however,lies in thefact thatobservations ofactual uoice"onuersations exhibit
a remarkablycloseconespondence to an exponentialdistribution,
Theexponentialdistributionpossesses the curiouspropertythattheprobabilityof
a terminationis independent of how longa call hasteen in progress. Thaiis, no matter
how long a call hasbeenin existence, theprobabiliryofit Lsting anotherr seconds is
definedby Equation12'6.In this senseexponentialholdingtimesrepresentthemost
randomprocesspossible.Not evenknowledgeofhow longa call hasieenin progress
providesanyinformationasto whenthecall will terminaie.
combininga Poissonarrivalprocesswith an exponentialholdingtime process
to
obtainthe probabilitydisribution of activecircuitJis morecompilated thanit
was
for constantholdingtimesbecausecallscanlast indefinitely.rhe final result,how-
ever'provesto be dependent on only theaverageholdingtime.ThusEquation12.5is
 CHARACTERIZATION529
12.I TRAFFIC

valid for exponential holdingtimesaswell asfor constantholdingtimes(or anyhold-

ing time distribution).Equation12.5is thereforerepeatedfor emphasis;The prob-
ability of j circuitsbeingbusy at any palticularinstant,assuminga Poissonarrival
processandthatall requestsareservicedimmediately,is

PIA)=fte-A (r2.1)

whereA is ttretraffic inten$ityin erlangs.This resultis true for any distributionof

holdingtimes.

Example12.4. Assumethat a tnrnk group has enoughchannelsto immediately

carry all of thetraffic offeredto it by a Poissonprocesswith an arrival rateof onecall
per minute.Assumethat the averageholding time is 2 min. What percentageof the
total traffic is carriedby the first five circuits, andhow much traffic is carriedby all
remainingcircuits? (Assumethat the haffic is always packedinto the lowest
numberedcircuits.)

Solutinn. Thetrafficintensity(offeredload)of thesystemisA=I x2=2erlangs.

Thekaffic intensitycarriedby I activecircuitsis exactlyi erlangs.

Hence the traffic carried by the fust five circuits can be determined as follows;

As = 1Pr(2)+2Pr(2)+ 3Pr(2)+ 4Pa(2)

+ 5Pr(?)

=e . Z x z ?*. -33xi z_3*.-4Tx-z a, s x z s)

^z +
zl st )

= l.g9 erlangs

All of the remainingcircuits carry

2-1.89=0.llerlang

Theresultof Example12.4demonstrates theprincipleof diminishingreturnsasthe

capacityofa systemis increasedto carry andgreaterpercentage$
greater ofthe offered
traffic. The first five circuitsin Example12.4carry94.57oof the traffic while all re-
mainingcircuitscarryonly 5.5Voof theftaffic. If thereare 100sources,95 exka cir-
cuitsareneededto carrythe5.5Vo.
530 TRAFFICANALYSIS

12.2 LOSS SYSTEMS

Examplel2'4 providesanindicationof theblockingprobabilitiesthatarisewhenthe
numberof servers(circuits)is lessthanthemaximumpossibletraffic load(numberof
sources). The exampledemonstrates thatg4.5%o of the traffic is carriedby only five
circuits'Theimplicationis thattheblockingprobability,if only five circuitsareavail-
ableto carrythetraffic,is 5.svo.Actually,Example12.4is carefullywordedto indi_
catethatall ofthe offeredtraffic is carriedbut thatonly thetraffic carriedby thefirst
five circuitsis of interest.Thereis a subtlebutimportantdistinctionbetweentheprob-
ability that six or morecircuitsarebusy(ascanbe obtainedfrom Equation12.7)and
theblockingprobabilirythatariseswhenonly five circuirsexisr.
Thebasicreasonfor thediscrepancy is indicateclin Figure12.3,whichdepictsthe
sametrafficpatternarisingfrom z0 sources asis shownpreviouslyin Figuretz. t. nlg-
ure l2'3, however,assumes thatonly l3 circuitsareavailableto carryttretraffic.thus
thethreearrivalsat t = 2.2,2.3,and2.4 min areblockedandassumed to haveleft the
system.Thetotalamountof traffic volumelost is indicatedby theshadedarea,which
is thedifferencebetweenall trafficbeingservicedasit arriverandtrafficbeingcarried
by a blockedcallsclearedsystemwith l3 circuits.Themostimportantfeatureto no-
tice in Figure I2.3 is that the call arrivingat r = z.g is not blocied, eventhoughthe
originalprofile indicatesthatit arriveswhenall 13circuitsarebusy.Thereasonit is
not blockedis thatthepreviouslyblockedcallsleft thesystemandthereforereduced
thecongestionfor subsequent arrivals.Hencethepercentage of time thattheoriginal
traffic prof,rleis at or above13is not the $ameastheblockingprobabilitywhenonly
13circuitsareavailable.

gs

E.E
Efi
.tE
P E
= E
G

Tim6 (rninutEl

Figure 12.3 Activity profile of blocked calls cleared ( I 3 channels).

 12.2 LOSSSYSTEMS 531

12.2.1 Loet CallsCleared

The first personto accountfully andaccuratelyfor theeffectof clearedcalls in the

calculationof blockingprobabilitieswasA. K. Erlangin 1917.In this sectionwe
discussErlang'smost often usedresult;his formulationof the blocking prob-
ability for a lostcallsclearedsystemwith Poissonarrivals.RecallthatthePoisson
arrival assumptionimplies infinite sources.This resultis variouslyreferredto as
Erlang'sformulaof the first kind, El,y(A);the Erlang-Bformula;or Erlang'sloss
formula.
A fundamentalaspectof Erlang'sformulation,anda key contributionto modern
stochastic processtheory,is theconceptof statisticalequilibrium.Basically,statistical
equilibriunrimpliesthattheprobabilityof a system'sbeingin a particularstate(num-
ber of busycircuitsin a trunk group)is independent of the time at whichthe system
is examined.For a systemto be in statisticalequilibrium,a longtime mustpass(sev-
eralaverageholdingtimes)from whenthe $ystemis in a knownstateuntil it is again
examined. For example,whenatrunkgroupfirst beginsto accepttraffic,it hasnobusy
the systemis mostlikely to haveonly a few busy
circuits.For a shorttime thereafter,
circuits.As time passes,however,the systemreachesequilibrium.At this point the
mostlikely stateof the systemis to haveA = I'rr busycircuits'
Whenin equilibrium,a $ystemis aslikely to havean arrivalasit is to havea ter-
mination.If thenumberof activecircuitshappens to increaseabovetheaverage A, de'
parturesbecomemorelikely thanarrivals.Similarly,if the numberof activecircuits
happensto dropbelowA, an arival is morelikely thana depadure.Thusif a system
is perturbedby chancefrom its averagestate,it tendsto return.
AlthoughErlang'selegantformulationis notparticularlycomplicated, it is notpre-
sentedherebecause we aremostlyinterestedin application of the results.The inter-
estedreaderis invitedto seereference[2] or [3] for a derivationofthe result:

B=Erl,A)=
Mffi (12.8)

whereN = numberof servers(channels)

,4 = offeredtraffic intensity,\,t^ (erlangs)

Equation12.8specifiestheprobabilityof blockingfor a systemwith randomarri-

vals from an infinite sourceand arbitraryholding time distributions.The blocking
probabilityof Equation12.8is plottedin Figure12.4asa functionof offeredtraffic
intensityfor variousnumbersof channels.An oftenmoreusefUlpresentation of Er-
lang'sresultsis providedin Figure12.5,whichpresent$ theoutputchannelutilization
for variousblockingprobabilitiesandnumbersof servers. Theoutpututilizationp rep-
resentsthe traffic carriedbv eachcircuiu
 j

g
sT - Ug
F @
E =
= ! t
t ;
E . E
6 H
t b
? =
E
J X
€
E H
o t r
F o .
E b o
L ' t r
.it
X

q
cl

P
HO
tl

g ^rilHrqod 0sHoolg
 \
I \ \

l \\ \
\

\ \\
\ i
q

h
\ \' \ \ \ 8 r i
\ \ \ d H
I \ u
I E
q
\ \ U ' =
o i i
\ \ \ \ C !
\ t r H
\ r E ; =
\ \ \ t t r
rr ( J o
I JT $ E
d

t (\
a , H
L ! t
Jt rlr .5
\ aj . a =
_Q
a ' \ E E
f t r t

i\
E
v t
H
$ \
le 14.' ( EJ

\ €
*
\ O E
\ \ i o
\ \ \
\ \ I U?
ol
\ \ Fi
P
\ \ \
b0
\ \ \ \ l-,

\
\ \
\ \
,r\
\
\
\
oj (€ ' tr ec h t q ou lo r ot t o ' ?
o t o ! -o 1 o

tauueqclndtno)d
(uotterilrrn
 TRAFFICANALYSIS

(1-B)4
P=-F (12.e)

whereA offered traffic

N number of channels
B blocking probability
(l -B)A carried traffic

Blockingprobabilitiesarealsoprovidedin tabularform in AppendixD.

Example 12.5. A Tl line is to be usedasa tieline trunkgroupberweentwo pBXs.

How muchhaffic canthe trunk groupcany if the blockingptouuuitityis to be 0.1?
What is the offeredtraffic intensitv?

Soluti'on- From Figure 12.5it can be seenthat the outputcircuit utilization for
B = 0.I andN = 24 is 0.8.Thusthecarriedtraffic intensityis 0.g x24 = 19.2erlangs.
sincetheblockingprobabilityis 0.l, themaximumlevelof offeredtraffic is

lq?
A=ffi=2l.3erlangs

Example 12.6. Fourclustersof dataterminalsareto beconnected to a computerby

way of leasedcircuits,as shownin Figure 12.6.In Figure lz.6athetraffic from the
clustersusesseparate group$of sharedcircuits.In Figure lz.6b thetraffic from all
clustersis concentrated onto one commongroup of circuits.Determinethe total
numberof circuits requiredin both caseswhen the maximum desiredblocking
probabilityis 57o,Assumethat 22 terminalsarein eachclusterandeach
terminalis
activellVo of thetime. (Usea blockedcallsclearedanalysis.)

Figure 12.6 Dataterminalnetworkof Example10.6:(a) four separate

groups;(b) all traffic
concenfratedinto onegroup.
 1a.aLosssYsrEMS 535

Solution. The offeredtraffic from eachclusteris22x0.l =2.2 erlangs.Sincethe

averagenumberof active circuits is much smaller than the numberof sources,an
infinite sourceanalysiscanbe used.UsingTableD.l, thenumberof circuitsrequired
for B = SVoat a loadingof 2.2 erlangsis 5. Thusthe configurationof Figure 12.54
requiresa totalof 20 circuits.

of theconfigurationof Figure12.6bis
Thetotalofferedtraffic to theconcentrator
4 x2.2 = 8.8 erlangs.From TableD.1, l3 circuitsarerequiredto supportthe given
traffic load.

Example12.6demonstrates thatconsolidation of smalltrafficgroupsinto onelarge

traffic group can provide significant savings total circuit requirements.Large
in
groupsare more efficient than multiple small groupsbecauseit is unlikely that the
small groupswill becomeoverloadedat the sametime (assumingindependent arri-
vals).In effect,excesstrafficin one group can use idle circuitsin anothergroup. Thus
thosecircuits that areneededto accommodafetraffic peaksbut arenormally idle are
utilizedmoreefficientlywhenthe,trafficis combinedinto onegroup.This featureis
oneof themotivationsmentionedin Chapter10for integratingvoiceanddatatraffic
into a commonnetwork.The total savingsin ffansmissionco$tsis most significant
whenthe individual traffic intensitiesarelow. Henceit is the peripheralareaof a net-
work that benefitsthe mostby concentratingthe traffic.
The greatercircuit efficiency obtainedby combiningtxaffic into large groupsis
oftenreferredto asthe advantage of largegroupsizes.This efficiencyof circuitutili-
zationis thebasicmotivationforhierarchicalswitchingstructures. Insteadof intercon-
nectinga large numberof nodeswith rathersmall trunk groups between eachpair, it
is moreeconomicalto combineall traffic from individual nodes into one large trunk
groupandroutethetraffic througha tandemswitchingnode.Figure12.7contrastsa
meshversusa starnetworkwith a centralized switchingnodeat thecenter.Obviously,
thecostof thetandemswitchbecomes justifiedwhenthesavingsin totalcircuitmiles
is largeenough.

(a) ft)

Flgure 12.7 Use of tandem switching to concentrate ffaffic: (a) mesh; (b) star.
 536 THAFFIC
ANALYSIS

Example 12.7. what happensro rhe blocking probabiliries in Figure rz.6a andb
discussedin Example 12.6 when the traffic intensity increase$by 50va?

soluti.on. If the traffrc intensity of eachgroup increasesfrom z.zto3.3erlangs, the

blocking probability of the configuration of Figure 12.6aincreaserrfrom 5Zoto almost
l4Va.

In the configuration of Figure 12.6b a 507oincreasein the traffic intensitv causes

a 400Voincreasein the blocking probability (from 5 to ZOVo).

Example 12.7 demonstrate$some important consideration$in network design. As

indicated, blocking probabilities are very sensitive to increasesin traffic intensities,
particularly when the channelsare heavily utilized. Becauselarge trunk groups utilize
their channelsmore efficiently, they are more vulnerable to traffic increasesthan are
a number of smaller groups designedto provide the same grade of service. Further-
more, failures of equal percentagesof transmissioncapacity affect the performanceof
a large group more than the performarce of severalsmall groups.In both casesthe vul-
nerability of the large group$ arisesbecauselarge groups operatewith less spareca-
pacity than do multiple small groups.
A secondaspectof blocking analysesdemonstratedin Example l Z.7 is that the cal-
culatedresultsare highly dependenton the accuracyofthe traffic intensities.Accurate
valuesof traffic intensitiesare not always available.Furthermore,even when accurate
traffic measurementsare obtainable,they do not provide an absoluteindication of how
much growth to expect.Thus only limited confidence can be attachedto calculations
of blocking probabilities in an absolutesense.The main value of theseanalysesis that
they provide an objective meansof comparing various network sizes and configura-
tions' The most cost-effectivedesignfor a given gradeof serviceis the one that should
be chosen,even if the traffic statisticsare hypothetical. If a network is liable to expe-
rience wildly varying traffic patternsorrapid growth, thesefactors mustbe considered
when comparing design alternatives.A network with a somewhat larger initial cost
may be more desirableif it can absorbor grow to accommodateunanticipatedtraffic
volumes more easily.

12.2.2 Lost Catts Returning

In the lost callsclearedanalyses

just presented, it is assumedthat unserviceable
re-
questsleavethe systemandneverretum.As mentioned,this assumption is mostap-
propriatefor trunk groupswhoseblockedrequestsoverflowto anotherrouteandare
usuallyservicedelsewhere. However,Iostcallsclearedanalysesarealsousedin in-
$tanceswhereblockedcalls do not get servicedelsewhere. In manyof thesecases,
blockedcallstendto returnto the systemin the form of retries.someexamplesare
subscriber concenhator corporatetie linesandpBX trunks,callsto busytele-
systems,
phonenumbers,andaccessto WATS lines (if DDD altemativesarenot used).This
 1z.z LosssYsrEMS 537

sectionderivesblockingprobabilityrelationships
for lost callsclearedsystemswith
random retries.
Thefollowing analysisinvolvesthreefirndamental assumptions regardingthena-
tureof theretumingcalls:

l. All blockedcalls return to the systemand eventuallyget serviced,even if

multiple retriesarerequired.
The elapsed times between call blocking occurrencesand the generation of
retries are random and statistically independentofeach other. (This assumption
allows the analysisto avoid complications arising when retries are correlatedto
each other and tend to cause recurring traffic peaks at a particular waiting time
interval.)
The typical waiting time before retries occur is somewhat Ionger than the
averageholding time of a connection.This assumptionessentiallystatesthat the
$ystem is allowed to reach statistical equilibrium before a retry occurs.
Obviously, ifretries occur too soon, they are very likely to encountercongestion
"relax."
since the system has not had a chanceto In the limit, if all retries are
immediate and continuous, the network operation becomes similar to a delay
system discussedin later sections of thi$ chapter. In this case, however, the
system does not queuetequests-the sourcerldo so by continually "redialing."

When consideredin their entirety, theseassumptionscharacterizeretries as being

statistically indistinguishable from first-attempt traffic.* Hence blocked calls merely
add to the first-attempt call arrival rate.
Consider a system with a first-attempt call arrival rate of 1,.If a percentageB of the
calls is blocked, B times L retries will occur in the future. Of theseretries, however, a
percentageI will be blocked again. Continuing in this manner, the total arival rate
l,i after the systemhas reachedstatisticalequilibrium can be determinedas the infinite
series

l,' = l, +Bl,+ R7"+B37r-. . .

L (12.10)
I-B

whereB is the blockingprobabilityfrom a lost callsclearedanalysiswith traffic in-

ten'tityA' = l,'fm.
Equation12.10relatesthe averagearrival ratel,/, including theretries,to the first-
attemptarrival rate andthe blocking probability in termsof l,'. Thusthis relationship
doesnotprovidea directmeansof determiningl,' or d sinceeachis expressed in terms
of the other.However,the desiredresultcan be obtainedby iteratingthe lost calls
*First-attempt
traffic is also referred to as demand traffic: the service demands assuming all arrivals are
serviced immediately. The offered haffrc is the demand traffic plus the refries,
538 THAFFIc
ANALysts

clearedanalysis of Equation 12.8. First, determine an estimateof B using L and then

calculatel,'. Next, use l,' to obtain a new value of B anclan updatedvalui of 1,,.con-
tinue in this mamer until values of l,' and B are obtainecl.

Example 12.8. what is the blocking probability of a pBX to a central office trunk
group with I 0 circuits servicing a first-attempt offered traffic load of 7 erlangs?What
is the blocking probability if the number of circuits is increasedto 13?Assumerandom
retries for all blocked calls.

solution. It can be assumedthat the 7 erlangs of haffic arise from a large number
of PBX stations.Thus an infinite sourceanalysisis justified. The blocking probability
forA = 7 erlangsand N= l0 serversis about 87a.Thus the total offered load, including
retries, is approximately 7.6 erlangs. with N = l0 and,4'= 7.6, the blocking
probability is llvo. Two more iterations effectively produce convergenceatA, = g
erlangs and B = lTvo.rf the number of circuits in the trunk group is increasedto 13,
the blocking probability of a lost calls clearedsystemis 1.57o.Thus a first approximation
to the retuming traffic intensity is 7/0.985 = 7.1 erlangs. Hence the blocking probability
including all retuming traffic increasesonly slightly above the l.5Zo.

Example l2'8 demonstratesthat the effect of retuming traffic is insignificant when

operating at low blocking probabilities. At high blocking probabilities, however, ir is
necessaryto incorporate the efTectsofthe returning traffic into the analysis.This re-
lationship between lost calls cleare{ and lost calls retuming is shown in Figure 12.g.
when measurementsare made to determine the blocking probability of an outgo-
ing trunk group, the measurementscanxot distinguish betweenfirst-attempt calls (de-
mand traffic) and retries. Thus if a significant number of retries are contained in the
measurements,this fact should be incorporatedinto an analysisof how many circuits
must be addedto reduce the blocking of an overloadedtrunk group. The apparentof-
fered load will decreaseas the number of serversincreasesbecausl the number ofre-

t.0
.5

E .100
E .080
{
E .010
.F .om
J
t
E .oot

u. I tt,z 0J
u.ir 0.,0
u,+ 0.[
u.[ 0.8
o.o 0.7
0,7 0,9
Of|rttd tilffh
Of|rttd rilftTo Inrfirlry
Inrfirlry Frr (ritfigll
ctunrut (ritfigll
Frrctunrd

Figure 12.8 Blocking probability of lost calls reruming.

 12,2 LoSSSYSTEMS 539

Thus feweradditionalcircuitsareneededthanif no retriesarecon-

tries decreases.
tainedin the measurements.

12.2.3 Lost Galls Held

In a lostcallsheldsystem,blockedcallsareheldby thesystemandservicedwhenthe
necesrrary facilitiesbecomeavailable.Lost callsheldsystemsaredistinctlydifferent
from thedelaysystemsdiscussed laterin oneimportantrespect;Thetotalelapsedtime
of a call in the system,includingwaitingtime andservicetime,is independent of the
waitingtime.In essence, eacharrivalrequiresservicefor a continuousperiodof time
andterminates its requestindependently of its beingservicedor not.Figure12.9dem-
onstrates thebasicoperationof a lostcallsheldsystem.Noticethatmostblockedcalls
eventuallyget someservice,but only for a portion of the time that the respective
sourcesarebusy.
Althougha switchedtelephonenetworkdoesnot operatein a lost callsheld man-
ner,somesystem$ do.Lost callsheldsystemsgenerallyarisein real-timeapplications
in whichthe sourcesarecontinuouslyin needof service,whetheror not thefacilities
are available.Whenoperatingunderconditionsof heavyftaffic, a lostcallsheldsystem
typicallyprovidesseryicefor only a portionof thetime a particularsourceis active.
Eventhoughconventional circuitswitchingdoesnotoperateaccordingto thetheo-
reticalmodelof lost callsheld,Bell Systemtraffic engineers haveusedit to calculate
blockingprobabilitiesfor trunkgroups[4]. A lostcallsheldanalysisalwaysproduces
a largervaluefor blockingthandoesErlang'slossformula.Thusthe lost callsheld
analysisproducesa conservative designthat helpsaccountfor retriesandday-to-day

E,:
Es
€ E
-E gG

Figure 12,9 Activity profile sf lost callsheld,

 540 THAFFIC
ANALYSIS

variations in the busy-hour calling intensities. In contrast, CCITT recommendations

[5] stipulateErlang-B formulas should be used in determining blocking probabilities.
One example of a system that closely fits the lost calls held model is time assign-
ment speechinterpolation (TASD. A TASI sy$temconcentratessomenumber of voice
$ourcesonto a smaller number of transmissionchannels.A sourcereceivesservice(is
connectedto a channel) only when it is active. If a source becomesactive when all
channels are busy, it i$ blocked ard speechclipping occurs. Each speechsegment
starts and stops independenfly of whether it is serviced or not. TASI systemswere
originally used on analog long-distancetransmissionlinks such as underseacables.
More modern counterpartsof TASI are referred to as digital circuit multiplication
(DCM) systems.[n contrast to the original rASI systems,DCM systemscan delay
speechfor a small amount of time, when necessary,to minimize the clipping. In this
case,a lost calls held analysisis not rigorously justified becausethe total time a speech
segmentis "in the sy$tem" increase$as the delay for service increases.However, if
the averagedelay is a small percentageof the holding time, or if the coding rate of de-
layed speechis reduced to allow the transmissionchannel time to "catch up," a lost
calls held analysisis stilljustified. Recall that controlling the coding rate is one tech-
nique of traff,rcshaping used for transporting voice in an ATM network,
Lost calls held systemsare easily analyzedto determinethe probability of the total
number of calls in the systemat any one time. Since the duration of a source'sactivity
is independentof whether it is being serviced,the number in the systemat any time is
identical to the number of active sourcesin a systemcapableof carrying all traffic as
it arises.Thus the distribution of the number in the systemis the Poissondistribution
provided earlier in Equationl2.3. The probability that i sourcesrequestingserviceare
being blocked is simply the probability that i + N sourcesare active when N is the num-
ber of servers.Recall that the Poissondistribution essentiallydeterminesthe desired
probability as the probability that i + N arrivals occurred in the preceding f. seconds.
The distribution is dependentonly on the product of the averagearrival rate l" and the
averageholding time tm.

Example 12.9. what is the probability that a talk$purt experiencesclipping in a

TASI system with l0 sourceriand 5 channels?with 100 sourcesand 50 channels?
Assume that the activity factor of each talker is 0.4. (Ignore finite sources..l

solution, For the first case, the clipping probability can be determined as the
probability that five or more sourcesare busy in a poisson processwith an averageof
A = O.4x l0 = 4 busy servers.Using Equation 12.7,

,
="*l/ ,#*
: f, r,r+)
prob(crippingl ,
# * +.#.fr l: o.ru
Fi l,"' )

With 100sources, theaveragenumberof busycircuitsis,4 = 0.4 x 100: 40.A speech

segmentis clippedif 50 or moretalkersareactiveat once.Thusthe clippingprob-
ability canbe determinedas
 1z.a LosssysTEMs 541

99
prob(clippingl= f, rr{+O)= 0,04
'Fso

Example12.9demonshates that TASI system$aremuchmoreeffectivefor large

groupsizesthanfor smallones.The 36Voclippingfactoroccuningwith 5 channels
producesunacceptable voicequality.On the otherhand,the4Voclippingprobability
for 50 channelscanbe toleratedwhenthe line costsarehigh enough.
In reality,thevaluesfor blockingprobabilitiesobtainedin Example12.9areoverly
pessimisticbecause an infinite sourceassumption wasused.Thesummations did not
includethecaseof all sourcesbeingactivebecause thereneedsto be at leastoneidle
sourceto createanarrivalduringthetimecongestion. A moreaccuratesolutionto this
problemis obtainedin a latersectionusinga finite sourceanalysis.

12.2.4 Lost Calls Cleared-Finite Sources

As mentionedpreviously,a fundamental assumption in the derivationof thePoisson

arrivaldistribution,andconsequently Erlang's loss formula,is thatcall arrivalsoccur
independently of thenumberof activecallers.Obviously,this assumption canbejus-
tified only whenthenumberof sources is muchlargerthanthenumberof servers. This
sectionpresentssome fundamentalrelationshipsfor determiningblocking prob-
abilitiesof lost callsclearedsystemswhenthe numberof sourcesis not muchlarger
thanthe numberof servers.Theblockingprobabilitiesin thesecase$arealwaysless
thanthosefor infinite rtourcesystem$sincethearrivalratedecreases asthenumberof
busysources increases.
Whenconsidering finite $ourcesystems, traffictheoristsinffoduceanotherparame-
ter of interestcalledtime congestion. Time congestionis the percentage of time that
all serversin a grouparebusy.It is iderticalto theprobabilitythatall server$arebusy
at randomlyselectedtimes.However,time congestionis not necessarily identicalto
blockingprobability(whichis sometimes refenedto ascall congestion). Time con-
gestionmerelyspecifiestheprobabilitythatall serversarebusy.Beforeblockingcan
occur,theremustbe an arrival.
In an infinite lrourcesystem,time congestionandcall congestionareidenticalbe-
causethepercentage ofarrivals encountering all serversbusyis exactlyequalto the
time congestion. (Thefact that all serversarebusyhasno bearingon whetheror not
an arrivaloccurs.)In a finite sourcesystem,however,thepercentage of arrivalsen-
counteringcongestion is smallerbecause fewerarrivalsoccurduringperiodswhenall
$erversarebusy.Thusin a finite riourcesystem,call congestion (blockingprobability)
is alwayslessthanthetime congestion. As anextremeexample,considerequalnum-
bersof sourcesandservers.Thetime congestionis theprobabilitythatall senersare
busy.Theblockingprobabilityis obviouslyzero.
The samebasictechniques introducedby Erlangwhenhe determined thelossfor-
mula for infinite sources canbeusedto derivelossformulasfor finite sources[3]. Us-
542 TRAFF|cANALysts

ing thesetechniques,
we find theprobabilityof n serversbeingbusyin a systemwith
M sourcesandN serversis

( 1 2 . 1)

wheret is the calling rateper lzle sourceandf* is theaverageholding time. Equation

12.1I is knownasthetruncatedBernoulliandistributionandalsoastheEngsetdishi-
bution.
settingn = N in Equation12.11 producesan expression for thetime congestion:

(r2.r2)
rL[Y)rrr-r'

using the fact that the arrival ratewhenN serversarebusyis (M -M)/r4 timesthe ar-
rival ratewhenno serversarebusy,we candeterminetheblockingprobabilityfor lost
callsclearedwith a finite sourceasfollows;

t)t^"-r
u= [t" (12.13)
ELF,I-tlrrrJ'
t'')
which is identical to P1,,(the time congestion) for M - I sources.
Equationsl2.ll, 12-12,and 12.13areeasilyevaluatedin termsof theparameters
ir,'andt-. However,Ll andr. do not, by themselves,speci$,the averageactivity of a
source'In a lost callsclearedsystemwith finite sourcestheeffectiveofferedloadde-
crease$ asthe blockingprobabilityincreases because blockedcallsleaveanddo not
retum' When a call is blocked,the averageactivity of the offering sourcedecreases,
which increasesthe averageamountof idle time for that source.The net resultis that
U decreases becausethe amountof idle time increases. If the averageactivity of a
sourceassumingno traffic is clearedis designateda$p = It*, the valueof l/t canbe
determinedas

} j r"*': = * - j (r2.14)
I - P(l-B)
 12.?LosssysTHMs543

whereB is theblockingprobabilitydefinedby Equation1?.13.

The difficulty with usingthe unblocked$ourceactivity factorp to characterize a
$ource'sofferedloadis now apparent. Thevalueof li t* dependson B, whichin furn
dependson l"'I*. Thus someform of iterationis neededto determineB whenthe
sourcesarecharacterized by p (aneasilymeasuredparameter)insteadof il. If thetotal
offeredload is consideredto be Mp, the carriedtraffic is

A"*ie*l =MPI - B) ( I 2.1s)

A tableof traffic capacities

for finite sourcesis providedin AppendixD.2, where
the offeredIoadA =Mp is listedfor variouscombinationsof M, N, and8. Someof
theresultsareplottedin Figure12.10,wheretheycanbe comparedto blockingprob-
abilitiesof infinite sourcesystems.As expected,infinite $ourceanalyses(Erlang-B)
areacceptable whenthenumberof sourcesM is large.

Example12,10, A groupof callersgenerate request$at a rateof f,rvecallsperhour

pertelephone (includingincomingandoutgoingcalls).Assumingtheaverageholding
time is 4 min, whatis theaveragecallingrateof eachidle source?How manycallers
can be supportedby a l2-channel concentrator/multiplexer if the maximum
acceptable blockingprobabilityis lVo'!

Solution, Sinceeachcalleris typicallyactivefor ?0 min ofevery hour andplaces

anaverageof five callsduringthe40 min of inactivity,thecallingratefor idle $ources
M = 5l4O= 0.l?5 callsperminute.Theofferedloadfor M sources, assumingall traffic
is carried,is 0.33M. TableD.2 mustbe searched to find thelargestM suchthat0.33
M is lessthanor equalto the maximumofferedloadfor B = lVo andN = 12.Using
interpolationfor M = 2l revealsthat 12 serverscansupport7.11erlangsat B = LVo.
Since2I x 0.33= 6.93is theofferedload,2l sourcesis an acceptable solution.If 22

!
5

c
o

ffi
C
E
t
d

0.4 0.8 0.6 0,7 0.9 0.9

Offeredtraffic p€rrErvsr(orlangBl

Figure 12.10 Blockingprobabilityof lost callsclearedwith finite sources.

