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2 Energy is required for 

 
! which is the synthesis of complex
structures from simpler ones. E.g. the synthesis of proteins from amino acids.
2 Energy is required for the  

 of substances against the
concentration gradient! such as the activity of the sodium potassium pump.
2 Energy is required for 

  






  for
example the movement of the cilia and flagella! the amoeboid movement and the
movement of vesicles through the cytoplasm.
2 an some organisms energy is required for 

and electrical discharge.
2 an mammals and birds! thermal energy produced from metabolic reactions is used
for the  




 


 

For living organisms to do work! energy requiring reactions must be linked to those that
yield energy e.g. the complete oxidation of glucose in aerobic reactions! a large quantity
of energy is made available

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2 ÷
consists of an organic base known as .

2 he adenine is attached to a pentose sugar as 


2 ogether these make a complex structure called adenosine! which is a nucleoside.
2 he adenosine is then attached to 

 

 to make adenosine
triphosphate (÷. .

2 ÷
is a small water soluble substance which allows it to be easily transported
around the cell.

is known as a phosphorylated nucleotide because it contains a nucleoside (adenine
ribose which has been phosphorylated by three phosphate groups.
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2 ÷n energy currency molecule acts as an immediate donor of energy to energy
requiring reactions that occur in the cells.
2 ÷
is used to break down glucose! which in turn produces high amounts of energy.
2 ÷
is the universal intermediary molecule between energy yielding and energy
requiring reactions.
2 herefore ÷
is the energy currency of the cell. he cell trades the ÷
rather
than making use of the intermediates! for energy requiring reactions which in turn
lead to energy yielding reaction that release high amounts of energy.
2 ÷
produces energy when broken down.
2 Ghen ÷
undergoes hydrolysis and breaks down into ÷
30.5 kJ is released per
mol.
2 Ghen ÷
breaks down to adenosine 14.2 kJ is released.
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2 ÷
in cells is generated by electrical potential energy.
2 his energy is produced by the transfer of hydrogen ions by protein carriers in the
mitochondria and chloroplast membranes.
2 Ghen there is a higher concentration of Hydrogen ions in the inter membrane
space compared to the matrix of the mitochondria a concentration gradient is
formed.
2 herefore the hydrogen ions are then allowed to diffuse down the concentration
gradient! through a protein channel which spans out the phospholipids bi-layer.
2 he transfer of 3 hydrogen ions generates sufficient amounts of electrical
potential energy in order for the production of one ÷
molecule given that one
÷
molecule and an inorganic phosphate group is present inside the organelle.
2
art of the protein channel acts as an enzyme which synthesizes ÷
and it is
known as ÷
synthase.
2 his whole process occurs in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of cells
2 he process is known as chemiosmosis.


 





 







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2 rlycolysis is a term used to describe the splitting or lysis of glucose.

2 at is a multi-step process in which glucose! a six carbon molecule! eventually splits
into two molecules of pyruvate! each with three carbon atoms.
2 rlycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell.




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2 an the first stage! 

 
 occurs! (this is a term used to describe a
process which involves the addition of phosphate groups to a molecule
2 rlucose is phosphorylated using ÷. .
to forms "


 .
2 he hexose phosphate is then further phosphorylated using another ÷. .
molecule!
to form ÿ"


 

2 his then breaks down to form two molecules of 


 .
2 Hydrogen is then removed from the triose phosphate and transferred to the
carrier molecule N÷ (nicotine amide di-nucleotide-
 

2 Four molecules of ÷
are formed via intermediates.
2 he end product formed is pyruvate.
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2
yruvate produced in glycolsis passes by active transport from the cytoplasm into
the mitochondrial matrix.
2 at is here where it is first decarboxylated (the removal of carbon dioxide!
dehydrogenated (removal of hydrogen and combined with co-enzyme ÷.
2 ÷cetyl coenzyme ÷ is formed
2 his whole process is known as the link reaction.


 

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2 he acetyl Co-enzyme ÷ produced in the link reaction combines with a four carbon
compound known as "
   to form a six carbon compound known as   .
2 he citrate is 
"  in a series of steps! to yield carbon dioxide