544 THAFFIoANALysts

sourcesare used,the offeredload of 7.26 erlangsis higherthan the 7.04 erlangs

obtainablefrom interpolationin TableD.2 asthemaximumofferedloadfor B = lvo.

It is worthwhilecomparingthe resultof Example12.10to a resultobtainedfrom

aninfinite sourceanalysis(Erlang-B).For a blockingprobabilityof lvo,TableD.l re-
vealsthatthemaximumofferedloadfor 12serversis 5.88erlangs.Thusthemaximum
numberof sourcescanbe determined as5.88/0.333= t/.94. Hencein this casean in-
finite sourceanalysisproducesa resultthatis conservative
by l5Vo.

12.2.5 Lost Calls Hetd-Flnlte Sources

A lost callsheld systemwith finite sourcesis analyzedin thesamebasicmannerasa

lost callsheld $ystemswith infinite sources.At all timesthe numberof calls"in the
system"is definedto be identicalto the numberof callsthat wouldbe servicedby a
strictlynonblockingservergroup.ThusEquation12.11is usedto derermine theprob-
ability thatexactlyn callsarein the system:

(1,'t-)"

r%[Y)rr,t-r'

[y),",-,
ql + l"'r*)tr
(r2.16)

Becauseno calls are cleared,the offered load per idle sourceis not dependenton B:

r,,*=*h=f; (12.r7)

combining Equationsl?.16 and 12.17producesa more usefulexpressionfor the

probabilitythatn callsarein the system:

(12.18)
+=[f;)ot'-p)M-n
If thereareN servers,the time congestionis merelythe probability that N or more
serversarebusy:

Pr* EP, (12.19)

n4'l
 12.2 LOSSSYSTEMS 545

The blockingprobability,in a lost callsheld sense,i$ theprobabilityof an arrival

encounterins
try'ormorecallsin the svstem:

ff^ f ,prob(anival lrusourcesarebusy)

Br,=
average arrival rate

=iU t)o'ct - p)Mr-'r

(12.20)

wherep = offeredloadper source

M = numberof sources
N = numberof servers

Exampte12.11. Determinethe probability of clipping for the TASI systems

describedin Example12.9.In this case,however,usea lost callsheld analysisfor
finite sources.

Solution, In this exarnplewe areconcemedonly with theprobabilitythata speech

utteranceis clippedfor someperiodof time until a channelbecomesavailable.Thus
Equation12.20providesthe desiredanswerusing p = 0.4 for the offeredload per
source.In the first case,with 10 sourcesand5 channels,

9
/rt\
=o.z7
Bn= E | ] lto.+fto.o)%n
,=s(-/

In thesecondcasewith 100sourcesand50 seryers.

. =,1f;)(o'4)n(0
6)ee-'=
o'023

Theresultsof Example12.11showagainthata TASI systemrequireslargegroup

sizesto providelow clippingprobabilities.Whencomparedto theresultsof Example
12.9,theseresultsindicatethat an infinite sourceanalysisoverestimates
theclipping
probabilityin bothcases(0.36versus0.27and0.04versus0.023).Noticethattheper-
centageerrorin the infinite $ourceanalysisis almostidenticalfor the IO-source
systemand the l0O-sourcesystem.Hencethe validity of choosingan infinite
sourcemodelis more dependenton the ratio of sourcesto serversthanit is on the
numberof sources.
546 TRAFFTc
ANALYSIs

F
E
o
.s
o E
.s
g 5

o
E
I
ll
.E
4
.to
s
E $
s
E
o
g
E
L

$ourceactivlty(erlangsl

F'igure l2.Il Clipping probability and clipping duration of TASI.

Example I2. I I merely determines the probability that a speech segment encoun-
ters congestionand is subsequentlyclipped. A complereanalysisof a TASI (or DCM)
system must consider the time duration of clips in addition to their frequency of oc-
cuffence. In essence,the desired information is representedby the amount of traffic
volume in the clipped $egments.weinstein [6] refers to the clippert $egmentsas "frac-
tional speechloss" or simply "cutout fraction." This is not the silne as the lost traffic,
since a conventional lost calls held analysisconsidersany arrival that encounterscon-
gestion as being completely "lost"-even if it eventually receives some service.The
cutout fraction is determined as the ratio of untransmittedtraffic intensitv to offered
traffic intensitv:
 iz.g NErwoFrKBLocKtNc pFroBABtLtlES 547

n",:i.E(,-1v)P" (r2.21)
n=N+l

whereM = numberof sources

A = ofTeredload,= Mp
N = numberof servers
Pn= probabilityof n callsin thesystem(Equation12.18)

Example12.12, Determinetheaveragedurationof a clip in thetwo TASI systems

of Example12.11.Assumethe average durationof a speech$egment is 300 msec.
(Theaveragelengthof a speechsegmentis dependenton theactivitythreshold,which
alsoinfluencestheactivityfactorp.)

Solution. In thefirst case,

a,,=II tn- s)f1,0.)(0.4r(0.6)10-n

:0.05e
n+t \-/

Thus,on average,5.9Va,ot 17.7msec,of every300-msecspeechsegmentis clipped.

Since?7%o of thesegmentsexperienceclipping(Example 12.l l),theaverageduration
is 0.059/0.27= 22Vo,or 66 msec-an obviouslyintol-
of a clip for clippedsegments
erableamount.In the secondcasefor 100sourcesand50 channels.

100
- 50)
u",:+,*E,,n =0.00r
fifl),r.-t*.6)rtx]-
Thusin thiscaseonly 0.1%of all speechis clipped,whichimpliesthatwhenclipping
occurs,300x 0.001/0.023=13msecof thesegment is lost.

Example12.12showsthat largegroupsizesnot only greatlyreducethe clipping

probabilityof TASI systemsbut alsoreducethedurationof theclips.Therelationship
of clippingprobabilitiesandclippingduration(fractionalspeechloss)to groupsize
andsourceactivityis providedin FigureI ?.I l. As shown,theclippingprobabilityis
extrcmelysensitiveto s(turceactivity(offeredload).For a discussion
of theeffectsof
clippingon speechquality,seereferences [7] and[8].

12.3 NETWORKBLOCKINGPROBABILITIES

In theprecedingsectionsbasictechniquesofcongestiontheoryarepresented to deter-
mineblockingprobabilitiesof individualtrunk groups.In this sectiontechniquesof
calculatingend-to-endblockingprobabilitiesof a networkwith morethanoneroute
548 TBAFFIcANALysts

betweenendpointsis considered.In conjunctionwith calculatingthe end-to-end

blockingprobabilities,it is necessary
to considerthe interactionof raffic on various
routesof a network.Foremostamongtheseconsiderations is the effectof overflow
ffaffic from onerouteontoanother.Thefollowingsectionsdiscusssimplifiedanalyses
only. More sophisticated techniques
for morecomplexnetworkscanbe obtainedin
references t9l, t101,andI l].

12.3.1 End-to-End Blocking Probabilities

Generally,a connectionthrougha largenetworkinvolvesa seriesof transmission

links, eachone of which is selectedfrom a set of alternatives. Thus an end-to-end
blockingprobabilityanalysisusuallyinvolvesa compositeof seriesandparallelprob-
abilities.The simplestprocedureis identicalro the blockingprobability(marching
loss)analysespresentedin chapter5 for switchingnetworks.For example,Figure
I 2.I 2 depictsa representative
setof alternativeconnectionsthrougha networkandthe
resultingcompositeblockingprobability.
Theblockingprobabilityequarionin Figure12.12containsseverarsimplifyingas-
sumptions.First, the blockingprobability(matchingloss)of the switchesis not in-
cluded.In a digital time divisionswitch,matchinglosscanbe low enoughthat it is
easilyeliminatedfrom theanalysis.In otherswitches,however,thematchinglossmay
not be insignificant.when necessary, switchblockingis includedin the analysisby
consideringit a sourceofblocking in serieswith theassociated ffunk groups.
when morethanoneroutepassesthroughthe sameswitch,asin nodec of Figure
12'12,propertreatmentof correlationbetweenmatchinglossesis an additionalcom-
plication.A conservative approachconsidersthematchinglossto be completelycor-
related.In this casethematchinglossis in serieswith thecommonlink. On theother
hand,an optimisticanalysisassumes thatthematchinglossesareindependent, which
impliesthattheyarein serieswith theindividuallinks.Figure12.13depictsrhesetwo
approaches for includingthe matchinglossof switchc into theend-to-end blocking
probabilityequationof Figurel2.r2.In rhiscase,thelink from c to D is thecommon
link.

1 - qz{t

B=pr11-qpqsl

Figure 12.12 hobability graph for end-ro-endblocking analysis.

 12.3 NETWoRK
BLoGKING
PRoBABILITIES 549

-wfl"- 1 -q+
l
{
E/
@-q\
\0,
fr%-
ffito' d ; bo"o ,o,
Qr*= 1- (1 -0r9")Q
B= 1-(1-slSsxl-Q2fte) g=1-{rofig

Figure 12.13 Incorporatingswirch*matching loss into end-to-endblocking analysis:(a)

independentswitchblocking;(b) correlatedswitchblocking.

A secondsimplifyingassumption usedin derivingtheblockingprobabilityequa-

tion in Figure12.I? involvesassumingindependence for theblockingprobabilitiesof
the trunk groups.Thus the compositeblockingof two parallelroutesis merelythe
productof the respectiveprobabilities(Equation5.4). Similarly,independence im-
pliesthattheblockingprobabilityof two paths-in series-is I minustheproductof
the respectiveavailabilities(Equation5.5). In actualpracticeindividual blocking
probabilitiesarenevercompletelyindependent. This is particularlytruewhena large
amountof traffic on oneroute resultsasoverflow from anotherroute.Wheneverthe
first routeis busy,it is likely thatmorethanthe averageamountof overflowis being
divefiedto thesecondroute.Thusan alternaterouteis morelikely to bebusywhena
primaryrouteis busy.
In a largeprrblic network,trunksto tandemor toll switchesnormally carry traffrc
to manydestinations. Thusno onedirectroutecontributesan overwhelmingamount
of overflowtraffic to a paniculartrunkgroup.In thiscaseindependent blockingprob-
abilitieson alternateroutesarejustified.In someinstances of thepublic network,and
oftenin privatenetworks,overflow traffic from oneroutedominatesthetraffic on tan-
dem routes.In thesecasesfailure to accountfor the conelationin blockingprob-
abilitiescanleadto overlyoptimisticresults.

Example 12.13. Two trunk groupsare to be usedas direct routesbetweentws

switchingsystems.The first group has 12 channelsand the secondgroup has 6
channels.AssumeI0.8 erlangsof haffic is offleredto the l2-channelgroup and
overflowsareofferedto the6-channelgroupwhenthefirst groupis busy.Whatis the
blockingprobabilityof thefirst group,andhow muchtraffic overflowsto the second
group?Using the overflow traffic volumeasan offeredload, determinethe blocking
probabilityof the secondkunk group.What is theprobabilitythatbothtrunk groups
arebusy?Comparethis answerto the blockingprobabilityof one t8-channeltunk
group.
550 THAFFI0
ANALysts

solution. using a lost calls cleared analysis with an infinite source, we

determinethatblockingofthefirsrgroupis l|vo(A= l0.B,N= 12).Thereforethe
overflow traffic is 10.8x 0.ltsI.62 erlangs. The blocking probability (assuming
random arrivals?) of the secondgroup is o.Svo(A = 1.62, N = 6). The probability
that both trunk groups are busy simultaneously can be determined (assuming
independence?)as

B=0.15x0.005=0.00075

In contrast,thecorrectblockingprobabilityof an l8-channeltrunk groupwith an of-

feredloadof 10.8erlangsis

B:0.013

Thequestionmarksin the solutionof Example12.13pointto two sourcesof error

in the determinationof the first blocking probability value.one error is the assump-
tion ofindependence ofblockingin thetwo trunkgroups.A seconderrorresultsfrom
the useof an analysispredicatedon purely random(poisson)arrivalsfor over{low
trafficinto thesecondtrunkgroup.Resolutionofthis erroris discussed in thenextsec*
tion.
separatingthe 18channelsof Example12.13into two groupsis anobviousartifice.
This exampleis usefulin thatit demonshates anextremecaseof correlationbetween
blockingprobabilitiesof two trunk groups.when correlationexists,the composite
blocking probability of a direct route and an alternateroute shouldbe determinedas
follows:

B = (8,) (8211) (12.22)

where 81 = blocking probability of group I

B2ll = blocking probability ofgroup 2 given that group I is busy

In the artificial caseof dividing a trunk group into two subgroups,the conditional
blocking probability can be determined as

Brll =B(MN1)

; prob (N serversarebusywhenN, areknown to be busy)

P* AN/NI
-_! 1 V -_\ a N (r2.23)
p r
-n=Nr'n un=71;An/nl)

wherePnis theprobabilityrhatexactlyn of N serversarebusy(Equationl?.3).

 la.s NETWoRK pRoBABtLrrES 551
BLoCKTNG

EvaluatingEquation12.23for A = 10.8,Nr = 12,andN = 18 revealsthat the ap-

propriateconditionalprobabilityB2ll for Example12.13 is 0.033.Thusthecomposite
blockingprobabilityper Equation12.22isB = 0.15x 0.033= 0.005.The remaining
inaccuracy(0.005versus0.013actually)is dueto nonrandomcharacteristics ofover-
flow trffic.
Equation 12.23is valid only for the contrivedcaseof an altemateroute carrying
overflowtraffic from only oneprimaryroute.It canbeused,however,asa worst-case
solutionto situationswhereoverflow from oneroutetend$to dominatethe traffic on
an alternateroute.
The correlationsbetweentheblockingprobabilitiesof individualroutesarisebe-
causecongestionon onerouteproducesoverflowsthat tendto causecongestionon
otherroutes.Extemaleventsstimulatingnetworkwideoverloadsalsocausetheblock-
ing probabilitiesto be correlated.Thusa third assumptionin theend-to-end blocking
probabilityequationof Figure 12.12is that traffic throughoutthe networkis inde-
pendent.If fluctuationsin the traffic volumeon individual links tendto be conelated
(presumably because of extemaleventssuchastelevisioncommercials, etc.),signifi-
cantdegradationin overall performanceresults.

12.3.2 OverflowTratfic

The secondsourceoferror in Example12.13occurredbecausean Erlang-Banalysis

usedthe averagevolume of overflow traffic from the first group to determinethe
blockingprobabilityof the secondtrunk group.An Erlang-Fanalysisassumes traffic
arrivalsarepurelyrandom,thatis, theyaremodeledby a Poissondistribution.How-
ever, a Poissonanival distributionis an erroneousassumptionfor the traffic offered
to the secondtrunk group.Eventhougharrivalsto thefirst groupmay be random,the
overflowprocesstendsto selectgroupsof thesearrivalsandpassthemon to the sec-
ondtrunk group.Thusinsteadofbeing randomthearrivalsto thesecondgroupoccur
in bursts.This overfloweffectis illustratedin Figure12.14,whichportray$a typical
randomardval patternto onehunk groupandthe overflow patternto a secondgroup,
If a significantamountof the traffic flowing onto a trunk group resultsas overflow
from othertrunk groups,overly optimistic valuesof blocking probability arisewhen
to be purelyrandom.
all of thetraffic is assumed
The mostcornmontechniqueof dealingwith overflow traffic is to relatethe over-
flow traffic volume to an equivalentamountof randomtraffic in a blocking prob-
ability sense.For example,if the 1.62erlangsof overflowtraffic in Example12.12is
equatedto 2.04erlangsof randomtoaffic,a blockingprobabilityof LSVIis obtained
for the secondtrunk group.(This is the correctprobability of blocking for the second
groupsincebothgroupsarebusyif andonly if the secondgroupis busy.)
This methodof treatingover{lowtraffic is refenedto astheequivalentrandomthe-
ory [12]. Tablesof traffrccapacityareavailable[3] thatincorporatetheoverflowef-
fectsdirectlyinto the maximumofferedloads.The Neal-Wilkinsontablesusedby
Bell Systemtraffic engineers compriseonesuchsetof tables.TheNeal-Wilkinsonta-
bles,however,alsoincorporatethe effectsof day-to-dayvariationsin the traffic load.
 552 THAFFICANALYSIS

AfflYrh to flil trunk gru.rp

Drprturd frotn llnt tunk $uup

frprclty of fim mrnk ero{F

Olnrflofr rtylnh to rmnd trunk Foup

l i l l
Figure 12.14 Bursty characteristicof overJlowtraffic.

(Forty erlangson one day and 30 erlangs on anotheris not the $ameas 35 erlangson
both days.) These tables are also used for trunk groups that neither generatenor re-
ceive overflow traffic. The fact that cleared traffic doe$not get serviced by an alternate
route implies that reffies are likely. The effect of the rehies, however, is effectivelv
incorporatedinto the value of B by equivatentrandomness.

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS

The secondcategoryoftelefaffic analysisconcern$systemsthat delay nonserviceable

requestsuntil the necessaryfacilities become available. These systemsare variously
referred to as delay systems,waiting-call systems,and queuing system$.call arrivals
occurring when all serversare busy are placed in a queueand held until servicecom-
mences. The queue might consist of storage facilities in a physical sense,such as
blocks of memory in a message-switchingnode, or the queuemight consist only of a
list of sourceswaiting for service.In the latter ca$e,storageof the messagesis the re-
sponsibility of the sourcesthemselves.
using the more general tnrm queueingtheory, we can apply the following analyses
to a wide variety of applications outside of telecommunications.Some of the more
coiltmon applications are data processing, supermarket check-out counters. aircraft
landings, inventory control, and various forms of service bureaus.These and many
other applicatronsare consideredin the field ofoperations research.The foundations
of queuing theory, however, rest on fundamentaltechniquesdevelopedby early tele-
communications traffic researchers.In fact, Erlang is credited with the first solution
to the most basic type of delay system.Examplesof delay systemanalysisapplications
in telecommunicationsare messageswitching, packet switching, statisticaltime divi-
sion multiplexing, multipoint data communications,automatic call distribution, digit
receiver access,signaling equipment usage,and call processing.Furthermore, many
 12.4 DELAY$YSTEMS 553

PBXshavefeaturesallowingqueuedacce$$ to corporatetie linesor WATS lines.Thus

somesystemsformerlyoperatingaslosssystemsnow operateasdelaysystems.
ln general,a delayoperationallows for greaterutilization of servers(fransmission
facilities)thandoesa losssystem.Basically,theimprovedutilizationis achievedbe-
causepeaksin thearrivalprocessare"smoothed"by thequeue.Eventhougharrivals
to thesy$temarerandom,the$erversssea somewhatregulararrivalpattern.Theeffect
of the queuingprocesson overloadtraffic is illustratedin Figure 12.15.This figure
displaysthe sametraffic patternspresented earlierin FiguresI2.1,12.3,and I2.9. In
thiscase,however,overloadtrafficis delayeduntil callterminations produceavailable
chamels.
In mostof thefollowinganalyses it is assumed thatall traffic offeredto thesystem
eventuallygetsserviced.Oneimplicationof this assumption is thattheofferedhaffic
intensityA is lessthanthenumberof serversN. EvenwhenA is lessthanN, thereare
two casesin whichthecaniedtraffic mightbelessthantheofferedtraffic.First,some
sourcesmighttire of waitingin a longqueueandabandontherequest.Second,theca-
pacityfor storingrequests maybefinite.Hencerequests mayoccasionally be rejected
by thesystem.
A secondassumption in the following analysesis that infinite $ourcesexist.In a
delaysystem,theremay be a finite numberof sourcesin a physicalsensebut an infi-
nitenumberof sourcesin anoperationalsensebecause eachsourcemayhaveanarbi-
trary numberof requestsoutstanding(e.9., a packet-switchingnode).There are
instances in whicha finite sourceanalysisis necessary, but notin theapplications con-
sideredhere.
An additionalimplicationof servicingall offered traffic ariseswhen infinite
source$exist. This implicationis the needfor inJinitequeuingcapabilities.Even

Ee F G - + - - r - + - - - '

E
E.E
gs
E C

Figure 12.15 Activity profile of blockedcallsdelayed(13 servers).

 554 THAFFIC
ANALYSIS

though the offered traffic intensity is less than the number of servers,no statistical
limit exists on the number of arrivals occurring in a short period of time. Thus the
queue of a purely losslesssystem must be arbitrarily long. In a practical sense,
only
finite queuescan be realized, so either a statisticalchanceof blocking is always pr+
sent or all sourcescan be busy and not offer additional traffic.
When analyzing delay systems,it is convenientto separatethe total time that a re-
quest is in the sysrem into the waiting time and rhe holding time. In delay systems
analysisthe holding time is more corlmonly referredto as the servicetime. In contrast
to loss systems,delay systemperformanceis ggnerally dependenton the distribution
of servicetimes and notjust the mean value Im.Two servicetime distributions are con-
sideredhere;constantservicetimes and exponentialservicetimes. Respectively,these
distributions representthe most deterministic and the most random servicetimes pos-
sible. Thus a system that operateswith some other distribution of service times per-
forms somewherebetweenthe performanceproducedby thesetwo distributions.
The basic purpose of the following analysesis to determine the probability distri-
bution of waiting times. From the distribution, the averagewaiting time is easily de-
termined. sometimes only the average waiting time is of interest. More generally,
however, the probability that the waiting time exceedssome specified value is of in-
terest.In either case,the waiting times are dependenton the following factors:

I. Intensity and probabilistic nature ofthe offered traffic

2. Distribution of service times
3. Number of servers
4. Number of sources
5. Service discipline of the queue

The service discipline of the queue can involve a number of factors. The first of
these concerns the manner in which waiting calls are selected.commonly, waiting
calls are selectedon a first-come, first-served (FCFS) basis,which is also referred to
as first-in, first-out (FrFo) seryice.sometimes,however, the serversystemitself does
not maintain a queuebut merely polls its $ourcesin a round-robin fashion to determine
which onesare waiting for service.Thus the queuemay be servicedin sequentialorder
of the waiting sources.In some applications waiting requestsmay even be selectedat
random. Furthermore, additional service variations arise if any of these schemesare
augmentedwith a priority discipline that allows some calls to move aheadof others
in the queue.
A secondaspectof the service discipline that must be consideredis the length of
the queue.If the maximum queuesize is smaller than the effective number of sources,
blocking can occur in a lost calls sense.The result is that two characteristicsof the
grade of service must be considered: the delay probability and the blocking prob-
ability' A common example of a system with both delay and loss characteristicsis an
automatic call distributor with more accesscircuits than attendants(operatorsor re-
servationists).Normally, incoming calls are queuedfor service. under heavy loads,
 12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 555

however,blockingoccursbeforethe ACD is evenreached.Reference[4] contains

an analysisof a delaysystemwith finite queuesandfinite $ervers.
To simplify the characterization of pafiicular systems,queuingtheoristshave
adopteda concisenotationfor classifyingvarioustypesof delaysystems.This nota-
tion, which wasintroducedby D. G. Kendall,usesletterabbreviations to identifyal-
ternativesin eachof thecategories listed.Althoughthediscussions in thisbookdo not
rely on thisnotation,it is introducedandusedoccasionally sothereadercanrelatethe
following discussions to classicalqueuingtheorymodels.The interpretation of each
letteris specifiedin Figure12.16.
Thespecification formatpresented in Figure12,16 actuallyrepresentsanextension
of the formatcommonlyusedby mostqueuingtheorists.Thusthis formatis some-
times abbreviatedby eliminating the last one or two entries.When theseentriesare
eliminated,infinite casespecifications areassumed. For example,a single-server sys*
tem with randominput andnegativeexponentialseryicetimesis usuallyspecifiedas
Mll,lUl. Both thenumberof sourcesandthepermissiblequeuelengthareassumed in-
finite.

12.4.1 Exponential Servlce Times

The simplestdelaysystemto analyzeis a systemwith randomarrivalsandnegative

exponentialservicetimes:M/IVI/I.{.Recallthat a randomarival distributionis one
with negativeexponentialinterarrivaltimes.Thusin the shorthandnotationof queu-
ing theorists,theletterM alwaysrefersto negativeexponentialdistributions(anM is
usedbecause a purelyrandomdistributionis memoryless).

Gonffrl {nqs$urhpt;ofi;
Input rfclflcttlon
{; Purelyrrndom

Gl Gcnlfd {no ffiumptiofil

ServlcetimE distrihrtiorl Mr ;{egltiw rxponintirl
D: Corltrnt

Numbtr of *rrrot N: Flnlte number

rinittnumuer
Numbffof rourcdJur
L* Inrinitc
I
L' Flnitelensrttr
I or*" r"r$fi {
L*' Inflnitclefisth
| |
t t
l2l 3/4/E
Figure 12.16 Queueing $ystemnotation.
 556 THAFFIo
ANALysts

In the IM/lvVl systemand all other systemsconsideredhere,it is assumedthat calls

are serviced in the order of their arival. The following analysesal$o assumethat the
probability of an arrival is independentof the number of requestsalreadyin the queue
(infinite sources).From theseassumptions,the probability that a call experiencescon-
gestion and is thereforedelayed was derived by Erlang:

(r2.24)

whereN = numberof servers

A = offeredload(erlangs)
B = blockingprobabilityfor a lost callsclearedsystem(Equationl2.g)

Theprobabilityof delayp(>0) is variouslyrefenedro asErlang'ssecondformula,

Ezn(A);Erlang'sdelayformula;or the Erlang-c formula.For single-server $ystems
(N= l) theprobabilityof delayreducesto p, whichis simplyrheoutpururilizationor
traffic carriedby the server.Thusthe probabilityof delayfor a single-server
sysrem
is alsoequalto theofferedloadl,t- (assuming fu. < l).
Thedistributionof waitingtimesfor randomarrivals,randomservicetimes.anda
FIFO servicedisciplineis

p(>t) : p(>0) "-{N-A)t/to, (r2.?5)

wherep(>0) = probability of delay given in Equation 12.24

fm = flY€rfl8oservice time of negative exponential service time distribution

Equation 12.25definesthe probability that a call aniving at a randomly choseninstant

is delayed for more than t/t^ service times. Figure 12.17 presentsthe relationship of
Equation 12.25by displaying the traffic capacitiesof various numbersof serversas a
function of acceptabledelay times. Given a delay time objective r,/f., Figure l2.l7a
displaysthe maximum traffic intensity if the delay objective is to be exceededfor only
lovo of the arrivals. similarly, Figure lz,.r7b displays the maximum traffic intensity
if the delay objective is exceededfor only lzo of the arrivals. Notice that atp(>r) =
0.01, the serversystemsdo not approachtheir maximum capacity (number of servers)
unlessthe acceptabledelay is severaltimes larger than f*.
By integrating Equation 12.25 over all time, the averagewaiting time for all arri-
vals can be determinedas

;f = - P(>O)r,n (12.26)
N_A

NoticethatTistheexpecteddelayfor all arrivals.Theaveragedelayofonly thosear.

 12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 557

E
I

I
B
.B
E
F

OF 1,0 1.6 2.0 aE It/t-l

(t)

$
o
!

u
o
E

r.0 2.0 e.s (yr-l

,rrr.u

Figure 12.17 Traffic capacityof multiple-serverdelay systemswith exponentialservice

times;(a)probabilityof
exceeding LpFt)=10To;(b) probabilityofexceeding t,p(>t)=lVo.

rivals that get delayedis commonly denotedas

* - t *
(r2.27)
v-N-a

Example12.14. A message-switching network is to be designedfor 95Vo

utilization of its hansmissionlinks. Assumingexponentiallydistributedmessage
lengthsand an arrival rate of 10 messagesper minute, what is the averagewaiting
time,andwhatis theprobabilitythatthewaitingtime exceeds5 min?

Salutinn. Assumethat the message-switching network uses a single channel

betweeneachpair of nodes.Thusthereis a singleserveranda singlequeuefor each
transmissionlink. Sincep is given to be 0.95 and l, = 10 arrivalsper minute,the
 558 TRAFFIcANALYSIS

averageservicetime can be determinedas f* = 0.g5l10= 0.095min. The averase

waitingtime (notincludingtheservicetime) is easilydetermined
as

o'q5x-q:095
;= = l.Bo5min
I - 0.95
UsingEquation12.25,we candeterminetheprobabilityof thewaitingtimeexceeding
5 min as

- 0.068
p(>5)= (0.95)e-tt-o'sr)5/0.0es
Thus6.87oof themessages
experience
queuingdelaysof morethan5 min.

Example12.15. Dererminerhenumberof digit receiversrequiredto support1000

telephones with anaveragecallingrateof two callsperhour.Assumethediatingtime
is exponentiallydistibutedwith anaverageservicetimeof 6 sec.Thegradeof service
objectiveis to returndial tonewithin I secofthe off-hooksignalfor 99Zoofthe call
attempts.comparethe answerobtainedfrom a delay systemanalysisto an answer
obtainedfrom a losssystemanalysisatB = lVo. If theblockingprobabilityis lessrhan
l%o,fewerthanlVoof thecallsaredelayed.

Solution. The calling ratel, andthe offeredhaffic intensiry,4areeasilydetermined

as0.555callsper secondand3.33erlangs,respectively. sincethenumberof servers
N cannotbe solvedfor directlyfrom theequations, Figure lz.ljb is usedto obtaina
valueof eightserversfor t/t^=t.

Examinationof TableD.1 revealsthatgg.Svoof the call attemptscanbe serviced

immediatelyif thereateninedigit receivers. Thusin thiscasetheabilitv to delavserv-
ice providesa savingsofonly oneserver.
Example12.15demonstrates rhat a blockingprobabilityanalysisproducesap-
proximatelythe sameresultsasa delaysystemanalysiswhenthe maximumaccept-
abledelayis a smallpercentage of theaverageservicetime.Thetwo resultsarealmost
identicalbecause, if a digit receiveris not imrnediatelyavailable,thereis only a small
probabilitythatonewill becomeavailablewithin a shorttime period.(With an aver-
ageservicetime of 6 sec,theexpectedtime for oneof eightdigit receiversto be re-
leasedis 6/8 =0.75 sec.Hencethedelayoperationin thiscaseallowsa savingsof one
digit receiver.)
Because a digit receivermustbeavailablewithin a relativelyshorttimeperiodafter
a requestis generated, digit receivergroupsizingis oftendeterminedstrictlyfrom a
blockingprobabilityanalysis.Thefact thatdigit receiveraccessis actuallyoperated
asa delaysystemimpliesthe gradeof serviceis alwaysbetterthanthatcalculated.

12.4.2 Constant Service Timee

Thissectionconsiders
delaysystemswith randomarrivals,constantservicetimes,and
a singleserver(IWD/I). Again,FIFO servicedisciplinesandinfinite $ourcesareas-
 12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 559

sumed.Thecasefor multipleservershasbeensolved[3] but is tooinvolvedto include

here.Graphsof multiple-server systemswith constantservicetimesareavailablein
reference[5].
The averagewaiting time for a singleserverwith constantservicetimes is deter-
minedas

- Pf- (r2.28)
'= ze*p)

wherep =,4istheserverutilization.NoticethatEquation l2,28producesan average

waitingtimethatisexactlyone-halfofthatfor asingle-server systemwithexponential
servicetimes. Exponentialservicetimes causegreater averagedelays becausethere
aretworandomprocessesinvolved increatingthedelay.Inbothtypesofsystems,de-
laysoccurwhena largeburstof arivals exceedsthecapacityof theservers.With ex-
ponentialservicetimes,however,long delaysalsoarisebecause of excessiveservice
timesofjust a few arrivals.(Recallthatthisaspectof conventional message-switching
systemsis one of the motivationsfor breakingmessages up into packetsin a packet-
switchingnetwork.)
If the activityprofile of a constantservicetime system(M/D/l) is comparedwith
theactivityprofile of anexponentialservicetime system(lWIWl), theM/D/l $ystem
is seento be activefor shorterandmorefrequentperiodsof time. That is, the Ivl/ii{,/l
systemhasa highervanancein the durationof its busyperiods.The averageactivity
of both system$is, of course,equalto the serverutilizationp. Hencethe probability
of delayfor a single-server systemwith constantservicetimesis identicalto that for
exponentialservicetimes:p(>0) = l"t .
Theprobability of congestionfor largerN is relatively closeto that for exponential
servicetimes.ThusEquation1?.25canbe usedasa closeapproximation forp(>0) for
multiple-server systems with arbitraryservicetime distributions.
For single-serversystemswith constantholdingtimes,the probabilityof delay
greaterthanan arbitraryvalue f is

p(>r)=p[>(ft+ r)t*l

k
pili - t/t^1itP$-t/t^)
=t_(1_p)E
I4

k (r2.2e)
=1-(l-p)er'ieff

whereft = largestintegralquotientof t/t*

r = remainderof t/t^
P = serverutilization, = fu-
 560 THAFFIcANALysts

Comparisons of the waitingtime distributionsfor single-server

systemswith ex-
ponentialand constantservicetimes are shownin Figure l2.lg. For eachpair of
curves'theupperoneis for exponentialservicetimesandtheloweroneis for constant
servicetimes.Sinceall otherservicetimedistributionsproducedelayprobabilitiesbe-
tweentheseextremes, Figure12.18providesa directindicationof therangeof possi-
bledelays.

Example 12.16. A packet-swirching node operateswith fixed-lengthpacketsof

300 bits on 9600-bpslines.If the link utilizationis to be 90%,whatls the averase

E
o
o
x
o
g
o

E
.E
o
&

DElaytime. r/r-

Figure 12.18 Delayptobabilitiesofsingle-server$ystems(exponential

andconstantservice
times).
 12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 561

delaythrougha node?What percentage of packetsencountermorethan0.35 secof

by 107o?
delay?Whatis theaveragedelayif theofferedloadincreases

Soluti,on. Messagelengthsof 300 bits anda datarateof 9600bps imply that the
fixedJengthservicetime is 300/9600= 0.031sec.FromEquation12.28,the average
waitingtime is

0.9x 0.031
f = F = 0-. 1 4 sec
2(1 0.e)

processing,
thenode,excluding
delaythrough
Thetotalaverage is obtained
by adding
the average waiting time to the service time:

Averagedelay= 0.140+ 0.031= 0.171sec

Sincethe servicetime is 0.031sec,0.35secof delayoccurswhenthewaitingtime is

0.35* 0.031= 0.319.Thiscorresponds = 10service
to 0.319/0.031 times.FromFigure
12.18,theprobabilityof delayfor t/t^- 10 is approximately0.12.Thus lZVoof the
packetsexperience delaysof greaterthan0.35 sec.An increaseof 10Voin the traffic
intensityimpliesthat the new offeredloadis 0.99erlang.From Equation1?.30,the
averagewaitingtime becomes

- 0.99x 0.031
f =-:= 1 . 5 3s e C
2(t-o.ee)

Thuswhentheofferedloadincreases by only l0%, theaveragedelaythroughthenode

increasesninefoldto a valueof 1.53 0.03I = I .56sec!
+
ExampleI 2.16demonstmtes thesamecharacteristic for heavilyutilizeddelaysys-
temsthatwasdemonstrated for losssy$temsr The performance is very sensitiveto in-
creasesin traffic inten$ity.Thus,asdiscussed in Chapter10, flow controlis a critical
aspectof a packet-switching operation,particularlywhen there are real-timedelivery
objectives.

12.4.3 Finlte Queues

All of thedelaysystemanalyses presented thatanarbitrarilylarge

sofar haveassumed
numberof delayedrequest$ couldbe placedin a queue.In manyapplications this as-
sumptionis invalid. Examplesof systemsthat sometimes havesignificantlylimited
queue$izesare store-and-forward swirchingnodes(e.g.,packetswitchesand ATM
switches),automaticcall distributors,andvarioustypesof computerinput/outPutde-
vices.Thesesystemstreatarrivalsin threedifferentways,dependingon the number
"in the $vstem"at the time of an arrival:
562 TRAFFIo
ANALYSI$

I . Immediate service if one or more of N serversare idle

2. Delayed service if all serversare busy and less than 1-requestsare waiting
3. Blocked or no service if the queueof length Z is full

In finite-queue systemsthe arrivals getting blocked are those that would otherwise
experiencelong delays in a pure delay system. Thus an indication of the blocking
probability of a combined delay and loss sy$tem can be determined from the prob-_
ability that arrivals in pure delay systemsexperiencedelays in excessof some speci-
fied value. However, there are two basic inaccuraciesin such an analysis.First, the
effect of blocked or lost calls clearedis to reduce congestionfor a period of time and
thereby to reduce the delay probabilities for subsequentanivals. Second,delay times
do not necessarily indicate how many calls are "in the system." Normally, queue
lengths and blocking probabilities are determinedin terms of the number of waiting
requests,not the amount of work or total service time representedby the requesd.
with constantservicetimes, there is no ambiguity betweenthe size of a queueand its
implied delay. with exponential service times, however, a given size can represent
a
wide range of delay times.
A packet-switching node is an example of a system in which the queue length is
mo$t appropriatelydeterminedby implied servicetime and not by the number of pend-
ing requests.That is, the maximum queue length may be determined by the amount
of store-and-forwardmemory availablefar variablelength messagesand not by some
fixed number of messages.
For a system with random input, exponential service times, N servers.an infinite
source,and a maximum queuelength of z (wMlNl*lL), the probability ofj calls in
the svstemis

PrA)=hni 0<j<N

N<jsN+L
(12.30)

INIri-
where 4 = offered load (erlangs), = f/*
N = number of servers
I = maximum number in the queue
Here, Pq(A) is chosento make the sum of all p,(A) = l;

"',o)=[=i#.,-1,,---tl
=[-i#.#]#J (12.30a)
 12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 563

or probabilityof an arrivalbeingdelayedor blocked,canbe

Thetime congestion,
foomEquation12.30as
determined

N+L

P(>o)=EPIA)=Pru(A)++
l-P
(r2.3r)
j=w

wherep =A/N is the offeredloadper server.

Theloss,or blockingprobability,is determined
as

P^(A)AN*L
"'
B=P-,(A)= ' (r2.32)
N!N"

It is worthnotingthatif thereis no queue(I = 0), theseequationsreduceto thoseof

theErlanglossequation(12.8).If t is infinite,Equation12.31reducesto Erlang'sde-
lay formula,Equation12.24.Thustheseequations representa generalformulationthat
producesthepurelossandpuredelayformulasasspecialcases.
The waitingtime distribution[3] is

GI
-n,I t
p(>r):PN(A) I \ (12.33)
) xte-*dx
i+"'u'/'*

from which the average delay can be determined as

lp(>O) -Pff+r(A)lt* (r2.34)

N_A

to Equation12.26for aninfinite{ueue(L = m).

Again,Equation12.34is identical

Single-ServerEquations
mostqueuing
Because involvesingle-server
applications theprevious
configurations,
equationsare listed explicitly for N = l:
, Prob(7 calls in system)(12.30):

ntG):rn(P)d (r2.3s)

P.$) =[, ' p+p*"I'=[E,'l' (12"36)

 564 TRAFFIG
ANALysts

Probabilityof delay(12.31):

Po(p)p(l- p*t) p(l

p(>0): (r2.37)
I-p
Probabilityof loss(12.32):

o_{t-p)pal
u----=-:- (12.38)
l-p*"
Averagedelay(12.34):

; tp(>o)- Pr*,(p)Jr* p(l - pz)r-

(12.3e)
l-p ( t _ p X l_ p L r z )
The blockingprobabilityof a single-seryer system(N = 1) is plottedin Figure
12.19.when usingFigure12.19,keepin mindthattheblockingprobability(Equation
12.38)is determined by thenumberof waitingcallsandnot by theassociated service
time' Furthermore, $incethecurvesof Figure12.19arebasedon exponentialservice
times,they overestimate the blockingprobabilitiesof constantholdingtime system$
(e.g.,fixed-lengthpacketnetworks).However,if fixed-lengthpacketsariseprimarily
from longer,exponentiallydishibutedmessage$, the arrivalsare no longer inde-
pendent,andtheuseof Figure12.19(or Equationt 2.38)asa conservative analvsisis
moreappropriate.

ATM Cell Queues

Analysisof queuingdelaysandcell lossin an ATM switchingnodeis complicated.
Thecellshavea fixed lengthof 53 bytessoit wouldseemthata constantservicetime
analysiswouldbe appropriate. This assumption is valid for voicetraffic insertedonto
wide-bandwidthsignalssuchas 155-MbpssTS-ls. In this caserhe servicetime is
muchshorterthatthedurationof a speechburst(e.g.,2.7 psecversusseveraltensof
milliseconds). Eventhoughcorrelatedarrivalsoccurfrom individualsources. the ar-
rival times are separatedby many thousandsof servicetimes so they appearinde-
pendent.
WhenATM voiceis carriedin CBR trunk groups,a differentsituationresults.In
this casetheservicetimesof thevoicecellsmaybe only slightlysmallerthanthein-
tervalbetweenvoicecell generation,andtheaveragedelaywouldindicatethattwo or
morecellsfrom the samesourcecould be presentin the queueat onetime. Thus,a
queuinganalysisthatassumes exponentiallydistributedservicetimesis moreappro-
priateeventhoughthevariable-length talk spurtsarebrokenup into fixed{engttrciffs.

Example12.17. A 64-kbpscBR virtual path in an ATM networkis to carry lg

voicesignalsthatarecompressed to 7.25kbpsduringvoicespurts.Assuminga speech
activityfactorof 407o,determineeachof thefollowing;
 I2.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 565

1.000

f,
I
2
3

tt o' 1 0 0 10
-o
(s
-o
e
s.
(D
.g
.s
IJ
g
-0.
010

0.001
Offeredbaffic(erlangs)
Figure 12.19 Blocking probabilityof singleserverloss/delaysystem(exponentialservice
times).

(a) Outputchannelloading
(b) Servicetime
(c) Probabilityof delaywith an infinite queue
(d) Probabilityof delaywith a queueof length20 ATM cells
(e) Averagetime in queuefor exponentialservicetimeswith aninfinite queue
(f; Averagetime in queuefor exponentialservicetimeswith a finite queueof 20
(g) Averagetime in queuefor constantservicetimes(infinitequeue)
(h) Probabilityof cell loss(assuming exponentialservicetimes)
 566 THAFFIC
ANALYSIS

Solution
(a)An ATM cell consistsof48 bytesofpayloadand5 bytesofoverhead.Thus,rhe
offeredloadto thechannel* (18 x 7.25kbpsx 0.4) (53/4g)/64kbps= 0.9 erlangs.
(b) The servicetime of a cell is 53 x g/64kbps= 6.625msec.
(c) Theprobabilityof delayfrom Equation12.24is 0.9.
(d) Theprobabilityof delayfrom Equarion12.37is 0.g9.
(e) The averagequeuingdelayfrom Equation12.26is 59.6msec.
(0 Theaveragequeuingdelayfrom Equation12.34is 5g.2msec.
(S)The averagequeuingdelayfrom Equationl?.29 is 29.gmsec.
(h) Theprobabilityof cell lossfrom Equation12.39is 0.012.

Theresultsof Example12.17illustrareseveralimporrflntpoints.First,(c) and(d)

indicatethattheprobabilityof delayin a finite-queuesystemis smallerthanthatof an
infinite-queuesystem-becau$esometraffic is rejected.with a reasonablysized
queuetheeffecton the delayprobabilityis small.similarly, a comparison (e)
of and
(f) illustratesthatthe averagequeuingdelayin a reasonably sizedqueueis not much
differentthanthatof an infinite queue.As discussed earlier,thereis a significantdif-
ferencebetweentheaveragedelayof a systemwith exponentiallydistributedservice
timesasopposedto constantservicetimes.Beforeassumingthat a consrantservice
time analysisshouldbe used,the averagedelaymustbe comparedto the delaybe_
tweenardvalsof voicecells.The durationof a speechsegmentcarriedin the ATM
cellsof Example12.17canbederermined as4g xgl72s0= 53 msec.Theaveragede-
lay of a constantservicetimeanalysis(29.8msec)indicatesthatcellsfrom a particular
sourceareusuallyservicedbeforea subsequent arrivalfrom the$amesource.but cer-
tainly not always.If Equation12.34is usedto determinetheaveragedelay,the5g.2_
msecresultindicatesthat, on average,an arriving cell from a sourceencounters a
previouscell from the same$ource.Thusthe assumptionof independent arrivalsis
marginal.To be safe,a cell losscalculationassumingexponentialservicetimesac-
countsforcorrelatedarrivals.The cell lossprobabilityof l.zvo is marginalfrom
a
voicequalitypointof view.Noticethatthisvalueof cell lossrelatesto theCBR gate-
way (AALI adapration layer),whichis presumably theonly significantsourceof cell
loss.
The solutionto exampleproblem12.17necessarily useda simplemodelfor the
traffic andthequeue.A thoroughanalysisof anATM or packet-switching networkis
muchmorecomplicated. Factorsthat mustbe considered arethe switchingnodear_
chitectures andqueueimprementation (e.g.,sharedqueuesversusdedicatedqueues;,
serverdisciplines(e.g.,priorities),cell discardalgorithms,call admissionconholal_
gorithms,andtraffic statistics.Someof theseissuesarecoveredin references
[16-lg].

12.4.4 Tandem eueues

All ofthe equations

providedin previoussectionsfor delaysystemanalysishavedealt
with theperformance of a singlequeue.In manyapplicationsa servicerequestunder-
goesseveralstagesofprocessing, eachoneofwhich involvesqueuing.Thusit is often
 REFEHENcES 5S7

Locrl rrrlvrlr

Arrinh
lrom
pr|Yiodt Output
qu6lC quctre

queues.
Figure12.20 Tandem

desirableto analyzethe performance of a systemwith a numberof queuesin series.

Figure 12.20depictsa seriesof queuesthatreceive,asinputs,locallygenerated requests
and outputsfrom other queues.Two principalexamplesof applicationswith tandem
queue$aredataprocessing systemsandstorc-and-forward switchingnetworks.
Researchers in queuingtheoryhavenot beengenerallysuccessful in derivingfor-
mulasfor the performanceof tandemqueues.Often, simulationiS usedtOanalyzea
complexarrangement of interdependent queuesarisingin systemslike store-and-for-
ward networhs.Simulationhasthe advantage that specialaspectsof a network'sop-
eration-like routingandflow control-can beincludedin thesimulationmodel.The
main disadvantages of simulationareexpen$eand,often,lessvisibility into the de-
pendence of systemperforrnance on variousdesignparameters'
one tandemqueuingproblemthat hasbeensolved[19] is for randominputsand
random(negativeexponential) holdingtimesfor all queues.The solutionof this sys-
temis basedon thefollowingtheorem:In a delaysystemwith purelyrandomarrivals
andnegativeexponentialholdingtimes,the instantsat whichcallsterminateis alsoa
negativeexponentialdistribution.
The significanceof this theoremis that outputsfrom an IvI/IvIA.{systemhavesta-
tisticalpropertiesthat areidenticalto its inputs.Thusa queuingprocessin onestage
doesnot affect the arrival processin a subsequentStage,and all gueuescan be ana-
lyzedindependently. Specifically,if a delay$ystemwith N servershasexponentially
distributedinterarrival times with average1/1,,and if the averageservicetime is f.,
callsleaveeachofthe serversaccordingto exponentiallydistributedintercompletion
timeswith averagel/LN.
Althoughindependent analysisof tandemqueuescanbe rigorouslyjustified only
for purely randomarrivalsand servicetimes,independence is often assumedin other
cases. Before using such assumptions, however, the systems in questionshouldbeex-
amined closely to determine if the state of one queue can influence the operationof
another queue in the system.

REFERENCES
Wiley'New
to ProbabilityTheoryand ltsApplications,
I W. Feller,An Introduction
York.1968.
2 A. A. Collins and R. D. Pederson,Telecommunicatians-a Timefor Innovation,Metle
Collins Foundation, Dallas, TX, 1973.
 568 rRAFFtcANALysts

3 R. syski, Introductionto congesfionTheoryin Telephone,sysfems, oliver andBoyd,

London.1965.
4 TechnicalStaff,Bell TelephoneLaboratories, Engineeringand Operationsinthe Bell
System,
WestemElectric,Indianapolis,lg7?.
5 'Determination of the Number of Circuits in Automatic and Semi-Automatic
operation,"ccITT Recommendarion E. 520,orangeBook,vor. II.2, r976,p.zrr.
6 c. J. weinstein, "Fractional speech Loss and ralker Activity Model for packet
switchedspeech,"IEEE Transactions on communications Technology. Aug. I 97g,pp.
t253-1256.
7 H. Miedema and M. schachtman,"TASI eualiry-Effect of speech Detection and
Interpolation,"Bell SystemTechnical
Joumal,July 1962,pp. l4i5_1473.
I G. Szarvasand H. Suyderhoud,'-Voice-Activated-Swirch PerformanceCriteria,"
ComsatTechnicalReview,SpringI g80,pp. I Sl *177.
9 S. S. Katz, "ImprovedNetworkAdministationhocessUtilizing End-to-EndService
Considerations," IntemationalTeletrafficConference,lg7g,
10 R. Dayem,"AlternateRoutingin High Blockingcommunications Networks.,,National
Telecommunications lg7g,pp. 2g.4.I _2g.4.6,
Conference,
l l P. R. BoorstynandH. Frank,"Large*scaleNetworkTopologicaloptimization,"rEEE
Transactions on Communicaflrrzs, Jan.lg77, pp, Zg_47.
12 R. I. wilkinson, 'Theories for Ton rraffic Engineeringin u.s.A.,- Beil
system
TechnicalJournal,Mar. 1956.
13 "calculation of theNumberof circuits in a Groupcarrying overflow Traff,rc,"ccITT
Recommendation E.52r, orangeBoak,vol. 2, No. 2, Geneva,switzerrand,p. 2rg.
14 J. A. Morrison,"Analysisof some overflow hoblems with
eueueing,,'Bell system
Technical Joumal,Oct.1980,pp. 1427-1462.
15 TelephoneTragic Theory,Tables,and charts, siemensAlctiengesellschaft, Munich,
t970.
16 Y.-s. Yeh' M. G. Hruchyj,and A. s. Acampora,"The Knockoutswitch: A simple,
Modular Architecture for High-perfonnancepacket switching,,, IEEE Journal on
SelectedAreasin Communications, Oct.l9g7, pp. ll74_llg3.
17 K. sriram,T. G. Lyons,andr.-T. wang, "AnomariesDueto DelayandLossin AAL2
Packetvoice systems:Performance ModelsandMethodsof Mitigati on,,'IEEEroumal
on Selected Areasin Cornmunitations, Jan,I g99,W, 4_17.
18 K. Sriram and y. T. yang, ..Voice over ATM Using AALZ and Bit Dropping:
Perfbrmanceand call Admission control," IEEE Joumal on selected Areas in
Communications, Jan.1999,pp. 18-28.
19 L. Kleiruock and R. Gail, eueueing sysferns,problems and solutions,wiley, New
York. 1996,

PROBLEMS
l2.l A central-office-to-PBX
funk groupcontainsfourcircuits.Ifthe averagecall
duration
is 3 minandthebusy-hourofferedhafficintensity
is 2 erlangs,
deter_
mine each of the followine:
 PHOBLEMS 569

(a) Busy-hourcallingrate
(b) Probabilitythattwo arrivalsoccurlessthan I secapart
(c) Blockingprobabilityassuminga lost callsclearedoperation
(d) Amountof losttraffic
(e) Proportionof time the fourthcircuit is in use(assumingfixed-orderselec-
tion)
to a centraloffice,
12.2 A Tl line is usedto cany traffic from a remoteconcentrator
How many l0 CCS subscribers canthe concentrator systemsuppofrat0.SVo
blocking.Comparean infinite source analysisto a finite sourceanalysis'As-
sumeblockedcallscleared.
12.3 Two switchingofficesexperience 20 erlangsof averagebusy-hourtraffic load
betweenthem.Assumea singleTI line provides24 directtrunksbetweenthe
offices.How muchbusy-hourtraffic over{lowsto a tandemswitch?
12.4 A PBX with 200 stationshasfive trunksto the public network'What is the
blockingprobabilityif eachstationis involvedin threeexternalcallsper 8-hr
workingday with an averagedurationof 2 min percall?Assumethe average
callingrateis constantduringthe day (no busyhour)andblockedcallsreturn
with randomretries.Whatis tlreofferedload?Whatis thedemandtraffic?
12.5 How manydial-upinput-output(VO) portsareneededfor a computercenter
to support40 userswith a blockingprobabilitylimit of 57o?Assumeeachu$er
averages four callsperdaywith anaverage$ession durationof 30 min. If three
u$srsremainconnected all day,whatis the grade of servicefor theremaining
37 users?
12.6 A 24-channel trunk groupis dividedinto two Sroupsof 12 one-waytrunksin
eachdirection.(A one-waytrunk is onethat canonly be seizedat one end.)
How manyerlangsof traffic canthis systemsupportat O-SVIblocking?How
manyerlangscanbe supportedif all 24 trunksaretwo-waytrunks?(Thatis,
everytrunk canbe seizedat eitherend.)
12.7 The following 10 A.M. to 11 A.M. busy-hourErlang(E) statisticshavebeen
observedon a 3z-channelinterofficetrunk group.what is theoverallblocking
probability?Whatis theblockingprobabilityfor thesamebusyhourif day-to-
dayflucfuationsareaveraged together?
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
20E 19E' 22E' 19E 30E

12.8 Traffic measurements on a PBX-to-central-officetrunk groupindicatethatdur-

ing the busiesthour of the day the trunk$are807outilized.If thereareeight
trunksin the group,what is the blockingprobability,assumingblockedcalls
do not retum?How manytrunksmustbe addedto achievea maximumblock-
ing probabilityof SVo?
tz.9 RepeatProblem12.8assumingblockedcallsreturnwith randomretries.
12,10A smallcommunitywith 400 subscribersis to be servicedwith a community
dial office switch.Assumethatthe averagesubscriber originates0.1 erlangof
traffic. Also assumethat20Voof the originationsare local (intracommunity)
 570 TRAFFIC
ANALYSIS

callsandthat 807oaretransitcallsto tlreservingcentraloffice.How manyer-

langsof trafficareofferedto thecommunity-dial-office-to-central-office
g1nk
group?How manyfrunksareneededfor 0.5voblockingof thehansittraffic?
12'11 For the comrnunityof Problem12.10determinethe numberof concentrator
channelsrequirediflocal callsarenot switchedlocallybut aremerelyconcen-
tratedinto pair-gain$ystems andswitchedat thecentraloffice.
12.12 Repeathoblems 12.10and 12.l I if g0%of rheoriginationsareinrracommu_
nity calls andZOVa aretransitcalls.
u.13 A groupof eightremotefarm housesareservicedby four lines.If eachof the
eightfamiliesutilizestheirtelephones for I0zo of thebusyhour,comparethe
blockingprobabilitiesof thefollowingconfigurations:
(a) Fourpartylineswith two srationsper line
(b) An 8-to-4concentration
sy$tem
12.14 A PBX providesqueuingandautomaticcalrbackfor access to outgoingwATS
lines.If therearez0 requestsper hourfor thewATs lines,andif theaverage
call is 3 min in length,how manyWATS linesareneededto providederaysof
lessthan I hr for 90Zoof therequests?
f2.15 A call processor has507oof its timeavailablefor servicingrequests. If eachre-
questrequires50 msecof processing time, whatarrivalratecanbe supported
if only I 7oof theservicerequests aredelayedby morethanI sec?Assumethat
processor time is slicedinto iOO-msec time slots.(Thatis, 500 msecareallo_
catedto call processing andthen500 msecto overheadfunctions..l
12'16 A groupof 100sourcesoffersmessages with exponentiallydiskibutedlengths
to a 1200-bps line.Theaveragemessage lengthis 200bits,includingoverhead,
andeachsourcegenerates onemesrlage every20 sec.Accessto theline is con_
trolledby message-switching concentration with an infinite queue.Determine
thefollowing:
(a) Probabilityof enteringrhequeue
(b) Averagequeuingdelayfor all arrivals
(c) Probabilityof beingin thequeuefor morethan I sec
(d) Utilizationof thetransmission
link
12.17 An airlinecompanyusesan automaticcall distributorto servicere$ervations
andticketpurchases. Assumethatthe processing time of eachinquiry is ran-
domtydistributedwith a 40-secaverage. Also assume thatif customers arepur
on hold for more than2 min, they hangup and cail anotherairrine.If eachof
200inquiriesperhourproducesg30worthof sales,on average, whatis theop_
timum numberof reservationists? Assumeeachreservationist coststhe com-
pany$20/hr(includingoverhead).
12'18 A radio stationtalk showsolicitsthelisteningpublicfor cornmentson the
in-
eptne$$of government (I assume
thiswill bea topicalsubjectfor thelife of this
book).Assumethateachcallertalksfor a randomlengthof time with an aver-
agedurationof I min. (Eithertheshowis unpopularor thepublichasgivenup
 PRoBLEMS 571

on the govemment.) How many incoming lines must the radio station have to
keep the idle time below 5% if the call arrival rate is 3 calls/min?
12.19 RepeatExample I 2' 17 for a queuelength L = 40' (Although a rigorous solution
requires calculation of a ZQ-termsummation, only fhe first few terms are sig-
nificant.)
 A
APPENDX

OF EQUATIONS
DERIVATION

3.2
NOISEPOWER:EOUATION
A.1 QUANTIZING
densityfunctionof a noisev sampled
Theprobability to beuniform;
is assumed

p(n)=iq
l+ -iq<n
<iq
otherwise
lO
The averageor expectedvalueof noisePoweris determinedas

noir*po*"rJf
euantization *
[n1jrt

=[#)n
4.1
A.2 NRz LINEGODE:EQUATION

[t t rst + 7
,tt) = other'wise
{O

rUo))=j 71t1e-i'ntdt
 574 AppENDtxA

=[i'Jt"'-"' - e-i$T/z)

=671'in(a44)
(aT/2)

Note: FQw)is thespecfumof a singlepurse;rF(7co)zgnl isthepowerspectralden-

sity of a randompursetrain assumingpositiveandnegativepulses
areequaltylikery
andoccurindependently.

4.3 DlclTAL BIpHASE: FtcURE 4.19

^r=l:, -lT<t<O

o< t < l r
otherwise

0 (t/z)r
| .... I
F(7'to)= ! "-*dr- J **i*dt
_(t/?\T 0

=[*)" _ rl( /2laT_ s-iTrz)ar * 11

=[.,,')'*'[T)
A.4 FBAME ACQUISITIONTIME OF SINGLE.BITFRAME
CODE:
EOUATION4.10

Framingis established by successively examiningonebit positionafteranotheruntil

a sufficiently long framingpatternis detected.In this derivationit is assumed
that the
framingpatternalternates I's and0's. Furthermore, it is assumed
thatwhenbeginning
to testa particularbit positionfor ftaming,the valueof the first appearance
is saved
andcomparedto the secondappearance. Thusthe minimum time aorejectan invalid
framingpositionis oneframetime. If we denotebyp the probability
of a I andby
s I r _ p the probability that a 0 is receivedfirst, the averagenumberof ftamesre-
quiredto receivea mismatchis
 TIMEOFSINGLE"BIT
ACQUISITION
FRAME FRAME 4,10
CODE:EQUATION 575

Ao = (l) (probability of mismatch at end of first frame)

+ (2) (probability of mismatch at end of second frame)

+ (3) (probability of mismatch at end of third frame) . . .

= (1)4+ (zxl * q)p+ (3Xl - q)(r- p)q

+ ( a X -l i l 2 0 - i l p + . . .

= (1)4+ Q)pz+ (3)pqz+ {4)p3q + (5)p'q3+ . .

+ (4)p3q3
=(q+2p?+ps\[I +(Z)ps+(3)pzqz +. . .]

= [7 - p + Zpz+ p(l-p)1(1 + pq + pzqz+ psqt+ . . .)'

= l+p3
tr*P
1+p
='=-
r_pq
Similarly,if a I is receivedftrst, the expectednumberof framesbeforereceivinga
mismatchis

l+a
At=T_fi

The overall averagenumberof framesrequiredto detecta mismatchis

A = q A o *p A 1

_I +Zpg
1- pq

If we assumea randomstartingpoint in a framewith N bits, the averagenumberof

bits that mustbe testedbeforethe true framing bit is encounteredis

Frametime = (l /Ztl)(A. M + 1/2N

= 1 / z N ( A . N + 1 )b i t t i m e s
 576 AppENDtx
A

If I's and0'sareequallylikely (p =q=l),A = 2 soframetime=Ap + t/2Nbittimes

(Equation 4.10).

A.5 FRAMEACQUISITIONTIME OF SINGLE.BITFRAN,IING

CODE
USINGA PARALLEL$EARGH:EQUAT|ON4.11

This framingalgorithmas$umes that all bit positionsin a frameare simultaneously

scanned for theframingpattern.If weassume thatanalternating-bit
framecodeis used
andthat I 's and0's in theinformationbitsareequallylikely, th-eprobabiliryrhata par_
ticularinformationbit doesnot producea framingviolationin n framesis

/rY
o^=lil
The probabilitythat a framing violatidn iuJ u**n receivedin n or lessframes
is
I -p,' The probabilitythat all N - I informationbits in a frameproducea framing
violationin rzor lessframesis

o.=f,-fri]-' (4.lr)

A.6 FRAMEACQUISITION
TIMEOF MULTIBIT
FRAMEGODE:
EQUATION4.13

N= Iength of frame including framing code

,L = length of framing code
p=
G)L: probability of matching frame code with random data

The expected number of frames examined before a particular frame position

mis-
matchesthe frame code follows:

A = (OXl -p) + (l)p(t - p) + (Dpz(l - P ) + " '

: (l - p)p(I + Zp -t 3p?+ 4p3+ . . . )

= (1 -p)p(l +p + pz +p3 + . . .)?

= ( r - p )l/p+' r \ |2
['-pJ
_ P
l-p
 A.7 PATHFINDING s.11
TIME:EOUATION 577

The averagenumberof bits that passbeforethe frameposition is detected(assuming

a randomstartingpoint andthetestfield is movedonebit positionwhena mismatch
occurs)is givenas

r=ftruJraxnn*it
r.d/otzt'*t. t ,, (4.13)
=T:769-1''
Equation
Iy'afe.. 4.13withZ = I isnotidentical
toEquation Equation
4.l0 because 4.13
assumes a fixedframecodewhileEquation 4.10assumes
an alternating
code.

TIME:EQUATION
A.7 PATHFINDING 5.11

Assume that all paths through a switch are independently busy with probability p. Let
the probability that a path is not busy be denotedby q= | -p. The probabilityp; that
exactly i paths are tested before an idle one is found is the probability that the first
i - | arebusv and the ith is notr

P'= P(i-t)n

The expected number of paths tested before an idle path is found is

+ (k)pk
ruo* (1)a+ (Z)pq+ (3)pzq+. . . + (k)pk*Lq

wherethelasttermrepresentstheexpectationthat all possiblepathsk areunavailable.

as
A closedform for A is determined

A t = ( 1 * p X l + 2 p + 3 p 2+ . . . + k p k -+rk p k 1

= I + p + p z+ p j + , . . + p k - '

I k( r \
t-p ' -oJ
[t
(s.ll)
=l: Po
l-p
 578 APpENDtx
A

Figure A.l. probabiliqrgraphof No, 4 ESSfour_stage

spaceswitch.

A,8 LESS SPACE STAGE BLOCKING PROBABILITY5.21

The moststraightforward way to calculatethe blockingprobabilityof thefour-stage
spaceshuctureshownin theprobabilitygraphof FigureA.I is to list all elementary,
mutuallyexclusiveprobabilityterms,determinetheirprobabilitiesof occurrence, and
generatethesumof thosethatrepresent blocking.Because
thereareeightlinks,which
are.assumed to be independentlybusyor idle, therearezs = 256elementaryterms.
Ratherthanlaboriouslylist themall, theanalysiscanbegreatlysimplified,with a risk
oJmiscountingblockingterms,by groupingthetermsaccordingto thenumberof busy
links-Thefollowingtableliststhegroupsandthecorrespondinfnumbersof termsthat
blockanddo not block.

Numberof Combinations NumberThat NumberthatDo Not

BusyLinksI (:) Block Block
0 1 0 1
1 I 0 I
2 28 2 26
3 56 16 40
4 70 50 20
5 56 52 4
6 28 2B 0
7 B I 0
I 1 1 0
256 157 99

Entriesin thelasttwo columnsaredeterminedby analyzingthetopologyof thenet_

work. For example,whentwo links arebusy,onry2 of the2g combinations produce
blocking( I and2 and7 and8).when threelinksarebusy,I 6 of thecombinations pro-
duceblocking.To determinethe remainingenhiesin column3, it is easierto deter-
mine the numberof combinationsthat do not block and subtractfrom the total. For
example,whenonly threelinks areidle, thereare4 of 56 combinationsthat do not
block.using theentriesin column3, theblockingprobabilityis determinedas

B = Zpzq6+ l6p3qs + S}paqa+ Sbps qz+ gp7q + pg

qt t Zgp6
wherep is theprobabilirythata link is busyandq = | _ p is theprobabilitythatit is
idle' All ofthe interstage
links areequallyloadedbecausethereis no concentrationor
expansionin the stages.
 B
APPENDX

ENCODING/DECODING
FOR
ALGORITHMS
PCM
SEGMENTED

8.1 EIGHT-BITp255 CODE

The encodedrepresentations of p255 PCM codewordsusea sign-magnitude format
whereinI bit identifiesthe samplepolarityandtheremainingbits specifythemagni-
tudeof thesample.The7 magnitudebitsareconvenientlypartitionedinto a 3-bit seg-
ment identifier S and a 4-bit quantizingstepidentifier Q. Thus thebasic structureof
an 8-bit p255PCM codewordis shownin FigureB.l.
In thefollowing descriptions of encodinganddecodingalgorithms,it is assumed,
for conveniencein using integerrepresentations, that analoginput signalsare scaled
to amaximumamplitude of 8159.Furthermore, all amplitudesandsegmentidentifiers
areassumed to be encodedusingconventional binaryrepresentations.The actualen-
codersusedin T1 transmissiOn systems,however,complementthe codewordsto in-
creasethedensityof I's in a transmittedbit stream.

8.1.1 Algorithm 1: Direct Encodlng (Table 8.1)

polar.tty Dttr = [o for uositivesamplevalues

ll for negativesampleroalues
Given a samplevaluewith a magnitude.x,the first stepin the magnitudeencoding
processis to determinethesegmentidentifierS.Themajorsegments areidentifiedby
the segment endpoints:31, 95, 223,479,991,2015,4063, and8159'Thus'Scanbe

I I I
v\-rJ\-1/--/
P s Q
Figure B.l. Eight-bitp225PCM codeformat.
 580 APFENDIXB

TABLE 8.1 Piecewlee Linear Approxlmation to FZSSCompoundlngd

QuantizationEndpointsby SegmentCode S
Quantization
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 Code Q
0 31 95 223 479 991 0
1 35 103 239 5 11 1055 1
3 39 111 255 543 1119 2
5 43 119 271 s7s 11 8 3 3
7 47 127 287 607 1347 4
I 51 135 303 639i 1 3 11 E
11 55 143 319 671' 1375 6
13 59 151 335 703 1439 7
15 63 159 351 735 1503 I
17 67 167 367 767 1567 I
19 71 175 383 799 1631 10
21 75 183 399 831 1695 11
23 79 191 415 863 1759 12
25 83 199 431 89s 1823 13
27 87 2Q7 447 927 1887 14
29 91 215 463 959 1951
31 95 223 479 991 2015 15
asamplevaluesarerelerenced
to a yaly6oj 8159.Nogative
samplesareencodedin sign-magnitud6
Iujl--sc€le
formetwitha polarltybitof 1. In actuel transmission
thecod6salreinvertedto in"reaietn" o"nsrtyof 1,swhen
low signalamplitude$ are €ncoded.Anelogoutputsamplesere docodedas th6 centerof the encod€d
quantizationinterval. Quantizationerror is i'he difference between the teconstructooout[ut vatu6 ancl th.
origir-lalinput sample value.
,!

determined asthe smallestendpointthatis greaterthanthe samplevaluex. Here,s is

equalto the smallesta suchthat

x<64-T-33 a=0,I,...,7
After themajorsegmentcontainingthesamplevaluehasbeendetermined, thepar-
ticularquantizationintervalwithin the major segmentmustbe identified.As a first
stepa residuer is determinedasthe differencebetweenthe input amplitudeandthe
lowerendpointof the segment:

'=fi- (32.zs- S=0

33) S = I , 2 , , . . . 7
The valueof Q cannow be determined asthequantizationintervalcontainingthe
residuer. Here,fl is equalto the smallestb suchthat

lzu*t
r<[1zs+rxb+ ,5=0
l) S=1,2,...,"1
whereb = 0, l, . . . , 15.Noticethat this processidentifiesquantizationintervalsin
segment^s= 0 ashavingupperendpoint$at l, 3, 5, . . . , 3t while theothersegments
 8.1 EIGHT-EITp255CODE581

havequantizationendpointsfhataremultiplesof 4, 8, 16,32,64, 128,256 for S = 1,

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, respectively.
After,SandO havebeendetermined,they arebinary encodedinto 3 and4 bits, re-
spectively.The concatenation of S andO producesa 7-bit word thatcanbe conven-
iently represented as an integer between0 and 127.In essence,this integeridentifies
oneof the 128 quantization intervalsof a compressed
signal amplitude.
Thedecodingproces$involvesassigningthedesignated polarityto an analogout-
put sampleat the midpointof the nth quantizationint€rvaln = 0, l, ' ' . , 127'Using
thevaluesof S andQ directly,we candeterminea discreteoutputsamplevalueas

yn=(2Q+ 33X2r)- 33

of ,5and
wheren is the integerobtainedby concatenatingthe binary representations
a.
Example8.1.
of +242produces
An inputsample thefollowingcodeword:

0 , 3 ,1 = f f i
The decoderoutputbecomes

t$=(2. 1+33X23)-33

:247

quantization
whichis themidpointof theforty-ninth intervalfrom?39to 255.

A.1.2 Algorithm2: LinearCodeConversion

The fundamentalreasonfor usinga p-law compoundingcharacteristic with p255 is

the ease with which the segmented approximation can be digitally converted to and
from a uniform code.This sectiondescribes the basic algorithms that implement the
conversions. Thefirst algorithmprovidesthemeansof implementing 4p255 PCM en-
coderusinga 13-bituniformencoderfollowedby digitallogic to providethecompres-
sionfunction.Thesecondalgorithmindicateshow to implementthedecoderfunction
offirst expandinga compressed codeinto a 13-bitlinearcodeto beusedin generating
theouQutsamples.
Justasin algorithm1, thepolaritybit P is determinedas

for positivesamplevalues
'o -_ I0
11 for negativesamplevalues
 s82 APPENDIX
B

The simplicity of converting from a linear code to a compressedcode is most evident

if the linear code is biasedby adding the value 33 ro the magnitudeof all samples.No-
tice that this bias shifts the encoding range from 0*gl5g ro 33-gl9z. The addition
processcan be performed directly on the analog samplesbefare encoding or
with digi_
tal logic after encoding. In either case,the generalform of all biased linear code pat-
terns and the correspondingcompressedcodesare as follows:

p255EncodingTable

BiasedLinearInputCode Compressed
Code
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z a 0 0 0 w x y z
0 0 0 0 0 0 l w x y z a b 0 0 1 w x y z
0 0 0 0 0 l w x y z a b c 0 1 O w x y z
0 0 0 0 l w x y z a b c d 0 l 1 w x y z
0 0 0 1 w x y z a h c d e 0 0 w x y z
0 0 1 w x y z a b c d e f 0 1 w x y z
0 1 w x y z a b c d e f s 1 O w x y z
l w x y z a b c d e f g h l 1 w x y z

From the foregoing table it can be seenthat all biased linear codeshave a leading
I that indicatesthe value of the segmentnumber ,s.specifically, rhe value of s is equal
to 7 minus the number of leading 0's before the I. The value of is directly available
e
as the 4 bits (w, x, y, z) immediately following the leading 1. All trailing bits (a-h)
are merely ignored when generatinga compressedcode.
In reversefashion the following table indicateshow to generateabiased linearcode
from a compressedcode. An unbiasedoutput can be obtainedby subtracting
33 from
the biasedcode:

p255DecodingTabte
Compressed
Code BiasedLinearQutputCode
0 0 0 w x y z 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l w x y z 1
0 0 1 w x y z 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z 1 0
0 1 0 w x y z 0 0 0 0 0 1 wx y z 1 0 0
0 1 1 w x y z 0 0 0 0 1 w x y 2 1 0 0 0
0 0 w x y z 0 0 0 1 w x y 2 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 w x y z 0 0 1 w x y z 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 w x y z 0 1 w x y z 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
l 1 w x y z 1 w x y z 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Both of thesetablesindicatethat 13bitsof thelinearcodeareusedto represent the

magnitudeof the signal.In chapter3 it is mentionedthat a p255 pcM coderhasan
amplituderangeequivalentto l2 bits.Thediscrepancy occursbecause thefirst quan-
tizationintervalhaslengthI while all othersin thefirst segmentareof lengthz. Thus
theexhabit is neededonly to specifythefirst quantization interval.Noticefurrherthat
theleastsignificantbit in thetablescarriesno informationbut is includedonly to fa-
cilitatetheintegerrelationships.kr particular,theleastsignificantbit in theencoding
tableis completelyignoredwhendetermininga compressed code(assumingthatthe
 B.r EIGHT
BrrA-LAW
coDe 583

biasis addedto the analogsample).Furthermore,the leastsignificantbit in the output

codesis completelyspecifiedby thesegmentnumberS.It is a 0 for segmentzeroand
a I for all othersegments.

Example 8.2.
An input codeword of +242is biasedto producea valueof 275.The binaryrepre-
sentationof 275is

0000 I 000 I 00 1 1 (biasedlinearcode)

Hencefrom theencodingtableS = 011andwxlz = fi)01, andthecompressed

codeis

ffi (compressedcode)

codeproducesthefollowingbiasedlin-
Usingthedecodingtable,thiscompressed
earoutputcode:

0000 1000 I 1000 (biasedlinearoutput)

The decimal repre$entation of the foregoing code is 280, which corresponds to an

unbiasedoutput equal to +247.

8.2 EIGHT BIT A-LAW CODE

Thefollowingcompounding algorithmsfor segmentedAlawcodesusethe sameba-

sic procedures a$thosepresented for thep255codes.Onedifferencethatdoesoccur,
however,involvesthe eliminationof a biasin the linearcodefor conversionto and
from a compressed code.Anotherdifferenceoccursin the useof theinteger4096as
the maximumamplitudeof a samplein anAlaw representation. If desired,the scale
factorsfor thetwo systemscanbebroughtinto closeagreement by doublingtheAJaw
scaleto 8192.
As mentionedin Chapter3, the segmented Alaw codeis usually referredto as a
l3-segmentcodeowing to the exisknceof sevenpositiveand sevennegativeseg-
mentswith the two segment$nearthe origin beingcolinear.In the following descrip-
tions,however,the first segmentfor eachpolarity is dividedinto two pal'tsto produce
eightpositiveandeightnegativesegments. This point of view permitsa codeformat
that is identicalto the p255 codeformat. Thus,a compressed codewordconsistsof a
signbit P followedby 3 bits of a segmentidentifierS and4 bits of quantizerlevel Q.

8.2.1 Algorlthm 1r Direct Encodlng

The segmentendpointsof anA-law codeare32,64,128, 256, 5I2, l0Z.,2048, and

4096.Thus for a samplewith magnitudex the major segmentidentifier ,5can be de-
terminedasthe smalle$ta suchthat
 584 APPENDIX
B

TABLE8.2 SegmentedA-[aw EncodlngTable

Ouantization
Endpointsby SegmentCode
Quantization
001 010 011 101 110 111 Code
0 32 64 128 256 512
2 34 68 136 272 544 0
4 36 72. 144 288 576 1
6 38 76 152 304 608 2
B 40 80 160 320 640 3
10 42 84 168 336 672 4
12 44 BB 176 3s2 704 5
14 46 92 184 368 736 6
16 48 96 19e 384 768 7
18 50 100 200 400 800 B
20 52 104 208 416 832 I
22 5,4 108 216 432 864 10
24 56 112 224 M8 896 11
26 58 116 232 464 928 12
28 60 120 240 480 960 13
30 62 1?4 248 496 992 14
32 84 128 256 512 1024 15
Not6i Every oth6r bit is invertedfor tran8mi8slon.

x<32'2" a = 0 ,l , . . . , 7

After S hasbeendetermined,the residuer canbe obtainedas

, =[* S=0
lx- 16.2s S=1,2,...,7

The valueof B canthenbe determinedasthe smallestb suchthat

'.{#[..'i, S=0
S=1,2,...,7

Justasin the casefor p255 coding,anAlaw magnitudecanbe representedasan in-

tegern= 0, l, .. ',121 derivedfromtheconcatenation
of 3 s-bitsand4 p-bits.An
outputmagnitudeI canthenbeexpressed as

[zB+r
,,=ltt,n+
S=0
16f) S=I,2,...,7

Exampla8.8.
An inputsample
of +121produces
thefollowingcodeword:
 8.2 EIGHTBITA.LAWCODE 585

ffi =+46indecimal

The decoderoutputbecomes

)+e= 2s(14
+ te |)

_ | tr,,

whichis themidpointof thequantizationintervalfrom 120to 7M.

8.2.2 Algorithm 2: Linear Code Converslon

Thefollowingtablesindicatehow to converta lZ-bit linearcodedirectlyinto a com-

pressed.A-law code.The algorithmis basicallythe sameasfor the p255 conversion
exceptthatbiasingthe linearcodeis unnece$sary anda first segmentcodedoesnot
havea leadingL ThusthesegmentnumberScanbedetermined as7 minusthenumber
of leadingzerosasbefore.The p field dataareobtainedasthe 4 bits (wxyz) immedi-
atelyfollowingtheleadingl, exceptwhen,S= 0, in whichcasetheQ field is contained
in the4 bits following thesevenleading0's.

A.Law Encodlng Tabl€

Linear Code Compressed

Code
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 w x y z a 0 0 0 w x y z
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z a 0 0 1 w x y z
0 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z a b 0 1 O w x y z
0 0 0 0 1 w x y z a b c 0 1 1 w x y z
O 0 0 l w x y z a b c d 1 O 0 w x y z
0 O l w x y z a b c d e 1 0 1 w x y z
O l w x y z a b c d e f l l 0 w x y z
l w x y z a b c d e f g l l l w x y z

The following table providesthe meansof generatinga linear codeworddirectly

from a compressed codeword.Theoutputvalueconespondsto themiddleof thequan-
tization interval designatedby S and p.

Table
A-LawDecoding
Compressed
Qode LinearOutputCode
0 0 0
w x y z 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 w x y z 1
0 0 w 1
x y z 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z 1
0 1 O
w x y z A 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z l O
0 1 w 1
x y z 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z 1 0 0
1 0 w 0
x y z 0 0 0 1 w x y z 1 0 0 0
1 0 w 1x y z 0 0 1 w x y z 1 0 0 0 0
' f 1 O w x y z O 1 w x y z 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 w x y z 1 w x y z 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
586 AppENDtx
B

Eachof thesetablesrelates12bits of magnitudein a linearcodeto a compressed

codewith 7 bitsof magnitude.Notice,however,thattheleastsignificantbit of theen-
coderis alwaysignored.Thustheencoderneedsonly 1l bitsof resolutionif all of its
outputsareimmediatelycompressed. If anysignalprocessing(suchasaddingtwo sig-
nalstogether)is to takeplacebeforecompre$$ion, however,theextrabit is usefulin
reducingthecompositequantizationerror.

Example
The previously used sample value Lzr is representedin binary form as
000001I 11001.Fromtheencodingrable,S= 010ande = I I 10.Thusthecompressed
codeword is

ffi

using the decodingtable,the linearourputcanbe determinedas000001I l l0l0,

whichis 122decimal.
 APPENDX
C

ANALYTIC
FUNDAMENTALSOF
DIGITALTRANSMISSION

C.l PULSESPECTHA
This sectionpresentsthef'requency $pectraof commonpulsewaveformsusedfor digi-
Thesearesquarepulsesasgenerated
tal transmission. at a source.Sincethe spectraof
squarepulseshaveinfinite frequencycontent,the spectrapresented heredo not cor-
respondto pulseresponses at theoutputofa channelwherethepulseshapes havebeen
alteredby bandlimitingfilters.In thenextsectionchanneloutputpulseresponses are
described.Thenthe necessary combinationsof input pulseshapesandfilter designs
to produceparticularoutputpulsesareconsidered.
Thevariouspulseshapes andcorresponding frequencyspectraarepresented in Fig-
ureC.1.In derivingthespectra,thefollowing conditionsandassumptions were made:

1. All pulseshaveequalenergy.
2. All systemssignalat rutfrIlT.
3. Thewaveform$shownareusedto encodea 1.
4. Oppositepolaritiesareusedfor a 0.
5. It is equallylikely for l's and0's to occurandto occurat random(complete
independence).

C.2 CHANNELOUTPUTPUL$E
RESPONSES

Althougha digitaltransmission to producea varietyof output

systemcanbe designed
pulseresponses,themostcommonis definedas

sin(nr,zl) cos(ant/7) (c.l)

v--\0 | -
'/rc\r/
IEI/T I-(Zat/T)z

where1/Tis the signalingrateandcr,i$ an excessbandwidthfactorbetween0 and 1.

EquationC.l representsthe response of a raised-cosinechamel-so-called because
thefrequencyspectrumconesponding to yrc(t)in EquationC.l is
588 APPENDTx
c

NRZ llnc
code

-|r tr *3 :2 -l

fltl * llrl{+ r F (lr^rl -

Dlelul
biphrre

- 2 - r t t
,frt- r -tr<r<o
__r 0(r{i? r r pl*S*n' r Sr

| + D Oorrahtivr
ficodhg
-3 -2 -1 I ? 3
rqr.,r=ffipII

_ t
l"r;-r
| -Dcornhth'. I l' ,
'ncodrns
TE]_
-3 -2 -l r ? 3
t't:t:*'-r:1,**'o F(r.l - tf;t .rnrtrtt

| * pr Cotolrtiw
Encodlng

_l_
I
-3 -z ..r
fld "; -F*'*-f r l*ot -t$rn t'n *n rfl
__ I
? E*r*T

Figure C.1. Spectraof commonpulseshapes.

 C.2 GHANNELOUTPUTFULSEHE$PONSES
589

F,"(f) = I ,' {o' -* I - o

2T

=il'.*'[#-r*r]] 1-o*rfl<1*o
2T
- '''-
2T

:"",'[#q#)
=Q otherwise (c.2)
Theoriginofthe apellation"raisedcosine"is apparent in thethird line ofEquation
C,2,
The parameteru in EquationsC.l andC.2 is referredto as an excess-bandwidth
parameter. If o = 0, thespectrumdefinedin EquationC.2is exactlyequalto thetheo-
reticalrninimumbandwidthll2T for signalingrate llT. As fl increases from 0 to l,
theexcessspectrumwidthincreases to 1(X)7o.Raised-cosinechannelspecFaareillus-
tratedin FigureC.2 for severalvaluesof cr.
Practicalsystemsaretypicallydesigned for excessbandwidthsof 307oor morefor
severalreasons.First, "brick wall" filters neededto producethe infinite attenuation
slopesimpliedby fl = 0 arephysicallyunrealizable. Second,asshownin FigureC.3,
the time-domainpulseresponse for smallvaluesof u,exhibitslargeamountsof ring-
ing. Slight errorsin the sampletimescausesignificantdegradations in performance
dueto intersymbolinterference. Third a slightdeviationin thesignalingratefrom the
designratealsoproducessignificantintersymbolinterference.
It mustbeemphasized thatEquationC.2definesthedesiredspectrumat theoutput
ofthe channel(theinputto thedecisioncircuit).Thusthedesiredresponse resultsfrom
a combinationof the input pulsespectrumandthe channelfilter responses. Often, the
inputpulse$pectrumarisesfrom a squarepulseof durationT:

Y,"lfl
-1
lo=0
I
I
i

t
I
I

t I
+ I
-l
** "-.-+
0. .5

tr'igureC.2. Raised-cosine
spectrums
fbr variousvaluesof c.
 590 APPENDTx
c

!*ltl
.l
tnputpura"

Ouput puber

Normrlirrdtime I r/Tl

Figure C.3. Raised-cosinepulse responsesfor various values of s.

[t td<+r
r,(r)= (c.3)
lo otherwise
The frequencyspectf,umcorrespondingto x"(r) in Equationc.3 is the ,.sin(.r)/x"
spectrumalsoreferredto asa "sine"function:

*"cn=I4ffi
= f sinc(n/T) (c.4)
when thechannelinput spectrrrmis asdefinedin Equationc.4, thefilter function
of a channelto producea raised-cosine
ouryutis determinedas

H(n=ffi (c.5)

The channelfilter functionsimpliedin Equationc.5 areshownin Figurec.4 for

thesamevaluesof fl, shownin Figurec.2. Figurec.2 displayschanneloutputspectra
while FigureC.4displayscorresponding frequency-domain transferfunctionsfor the
channel.

Normrlirrdf lugurrtyl.f TI

figure C.4. Channelfilterresponses

neededto produceraised-cosine
outputswhenexcited
by sin(4172)/(rn72)
pulses.
 C,2 CHANNELOUTPUTPULSEHESPoNSES
591

I -'5
no-"Lr*u.rlv urr
FtgureC.5. "Optimum" ffansmitandreceive
filterfunctions
for raised-cosine
response
with
s = 0,3andsin(ro72)/(coZl?)
excitation.

As mentionedin Chapter3, the designof a smoothingfilter in a digital voicede-

codersometimes requiresa modificationlike thatdefinedin EquationC.5.In fhecase
mentioned,the ideal "flat" filter for reconstructing speechfrom narrowimpulselike
samplesshouldbe modifiedby dividing the flat re$ponse by the $pectrumof the fi-
nite-widthsamples(EquationC.4).Whenthesamplesarenarrowerthanthe signaling
interval,the sin(x)/xresponseis essentiallyflat acrossthe bandwidthof the filter.
However,whenthe samplesaremadeto last for the entiredurationof the samplein-
terval,thefilter response shouldbe "peaked"to compensate for sin(x)/xroll-off.
As discussed in Chapter6, a channelfilter functionis usuallypartitionedbetween
the transmitterand the receiver.The so-called"optimum" filter partitioningoccurs
when the receivefilter responseis the squareroot of the desiredoutputresponse
Y*(fl, andthetransmitfilter responseis whateveris necessary to han$formthechannel
inputspectrumintothecomplexconjugateof thereceivefilter response. (Theoutput'ryec-
trum of thetransmitteris alsothesquareroot of thedesiredchannelresponse.) rilhen the
channelinputis a pulseof duration7, the 'bptimum' filter functionsaredefinedas

H**(.f) = {I'"(,f)}r/2 (c.6)

HwU)=# (c.7)

Noticethat the transmitspectrumresultingfrom HnE(f) in EquationC.7 is equal

to thesquareroot of thedesiredoutputresponse, no matterwhattheinputpulseshape
is. Hence,whenoptimumpartitioningis used,thetransmitspectrumandthereceiver
designareindependent of thechannelexcitation.
The transmitand receivefilter functionsfor square-waveexcitations(Equations
C.6 and C.7) arc shownin FigureC.5.* Noticethat the transmitfilter functionhas
peakingat frequenciesotherthandirect current.The implication for midbandattenu-
ationis oneof thereasonswhy "optimum"partitioningmaynot be optimumin a sys-
tem with sourcepowerlimitations.

*This
discussionassumesbasebandtransmission.The principles are easily extendedto carrier-based
systemsby translstingthe filter functionsto the carrierfrequency.
592 AppENDtx
c

C.2.1 OptlmumFilterlngfor MinimumShiftKeylng

As discussed
in chapter6, minimumshiftkeyed(MSK)modulation
canberepre-
sented as quadrature channel modulation with basebandexcitation defined as cosine
pulse shapes:

.,,=f-[*J ttts+T
otherwise
(c.8)

Thetransformofx"(r) is

v , A =[zrJ
x.ul f r') cosn/r (c'e)
| -ffi
Whena raised-cosine ouQutresponseandoptimumfilter partitioningis desired,
theMSK filter functionsare

H*"(f) =lYn(frlt/z (c.10)

ro(f)=w ( c.ll)

Thetransmitspectrum
andthereceiverof anoptimallypartitionedMSK systemare
identical
to counterparts
in anoptimallypartitioned,
offset-keyed4-psKsystem!

C.2.2 Partlal-Response
Systems

As anotherdigital hansmissionsystemdesignexample,considera I + D partial-re-

sponsesystem.Thedesiredtime response of thechannelis definedin EquationC.12
andthe associatedfrequencyspectnrmin EquationC.13.Thepulseresponse of a I + D
partial-responsechannelis shownin FigureC.6.Noticethata singlepulsecontributes
equallyto the responseat two successivesampletimesbut crosseszeroat all other
sampletimes:

4 cos(nt/T\
Y,\I)=
n|__eiffi (c.12)

fcosnlr
Y.ffi=i
nt+i (c.13)
otherwise
Io
 PULSEBESPoNSES 593
C.? cHANNELoUTPUT

1
-1
r-
I I
I
putrr
I F---tnprt
I

puls6Jrrlrl

-2.5 -r.6 t.5 2.5 3.S

Noffirlirid tiffi6 {tr?}

Figure C.6. Outputpulseof I + D partial-response

channel.

Optimum filter pafiitioning is again achievedwith a receive filter having an ampli-

tude responseequal to the squareroot ofthe desiredoutput respon$eY"(/). Ifthe chan-
nel is excited by squarepulsesof duration ?, as defined in Equation C.3, the optimum
filter functions are

Hnx(fl=[Y"ff)]L/z vls+ (c.r4)

H*(f) - Lv,(f)1"'
X'fl vts+ (c.r5)

where Xr(f) is defined in Equation C.4.

The optimum filter functions defined in EquationsC.14 and C.l5 are shown in Fig-
ure C.7 along with the desiredoutput responseof the channel.Notice that, unlike the
full-response(raised-cosine)systems,optimum partitioning of a partial-responsesys-
tem does not require peaking of the transmit filter.

-t o.5 1
Normelitrdf ruqurncyl.f Tl
Figure C.7. Spectra of 1 + D PRS channel and "optimum" filter responsesfor
sin(aT| 2)| (aT | 2) excitation.
594 APPENDIXC

c.3 ERRORRATEANALYSES:BASEBANDSYSTEMS

C.3.1 BinaryTransmission

considerthe receivermodelof thedigital transmission systemshownin Figurec.g.

Thereceiverconsistsof two parts:signalprocessing circuitryanda datadetector(de-
cisioncircuit).For thetimebeing,assumethattheoutputof thesignalprocessing cir-
cuitproducesapulseof amplitude+vwhenaI istransmittedandapulseof amplitude
*v whena 0 is transmifted.obviously,the detectormerelyexaminesthepolarityof
its input at the sampletimesdefinedby the sampleclock.A decisionerroroccursif
noiseat the sampletimeshasan amplitudegreaterthanv anda polarityoppositeto
thetransmittedpulse.
Themostcommonlyanalyzedtypeof noiseis assumed to havea Gaussian
or nor-
mal probabilitydistribution.Thustheprobabilityof enor ps canbe determinedas

po = ^-l- l r-'tzo' dt (c.16)

- \txr o "v

whereoz is therms noisepowerat thedetector.Usingtheenor function,

,
l t z
erf a=|l
.vr, e-r-dt
(c.r7)
;
Equation
C.16is sometimes
rewrittenas

P"=|(1-erfz) (c.18)

where.e= v/"12o. TheerrorprobabilityPs canalsobe expressed

in termsof thecom-
plimentaryerror function:

;t4#
Noire

Figure C.8. Digital receiver model,

 ERROBBATEANALY$ES:
BASEBAND
SYSTEMS 595

P"=ferfcz (C.19)

where

erfc4-1-erfz -
{2o

In lieu of evaluatingthe integralin EquationC.17or C.19 (which hasno closed

form solution),theerrorfunctionscanbe approximated as

p-z
srfs g -.:F- (e>> l;
(e'vn;

C.3.2 Multllevel Transmlssion

The error rateof a multilevel basebandsystemis easilydeterminedby an appropriate

reductionin theerrordistance.If themaximumamplitudeis V, the errordistanced be-
tweenequallyspacedlevelsat thedetectoris

(c.21)
d=*

whereL is thenumberof levels.Adjustingthe errordistanceV of a binarysystemto

thatdefinedin EquationC.21providestheerrorrateof a multilevelsystemas

""=['=;)F}.'{.t#) (c.22)

wherethe factor (L * 1)/Z,reflectsfhe fact that interior signallevels arevulnerableto

bothpositiveandnegativenoiseandthefactor Illog2L arisesbecause themultilevel
systemis assumed to becodedsosymbolerrorsproducesingle-biterrors(log2.Lis the
numberof bits per symbol).
EquationC.22revealsthat,with respectto peaksignal-to-noise ratiosat thedetec-
tor, L-leveltransmission incursa penaltyof 20log10(/-- l) decibels.If Vis increased
by a factorL - I, theerrorrateof thellevel systemis identicalto theenor rateof the
binarysystem[exceptfor thefactorslftogyL and(f - 1/L, whichtypicallyrepresent
only a few tenthsof a decibell.
EquationC.22relateserrorrateto thepeaksignalpowerIE. To determinetheerror
ratewith respectto averagepower,the averagepowerof an L-level systemis deter-
minedby averagingthepowerassociated with thevariouspulseamplitudelevels:
596 APFENDTx
c

(Il)"",
7

'
.[#J
3L[*l\ /
?

\
2

. . F ]

=ffiT^Qi-t)? (c.23)

wherethelevels

v
(r- 1)}
r_, {+t,+3,...,*
areassumed
to be equallylikely.

C.3.3 Energy.per-Blt-to-Noiee-Den$ityRailos

The foregoingerror rate equationsrelatePBto the signalenergyat the sampletimes

andthermsnoisepowerat thedetector.Whencomparingvariousdigital modulation
formats,multilevel systemsin particular,it is morerelevantto relateerror perform-
anceto signalpowerandnoisepowerat theinputto thereceiver(in front of thesignal
processingcircuitry).As a first stepin developinganerrorrateequationbasedon sig-
nal-to-noise
ratiosat thereceiverinput,thenoisepowerat thedetectoris determined.
Thevarianceofthe noiseo2 usedin thepreviousequationsis exactlyequalto the
rmspowerthatwouldbemeasured atthedetectorin theabsenceof a signal.Thisnoise
powercanbe determined analyticallyas

o": I lHffi(|No)t'df

= NDJ IHU)I' df (c.24)

0

=No'Brv (c.2s)
where-.rNs is the one-sidednoise power spectraldensity in watts per hertz and
Brv= Jo=lH(fllz df is thenoise-equivalent
bandwidthor simplythenoisebandwidth
of thereceiverfilter functionHll).
In Equationc.?5, thenoisesourceis assumed to be white.Thatis, a uniformspec-
tral densityexistsacrosstheentirebandof interest.This noisemay existin thetans-
 C.3 EHHORRATEANALYSES:
BASEBAND
SYSTEMS 597

missionmediumitself,or it mayoccurin the "front-end"amplifierof thereceiver.If

the rms noisepowerpassingthrougha $quare(ideal)frlter of bandwidthB is meas-
ured,a readingof (IV$(B)wattswould beobtained.ThusB1yrepresentsthe bandwidth
of a perfectly squarefilter that passesthe sameamountof noiseasthe receiverfilter
H(l) lH(f) may be decidedlynonsquare in its amplituderesponsel.
The receiverfunctionH(fl necessarily providesa compromisebetweentwo con-
flicting objectives.First,it mustminimizethe amountof noisepassedto thedetector
(i.e.,minimizeEry).Second,the differencebetweensamplevalues(+Vand *I4 must
be maximized.Obviously,the signal-to-noise ratio at the detector(Vld) shouldbe
maximizedto minimizetheerrorprobability.A classicalresultof digitalcommunica-
tion theorystatesthat V/o is maximizedwhenHIJ) is'?natched"to thereceivedsig-
nal.
Whenviewedin thetimedomain,a "matchedfilter" is implemented by correlating
(multiplying)thereceivedsignalwith eachof thereceivable(noise-free) pulseshapes.
The outputsof the correlatorsareintegratedacrossa signalinterval to determinethe
overall averagecorrelationduringthe interval.The integratorwith the maximumout-
put indicatesthemostlikely symbolto havebeentr-ansmitted.
In mostsystemsall signalsor pulseshavethesameshapebut differ only in ampli-
tudeandpolarity.Thusa singlematchedfilter canbe used.Detectionmerelyinvolves
comparingthematchedfrlteroutputto appropriate decisionlevels.Theoutputof a sin-
gle correlatorft(r) andits integratoris expressed as

V=)s(t)h(t)dt
0

= J ls(r)Fdr (c.26)
0

wheres(r)is the signalor pulseshapebeingmeasured. Noticethat Vis, in essence,

a
measure of theenergyin the signaloverthe signalinginterval7.
Whenanalyzedin thefrequencydomain,amatchedfilterresponse f(/) is thecom-
plex conjugateof the channelpulsespectrumS(f). Thus the matchedfilter output
Y(/) canbe expressed in thefrequencydomainas

YU)=H(f)'SU)

= S.(fl . ,S(fl (C.zt1

Frequency-domain representationsaremost convenientwhen the transmitsignalis

stictly bandlimited,implyingthat the durationof thepulsercsponseis theoretically
unlimited.In thiscasetheenergyin a pulse(e.g.,raisedcosine)is directlyproportional
598 APPENDTx
c

to the detectorvoltageat the optimumsampletime. Henceoptimumdetectionis

achievedby merelysamplingthe outputof the receivefilter at the propertime.
Usingtherelationshipof EquationC.25andrheparameterE5 to represent
symbol
energy,we expressthebinaryerrorrateEquationC.I 9 as

P" = j erf(z) (c.28)

wherez2= Es/(Nfiil.
Notice that for a given system(fixed 81,,),the error rate is dependentonly on the
ratio of thesymbolenergyE5andthenoisedensityNs.This ratio is commonlyreferred
to asa signal-to-noise ratio,althoughit is not a signal-power-to-noise-powermeasure-
ment.Equationc.?8 is thepreferredform of theenor rateequationfor comparingdif-
ferentmodulationschemes. In a binaryscheme,the symbolenergyEs is equalto the
energyperbit Es.
As an exampleof a specificsy$tem,considera baseband raised-cosine
channel
with optimumpartitioning.Theoutputspectrumof the hansmitteris the squareroot
of theraised-cosine spectrumY*(fl definedin Equationc.2. Thematchedreceiverfil-
ter alsohasa squareroot of a raised-cosine response (EquationC.6).Hencethenoise
bandwidthof the receivercanbe determinedas

;
BN=J tHU)t' df
0

(l+fl)/27

= ! tY*u)tdf
0

I
(independent
of u) (c.?9)
2T
As defined in Equation c.l and shown in Figure c.3, the (normalized)peak sample
value at the detector of a raised-cosinepulse is L Using unnormalizedpulses of am-
plifude Es, we can determinethe error rate of a binary (+Es, -Es) raised-cosinechan-
nel as

Pu = | erfc(z) (c.30)

wheree2= (EslNg)f andZis thedurationof a signalinrerval.

AlthoughEquationC.30wasderivedfor a raised-cosinechannel,it is moregeneral
in thatit is applicableto anybinarysystemusingantipodalsignaling.ThusEquation
c.30 is plottedin Figure4.23asthebestperfonnance achievableby *y digitalhans-
 c.3 EHFORRATEANALYSES:BASEBANDSYSTEMS
5gg

missionsystemdetectingonepulseat a time.(Lowererrorratesarepossiblewhenre-
dundantsignalsor enror-coffectingcodesare used.)
The enor rateperformance presented in EquationC.22 for multilevelsystemsis
basedon noisepower at the detector.As long asthe signalbandwidthis identicalfor
all systems, EquationC.22is valid sincethe noisebandwidthof thereceiveris inde-
pendentof the numberof levels.Whenthe signalingrateis held constant,however,
thebit rateincreaseswith thenumberof levels.To comparemultilevel systemson the
basisof a given datarate,the signalinginterval7 and,hence,the noisebandwidths
mustbe adjustedaccordingly.
If 7 is thesignalingintervalfor a two-levelsystem,thesignalingintervalI for an
/,-levelsystemprovidingthe samedatarateis determinedas

Tr=TlogrL (c.31)

Usingthenoisebandwidthof a raised-cosine
filter in EquationC.29,we extendEqua-
tion C.22to multilevelsystemsas

"=[,#)[#)-'*o

v/(L * L)
.
<r@rn
EquationC.3?canbe simplifiedandpresentedin a morecustomaryform by usingthe
relationshipthatenergyper symbolEr= Ealog2L = IPTI, whereE6is theenergyper
bit:

"=[,#J[tt)*'r.r (c.33)

(logrL)r/z(Eo\"
r=
1-1 l1r I
\'0,/

EquationC.33is plottedin Figure4.26for 2, 4, 8, and 16levels.Thesecurvesrep-

resentthe ideal relativeperformances
of multilevelbasebandsystemsat a constant
datarate.Thebandwidthrequirementsof thehigher-levelsystemsdecrease in propor-
tion to log2L.
600 APPENDTx
c

Equationc.33 and Figure4.26 representthe performanceof multilevelsystems

with respectto E6lNp(commondataratebut differentbandwidths).The following re-
lationshipcanbe usedto determineerrorrateswith respectto signal-to-noise
ratiosat
thedecisioncircuit (differentdatararesbut commonbandwidth):

siTal Powet
Slgp:
nolsepower

_(E)(rogzL)(r/T)
(No)0/2r)

/ F \
=(2)(log2z)l#
| (c.34)
l-"0i
wherell?Tpis theminimum"Nyquist"bandwidthof the signal.
ThesNR obtainedin Equationc.34 repre$ents theratioof signalpowerat thesam-
ple time to noiseat thedetector.This ratiois sometimes refenedto asa postdetection
sNR because it is the signal-to-noise
ratio at the outputofthe signalprocessing cir-
cuiffry.
Somecommunications theoristsusepredetectionsignal-to-noise ratiosin deter-
mining elror rates.SincepredetectionSNRsare measuredprior to bandlimiting the
noise,a noisebandwidthmustbehypothesized to establisha finite noisepower.com-
monly,a bit ratebandwidth( l/7) or a Nyquistbandwidth(l/zT) is specified.Thelatrer
specificationproducesSNRsidenticalto thatin EquationC.34.Exceptionsoccurwith
double-sideband modulationusing coherentdemodulation(e.g.,2-psK) wherethe
predetection sNR is 3 dB higherthanthepostdetection sNR. (All signalpoweris co-
herentto thedemodulator carrierreference,but only halfofthe noiseis .,coherent.")

C.3.4 Partlal-ResponseSystems

Theenor rateequationfor a I + D partial-response

systemis obtainedby incorporat-
ing thefollowingmodificationsto a full-response
system:

l. The error distanceis exacflyone-halfthe error distance of a corresponding

full-responsesystem(seeFigureC.6).
2. The noise bandwidthof the receiver(assuming$quare-rootpartitioning) is
obtainedby integratingIIsx of F4uationC.14:
| /27

B"=J cosMTdf
0

_ l (c.35)
nT
 TRANSMISSION
C.4 CARRIEF SYSTEMS601

Thusthenoisebandwidthof a 1 + D patial-respon$e systemis 2 dB lowerthanthe

noisebandwidthof a raised-cosine (full-response)systemobtainedin EquationC.29.
Sincetheerrordistanceis reducedby 6 dB, partial-response filteringincursa netpen-
alty of 4 db-with respectto unfilteredsignalpowerat the source.In termsof channel
powers,the panial-response systemincursa smallerpenaltyowing to greaterspec-
trum truncationin the hansmitfilter.
Thedifferencein channelpowersof thetwo sy$tems canbeobtainedby integrating
the respectivechannelpowerspectra.If square-root partitioningis used,thecharurel
powerof the partial-response systemis 2 dB belowthe channelpowerof the corre-
spondingfull-response systems.In this case,the differencein channelpowersi$ ex-
actlyequalto thedifferencein noisebandwidthsbecause thereceiverfilter responses
arematchedto therespectivechannelspectra.That is, integrationofchannelspectra
hasessentiallybeenaccomplished in EquationsC.29andC.35.
Whenspectrumtruncationlossin a transmitteris considered, pafii-
a square-root
tionedpartial-re$ponse systemis only 2 dB worsethanthat of a corresponding full-
response system.Of course,thepartial-response systemrequireslessbandwidththan
the full-response$ystem.For completeness, the erTorrateequationof a square-root
partitionedI + D partial-response systemis

"=['#Jf-r)-'r-t.r (c.36)

/2(logzL)trzrrt - 1)andE6is theenergyperbit on thechan-

where{ = (rE/4)(Eb/No)t
nel.
EquationC.36is identicalto EquationC.33exceptfor thefactorrd4resultingfrom
thelower errordistance,thelower noisebandwidth,andthe lower channelpowerof
thepartial-re$ponse
system.

C.4 CARRIERTRAN$MISSION$YSTEMS

C.4.1 Filter Design

Exceptfor a few relativelyuncommonfrequency-modulated systems, digitallymodu-

latedcarriersystemscanbe designedand analyzedwith baseband-equivalent chan-
nels.Carrier-based filters arederivedby kanslatingthe baseband filters to bandpass
filters centeredat the carrierfrequency.The outputpulseresponseof the channelis
determinedby the compositeof the baseband-equivalent filters. Thuspulseshaping
be by
can achieved filtering baseband the signals or the modulatedsignals.Partition-
ing of the channelfilter functionis dependent on the application.In all casesthecom-
positechannelresponse is identical
to that definedin Equation C.2 for raised-cosine
channelsor EquationC.13for partial-response systems.
602 APPENDIX
c

Q.4.2 Error BateAnatysis

Error rate analysesof basebandsystemscan be direcfly applied to carrier $ysrems-

under one important condition: Coherentmodulation and demodulationmust be used.
For example,coherentdemodulation of a 2-pSK signal y(r) = cos[fitf +
Q(I)] involves
implementing the following equations;

S(t)= lowpass{cos[rol
+ Q(r)]2 cos(rrlr)]

= lowpass{[(cosQ(r)cos(Dr* sin S(r)sin rryl2cosrof

]

= lowpass{cos
$(rxl + cosrrlr)- sinS(r)sin 2cor}

= cosS(r)

_ J r for Q(t)= 6 (c.37)

[-r for S(t)= 7s

Notice that coherentdemodulationinvolves multiplying the received signal by a local

carrier that is exactly in phasewith the respectiveincoming signal.Hence coherentde-
modulation is closely related to matched filter detection as presentedin Equations
c.26 and c.27. To complere optimum detection of a digitally modulated signal, the
basebandequivalent of the receiver filter function must also be matchedto the carrier
envelope: cos Q(r). When coherent demodulation (also called coherent detection) is
used,the error rate performanceis identical to the analogousbasebandsystem.Hence
the error rate of a coherently detectedz-psK system is provided in Equation c.19 or
c.28.
The correspondenceof coherentdemodulation to matchedfilter detection is illus-
trated in Figure c.9. For convenience,digital biphase (diphase) is compared to an
NRZ basebandsignal. The basic principle also applies to sine wave carriersat any fre-
quency-The important point to notice in Figure C.9 is that the output of the coherent
demodulator (or equivalently, the matched filter) is identical to the NRZ sisnal. Fur-

I t l t l o l r l o l r l
Dffi I-l r-l t-l Mlxcr
(defitodulfiorl

T,H|[lf'-"-lJ+
f f i r |
hodrm l-r t-t _-r I

Figure C.9. Coherent demodulation (detection) of digital biphase signal.

 c.4 cARRIEB
THANSMtsstoN
sysrEMS 603

thermore,thenoisepowerdensitycomingoutof thecoherentdemodulator is identical

to thenoisepowerdensityof thebaseband system.(Positive-weightedwhite noiseis
statisticallyno differentthannegative-weighted whitenoise.)
FigureC.9 demonstrates that coherentlydemodulated carrier-basedsignalspro-
ducethe samesignal-to-noise ratiosat the detectorasbaseband systems,despitethe
fact that (double-sideband) carriersystemsrequiretwiceasmuchbandwidth.Coher-
ent demodulationleadsto a receivernoisebandwidttrequalto the baseband-equivalent
noisebandwidthbecause only one-halfof the noisepowerin thecarriersignalband-
width is passedby the coherentdemodulator. (Noisein the carriersignalbandwidth
that is out of phasewith respectto thecoherentreferenceis ffanslatedto twice the car-
rier frequencyand thereforeeliminatedby the low-passfilter, sin ot 'cos o)f =
I sin 2rot.)

C.4.3 QAM Error Rates

The error rateequationof a coherentlydetectedQAM systemis identicalto the error

rate of the conespondingmultilevelbasebandsystemappliedindividually to each
quadrature channel.Thusthe eror performance of a 16-QAM systemis providedin
EquationC.33for I = 4 levels.In a QAM systemcoherentdemodulation causesone-
half of thenoisepowerin the carriersignalbandwidthto showup at the/-channelde-
tectorand one-halfshowsup at the Q-channeldetector.Of course,the total signal
poweris dividedin two sothesignal-to-noise ratio at theindividualdetectorsis iden-
ratio(i.e.,predetection
ticalto thecarier signal-to-noise SNRis equalto postdetection
SNR).Theerrorrateperformance of QAM systemsis plottedin Figure6.20in terms
of E/Ns. To relatethoseresultsto signal-to-noise ratios,useEquationC.34usingL
asthe numberof levelson eachquadrafurechannel.

C.4.4 PSK Error Rates

The errorrateof a multilevelPSK systemis derivedmosteasilyby usingquadrature

channelrepresentations for thesignals.For example,FigureC.10displaystheregions
of decisionerrorsfor a repre$entativesignalphasein an 8-PSKsignal.Thereceived
signalis processed by two orthogonalphasedetectorsto producequadrature signals
Y{t) and Yp(t)in Equations6.10and6.11,respectively.
If thetransmittedphaseis rd8 (corresponding to datavalues011),a decisionerror
resultsif noisecausesIg(0 to go positiveat the sampletime [yo(t) is positivedown-
wardto represent thep (sine)channelaslaggingthe1(cosine)channell.Thenormal-
izederrordistanceis sin (n/8).A decisionerroralsoresultsif noisecauses-Ia(t) to
exceedY{t), indicatingthephaseis greaterthan-nl4. This latterconditioncanberep-
resentedas a negative value for the hansformed signal Y3(t)=O.lOiYBft)
+ A.7O7Y6[I). fHere,Y6(f)is aprojectionof thereceivedsignalontoa -nl4 basisvector
(seeFigure6.l3)1.Examinationof FigureC.l0 revealsthattheerrordistancefor this
secondtypeof erroris alsosin (d8). Sincethe noisevarianceyB(f)is identicalto the
 604 APPENDIX
c

Feglon 2 whero
0lO ir dstsctod

Rcgion I nlrcre
lll hdstsrsd

FigureC.10. Regions
of decision
errorfor 8-pSKsignalatldg (01I ).

noisevarianceof r{f) (by virtue of the 0.707multipliers),both typesof errorsare

equallylikely.
In general terms, the error distanceof a psK system with N phasesis
v' sir{n/M, wherev is the signalamplitudeat a derector(i.e.,the radiusof a psK
signalconstellation).
A detectionerroroccursif noiseof theproperpolarityis present
at theoutputof eitherof two phasedetectors.
A detectionerror,however,is assumed
to produceonly a single-biterror.Thegeneralexpression for thetheoreticalerrorrate
for PSKmodulationis now determined by modifyingEquationC.22as

"":['chJ*'oo
where

sin(n/MV (c.38)
^
r/Zo

The signal amplitude V can be expressedas

v=frorros,
r (c.3e)
[+)"'
and the rms noise voltage o as

"=[",[,+)'" (c.40)
 c.4 CARRIER
TRANSMISSIoN
SYSTEMS 605

for noisein a Nyquist bandwidth.

CombiningEquationsC.38,C.39,andC.40relatesPSK errorrate$to energyper
bit to noisedensityon thechannel:

""=['=lo)w'r (c.41)

/rr\ ..^ (a ,1 "

lOt/2| + |
z= sin| ; '/lttosz
\ l.toj
EquationC.4l is plottedin Figure6.16 for PSK systemswith variousnumbersof
phases.-
To determineerrorrateswith respectto signal-power-to-noise-power
ratios,
usethefollowing:

(c.42)
sNR=t"-,"h1J
(N> 2)

For 2-P$K systems,the errorratesas specifiedin EquationC,38 or C.41 shouldbe divided by 2 because
only onephasedetectoris neededandit produceserrorsfor onepolarity of noiseonly.
 APPENDIX
D

TRAFFICTABLES

TableD.l is a tableof maximumofferedloadsA for variousblockingprobabilitiesB

andnumberof serversN. Theblockingprobabilitiesarefor infinite $ources with lost
callscleared(Erlang-B,Equation10.8).
TableD.2 is a tableof maximumofferedloadsA for variousblockingprobabilities
B, numberof serversN, andfinite numberof sourcesM. TheofferedloadA is deter-
minedasMp, wherep is theaveragesourceactivityassuming no callsarecleared.The
blockingprobabilityfor finite sourcesis determined
from Equation12.13.
Note: The following tableswereobtainedfrom TelephoneTraffic Theory,Ta-
hles,and Charts,SiemensAktiengesellschaft, Munich, 1970.

TABLED.l MaxlmumOfieredLoadVersusBand M

MB 0.01 0.0s 0.1 0.5 1.0 10 15 20 30 40

1 .0001 .0005 .001 ,00s .010 .020 .053 .11'l .176 .250 .429 .667
2 ,014 .032 .046 .105 .1s3 .223 .381 .595 ,796 1.00 1.45 2.00
3 .087 .1s2 .194 .340 ,45s .602 .899 1.27 1.60 1.93 2.63 3.48
4 .23s .362 .439 .701 ,869 1.09 1.62 2.05 2.s0 2.9S 3.89 $.42
5 ,452 .649 .762 1,13 1.36 1.66 2.22 2.BB 3.45 4.01 5.10 6,60

6 .728 .9S6 1.15 1.62 1.91 2.28 2.96 3.76 4.44 5.11 6.51 8.19
7 1.05 1.39 1.58 2.16 2.50 2.94 3.74 4.67 s.46 6.23 7,86 9.80
I 1.42 1.83 ?.0S 2.73 3.13 3.60 4.54 5.60 6.50 7.37 9,21 11.4
o 1.83 2.30 2.56 3.33 3,78 4.34 5.37 6.55 7.s5 8.52 10,6 13.0
10 2.26 2.80 3.09 3.96 4.46 5.08 6.22 7.51 8.62 9.68 12.O 14.7

11 2.72 3.33 3.65 4.61 5,16 5.84 7.08 8.49 9.69 10.9 13.3 16.3
12 3.21 s.88 4.23 5.28 s.88 6.61 7,95 9.47 10.8 12.0 14.7 18.0
13 3"71 4.45 4.83 5.96 6.61 7.40 8.83 1 0 . 5 11,9 13.2 16.1 19.6
14 4.24 5.03 5.45 6.66 7.35 8.20 9.73 1 1 . 5 13.0 14.4 17.5 21.2
15 4.78 s.63 6.08 7.38 8.11 9.01 1 0 , 6 1 2 . 5 14.1 15,6 1B.g 22.9

16 5.34 6.25 6.7? 8.10 8.88 9.83 11.5 13,5 15.2 16.S 20,3 24.5
17 s.91 6.88 7.38 8.83 9.65 10.7 12.5 14.5 16.3 18,0 21.7 26.2
18 6.50 7.52 8.05 9.58 10.4 11.5 13.4 15.5 17.4 19.2 23.1 27.8
19 7,09 8.17 8.72 10,3 11.2 1e.3 14.3 16.6 18,5 20.4 ?4.5 29,5
20 7.70 8.S3 9,41 11. 1 12.0 13.2 15.2 17.6 19.6 2 1. 6 25.9 31:2
608 APPENDIx
D

TABLED.1 (Continued)
NIB 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 2 5 10 15 20 30 40
21 8.32 9.50 10.1 11,9 12.8 14.0 16.2 187 20.8 22.8 27.9 32.8
22 8.95 10,2 10.8 12.6 13.7 14.9 17.1 19.7 ?1.9 24j ?a.7 34.5
23 9.58 10.9 11.5 13.4 14.5 15.8 18.1 aQJ 23.0 25,3 30.1 36.1
24 10.2 11.6 12.2 14.2 1s.3 16,6 19.0 21.8 24.2 26.5 31,6 37.8
25 10.9 1?,3 13.0 15.0 16.1 17.5 20.0 22.8 ?5,3 277 33.0 39.4

26 11.5 13,0 13.7 15.8 17.0 18.4 20.9 23.9 26.4 28.9 34.4 41.1
27 1?.2 13.7 14.4 16.6 17.8 19.3 21.9 e4,9 27.6 30.2 35.8 42.8
28 12.9 14.4 15.2 17.4 18.6 20.2 22.9 26.0 28.7 31.4 97.2 44.4
29 13.6 15.1 15.9 18.2 19.5 21.0 ?3,8 27.1 29.9 32.6 38.6 46.1
30 14.2 15.9 16.7 19.0 20.3 21.9 24.8 28.1 31.0 33,8 40.0 47.7
31 14.9 16,6 17.4 19,9 21.2 22.8 2S.8 2s.2 32.1 3s.1 41.s 49.4
32 15.6 17.3 18.2 20.7 22.0 23J 26.7 30.2 33.3 36.3 42.9 51.1
33 16.3 18.1 19.0 21,5 22.9 24.6 277 31.3 U.4 s7.5 44.9 52.7
34 17.0 18,8 19.7 22.3 23.8 25.5 28.7 s2.4 35.6 38.8 45.7 54.4
35 17.8 19.6 20,5 23.2 24.6 26.4 29.7 33.4 s6J 40.0 47.1 56.0
36 18.5 ?0,3 21.3 24.0 25.5 27.3 30,7 34.s 37.9 41.2 48.6 57.7
37 19.2 21.1 2e.1 24.8 26.4 28.3 31.6 35.6 39.0 42.4 50.0 5e.4
38 19,9 21.9 22.s 25.7 27.3 29.2 32.6 36.6 4Q.2 4s7 51.4 61.0
39 20.6 22.6 23.7 26.s 28.1 30.1 33,6 s7.7 41.3 44.9 52.8 62.7
40 21.4 23.4 24.4 27.4 29.0 31.0 34.6 38.8 42.5 46.1 54.2 64.4
41 22.1 24.2 25.2 28.2 29.9 31.9 3s.6 39.9 43.6 47.4 55,7 66.0
42 22.8 25.0 26.0 29.1 30.8 32.S 36.6 40.9 44.8 48.6 57j 67.7
43 23.6 25.7 26.8 29.9 31.7 33.8 37.6 42.0 4s.9 49.9 s8.5 6e.3
44 24.3 26.5 27.6 30.8 32.s U.7 38.6 43.1 47.1 51.1 59.S 71.0
45 25.1 27.3 28.4 31.7 33.4 3s.6 39.6 44.2 48.2 s2.3 61.3 727
46 ?5.8 28.1 29.3 32.5 34.3 36.s 40.5 45.2 49.4 53.6 62.8 74.3
47 26.6 28.9 30.1 33.4 35.2 37.5 41.5 46.3 50,6 s4.8 64.2 76.0
48 27.3 29.7 30.9 34.2 36,1 38.4 42.5 47.4 51.7 56.0 65.6 77.7
49 28.1 30.5 31.7 35.1 37.O 39.3 43.s 48.s 52.9 57.3 67.0 7s.3
50 28.9 31.3 32.s 36.0 37.9 40.3 M.5 49.6 s4.O s8.s 68.5 81.o
51 29,6 32.1 33.3 36.9 38.8 41.2 45.5 50.6 55.2 59.7 69.9 82J
52 30.4 3?,9 34.2 37.7 39,7 42j 46,s 51.7 56.3 61.0 71.3 84.3
53 31.2 33.7 35.0 38.6 40.6 43.1 47.5 52.8 57.5 62.2 72J 86.0
54 31,9 34.5 3s.8 39.5 41.5 44.0 48.5 53.9 58.7 63.5 74.2 87,6
55 32.7 35.3 36.6 40.4 42.4 44.s 49.s s5.0 59.8 64.7 7s.6 89.3
56 33.5 36.1 97.5 41.2 43.3 45.9 50.5 56.1 61.0 65.9 77.O 91.0
57 34.3 36.9 38.3 42.1 M.2 46.8 51.5 57.1 62,1 67J 78.4 92.6
58 3s.1 37.8 39,1 43.0 45.1 47.8 52.6 58,2 63.3 68.4 79.8 94.3
59 35.8 38.6 40.0 43.9 46.0 48.7 53.6 59.3 64.5 69.7 81.3 96.0
60 36.6 39.4 40.8 44.8 46.9 49.6 54,6 60.4 65,6 70.9 827 97,6
61 37.4 40.2 41.6 45.6 47.9 50.6 55.6 61,5 66.8 72j 84.1 99.3
62 38.2 41,0 42.5 46.s 48.8 51.s 56.6 62.6 68.0 7s.4 8s.s 101.
63 39.0 41.9 43.3 47.4 49.7 52.5 57.6 63.7 69,1 74.6 87.0 103.
64 39.8 42.7 44.2 48.3 50.6 53,4 58.6 64,8 70.3 75.s 88.4 104.
65 40.6 43.5 45,0 49.2 51.5 54.4 59.6 65.8 71.4 77.1 89.8 106.
 APPENDIXD 609

TAELED.l (Gontlnuedl
ME 0.01 0.0s 0.1 0.5 1.0 10 15 20 30 40
66 41.4 44.4 45.8 50.1 52.4 55.3 60.6 66.9 72.6 78.3 91.2 108,
67 42.2 48.2 46.7 51.0 53.4 56.3 61.6 68.0 73.8 79.6 92.7 109.
68 43.0 46.0 47.6 51.9 54.3 57.2 62.6 69.1 74.9 80.8 94.1 111.
69 43.8 46,8 48.4 52.8 s5,2 58.2 63.7 7Q.2 76.1 82.1 95.5 113.
70 44.6 47.7 49.2 53.7 s6.1 59.1 64.7 71.3 77.3 83.3 96.9 114,

71 45.4 48.5 50.1 54.6 57.0 60.1 65.7 7?.4 78.4 84,6 98.4 116.
72 46,e 49.4 50.9 55.5 58.0 61.0 66.7 73.5 79.6 8s.B 99.8 118.
73 47.0 50.2 s1.8 56.4 58.9 62.0 ts7.7 74.6 80.S 87.0 101, 119.
74 47.8 51.0 52.7 57.3, 59.8 62.9 68"7 75.6 81.9 88.3 103. 121.
75 48,6 51.9 53.6 58.2 60.7 69.9 69.7 76.7 83,1 89.5 104. 123.

76 49.4 52,7 s4.4 59.1 61,7 64.9 70.8 77,8 84.2 90.8 10s. 124.
77 50.2 53.6 55.2 60.0 62.6 65.8 71.8 78.9 85.4 92.0 107. 126,
78 s1.1 54.4 s6,1 60.9 63.5 66,8 72.8 80.0 86.6 93.3 108. 128.
79 51.9 55,3 56.9 61.8 64,4 67.7 73.8 81,1 87.7 94.5 110. 129.
80 52.7 56.1 57.8 62,7 65.4 68.7 74.8 82.2 88.9 95.7 111. 131.

81 s3.5 5S.9 58.7 63.6 66.3 69.6 75.8 83.3 90.1 97.O 113. 133"
82 54.3 s7,8 59.5 64.5 67.2 70.6 76.9 S4.4 91.2 S8,2 114. 134.
89 55.1 58.6 60.4 65.4 68.2 71.6 77.9 85.5 92.4 99.5 115. 136,
84 56.0 59,5 61.3 66.3 69.1 72.5 78.9 86.6 93.6 101. 117, 138.
8s s6.8 60.4 62.1 67.2 70.0 73.5 79,9 87.7 94.7 102. 118. 139.

86 57.6 61.2 63,0 68.1 70.9 74,5 80.9 88.8 9s.9 103. 120. 141,
87 58.4 6e.1 63.9 69.0 71.9 75.4 82.0 89.9 97.1 104. 121., 143.
88 s9,3 62.9 M.7 69.9 72.8 76.4 83,0 91.0 S8.2 106, 123. 144.
89 60.'1 63.8 65,6 70.8 73.7 77.3 84.0 92.1 99,4 107. 124. 146,
90 60.9 fr.6 66.5 71.8 74.7 78,3 8s.0 93.1 101. 108. 126. 148,

91 61.8 65.s 67.4 72.7 75.6 79.3 86.0 94.2 102. 109, 127. 149.
92 62,6 66.3 68,2 73.6 76.6 80.2 87.1 95.3 103. 111, 128. 151.
93 69.4 67.2 69.1 74.5 77.5 81.2 88.1 96,4 104. 112. 130. 1s3.
94 64,2 68.1 70.0 75.4 78.4 82.2 89,1 97.5 105. 11 3 . 131. 154.
95 65.1 68.9 70,9 76.3 79.4 83.1 90.1 98.6 106. 114. 133. 156,

96 65.9 69.8 71.7 77.2 S0.3 84.1 91.1 99.7 108. 116. 134. 158.
s7 66.8 70.7 72.6 78.2 81.2 85.1 92.2 101. 1 0 9 . 1 1 7 . 135. 1$9.
98 67.6 71.5 73.5 79.1 82.2 86.0 93.2 102. 110. 118. 137. 161.
99 68.4 72.4 74.4 80.0 83.1 87.0 94.2 103. 1 1 1 . 1 1 9 " 138. 163.
100 69.3 73.2 75.2 S0.9 88.0 95.2 104. '11?. 121. 140. 164.
84.1
a/Vis the nufibef of servers. Th6 numericalcolumn h€edingsindicateblocklngprobability(%).
610 APPENDIXD

TABLED.2 MaxlmumOfferedLoadVersusB, A|,and Flnite $ourceellla

N M .01 0.1 0.5 1 . 0 10 15 20 30
2 0002 ,0010 .0020 ,0100 .0200 .0400 .100 .202 .307 .417 .6ss
'' r t ' 43 .0002 .0008 ,001s .0075 ,0151 .0303 .077 .1s9 .246 .341 .559
.0001 ,0007 .0013 ,0067 .0134 .0270 ,069 .143 .224 .312 .s19
5 . 0 0 0 1. 0 0 0 6 . 0 0 1 3 . 0 0 6 3 . 0 1 2 6 . 0 2 5 4 . 0 6. 51 3 6 .213 .298 .498
3 .030 .067 .095 .212 .300 .425 .678
.980 1.23 1.47 1.s7
4 .023 .0s2 .074 .167 .238 .342 .s60
.832 1.07 1.30 1.78
5 .021 .046 .065 ,149 .213 .308 .510
.787 .gs7 1.22 1.70
6 .019 .043 .061 .139 .200 .289 .482
.731 .955 1.18 1,65
7 .018 .041 .058 .133 .191 .277 .464
.707 .928 1.1s 1.6?
4 .186 .317 .400 .685 .864 1.09 1.s0 1.95 2.31 2,65 3.35
5 .148 .254 .322 ,561 .715 .918 1.30 ,t.72 2.OB 2.42 3.13
6 .131 .227 .288 .505 .648 .837 1.20 1.62 1.97 2,g1 3.02
7 j22 .211 .268 .473 .609 .790 1.14, 1.5s
1.90 2.24 2.e5
8 .116 .201 .255 .452 .583 .759 1.10 1.51 1.85 2.19 2.90
9 ,111 .194 .246 .437 .s65 .737 1.Q7 1.47 1.82 2.16 2.86
10 .108 .1S8 .240 .426 ,551 .720 1.05 1.45 1.79 2.13 2.84
15 .100 j74 .222 .396 .514 .67s ,994 1.38 1.72 2,06 2.76
5 .500 .748 .889 1.33 1.59 1.89 2.24 2.98 3.43 3,86 4.76
6 .408 .617 .737 1.12 1.36 1.64 2.15 2.71 3.16 s.6o 4.51
7 .365 .554 .665 1.02 1.24 1.52 2.01 2.56 3.02 3.46 4.38
8 .340 .517 .621 .963 1.17 1.44 1.9? 2.47 2.93 3.37 4.30
9 .323 .492 .592 .922 1.13 1.39 1.86 2.4't 2.87 3.31 4.?4
10 .310 .4't4 .571 .892 1.09 1,35 1.82 2.36 2.82 g.27 4.20
r5 .280 .429 .518 .816 1.00 1.25 1.71 2.24 2.7Q 3.14 4.08
6 .9s1 1.31 1.51 2.08 2.40 2]7 3,39 4.Q4 4.58 5.09,6.17
7 .794 1.11 1.28 1.80 2.10 2.45 s.o7 s.7s 4.28 4.80 5.91
I .7161,00 1.16 1.66 1.94 2.29 2.90 3,56 4j2 4.65 5.77
.668 .940 1.04 1.56 1.84 2.18 2.78 3.45 4.01 4.55 5.68
10 .695 .896 1,09 1.50 1.77 2.11 2.71 3.s7 3.94 4.48 s.6.1
12 .592 .,839 .979 1.42 1.68 2.01 2,60 9.27 3.84 4.38 5.52
15 ,556 .791 ,924 1.35 1.60 1.92 2.51 3.18 3.74 4.2g 5.44
20 .525 ,748 .876 1.28 1.53 1.84 2.42 3.09 3.66 4.21 5.37
7 1.51 1.97 2.21 2.90 3.26 3.69 4.38 5.12 5.73 6.32 7.59
I 1.28 1.70 1.91 2.55 2.90 3.32 4.o2 4.78 5.41 6,02 7.g2
I 1.17 1.55 1.76 2.37 2.71 3.12 3.82 4.59 5.24 5.S5 7.17
10 1.09 1.46 1.6s 2.25 2.58 2.98 3.69 4.47 s.12 5.74 7.O7
15 .926 1.2s 1,43 1.97 2.29 2.68 3.38 4.17 4.84 s.48 6,84
20 .865 1.17 1.34 1.87 2j7 2.56 g.A6 4.OS 4.72 S.i7 E:74
30 .8131.10 1.27 1.77 2.O7 2.45 3.15 3.94 4.62 s.28 6.66
8 2,15 2.70 2.98 3,76 4j7 4.63 5.39 6.20 6.89 7.56 9.01
9 1.8s 2.36 2.62 3.36 3.7s 4.22 s.00 5.8s 6.56 7.25 8.74
10 1.70 2j7 2.42 3.13 3.52 3.99 4.78 5.64 6.97 7.07 8.s8
15 1.39 1.80 2.02 2.68 3.05 3.51 4.31 5.21 5.97 6.70 8.2s
2Q 1.28 1,67 1.88 2.52 2.88 3.33 4J4 s.Os s.81 6.s6 8.13
30 1.19 1.56 1.76 2.38 2.74 3,18 3.99 4.90 5,68 8.44 8.03
 APPENDTx
D 611

TABLED.2 (Continuedl
,v M .01 .05 0.1 0.5 t.0 10 15 20 30
I 2.85 3.48 3.80 4.65 5.09 5.59 6,41 7.30 8,05 8.80 10.4
10 2.49 3,08 3.37 4.20 4.64 5.14 6.00 6.92 7.71 8,48 10.2
11 2.25 2.85 3.14 3.94 4.38 4.89 5.76 6.71 7.51 8.2S 9.99
12 2.16 2.70 2.97 3.77 4.20 4.17 5,59 6.56 7.37 8.17 9.88
15 1,93 2.43 2.70 3.46 3.89 4.40 5.29 6.29 7.13 7.94 9.69
20 1.76 2.24 2A9 3.23 3.65 4.16 5,06 6.07 6.93 7.76 9.s4
30 1.63 2.08 2.32 3.03 3.45 3.95 4.86 5.89 6.77 7.61 9.41
10 3.59 4.30 4.84 5.57 6.03 6.56 7.44 8.39 9.22 10.0 11.9
11 3.18 3.84 4.17 5.O7 5.54 6,09 7.OO 8.01 8.87 5.72 1' 1.6
12 2.94 3.57 3.89 4.75 5.26 5.81 6,75 7.78 8.66 9.52 11.4
13 2.78 3,39 3.71 4.s9 5.06 s.61 6.57 7.62 8.51 9.39 11.3
14 2.66 3.26 3.57 4.44 4.91 5.41 6.43 7,50 8.41 9.2S' |1.2
16 2.50 3.08 3.38 4.33 4.70 5.27 6.34 7.33 8.25 9.15 11.1
18 2.39 2.95 3.25 4.09 4,56 5.13 6.11 7.21 8.15 9.06 11.0
20 2.31 2.87 3.15 3.99 4.46 5.02 6.02 7.13 8.07 8.99 11.0
30 2j2 2.64 2.91 3,73 4.19 4.76 5,77 6.90 7.87 8.81 10.8
11 4.38 5.15 5.52 6.49 6,98 7.54 8.47 9.49 10.4 11.3 13.3
12 3,91 4.64 5.00 s.97 8.47 7.04 8.02 9.09 10,0 11.0 13.0
13 3.63 4.34 4.6S 5.65 6.16 6.74 7.75 8"86 9.81 10.8 12.8
14 3.45 4.13 4.47 5,43 5.94 6.54 7,56 8.69 9:66 10'6 12.7
10 15 3.31 3.98 4.32 5.27 5,78 6.38 7.41 8.56 9.55 10.5 12.6
16 3.20 3.86 4.19 s.14 5.6s 6.2s 7.30 8.46 9.46 10.4 12.6
1B 3.04 3.68 4.01 4,95 s.46 6.07 7.13 8.31 9.33 10,3 12.s
2a 2.93 3,56 3.88 4.81 5.32 5.93 7.O1 8,21 9.23 10.2 12.4
25 2.75 3.36 3,68 4.s9 5.10 5,72 6.81 8.04 9,08 10.1 12.3
30 2.65 3,25 3.56 4.47 4.98 s.59 6.69 7.93 8.99 10.0 12.2
12 s.19 6.01 6.41 7.44 7,95 8.53 9.s0 10.6 11.6 12.s 14.7
13 4,68 5.46 5.85 6,88 7.40 8.01 9,04 10.2 11.2 12,2 14.4
14 4.37 5.13 5.51 6.54 7.O7 7.69 8.76 9,94 11.0 12.0 14.2
1s 4.15 4.90 5.27 6.30 6.84 7.47 8.56 9.77 10.8 11.9 14.1
11 16 3.99 4.72 5.09 8.12 6.66 7.30 8.40 9.63 10.7 11.7 14.0
17 3.86 4.s9 4.95 5.98 6.52 7.17 8.28 9.s3 10.6 11.7 14.0
18 3.76 4.48 4.84 5.86 6,41 7.06 8.18 9,44 10.5 11.6 13.9
20 3.60 4.31 4.66 5.68 6.23 6.88 8.03 9.31 10,4 11.5 13.8
2s 3.36 4.04 4.39 5.40 5.95 6.62 7.79 9.10 10.2 11.3 13.7
30 3.32 3.90 4.24 s.24 5.79 6.46 7.64 8.98 10,1 11.2 13.6
13 6.03 6.90 7.31 8.39 8.92 9,52 10.s 11.7 12.7 13.8 16.1
14 5.47 6,31 6.72 7.80 8.35 B.9B10.1 11.3 12.4 13.4 1s,8
15 5.95 7.44 8.00 8.65 9.77 11.O '12.1 13,2 15.7
5.13 6.35
16 4.88 5.69 6.09 7.18 7.75 8.42 9.56 10,8 12.0 13.1 15.5
12 17 4.7Q s.50 5.90 6.9S 7.56 8.24 9.40 10.7 11.8 13.0 15,5
18 4.56 5.35 s.74 6.83 7.41 8.09 9.27 10.6 11.8 12.9 15.4
20 4.34 5,'t2 5.51 6.60 7.18 7.87 9.08 10.4 11.6 1e.8 1s,3
25 4.03 4.77 5.16 6.24 6,83 7.54 8.78 10,2 11.4 12.6 15.1
30 3.85 4.s8 4.96 6,04 6.63 7.35 8.61 10.0 11,3 12.5 1s.0
the numericalcolumn headingsindlcateblockingprobability(%).
 GLOSSARY

2BlQ. Four-levelline codeusedin ISDN basicrateaccesslines.

997oPowerbandwidth.Bandwidthcontaining99Voof theenergyof a signal'
Abbreviateddiating. ,SeeSpeeddialing.
Accesstandem. "switching systemwithin a LATA used as an accesspoint by
long-distance carriers."
Add-drop multiplexer (ADM). Networkelementthataccesses only a portionof a
higherlevel digital signalto extractand insertlocal traffic at an intermediatepoint
of a route.
Added-channelframing. TDM framing format utilizing an additionalchannelwith
the samerate as the messagechannelsfor the expresspurposeof defining frame
boundaries.
Added-digit framing. TDM framingformatutilizing anadditionalbit in everyftame
with a prescribedrepetitivesequence for the expresspurposeof definingframe
boundaries.
Advanced mobile phone service (AMPS). Analog cellular mobile telephone
standardof NorJhAmerica.
Alternate mark inversion(AMI) signal.Three-levelsignalwith values+V, 0' -y. A
space(logic 0) is encodedwith 0 V. A mark (logic 1) is encodedwith altemating
valuesof +Vand-t/, whichale nonnallyonly 507odutycyclepulses.Also refered
to asa bipolarsignal.
Alternate mark inversion violation. In AMI coding, the occunenceof two
successive markswith the samepolarity.Also refenedto asa bipolarviolation.
Amplitude distortion. Distortionof a transmissionsignalcausedby nonuniform
passband attenuation asa functionof frequency.
Amplitude modulation(AM). Modulationof the amplitudeof a carrierwavewith
the amplitudeof a baseband signal.
Antipodal signaling. Techniqueof encodingbinarysignalssothatthe symbolfor a
I is theexactnegativeof the symbolfor a 0. Antipodal signalingprovidesoptimum
errorperformance ratio.
in termsof the signal-to-noise

613
 614 GLoSSAFY

Asynchronousnetwork. A networkin which the clocksof the transmissionlinks

andswitchingsystemsarenot synchronized to eachother.
Asynchronoustransfer mode (ATM). packet-switched methodof time division
multiplexing(labeledmultiplexing)utilizing fixed packet(cell) sizesof 53 bytes.
Asynchronoustransmission.Mode of communication characterized by start-stop
transmissionswith undefined time intervals between transmissions.Each
transmissionburstgenerallycontainsa singleword or byteof information.
Automatic call distributor (ACD). switching sy$temusedto evenly distribute
incoming calls to a number of stationson a first-come,first-servedbasis.
Applicationsincludeoperatorassistance andairlinereservations.
Automatic number identification (ANr). processof identifyingandforwardinga
callingnumberto networkcall conffolservices.
Automatic repeat request (ARo. Error correctionprocessinvolving the use of
redundantcheckbits to detectcomrptedblocksof dataand triggerrequestsfor
retransmission of the same.
Availability. (l) With respectto switchingsystems:the numberof outletsavailable
from a particularinlet.(2) with respectto equipmentin general:thepercentage of
time theequipmentis providingacceptable service.
Balancedcode. Line codewith equailyoccurringpositiveand negativeenergyro
precludea dc componentin thefrequencyspectrum.
Baseband.Literally, the frequencyband of an unmodulatedsignal. A baseband
signalis an information-bearing signalthat is eithertransmitteaas is or usedto
modulatea carier.
Baud rate. unit of signalingspeed(symbolsper second).For binary signalingthe
datarateis the sameasthe baudrate.For multileveltransmission the datarateis
equalto thebaudratetimeslog2(L),whereL is thenumberof levels.
Bipolar coding. ,SeeAltematemarkinversion.
Bis. secondversion.Ter meansthree.For example,v.27bis and v.27ter are the
secondandthird versionsof theV.27 standard, respectively.
Bit leaking. Processof. convertingbyte-sizedtiming adjustmentsinto multiple
bit-sizedor fractionalbit-sizedtiming adjustments.
Blockedcallscleared(BCC). Servicedisciplinein whichunserviceable requests are
rejectedby thesystemwithoutservice.Also calledlosrcallscleared(LCC).
Blockedcalls held (BcH). servicedisciplinein which unserviceable requesmsray
"in thesystem"
withoutbeingservicedbut havinga portionof theirdesiredservice
time elapseuntil servicebegins.Also calledlosrcallsheld (LCH).
Blocking- Inabilityof a callingpartyto be connected to a calledparrybecause either
all circuitsarebusyor thereis internal(matchingtoss)blockingwithin a switch
matrix.
Bridged tap. Extrapair of wiresconnectedin shuntto a maincablepair.The extra
pairis normallyopencircuitedbut maybeusedat a futuretimeto connectthemain
 GLOSSAFY 615

pair to a newcustomer.Shor.t-bridged tapsdo not affectvoicefrequencysignalsbut

canbe extremelydetrimentalto higherftequencydigital signals.
Building integratedtiming supply (BITS)- Mastertiming supplyfor all equipment
in a building.
Busy hour. The 60-minuteperiod of a day (and sometimesof a weet) in which the
averageofferedtraffic load is highest.
Call admissioncontrol (CAC). ATM controlprocessresponsiblefor negotiating
quality-of-serviceparametersfor new connectionsdependenton the traffic loads
of the networkat the time.
Call congestion.Blockingprobabilityof a trunk group.
Call forwarding. Process of signalinga switchingsystemto reroutecallsintendedfor
a particularnumberto someothernumberon a temporarybasis.
Call waiting. Processof insertinga shorttoneinto the voicepathof an activeuser
informing the userthat anothercall is waiting to be connected.
Catling number identiticafion (CM). Service whereby a telephonenetwork
providestheidentityof a callingnumber(or person)with incomingringing'
Carrier sensemultiple accesdcollisiondetection(CSMA/CD). Accessprotocol
for a commonbus or radio link in which sourcesflustny to detectthe presenceof
a carrier and then begin transmittingwhen the facility is idle. If anothersource
begins transmitting during a period of time correspondingto the maximum
transmissiondelay,acollisionis detectedandall actiyenodesceasetransmission
for a randomarrount of time.
Carrierlessamplituddphase(CAP) modutation. QAM implementation technique
usingdirect (DSP) generation of filtered quadrature signalwaveforms followedby
DSPsummationfor thecomposite signal.
CCS. Measureof traffic intensityexpressed as so manyhundredcall secondsper
hour;36 CCS = I edang.
Cell delay variation (CDV). An ATM QoSparameter that specifiesthe maximum
rangeofcell propagation delaythrougha network'
cell transfer delay (cTD). An ATM QoS parameterspecifying the average
propagationtime for a cell to be transferredfrom its sourceto its destination.
Central office. Public network switchingoffice (and particularlythe switching
machinewithin it) to which subscriberlines areconnected.Also referredto as an
end office or class5 office. In a more generalsen$e,any switch in the public
networkis sometimesreferredto asa centraloffice.
Centrex service. Privateswitchingserviceprovidedby a local exchangecarrierto an
organizationutilizing hardwareand softwarepartitionsof a centraloffice switch.
CEPT-|. Term usedto designatethe 2.048-Mbpsfirst-level digital signalof the
fTU-T digital hierarchy.(More often referredto a$an EI signal')
Channel-associated signaling(CAS). Use of $eparate signalingchannelsfor each
messagechannel.The individual signaling channels may be separatefrom the
 616 GLoSSARY

message channels(asin El) or derivedwithin themessage channels themselves (as

in Tl).
channel bank. Equipmentthat convertsmultiple analoginterfacesto and from a
time-division-multiplexed digitalbit stream(24 analogio oneDSI or 30 analogto
oneEl). Channelbanksarealsousedfor FDM applications.
channel service unit (csu)- Equipmentinstalledon customerpremisesat the
interfaceto phonecompanylines to terminatea DDS or Tl ciicuit to provide
networkprotectionanddiagnosticcapabilities. Also calleda customerserviceunit.
circuit Emulation service (cEs). An ATM servicein which constant-bit-rare
virtualcircuitsuseAALI adaptation to emulateanend-to-endphysicalcircuit.
Circuit switching. The principleof establishing an end-to-endconnecrionbetween
usersof a network. The associatedfacilities are dedicatedto the particular
connectionandheldfor thedurationof thecall.
clear-channelcapability.Ability to providea transparenr 64-kbpschannelthrough
a North Americannetwork(usingBSZSandcommon-channel signaling).
clock. Time baseusedto controlthe transferof digitalinformation.
C'messageweighing. Selectiveatlenuationof voicebandnoisein accordance wifh
the subjectiveeffects as a function of frequency (noise weighting filter
characteristic usedin NorthAmerica).
codec(coder-decoder). Integrated circuit providing analog-to-digital and
digital-to-analog conversionof voicesignals.
coded mark lnversion (cMr). Two-levelline codein which a binary 0 is coded
with a positivelevel and an equal-magnitude negativelevel for half a unit time
intervaleach.A binaryI is codedwith a full-periodpositiveor negativelevelin
an
alternatingmannerto maintaindc balance.
coherent demodulation. Demodulation using a carier reference that is
synchronized in frequencyandphaseto thecarrierusedin themodulationprocess.
common-channelsignaling. use of a separatechanneldedicatedto tran$portof
signalinginformationpertainingto a multiplenumberof message channels.
community dial office (cDo). small, normallyunanended switchingsystemthatis
usedin smallcommunitiesandis controlledfrom a rargercentraro}fice.
companding. Processof compressing a signalat the sourceandexpandingit at the
destinationto maintain a given end-to-enddynamic range whiie reducing the
dynamicrangebetweenthe compressor-expander.
concentration. Processof switching somenumber of lighfly used channels
or
sourcesontoa smallernumberof moreheavilyusedchannels.
Conferencecall. Call in which threeor morestationsareinterconnected in a manner
that allows all parriesto talk andbe heardby all otherparties.
connection admissioncontrol (cAc). An ATM functionthatdetermines whether
a vifiual circuit (vc) connectionrequestshouldbe accepted or rejected.
constant (or continuous)bit rate (cBR). An ATM classof servicethat supports
transmission of a continuousdatarate.
 GLOSSARY 617

Constantenvelope.A (frequencyor phase)modulatedcarrierwith no

the carrieramplitude.
Controlled stip. Slip involving the repetitionor deletionof an integralnumberof
TDM frames.
Crossbar switch. Rectangulararray of crosspointsarrangedso that an input
connectedto a row of crosspointinput$ can be switchedto any output
connected to a columnof crosspointoutputs.
Crosstalk. Unwantedsignaltransferfrom onecircuitinto another'
Custom Local Area Signaling Services(CLASS). Signalingservicefor analog
telephone linesprovidedbetweenthefirst two ringsof anincomingtelephone call'
Principalfeaturesenabledby CLASS servicesare Caller ID, Call Return,Call
Screening, Preferued Call Forwarding,PriorityRinging,andRepeatDialing'
Datagram. Singlepacketmessage (from thepoint of view of a packetnetwork).
DataphoneDigital Service(DDS). Serviceoffering of common-carder telephone
companies providing digital channels at 2.4,4.8, 9.6, 56, or 1544 kbps.
dBm. Powerlevel in decibelsrelativeto I mW'
dBrnC. Power level of noise with C-messageweighting expressedin decibels
relativeto referencenoise.Reference noisepoweris -90 dBm = 10-l?W.
dBrnC0. Noise power measuredin dBmC but referencedto the eero-level
transmission level point.
Decisionfeedbackequalization(DF'E).Equalizationtechniqueinvolvingthe useof
deftcteddatavaluesto producesimulatedchannelresponses in a receiverthat are
then subtracted from subsequent received signal Samples to cancel channel
distortion.
Deltamodulation.Techniquefor digitallyencodingananalogsignalby continuously
measuringandtransmittingonly thepolarityof thesignalslope.Theanalogsignal
is reconstructed asa staircase approximation of theinput'
Demandtraffic. First attempttraffic. (offered traffic not includingretries.)
Desynchronizer. Circuitry that extractsa tributary digital signalfrom a composite,
higherlevel signalandderivesthe sourceclock frequencyof thetributary.
Digitat advanced mobile phone service (D-AMPS), Digital mobile telephone
standardof North America,alsoknownastS-I36 TDMA.
Digital circuit muttiplication {DCM). Processof increasingthe numberof voice
signalscarriedon a digitaltransmission link throughtheuseof speech compression
or silenceremovalor both.
Digitsl loop carrier (DLC). A TDM systemfor transporting multipledigitalsignals
to andfrom multiplesubscriber lines.
Digitat pad. Digitat circuit that changes PCM samplevaluesfor the putposeof
adjusting (attenuating) the power level of theencodedanalogsignal.
Digital satetlitesystem(DSS). Directbroadcast satellite(DBS)systemdeveloped by
HughesElectronicsCorporation.
 618 GLOSSAHY

Digital speechinterpolation (DSI). Dieital equivalenrof rASI whereindigital

speechsignalsaremonitoredandconnected to a hansmissionchannelonly when
voiceactivityis present(a form of DCM).
Digital video broadcasting(DvB) group. Europeandigitat rv standardfor
TV,
audio,anddata.DvB canbe broadcast via satelliteor terrestrialsystems.
Direct broadcastsatellite(DBS)- One-wayTV broadcast servicefrom a sarelliteto
a small l8-in. dishantenna.
Direct inward dialing (D.rD). processof a publictelephone networkprovidingpBX
extensionnumberswith incomingcalls.
Double-sidebandmodulation. Modulationtechniquein which a basebandsignal
with no dc energydirectly moduratesa carrier to produceboth upper and lower
sidebands but no carrierenergy.
Dual'tone multifrequency (DTMF) signaling. Generic name for pu$h-button
telephonesignalingequivalenrto theBell Sysrem'sTOUCH_TONE.
Dynamic rflnge. Rangeof power levels(minimumto maximum)achievabre
by a
signalor specifiedfor equipmentoperation.
E&M lead signaling. Interfacebetweena switchingsystemand a transmission
systemutilizingpairsofwires for signalingthatareseparate from thevoicepairs.
outgoing controlsignalsfrom eachfacility arecardedby respectiveM-leads
to
E-leadsof theotherfacility.
Echo canceler.Devicethatremovestalkerechoin the returnbranchof a four-wire
circuit by subtractinga delayedversionof the signalhansmittedin the forward
path.
Echosuppressor.Devicethatis activatedby voiceenergyin onepathof a four-wire
circuit to inserta high amountof signallossin the otherpathior the purposeof
blockinganecho.
Echo. Reflectedand delayedsignal.common sourcesof echo in the telephone
networkareelectricalreflectionsat four-wireto two-wireconversions andacoustic
reflectionswith speakerphones.
Edge switch. An ATM switch providing gareway interfaces to non-ATM
communication links.
Elastic store. First-in,first-out databuffer that acceptsdataunderconftol of
one
clockandoutputsdataundercontrolof anotherclock.
Electronic automatic exchange(EAx). Designationof stored-program
control
switchingmachinesdevelopedby cenerarrelephoneandErectronic*s.
Electronic switching system (ESs). Designation of stored-program
conhol
switchingmachinesdeveloped by AT&T.
End office.class5 switchingoffice.Arsoreferredto asa centraloffice.
Envelopedelay. Derivativeof channelphaseresponsewith respectto frequency.
Ideally, the phaseresponseshould be linear, indicating ttrat att frequencies
are
delayedequally.
 GLOSSAHY 619

Envelopedetector. Methodof detectingamplitudemodulationby trackingonly the

peakvaluesof a carrierwave.
Equalization. Practiceof compensating for transmissiondistortionswith fixed or
adaptivecircuitry.
Erlang. Measureof traffic intensity.Basically,a measureof the utilization of a
resource(e.g.,the averagenumberof busycircuitsin a kunk group,or theratio of
time an individualcircuitis busy).
Error second.A l-sec intervalcontainingat leastI bit error.
Exchangearea. Contiguousareaof servicedefinedfor administrative purposesthat
typicatlycomprisesanenriretownor city andincludestheimmediatecountryside
and suburbs.An exchangeareamay have one end office or many end offices
interconnected by trunksandtandemoffices.
Expansion. Switchingof a numberof inputchannelsontoa largernumberof output
channels.
Extended superframe format (ESF). A Tl framing format that embedsdiagnostic
capabilitiesanda facility datalink into the8-kbpsDSI framingchannel.
Failed seconds(FS). An (ESF)transmission link failuredefinedas 10 consecutive
severelyerroredseconds.
Far-end crosstalk(FEXT). Unwantedenergycoupledfrom onechannelor circuit
into anothercircuit andappearingat the far endof the transmissionlink.
Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI). High-bandwidthfiber transmission
systemfor interconnecting local areanetworks.
FIFO. First-in,first-outservicedisciplinefor a queue.
Flow control (in data network). Procedurefor controlling the rate of transferof
packetsfrom onenodeto another.
Foreignexchangecircuit (FX). Extensionof servicefrom oneswitchingofficeto a
subscribernormallyservicedby a differentswitchingoffice,
Forward error correction (FEC). Error correction techniquewith sufficient
redundancy embedded into thesignalfor correctingerrorswithoutretransmission.
Four-wire circuit- Circuit using two separatechannelsfor each direction of
transmission.When wireline transmissionis involved, each direction of
transmission is providedby a separatepair of wires.
Fractionalspeechloss. Fractionof speechthatSetsclippedin a TASI or DSI system
because all channelsarein usewhentalk spurtsbegin.
Frame aliSnment. Identificationof thebeginningandendof a TDM frameusinga
framing daiapattern,
Frame. Set of consecutivetime slots in a TDM format in which the positionof
individualtime slotscanbe identifiedby referenceto a framealignmentsignal'
Frequencydiversity. In radio systemsthe useOfoneor moreback'uptransmitters,
channels,andreceiversto protectagainstatmospheric(multipath)fading-
 620 cLossAny

Frequencydivisionmuttiplex (FDM). Partitioningthebandwidthof a rransmission

link into separatechannelsof lesserbandwidttrinto which separatesignals
are
insertedandextracted.
Frequencymodulation (FM). Modurationprocessthat variesthe frequency
of a
carriersignalin accordance with a basebandinformationsignal.
n'requencyshift keying ff'sK). Digital modutationtechniquein which
data are
represented by discretefrequencies.
n'ricative. speechsoundproducedwith continuousair flow through
one or more
vocaltractrestrictionsto causeair turbulence(friction).Examplefricativesounds
ares,f, t, x, orj,
Full'duplex. Transmissionin two directionssimultaneously(also referred
to as
simplya duplexoperation).
Gateway network element (GNE). A soNET node with an interface
to
unsynchronized tributarysignals.
Gaussiannoise. Backgroundnoisewith a uniformfrequencyspectrumacross
a band
of interestand havingamplitudesamplevaluesthit foliow a normal(gaussian)
probabilitydistribution.
Glare. simultaneousseizureof both endsof a two-way trunk by two switching
machinestrying to setup two separate connections.
Global positioning system(Gps). Global satellitenavigationsystem
commonry
usedby telecommunications sy$temsas a time and friquency synchronization
source.
Half'duplex transmission.Transmission in bothdirectionsbut only in onedirection
at a time.
HDB3. Modified AMI (bipolar)line codein which stringsof four 0,s
areencoded
with an AMI violationin thelastbit.
Head'of-line hlocking. Blocking of cells or packetsin a FIFO queue
becausethe
nextenffrycannotbe servicedwhile otherentriesin thequeuecouldbe
serviced.
Highway. A TDM pathinsidea digital (TDM) switchingmachine.
Hook flash. Momentarydepressionof the switchhookto alert
afl operatoror
equipment,but not solong asto be interpretedasa disconnect.
Hot standby. Redundantequipmentkept in an operationalmode
as backupfor
primaryequipment. usually,automaticswitchingiothestandbyequipmentoccurs
whentheprimaryequipmentfails.
Huffman coding. processof assigningvariabreJengthdigitar codewords
to a
messageset whereinthe length of a codewordis inverselyproportional
to the
probabilityof occurrenceof respectivemessages. Thus a freiuentty hansmitted
message requiresfewerbits thanthe averagerengthof all messages.'
Hybrid fiber coax(HFc). cable terevisiondistributionsysteminvolving
rheuseof
fiber in the feederportion of the networkfrom a head-endto fiber nodes
followed
by coaxdrop$to residences in neighborhoods.
 GLossAHY 621

Hybrid. Device used to connecta two-wire, bidirectionalcircuit to a four-wire

circuit.
Idle channelnoise. Noiseoccurringduringsilenceintervalsof speech'
Idle character. Controlcharacter insertedinto a synchronoustransmissionlink when
thereis no informationto be sent'
Impulse noise. Short-durationspike of noise that is much larger than randomly
disnibuted(Gaussian) noise.
Inband signaling. Signalingtran$mittedwithin the samechanneland band of
frequencies usedfor message toaffic.
Integrated digital network (IDN). Network in which digital TDM transmission
links aredirectlyinterfacedinto digitalTDM switchingmatrices.
Integrated servicesdigitat network (ISDN). Integrateddigital network in which
subscriber interfacesareprovidedwith directaccess ofa signalingchannelandone
or moredigital64-kbps channels.
Intercept. Processof diverting a caII from an intendedstation to an operatoror
recordedannouncement.
International Telecommunications Union (ITU). International standards
organization that subsumed theCCITT in Marchof 1993(renamedITU-T)-
Internet. Connectedsetof networksusingTCP/IP suite.
Intersymbol interterence (ISD. Interferencein a transmissionsystemcausedby a
symbolin onesignalinginternalbeingspreadout andoverlappingthe sampletime
of a symbolin anothersignalinterval.
Jitter. Short-termvariationsof the significantinstant$of a digital signalfrom their
ideal positionsin time. Short-termvariationsare often defined to correspondto
frequencies above10He.
Joint photographic experts group (JPEG). ISO standardsgroup that defineshow
to compressstill pictures.
Justifrcation (pulsestuffing). hocess of adaptingtherateof digital signalby adding
non-information-carryingbits at a sourceinterfaceandextractingthe samebits at
a destinationinterface.
Justificationratio. Ratioof thejustifrcation(pulse-stuffing) rateusedto synchronize
a hibutarysignalto the maximumpossiblejustificationrateallowedby a higher
level multiplex format. (A justification ratio of { implies one-third of the rate
adjustrnentopportunitiesare null bits and two-thirds of the opportunitiesare
fributarydatabits.)
Key system. Small,customerpremisestelephoneswitchingsystemthatallowsusers
to directly selecttelephonelines (andreceivedial tonefrom a cenffaloffice).
LAN Emulation. An ATM serviceoffering that emulatesEthernetor token ring
LANs.
Line administration. SeeLoad balancing.
 622 GLossARy

Line code. Setof electrical(or optical)waveformschosento represent

datafor the
purposeof transmission.
Load balancing. Adjustingthe assignment of very activecustomerlinesso that all
groupsof customerlines in a multistageswitchreceiveapproximately
the same
amountof traffic.
Loading coils. Lumped-element inductorsinsertedat periodicpointsin cablepairs
to flattenouttheirvoicefrequencyresponse. Althoughloadingcoilsimprovevoice
frequencyffansmission, theyseverelyattenuate higherfrequJnciesasrequiredfor
digitaltransmission.
Local accessand transport area (LATA). serviceareaof a local exchange
carrier
(localoperatingcompany).
Longitudinal current. Electricalcurrentpassingalonga pair of wiresin
a common
direction.ContrastMetalliccurrent.
Loop start. Off-hook signalingprotocolinvolving theflow of dc current
betweenthe
tip andthering of a subscriber loop.
Loop timing. Synchronizingthe hansmit timing of a bidirectional
link to the
receivedtiming of the samelink.
Lost calls cleared(alsolosssystem).Modeof operationin whichblocked
callsare
rejectedby the networkandmay or may not return.
Lost catls held. Mode of operationthat holdsblockedcall requesrs
until a channel
becomesavailable.Theportionof a call thatgetsblockedis lost.
Mfil
{ltiplexer. Asynchronous networkmultiprexingequipmentusingbit stuffing
for 28 individual1.544-Mbps Dsl signalsto createa1/..ii6-lvrbpsns3 signal.
Main distrlbuting frame (MDF). Frameworkusedto crossconnect
oursideplant
cablepairs to centraloffice switching equipment.The MDF providesprotection
andtestaccessto theoutsideplantcablepairs.
Managementlnformation base(MrB), coilectionof softwaredefined
objectsthat
canbe accessed via a networkrnanagement protocol(e.g.,sNMp or TMN).
Master clock. Particularlyaccurateand stablefrequencysourcefrom
which various
nodesin a networkextracttheir operatingfrequency(clock).
Master frame. set of consecutiveTDM framesthat areidentifiedby
a masterframe
alignmentsignal(MAS).
Matching loss. Blockingwithin a mulristageswitchmahix resulting
from at least
onelink in all suirablepathsthroughthematrixbeingbusy.
Maximum time interval error (MTrE). Largesttime interval error occurring
in all
possiblemeasurement intervalsof lengths within a measurement periodT.
Messageswitching. practiceof transportingcompletemessages from a $ourceto a
destination in non-real time and without interaction between
source and
destination, usua.llyin a store-and-forwardfashion.
Messageunit accounting. Activity-basedbilling as opposedto flat-rate
billing,
whichis independent ofusage.
 GLOSSARY 623

Metallic current. Currentflowing in oppositedirectionsin a wire pair asa resultof

a differencesignalpropagatingalongthe pair. ContrastLongitudinalcurrent'
Minimum shift keying (MSK). Digital frequencyshift modulation wherein the
magnitudeof a frequencyshift is theminimum amountrequiredto producea 180"
of phaseshift in a symbolinterval.
Modem. Contractionof the termsmodulationand demodulation.A deviceusedto
generate"voicelike"datasignalsfor transmission overtelephonelines.A modem
is referredto asa "data set"in older Bell Systemterminology.
Multifrequency (MF) signaling, Signalingmethodusedfor interofficeapplications'
MF signalingusestwo of six possibletonesto encode10 digits andfive special
auxiliarysignals.
Multipath. Transmission phenomenon in whicha singletransmitsignalfollowstwo
or moreseparatepathsto a receiverwith differing delays.
Muttiplexing. Processof combiningmultiple signalsinto a compositesignalfor
transmission overcoilrmonfacilities.
Mutually synchronizednetwork. Techniquefor synchronizing a networkin which
all nodes derive their operating frequency as the average of their own
free-rUnningclock frequencyandthefrequencies of somenumberof othernodes
in thenetwork.
Near-endcrosstalk(NEXT). Unwantedenergycoupledfrom a ffansmitterin one
circuitinto a receiverof anothercircuit at the samelocation(nearend).
Network element (NE). Internal node of a SONET network whoseintetfacesare
signalsof theSONEThierarchy.
Network management.Network managementis the function of supervisinga
communicationsnetworkto ensuremaximumutilization of the networkunderall
conditions.Supervisionrequiresmonitoring,measuring,and, when necessary,
actionto control the flow of traffic.
Next generationdigital loop carrier (NGDLC). A DLC systemcapableof using
SONETtransmission links andprovidingbasiccomplianceto theBellcoreGR 303
standard.
Nonblocking. Switchingnetworkthat alwayshasa freepathfrom anyidle incoming
trunk or line to any idle outgoingkunk or line.
Nonreturn to zero (NRZ). Line code that switches directly from one level to
another.Eachlevel is heldfor the durationof a signalinterval.
Nyqulst rate. (1) Minimum samplingraterequiredto extractall informationin an
analogwaveform.The Nyquist rate is equalto twice the bandwidthof the signal
beingsampled.(2) In a baseband channelwith a bandwidthB, the maximumrate
(28) that pulsescanbe transmittedwithout intersymbolinterference.
Off hook. Stateor conditionthat a telephonereceiveris requestingseryiceor in use.
Also a supervisorysignalto indicateacfivestatusof a telephoneor line.
Offered traffic. Amount of traffic carried by a systemassumingthe systemhas
inJinitecapacityandthereforedoesnot block or delayanycalls.
 624 clossAny

On hook. Inactivestatusof a telephoneor line.

One-waytrunk. Trunk circuitthatcanbe seizedat only oneend.
Open systemsinterconnection(OSI). Communications protocolreferencemodel
introducedby ISo consistingof sevenlayers(physical,link, network,transport,
session, presentation, application).
out'of-band signaling. signaling techniquethar u$esthe samepath as message
traffic but a portion of the channelbandwidthaboveor below that usedfor voice.
Pair-gain system. subscriber transmissionsystem that serves a number of
subscribers with a smallernumberof wire pairsusingconcentration,multiplexing,
or both.
Parity. Processof addinga redundantbit to a group of informationbits to maintain
eitherodd or evennumbersof l's in the compositegroupof bits. A parity error
resultsif an oddnumberof l's is detectedwhenevenparityis transmittedor vice
versa.
Partial-responsesignallng (pRS). use of controlledintersymbolinterferenceto
increasethesignalingratein a givenbandwidth.
Permanentvirtual circuit (pvc). virtual circuit(x.25), virtualconnection(Frame
Relay), or vinual channel connection(ATM) that emulatesa leased-line
connection,
Personalcommunicstions system(pcs). Digiral mobile cellular telephonesysrem
operatingin l9fi)-MHz frequencybandsin North America(1g50-1910MHz for
mobileto basestarion1930-lgg0 MHz for basesrarionto mobile).
Per-trunk signaling. Method of signaling in which rhe conrrol information
pertainingto a pafricularcall is transmittedover the samecircuit (channel)
that
carriesthe call.
Phasedistortion. Signaldistortionresultingfrom nonuniformdelayoffrequencies
within thepassband.
Phasereversalkeying(PRK). specialcaseof phaseshiftkeyinginvolvingonly two
phasesl80o apart.
Phaseshift keying (PSK). Formof digitalmodulationthatusesZndistinctphasesto
representn bits ofinformationin eachsignalinterval.
Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (pDH), Designation of the original digital
multiplexing hierarchy utilizing free-running clocks at all leiels of the
multiplexinghierarchy.
Pleslochronous.Method of network synchronizationinvolving the use of
independent (unsynchronizedbut highly accurate)
clocksat thesamenominalrate.
Pointer burst. In soNET, the occurrenceof multiple pointerjustificationevents
(PJEs)of onepolaritywithin the time constantof a desynchronizer circuit.
Pointer justiflcation event (pJE). changein a pointervalueto accommodate phase
drift.
 GLOSSARY 625

Polar signaling. Two-level line coding for binary datausing balanced(symmetric)

positiveandnegativelevels.
Powerspectraldensity. Distributionof signalpowerasa functionof frequency.
Primary referencesource (PRS). Top level (Stratum1) clock sourcewith an
accuracy of+l v lfl-tt.
Priority ringing. Featurefor incomingcall discriminationin which a telephonerings
with a specialringingpatternfor callsfrom a selectsetof phonenumbers,
Private branch exchange(PBX). Switchingequipmentused by a companyor
organization to providein-houseswitchingandaccessto thepublicnetwork.
Protection switching. Practiceof transferringmessage taffic from onefransmission
link to a spafetransmissionlink whenthe formeris degradedin somefashionor
for maintenancete$tsor equipmentupgrades.
Provisioning. Allocatingor deallocatingfacilitiesin suppotlof a particularservice
offering(tuminga seryiceon or off;.
Psophometricweighting. Noise-weighting filter recommended by CCIfi.
a continuousanalog
Pulseamplitude modulation (PAM). hocess of representing
Theamplitudes
samples.
waveformwitha seriesof discrete-time of thesamplesare
continuousand thereforeanalogin nature.
Pulsecodemodulation (PCM). Processof convertingPAM samplesinto discrete
by digitalcodewords.
levelsrepresented
Pulsestuffing. SeeJustification.
QPRS. Quadraturechannelmodulafionusing partial-response signalingon each
channel.
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). Independentamplitudemodulationof
two orthogonalchannelsusingthe samecarrierfrequency.
Quantlzation noise. Differencebetweenthe discretesamplevaluerepresentedby a
digital codeandthe original analogsamplevalue.
Raised-cosine channel. Digital transmissionchannelwith a particulartypeof pulse
responsethat producesno intersymbolinterferenceat the sampletimesof adjacent
"raisedcosine"is derivedfrom theform ofthe
signalingintervals.Thedesignation
analyticalfrequencyspectrum(l + cosineor cosinesquared).
Recirculation. Passinga cell backto an input stageof a multiple-stageATM switch
whenthecell wouldotherwisebe discardedbecause it encountered blockingin an
outputstage.
Reframing time. Amount of time it takes to detect and synchronizeto a frame
alignmentsignal.
Regeneration. Process of recognizing and restoring a digital signal before
perturbafionsof the signalaccumulateto the point that bit elrors occur'
Regenerativerepeater. Device usedto detect,amplify, reshaPe,and retransmita
digital bit stream.
 626 GLossAFty

Return loss. Differencein decibelsbetweenreflectedandincidentenergyat a signal

reflectionpoint.
Ringback. Signalingtonereturnedby switchingequipmentto a callerindicatingthat
a calledpartytelephoneis beingalerted(ringing).
Ringing voltage. Low-frequencyac signalusedto activatetheringerof a telephone
(typically,a20-Hzsignalat 90 V rms).
Robbedbit signaling.NorthAmericanpracticeof usingtheleastsignifrcantpCM bit
of everysixthframefor channel-associated signaling.
Router. Store-and-forwardpacket-switching elementthat processes
packetheaders
anddetermines an appropriate
outputrink for eachpacketusingroutingtabresand
routingprotocols.
severelyerrored seconds(sES). An (ESF)transmission link performancemeasure
definedastheoccurrence of 320or moreerroredseconds.
Sidetone.Portionof a talker'ssignalthatis purposelyfedbackto theearpiecesothat
thetalkerhearshis or her own speech.
signaling. Exchangeof electricalinformation(otherrhanby speech)specifically
concemedwith the establishment andcontrolof connections andmanasement in
a communication network.
simple network managementprotocol (sNMp). standardprotocolfor perforrning
networkmanagement functions(createdby theIntemetcommunity).
Simplextransmission.Mode of operationinvolving transmission in onedirection
only.
singing. Audibleoscillationof a telephonecircuitcausedby a netamountof gainin
a four-wire$egment of thecircuit.
Singlemodefiber. Fiberthatis narrowenoughto precludeffansmission of anoptical
signalalongmorethanonepath.
single-frequency(sF') signating. Methodof conveyingdial-pulseandsupervision
signalsfrom oneendof a trunk or line to the otherusingthepresence or absence
of a singlespecifiedfrequency.A 2600-Hztoneis commonlyused.
slip. Deletionor repetitionof datain a datasffeamcausedby an over{lowor
an
underflow of an elastic store due to variations in the write and read rates. A
controlledslip is a deletionor repetitionof an entireframeof datasotheposition
of theframingbits is undisturbed.
Slopeoverload.Saturation oftherangeofdifference signalsinadifferential
encoder
causedby a signalwith a large,rapidchangein amplirude,
soNET island. collection of one or more soNET GNEs and NEs that createa
continuousSONETpathfor a digital signal.
spacediversity. In radiosystems, theuseof two receivingantennas andpossiblytwo
separatereceiversto provide protection against atmosphere-induced signal
attenuation (fading).
 GLOSSARY 62f

Spaceexpansion. Use of more centerstagesin a multistageswitch than there are

inputsto a first-stagearrayor outputsfrom a last-stage
array.
Spanline. Repeatered T1 line from endto endbut not includingchannelbanks.
Speeddiating. Use of a short addresscode to representan often*calledtelephone
number.The commoncontrolcomputerin a PBX or endoffice providingsucha
seryicehanslatesthe shortcodeinto the desirednumber.
Spread spectrum. Processof distributing an information-bearingsignal acrossa
bandwidththatis muchwiderthantheinherentbandwidthof thesignal.
Star network. Networkwith a singlenodeto which all othernodesareconnected'
Statisticalmultiplexor ($tat-mux). Multiplexerthat assignskansmissioncapacity
to a tributary only when the source of the tributary is actively transmitting
information.
Step-by-step(SXS)switch. Elecffomechanical switchingsystemusingstep-by-step
switchelementsto progressively setup a connection aseachdigit is dialed.
Stored-programcontrol (SPC). Computer-controlled switching.
Stratum clock. Definition of free-runaccuracyof a clock dependingon stratumlevel
in synchronizationnetwork.
Stuff Rstio. SeeJustificationratio.
Supervisory signal. Signal used to indicate the statusof a or to control
equipmenton theline.
Switchedmultimegabit data service(SMDS). Public,packet-switched wide-area
datacommunications serviceofferedby commoncarriers.
Switchhook. Hook or buttonsuponwhich a telephonehandsetrestswhenit is not
beingused.
Symbolrate. SeeBaudrate.
Synchronizer.Circuitry that insertsa nibutary digital signal into a higher level
multiplexedsignalandperformsjustification(pulsestuffing)in theproce$$.
Synchronousnetwork. Network in which the clocks of separatenodesoperateat
identicalrates.
Synchronoustransmission.Mode of digital transmission in which discretesignal
elements(symbols)aretransmittedat a fixed andcontinuousrate.
Synchronous. Mode of operationin which two or more pieces of equipmentof
networkperformtheir operation$at preci$elythesameratefor anindefiniteamount
of time. The rateof operationis derivedby distributionof a timing reference.
Tag switching. Fastpacket-switching processthatintegrates networklayer(layer3)
routing and data link layer (layer 2) switching to simplify addressand protocol
processing.
Talker echo. Ponion of a talker's voicethat is retumedto thetalker andheardby the
talker. The amountof annoyanceto a talker is dependenton both the amountof
delayandthe amplitudeof thereturningsignal.
 628 cLos$ARy

Tandemoflice. In general,any intermediateswitchusedto establisha connection.

In specificterminology,a tandemofficeis a switchusedto interconnect endoffices
in an exchangearea.
TASI. Time assignment speechinterpolation,the practiceof concentrating a group
of voicesignalsontoa sma]lergroupof channelsby dynamicallyswitchingactivl
voicesignalsto idle channels.
Ternary coding. use of all statesof a three-levelcodeto sendmorethan I bit of
informationin a singlesymbol.This is in contrastto bipolarcoding,which uses
three levels, but only one of two in any particularinterval. one methodof
interfacingbinary datato a ternaryline codeis to encode4 bits with threeternarv
symbols(483T).
Tie line. Dedicatedcircuitconnectingtwo privatebranchexchanges.
Time compression multiplex. Transmitting in two directions on a single
transmissionlink using altematingdirections of transmission("ping-pong"
transmission).
Time congestion.Ratio of time that all facilitiesof a sy$temarebusy(congesred).
Time congestionrefersto the statusof the systemanddoesnot necessarily imply
thatblockingoccurs.
Time deviation (TDEV). Squareroot of thetime variance(TVAR).
Time division multiplexing (TDM). sharinga rransmission link amongmultiple
usersby assigningtime intervalsto individualusersduringwhich they havethe
entirebandwidthof a system.
Time expansion.Useof moretime slotson internallinks of a switchthanexist on
externallinks.
Time interval error (TrE). variation in time delay of a given signalrelative to an
idealtiming signalovera particulartime period.
Time variance (TVAR). Measureof the expectedtime variationof a signalas a
functionof time separation.
Traffic carried. Amount of raffic canied (by a group of circuits or a group of
switches)duringany periodis the sum of the holding timesexpressed in hours
(cclrr).
Trafric engineering.Networkmanagement activitythat analyzesaverageandpeak
traffic loadsto determinehow to designor reconfigurea networkto maximizethe
traffic capacity of the network and to ensurean acceptablevalue of blocking
probability.
Traflic flow. Amount of traffic (in erlangs or ccs) carried or offered to a
transmission link or switchingsy$tem.
Transhybrid loss. Amountof isolation(in decibels)betweengo andrerurnparhson
thefour-wiresideof a four-wireto two-wirehybrid.
Transmissionlevelpoint (TLP). specification,in decibels,of thesignal
tr)owerara
point in a transmissionsystemrelative to the power of the samesignal
at a
(hypothetical) zerotransmissionlevelpoint (0_TLp).
 GLOSSARY 629

Transmultiplexer(transmux). EquipmentthatconveflsFDM voicesignalsto TDM

voicesignalsandvice versa.
Transversal equalieer. Time-domainequalizerutilizing a tappeddelay line and
weightingcoefficientsat eachof the tapsto removeintersymbolinterference.
Traveling classmark. Codethataccompanies connectionsetupmessages indicating
thenatureof the servicerequestandany special provisionsthat may be desired'
Trunk. Circuitor channelbetweentwo switchingsystems.
Two-wny trunk. Trunk circuitthatcanbe seizedat eitherendof thecircuit.
Two-wire circuit. Circuit consistingof a single pair of wires and capableof
simultaneously carryingtwo signalsin oppositedirections.
Unipolar. Binary line codeusingsinglepolaritypulsesandzerovoltagefor thetwo
codinglevels.
Unit interval (UI). Nominaldifferencein timebetweenpulsepositionsat a specif,ied
datarate.
Unspecifiedbit rate (UBR). Classof serviceof ATM without specificquality
"besteffort" service.
assurances sometimesreferredto as
User datagram protocol (UDP). An Internet protocol without network delivery
guarantees. (I-ost or erroredpacketsarenot retransmitted.)
Variablebit rate(VBR). Classof serviceof ATM with qualityassurances aslong as
the sourceadheresto preestablished averageandpeakdatarates'
Vector quantization. Choosing one codeword representativeof one discrete
waveformof a set of discretewaveformssuchthat the selectedwaveformhasthe
bestmatchto a segmentof thesignalbeingencoded.
Vestigiat sideband transmission.Form of single-sidebandtransmissionthat
includesa vestigeof the deletedsidebandanda small amountof carrierenergy-
Virtual circuit. Paththrougha packet-switched networkthroughwhich all packets
associated with a particular"connection"flow.
Waiting time jitter. Timing jitter causedby waiting for a timing adjustment
opportunitybeyondthe time whenthe needfor an adjustmentarises'
Wander. Long-termvariationsof thesignif,rcantinstantsof a digital signalfrom their
idealpositionsin time,wherelongtermimpliesphaseoscillationsof frequencyless
thanor equalto a demarcation point (typically l0 Hz) that is specifiedfor each
interfacerate.
Wavelengthdivisionmultiplexing (WDM). Useof multipleopticalwavelengths to
carrymultiple optical signals.
White noise. Noisewith a flat frequencyspectrumacrossa bandof interestin which
samplestakenat twicethebandwidthor lower havezerocorrelation.
Wide area telecommunications services(WATS). Servicethatpermitscustomers
to make(OUTWATS)or receive(INWATS or 800 Service)long-distance calls
andto havethembilled on a bulk basisratherthanindividually.
X.25. Internationalprotocolstandardfor accessing packet-switched networks.
 PROBLEMS
TOSELECTED
ANSWERS

1.1 2000pWC, 2(10)-6mWC

1.3 500pwC
1.5 250pW at -3 dB TLP

3.r l kHz,2 kHz, 3 kHz

3.2 2.43dB degradation
3.4 49.4Mbps
3.6 38.5dB
3.8 0/110/0110
3.10 23.5dB
3.14 (a) 13;(b) 33
(c) Quantization
Sample Noise NoisePower SQR(dB\
30.2 .2 .04 43.6
123.2 -.8 .64 43.7
-2336.4 .4 .16 75.3
8080.9 .9 .81 79.1

3.17 (a)3 dB (b) 1.76dB

3.19 SQRincreases by 20.6dB
3,21 0/l I 0/0001,0/I 10/000l, 1/110/0001, and I /110/000I (noninverted)

4.1 37.5bits
4.3 1.76dB
4.5 (a) Averageframetime = .097seconds.
(b) Maximumaveragereframetime = 0.193seconds.
4.7 141bits
4.9 94 ms
4.ll (a) 1.99dB (b) 3.78dB
4.15 (a) 81 (b) 19 (c) 18

631
 632 ANSwERSToSELEcTEDpHoBLEMS

4.17
+l -3 +l -1
(a) l+D |, a
0 + 2 + 6 0
(b) l-D -4 +4 a + 4 0 - 6
(c) l-D2 0 +2 +2 +4 -6

5.1 250
5.2 (a)621
s.3 (a).11 (b) .2s
5.5 (a)55,296
s.7 (a)4l (b) 10,828
5.9 (a) Total numberof memorybits = 48,0fi).
(b) Complexity= 1504.
5.11 900bits

6.1 (a) .5 dB degradation

6.2 NewBERis l(10)-8
6.4 1600Hz
6.5 (a) lTVoof peaksignalpower.
(b) 15.3dB reducederrordistance.
6.7 (a) 7.14dB advantage for 32-QAM.
(b) 4.78dB advantage for 32-QAM.
6.9 1l.2 dB degradation in eruordistance
6.11 1.5(161*r
6.13 3 d B

7.1 195Bits if thereceiverknowsthenominaldatarate.

370Bits to accommodate peak+o-peak shifts.
7.3 +1.3UI with 99%probability
7.5 5.37(10)-5misframeVsec (onceevery5.2hoursT
7.7 ?5.6dB relativeto I UP
7.9 l.ZVo
7.11 (a) TIE = +4.736g1 (b) MTIE = 44.7?i61JI.

8.1 .188dB/km
8-3 l6 km
8.5 Al" at 1300nm is 5 timeslargerthanAl, ar 1550nm.
8.1 (a)2m for mBlP (b) m + I for mBlC
8.9 (a) MinimumDSl rate= 1.542Mbps.
(b) MaximumDSI rate- 1.546Mbps.
8.11 (a)Minimumrate= 44.712Mbps.
(b) Maximumrate= 44.784Mbps.
8.13 68.7psec
 ANSWERSTOSELEoTEDPHOBLEMS
633

9.1 6500kbps.
9.3 I1.4kbps
9.5 ChannelI output= +7; channel2 output= +9
9,7 SIR= 12dB

10.1 (a) 2.5kbits/message (b) 100bits/message

10.3 Totalnumberof bits is 86 bits.
f0-5 (a) 0.aa5 ft) delayis increased
by 30 milliseconds

11,f 1250meters
11.3 56 to 62.67kbps

l2.l (a)40 calls/hour (b) .989 (c)9.5Vo (d) .19E (e) .453
12.3 t.4E
12,5 (a) 15ports(14 portswith finite sourceanalysis) (b) B = 97o
12.7 (a)2.2Vo (b) rEo
12.8 (a) B = 307a (b) add6 channels
12.10 (a) At *.it = 32 E.
(b) 46 circuitsrequiredfor B < .57o.
12.13 (a)B = lOVo (b) B = .787o
12,14 2 WATS lines
12.16(a)83.3Vo (b).833sec (c)30.6Vo (d).833
 INDEX

Abandoned calls,48 Automaticprotectionswitching,210,322,411

Abbreviateddialing, 16, 17 Automaticrepeatrequest(ARQ), 170, 459
Accesstandem,12
Adaptivetransmitterpowerconhol(ATFC),323 Backwardestimation,120,136,146
Advancedmobilephoneservice(AMPS),53,70, Badframemasking,440
437-454 Bandwidthdistanceprnduct(BDP),388,390,
AdvancedResearch ProjectsAgency(ARPA/ 393,406,435
ARPANET),456,468,473 Banyannetwork,482,483,494
Aliasing,95,96 Baselinerestoration,172
Alphanumeric pagiflg,444 Batcher,K. E.,483,493
AmericanNationalStandards Institute{ANSI),4, Battery,35,47,272, 511
22t,f,81 Baud,54,184,185,309,326,502
Analogbridge,86 Bell, Alexandercraham,6, 383
Analoginterfaces,47,62,63,87 ,132,2'10 Benes,V. E.,483,493
Analogradio,6,63-65,85, 189,284,303,320, Bemoullian,542
383 Binomialprobabilitydisribution,527
Asynchronous transfermode(ATM), 3, 154,204, Bipolarviolation,175-178,193-199,214,215
208,310,331,,159*504,540,564-568 Bit insertion.168
adaptionlayers(AALs),484-493,566,568 Bit leaking,428
availablebit rate,475,476 Blocking
calladmissioncontrol,479,489 blockedcallsclemed,523,530,569
cell discarding,489,566 Clos,232
cellloss,480,489 Jacobaeus, 238,239.273,274,525
cell packing,487 t,eegraph,?0, 155,221,234-239,2ffi,262,
cell transferdelay,476 271,274,525
circuitemulation,485,487 probability,16,17,25,217,234-275,376,
constantbit rste,415,484 481-570
qualityof service(QoS),476,484 BORSCHT,47, 272
switching,477,484,564 Bragggratings,403
synchronous rcsidualtime stamps,485 Bridgedtap,88, 185,316,495,497,507,515
taffrc shaping,489 Bridgingclips,267
unspecified bit rate,475, 416 Bursterroredsecond,204
variablebitrate, 475,476,484,487 Busyhour,234,241,265,522,540,569,57O
virtualpathconnections, 477 Busytone,42, 43,374,380
Automaticcalldistributor(ACD),76,226,555,570 Byte stuffing,409,415,416
Automaticgain conbol (AGC), 120,506
Automaticnumberidentification(AM), 12 Cablemodems,5l l, 512

635
 636 INDEX

CableTV, 65,387,5l I, 516 Conferencing, n2,214

Call congestion, 541 bridge,87, l40' 2'72,273
Call distribution,226 digiral,87
Call forwarding,16, 18 Congestion theory,265, 52Q,547
CalItracing,16 Constantenvelope,288,291,301,309,314,Ml
Call trarsfer,18 Constantholdingtimes,528,529
Callwaiting,16,l8 Constantservicetimes,489,554-566
Catrtierrecovery,28, 282,297,335,350 Constraintlength,2O5,2W, 223
CCIR (InternationalRadioConsultativeCommit- Cordlessphones
tee),4,320 crz, 133
CCS(hundredcall seconds), 521,522,569 DECT. I33
Cellulardigitalpacketdata(CDPD),288,453,454 Crossconnect switches,46, 52, 218, 226,U5,
Cellulargeographic servicearea(CGSA),53 265-26e,362.492.510
Centrallimit theo,rem.447 Crosstalk,34,293,495
Centraloffice terminal(COT),508,510 CSMA/CD,453
Centralizedattendant,I I Customerserviceunit (CSU),215
Centrex,17,18,50 Cutoutfraction, 546
Channelbanks
analog Datagrams, 465, 467,468
A5.26 DATAPAC,465
LsE,29 Dataphone digitalservice(DDS),63,168,268.
LMX.28 456
digital Dataundervoice(DW), 64
Dl, 107-114,2t0, 211,222,4tr DATRAN,456
DlA,59 dBrnC/dBmC0,36, 42,72, 101
D2, 109,110,156,187_189.223 dc balance,l8l, 395,399.500
D3, 103,109,tl4, 156,160,212,220,222. dc restoration,172,ll3,396, 502,514
4ll dc wander,172-194,396,398,502
D,l, 109,212.4r3 Decisionfeedback,173,317,328
D5, 109.178.215 Decorrelation,262, 482
Circuitswitching,3, 269,4#, 475, 480,5I 9, 520, Degradedminute,2O4
s39 Delaysystems,519,522,539,552^562
Classof service.473,476 Delayvariation,413,474
Clearchannelcapability,178,496 Demandtraffrc, 537, 569
Clipping,25, 40, 540,541,545,541 Desynchronization,426, 427
Clockrecovery,60, 297 Differential detection,298
Clos,Charles,232,273,482 Differential encoding,I 83
C-message weighting,35,41,99, 114 Diffractive grating,40I
Coaxialcable,18,26-30,16t*176 DiffServ.473
Codeblocking,379 Digitalcellular,3, 54,81,84,91,93,133,141,
Codedivisionmultipleaccess(CDMA), 151,365. 151, 153, 277-288, 329,437488
M5-454 codedi vision multiple access,l5l , 365, 444-
Coherentmodulation,283,291.297,321 452
Coin telephone, 508 global systemfor mobile communications,
Compact disc,9l,92 148,157,288,441454
Companding, 37,91,106-128,317 Noflh Americandigitalcellular,l5l, 437
AJaw, 115,116,130,132,154,155,272 Digital circuitmultiplication(DCM), tU, l3.L,
instantaneous, I l6 133,141,540,546
nearlyinstantaneous, l2l Digital loop carrier(DLC),67, 121,26i,269.
F255,109-114,159,160,174,272 507r509
syllabic,ll6 integrateddigitalloop carrier(IDLC),63,267,
Competitivelocalexchange canier(CLEC),12 508.509. 517
Compressed voice,I 51, 154,478,484,487,494 next generationdigital loop carrier (NGDIf),
ConcenEation,24 509,510
 607
subscriberloop carier (SLC), 62 Equalization, 55,82, 164,173,3M, 315,317,
subscriber loopmultiplex(SLM), 62, l2l 328,437 ,495,507,5 13
universaldigitalloopcarier system(UDLC), amplitudeequaliz-ation,315,507
267.507.508 frequencydomain,507
Digitalpad,514 phase,165,507
Digital phones,504 quantieed feedback,173
Digitalradio,3, 53,64-85,169,204,278-333, Erlang,A. K., 454,521-563
382,406,456,515 Erlang'sdelayfonnula,556,563
Digital sensemultipleaccesswith collisiondetec- Erlang'slossformula,531,54I
tion (DSMA/CD),453 Erlang'ssecondformula,556
Digital signalprocessing
(DSPJ,40,82-88, 130- Enor contol, 45, 80,204,376, 440-474
138,r49,165,267,271,1W,315, 330,4?9, convolutionalcoding,205,207,221, 440,443
504.506. sr3 correction,119, 138,154,175, 195,204,354,
Digital speechinterpolation(DSI), 124 423453
Digital videobroadcast(DVB), 33, 69,205,316, cyclic redundancy check(CRC),79,198,204,
JJI
213-216,223,331,440,443,460,470
Directbruadcast satellite(DBS),33 detection,203,1tr;0, 41
Directinwarddial (DID),48 forward error corrcction,2O4,506
Directprogressive control,I 3, 45,483 Reed-Solomon(RS),205,207,223, 453,506
service(DSS),33,496,516
Ditectsatellite Erroredseconds. 20/'.216
Distortion
Error free second,204
amplitude, 23,37,60, 132,165,328,506
EuropeanTelecommunicationStandardsInstitute
delay,389 (Ersl), 69,316,331,44I, 509
foldover,95,105,134
Exchangearea,9-77,1OB
harmonic,55, 132
ExchangeCarriersStandardsAssociation
phase, 37,55, 164,328,506 (ECSA),4,406, s01
quantization,57
Exponentialdistribution,525,528,567
Diversity
Exponentialholding times, 528.,529, 567
aflgle,327
Exponentialservicetimes,489,554,555,559,
ftequency,3 l, 32, 326
560,562,564-566
space, 32,328
Extendedsuperframe(ESF), 199,212-216, 223
Doppler,337,119
Dualtonemultifrequency (DTMF),43-49,83, 153
Fa*imile, 46, 54, 80,92,132,r41, 152,350
Dynamicpowerconfrol,5I5
Fademargin,31,323,325,326,328,448,515
Dynamicrange,I03, I 14,304,349
Fa<les, 30-32, l2l, 201,210,X22-329,444-449
Eb/No,192 Failedseconds sfate.216
Echo,23,34,39-55,78-87,120,154,270-273, Fastfouriertansform(FFI), 315,316,506,507
437,441,418, 500-502,513 FCCmask,321
cancellation,
39,40,46,51,82,154,271, 273, Feeder,22, 69,226,265,270,325,387,5 10
437,44t,502 Fiber
listenet.39 dispersion,3S9
suppression,39,40,46,55,82 dispersionshiftedsinglemode(DS-SMF),390,
Elasticstorcs,339 393.4?,5
Electxomechaflicalswitching,13 distributeddatainterface(FDDI),398,434
ElecnonicIndustriesAssociation(ElA), 4, 438, fiber channel,399
445,450 in theloop (FITI"),510
Elechonic serialnumbers,451 multimode,385,387,388,389,401,4M, 435
Emergency calling(91l), 12,511 to thehome(FTTH),386,5l I , 5 l2
Encryption,73,74, 81, l4l, 169,350,451,5I2 to thecurb(FTTC),510,512
Bngsetdistribution,542 FT SeriesG, 401,433
Enhanced mobileradio(ESMR),453
specialized FT3C,388,401,433
Envelopedelay,38,54 Filter partitioning,318, 320
Envelopedetection,282,297 Flag, 169,469,494
638

Flow conhol,43,376-379,4fu-470, 476,489, basicrateinterface (BRI),69,173,185,214,

561.567 316.495-510
Foreignexchange (FX), 17,46,267,508 broadbandintegratedservicesdigital network
Formantfrequencies,127 (BrsDN),474
Forwardestimation,120,121,136,146 D channel.189.496-503
Fractionalspeechloss,546,547 L430.499.516
Framealignmentsignal(FAS), 213 I.,l4l,503
Framerelay,466,472 I.451,503
Ftamerelayaccessdevice(mAD),472 NTI/I.IT2.498.499
Frarning primaryrateinterface(PRI),46,69,496
addeddigit,210 Q.9?1,so3
bitenors, m3,216 Q.922,472
byte,215,364 Q,931,503
lossoi 203,209,210.485 S interface.498.500
statistical.209 S/T basicrate interface,2 I 4
uniquelinecode,214 S/T interface.499.501
Frequencyagility,444 TElrrEz,498
Frequency hoppinE,444,445,M8 U interface.50l. 502
Frcquency justification,414,415 Intelligent network,49, 70
Fricatives.123 INTEL$AT,32
Full width half magnitude(FWHM), 3,gZ,Ns Interexchange carrier(IXC), 10, 12,406
Interference
Gaussian,I 90, I 9l, 202,2O3,222,286,333,344, adjacentchannel,288,317-320,448
47 cochannel.329
Geostationary satellites,
338,451,516 electromagnetic(EMI), 280, 393
Glare,47,48,379 intersymbol, 54,60,74,98,163-188,288
Global positioningsystem(CPS),365, i66, 372, multipath,322
373 mutual,43,,14, 80,84,85
GR-303,509, 5t0 narrowband.317,495
Gradeof service,234,241,252,256,258,377, krtemationalmobile equipmentidentity (IMEI),
457,466,536, 554,558.569 444
&ading,227 Internationalmobile subscriberidentity (MSI),
Grooming,267,510 444
Guardtime,85,86,438,442 IntemationalStandardsOrganization(ISO), 5
InternationalTelecommunicationUnion (IIU), 4,
Hierarchicalnetwork,6, 8, 5l, 52, 535 4l
High definitionTV (HDTV),490,507,515 Intemet,l,61, 141,U\453-515
High leveldatalink conffol(IIDLC), 169,214, access, 1,453,504,515
449,470,472,494 EngineeringTaskForce(IETF),473
Hookflash,43 protocol(IP),204,473, 474,49D-494
Hybrid,22, 23, 38, 40,4'1,54, 93, 148,151, 270- serviceprovider(ISP),61, U,l,5M
2t2 telephony(IP telephony),473
Hybridfiber coax(HFC),5l I , 512 TCP/IF.473
userdatagramprotocol (UDP) 473
Impedance matching,23,,10,271 Iridium.45l.516
Incumbentlocal exchangecarrier, 12
Lrfinitesource,525,531-569 Jitter 38, 176,210,324.337-358
Infbrmationcapacity,506 rnapping,359
Informationdensity,85,278-288,3 10-317,441 measurements, 342
INMARSAT,33,I48 phase,343,344,358,417
Instituteof ElectricalandElectronicEngineers removing,359
(rEEE),4 systematic,338
Integratedsewicesdigital networkflSDN), l, waitingtime,339,358-360,3M, 416
456,474-516 Justification,
343,351,360,419,510,528
 INDEX 639

Kendall,D. C.,555 tokenpassingring, 218,485

802.3,183,485
Laserdisc,341 802.5,218
Li ghtningprotectron,272 842.6,119
Limitedavailability,5?, 76, 227 local exchangecanier (LEC), 10,406,
Line administration, 16,241 487,509
Line codeviolation,214,5m Local microwavedistributionservice(LMDS),
Linecoding,80,81, l6l-174, 190,282 496,515
2BlQ,220,502,516 Local multipoint communicationssystems
altematemarkinversion(AMI), 1,74-178,337, (LMCS),515
499.502.517 Longitudinalcurrcnt,2 I
alternatespaceinversion,499 Loop timing,340,346
antipodal,193,283,291,298,333 Losssystems, 519,553, 554,561
bipolar,172*198,223 Lost callscleared,523,531-569
binaryN-zerosubstitution(BNZS),176-181 Lost callsheld,539,54,0
8325, 176,177,222 Loudesttalker, 273
B6Z3, 177, 178,1.80,222 Low earthorbit satellite,451,516
B8ZS,168,178
codedmarkinversion(CMI), 183,184,395- Ml2 multiplexer,61, 354,356-359,361,429
398,407,433 Manual swirchbosxds,12
conelativelevelencoding,185-188 Matchingloss,265
digitalbiphase(diphase),181-1 84,337,396,
Maximumaverageframetine,2l1, 214,222
4m
Maximumlikelihood,I 75, 184,207,312
duobinary,185,188
Maximumtime intervalenor (MTIE), 367-373,
high densitybipolar3 (HDB3), 177
382
Manchester coding,183,337,395-398,400,
Mesh,6-8,52, 535
494
Messagesequencing, 376,503
mBlC, 400,433,435
Messageswitching,455462, 552,559
mBlP.399,435
Messageunit accounting,16
mBnB,396,399
Metalliccurent, 2l
3848.399
4858.398 Mobileassisted handoff (MAHO),440
Mobile telephone swirchingoffrce (MTSO), 52,
5868, 398,399,405
53
6888.398
8Bl0B.399 Modems
non-retum-to-zero (NM), 172,l8l-193, 223, v.32,40
219 -288, 298,305,392-396,425,435 v.33,315
panialresponse, 165,185-187,198,288,305- v.34,88,279,303,315, 331,495,513,5r4,
3il.320 5L'7
return-to-uero(RZ), 174,188,389-396,405, v.90, 55, 153,279,495,5 13,514,5 17
425 Moduletion
temary,lEO analog
pairselected (PST),179-181,195 amplitude,?6,94, 98, 279-283,297,301,
483T, tg0,Z22 305
unbalanced. 171.399 doublesideband,94
unipolar,l7l, 193,195,282 frequency(FI\4),30,221,n7,284, 331,
Link accessprocedure balanced(LAPB), 469,503 387,453
l,oadingcoils,23,28,17,54,60, 88, 190,.195, index.280.286
507 linear,280
Lccal accessandtransportarea(LATA), 10, 12 phase,284,286
Localaxeanetworla(LANs),471-473, 485,498 pulseamplitude(PAM),94-98, 107,158,
distributedqueueddualbus(DQDB),219 M6,274,513,514
emulation(LANE),485 singlesideband,85
ethemet, 183,453,485 suppressed carrier, 297, 322
640
Modulation (Cantinued) Noise
digital background,147-153, 445
carrierless amplitude and phase (CAP), 280, Gaussian, 190,191, 202,222,333,3M
309.504 idle channel,72, 81, 102-120,273
continuousphasefrequencyshift keying impulse,35,55,60,80, 190,203
(CPFSK),285 modepartition, 392
discretemulti-tone(DMT), 316,317,504, quantization noise,35,99-l19,128,135,I38.
507 1 5 91
, 60,317.513
frequencyshift keying (FSK), 284-286 thennalnoise,35, 3U' 333
gaussian minimumshiftkeying(GMSK), whitenoise,35.99.190
286,330,44r, 453 Noisebandwidth,l9l, 192,298-320
minimumshift keying(MSK), 285,286, Noisefigure,29, 324,3?5
308,309,315,330,331 Noisepower,36-42
multilevelcoded(MLCM), 315 Nordic mobile telephone(NMT), 54, 437
ott/off keying, 282 Normal distribution. I 9l
orthogonalfrequencydivision multiplexing Nyquistsamplingrate,94,99, 149,159*165,305,
(OFDM),316 326
phasereversalkeying(PRK),283-290
phaseshiftkeying(PSK),283-302,438,441 Offeredload, 244, 265, 377, 529-569
quadrature amplitude(eAM), 88,288,301- Offset keying, 305
328 Opensystemsinterconnection (OSI),5, 498,5 17
quadraturepartial responsesignaling Openwire, 18
(QPRS),310,3il Overflowtraffic,519.548-553
trellis,207,312,314 Overvoltageprotection,272
MPEGIA{PEGz,490
Multichannelmultipoint distributionservice Packetswitching,208,456472, 490,519, 552-
(MMDS),496,515 566
Multiframe alignmentsignal,2 I 3 Paging,49, 4a+,451,516
Multipath,30-32, 53, I2l, 322-329,437,444- Pairisolation,185
449 Parity,199,409
Passivephotonicloop, 401
Multiplexing
Pathfinding,U2-24
frequencydivision multiplexing (FDM), 26*
Peakcell rate,475-490
86, 207,216, 303,317, 402,437453,
Performance monitoring,79, l7 l-182, 195,I 99,
5t7
2rs,2r6,376.400.509
. guardbands,44S
Permanent virhralcircuits,4#,466, 491
hierarchy,27,28
Petsonalaccesscommunications system(PACS),
mastergroup,28, 63
133
supergroup,28
Personalcommunication system(PCS),444,450
time division,58,444,461
Personalhandyphone system(pHS),133
analog,74
Phaselockedloop(PLL),336-343,381,428,485
asynchronous, 5S,208,351,461 Phonemes,92
hierarchy,74,351 Pickup, 18,385
loop,216-218 Pilot,28,79,315,5M
ring,216 Pitch,123,l4l 139,144-149
statistical(statmux),208,461-463,552 Plainold telephoneservice(POTS),54,495,506,
synchronous, 3, 58,2O8,352,420,46I 507.510.512
Multiprotocol label switching(MPLS), 491 splithr,506
Pointof presence (POP),10, 12
Netloss,34,39,41,42,82,271,384 Poisson, 203,526,527,529,531, 540,541,550.
Network cofltrol point (NCP), 50 551
Networkcontol protocol(NCP),473 Poweramplifiers,30,?84,291,318,319
Networkmanagement, 43, 376,377,407,411, Precoding,I 86
413.477- 520 Primaryreference clock (PRC),485
 641

himary rcferencesource(PRS),186,187,311, satellite,26,32,54,75,86, 148-154

3't0,372,427, 506 Molniya,32
Privatebranchexchange(PBX), 16,17,4'l-49 Westar,33
Privatemobile radio,452 Scrambling, 81, 170,322,396,410,425
Prcb(delay),556 Seaplow,404
Propagation delay,33,451 Secondgeneration cordlesstelephones,
133
hotection switching,404 Segregation,26T
Provisioning,267 Sequence numbers,470
Pseudorandomsequence (PRS),506 Servicecontrolpoint(SCP),50
Psophomeric,35, 99 Severelyerroredseconds, 216
Pulsecodemodulation(PCM)modem,153,513, Shannon's theorcm,513
515 Shortmessage service(SMS),444
Pulse*haping,96, 307,308 Sidetone,39
Pulsestuffing,78, 351-364,461 Signaling, 13,14,42-88, I 84-331,500
A andB bits,212,216
Quadraturemultiplexing, 293 channelassociated, 213
Quadraturesignalrepresentations,
290 comrnonchannel, 18,43-53,75,109,153,
458,488, 520,552,555,567 [l 8, 214,377-380,421,496
Queueing,
delays,458,465,558,564 E&M.47.49
finite,561 groundstart(GS),48
tandem,566 loop start(LS),47, 48, 508
pertuk,43
M/D/l,559
MA{/I, 555,556,559 robbedbit, 109,178,216,514
MA,I/N.555.562,567 wink,48
MA.4INI*|L.562 Signalingsystem(SS7),50,52
Signalingtones,153,314
multifrequency (MF),43,49,83,88,153
Radiocommoncarrier(RCC),52
singlefrequency(SF),43, 49,83, 153,212,
Radiosystemavailability,322
216,222,336,391
Rainattenuation,30, 32,321-323,515
sin(.r)/x,162,ll2, 28Q,298
Raisedcosine,319
Singing,34,38,39,4I, 120,154,27o,nl
Randomrefies, 537,538,569
Skyphone, 33,69, 148,157
Rayleighfading,389
Slips,216,341-350, 362
Reedtelays,I 6, 35
buffer,420
Refraction,329,387,388,401
controlled, 349,485
Reframetime,209,222,355
rate,349,350
Regeneration, 59,60,74-Bl, 98, l l 1, 167*176
Slopeoverload, 135,136,l4l
Reis,PhiIIip,l, 69 Soft handoff.450
Remoteconcentrators, 227 Sourcecoderestriction, I 68
Remoteprovisioning,5 10 Spaceexpansion ,235-262, 525
Remoteswitching,24,62, 509 Spaceswitching,67,257
Remoteterminal,508 Spanline,59,60, 181,215
Repeater spacing, 30,65,190,195,323,388-406 Spanswitching,431
Residualerror,136,138 Specialized mobileradio(SMR),453
Returningtraffic,538 Spectogram, 127,14
Ringback,42,43,374 Spectrumspreading, 284,291,386,445,446,
Ringingvoltage,43, 47,48 448,451
Routing,376,463,4& Speechcompres sion,124,437,441,49
alternate,13,379 Speech pauses, 34,80,8l, 102,120,122,124,170
besteffort,4?3 Speechrecognition,46,86,93, 147
crankback,51 Speechstorage,9l
dynamic,463,4M Splices,88,387,390,404,405
fixed path,463 Spreadspectrum, 445, 448,450
packels,463 Starnetwork,217,5lO
642

Statisticalequilibrium,531,537 network, 85,210,335, 351,362,485

Storedprogramcontrol($PC),16,,14,49,51, isochronous, I 67
225,24 mutual,36?.364
Stuffingratios,360,429 networkmaster,362
Submarine cables,384,403,540 plesiochronous, 362,363,370,381
NLl. 398.434 stratum. 370*373.382
TransPacific.400 Synchronous datalink protocol(SDLC),469
Subscriber identitymodule(SIM),M, 451 Synchronous digitalhierarchy(SDH),5, 352,
Subscriberloops 4Q6,407,434
analog,line interfaces,272,5M Synchronous opticalnetwork(SONET),3,5,52,
digitar,75,87, 185,204,27o,456,495,49'1, 78, lM, 219,M9, 269,352,373,396,405_
503,516 4ll
asymmetricdigital subscriberline (ADSL), asynchronous mapping,419, 420
3 10,316,317,331,495,503-516 concatenation, 267,269,408
interfaces,5I0 gatewaynetworkelement(GNE), 426-428
vDsL.507.510 line overhead,41Q414, 425
XDSL,503,507,509 pathoverhead, 410425, 478
Superframe, 212,211, 215,419,502 pointer adjustments,4 I 5, 426, 427
Supervision, 47, 272 pointerburst,428
Supervisory audiotone($AT),439 rings,52, 219,405,429
Swirchedmultimegabitdataservice(SMDS),4&4 bidirectionalline swirched(BLSR),431,432
Switchedviilual circuit(SVC), 46/.,470,487 unidirectional pathswitched(lJpSR),429,
Swirches, network 435
class3, 56 sectionoverhead,410,411,425
class4, 6, 12 synchronous payloadenvelope(SPE),413, 414
class5 (endoffice),9-87,121,225,226,Mt, fransportoverhead, 4O8-410,415
. 262,270,379,380,502,508,5?5 virtual tributary (VT), 417,429
crossbar, I3-16,49,66 Synchronoustransmission,I 67
DMS,16,66,272,274 Systemavailability,322,326,403
electronicswitchingsystem(ESS),16,49,52, Systemgain,323,405
65,7 L, 225,233,259_274, 502
No. 1, 16,65,225,233 T-carrier,59, 63, 132,167-178, 2lO, 215,222,
No. 101.273 268,335,337,340
No. lA. l6 El, 59, 177,213,359,382,40'_41 t t, 421,435,
N o . 2 ,1 6 484.497.510
N o . 3 .1 6 82, 330,354,359,407.413
No. 4, I 6, 49-7l, 225,259,262,273,366, H, t84, 407,423.436.478
381 repeaters, 60, 62, I I l, 358
No.5, 16,272,274.502 TI48. 181
No. 5 EAX, 16 Ttc,56,60, 185
EWSD,260,273 T l D . 5 6 .1 8 8
stcp-by*step,13-55, 225, 244, 483 Tlc, 185
toll,6,9,10,67,236 T2,56,60,6t, 67,69, 169,177,220
Switching,time division,246 T3.56
analog,246,252 T4,56
digital,66,67,226,238,U7 ,253,340,548 T4M, 169,t70,2l9
rnemoryswitch,248,478-480 Tl committee,4
sTs.255 TI,4, 5, 56-67,84,91,t08, I I I, 132,156,t67_
TSSSST,262 174
TSSST.260.261 Tagswitching,49I
TST,255*260,275, 348,48Q,482 Talker echo.39
Synchronization, 85, 89,221,331,3#-381.427 Tandemclockrecovery,338'
clock,I I l, 209-211,335,351,374.513 Tandemswitching, 8, I, 12,66,67,226,236,237,
frame,59,209,214,347 370.535.569
hieraxchical,374 Telephoto,54
 643
Televisiondistribution,29, 33,54 Iinearpredictive coding,92, 138,141*158,487
Tic lines,L7,46, U0,268, 553 algebraiccodeexcited(ACELP),154,155,
Time assignment speechinterpolation(TASI), 25, 487
124,540-547,568 codeexcited(CELP),150-158
Time compression multiplex(TCM),207,280, multipulse(MPLPC),147-149,151
312-314,502,516 pulseexcited(pelp),I 47
Timeconge$tion, 541,542,563 Qualcommcodeexcited(QCELP),l5l,449
Time divisionmultipleaccess(TDMA), 86, 89, residualexcited(RELP),147,149,151.158
154,438-452,512 vectorsumexcited(VSELP),151,I 58,439,
Time expansion, 258,259,261,26?,482 453
Timeintervalerror(TIE), 359,367,369,382 pulsecodemodulation(PCM),71, 88-l14,
Time slotintetchmge(TSI), l'18, 249-254, 269, 128,136,140,159
275,348 predictiongain,I 36
Time variance(TVAR), 367, 369,370 subband, 138,139,142
Tip andring,48,499,508 vocodem,93, 102,123,I27,141-153
Toll network,6, 9-34, 49,60-69,108,ll3, 271 c.704.213
Traffic intensity, 241,521-561 G.7ll.154
Transmission levelpoint (TLP), 41,42,7Z G.12t,t32,133, 154
Transpondcr, 33,286 G.722,140,154,157,? 15
Transvemal filters,328
G.723.154,155,494
Trunkdirectionalization, 379
G.723.r,154, 155,494
Trunkedradio,452
c.726. 154.155
TYMNET.465.468
G.727,155
G.728.154.155
U.S.Independent Telephone Association
G;729,r54,155,158,487
(usITA),4, 366,370
G . 8 tl . 3 6 3 3
. 81
U.S.TelephoneAssociation(USTA),4
G,821.2M.216
Unit interval(UI), 343,344,361,382
Voice messaging, 91,92, I 32
Universalcoordinated time,372
Voicequality,80,99, 102,113,133,146,151,
443,547
v5,419,422,509,5r7
Vectorquantization, 150 broadcast,15l
Via netloss(VNL),39,41,82 communications, l5l, 152
Video,77,2Q4,2'17 djagnosticacceptability measure(DAM), I47,
,387,474-515
Virtual circuit,464-469,477,487,491 151
Viterbidetectors,175,184,195,I 98, 201,220, diagnosticrhymetest(DRT). 147,l5l
3l 2. 33I. 454 meanopinionscore(MOS),133,l5l
Voiceband data,38,40,55,83,98, 124,132,140, signal-to-quantizing ratio (SQR),I02-1 15,
r4tt,161,167,265,277,303,350,485,51I 1 5 91 . 60.513
Voicecoding synthetic, l5l,154
adrlptivedeltamodulation(ADM), 136,I40, toll.132.151-155
156.429.510 Voltagecontrolledoscillator(VCO),285, 336-
adaptivedifTercntial PCM (ADPCM),132- 343,485
1 4 01, 5 3 - 1 5 6 , 2 1 5
adaptivepredictivecoding(APC), 136,138, WATS, 17,380,553,-570
r49,151,157 Wavelengthdivisionmultiplexing(WDM), 26,
analysisandsynthesis, 92 385-405.434.415
channelvocoder,141-14 C. J.,546,568
Weinstein,
deltamodulation, 62,69,9l, 93, 133-136, Wire gaugechanges,497
r4t.153.2M
diff'erentialpulsecodemodulation(DPCM), x.25.469-472.503
9 3 ,I 2 7 - 1 3 6 , 1 4 1 , 1 5 3
easilydigitallylinearizable coding(EDL), 108, Zero bit insertion, 169,469
110,27?. Zerobytetime slot interchange,
178
formuntvocoder.141.144 Zerolosstransmission, 270
ghrltntrnf sftrtfi;r
Btr

-- e r r t l h y
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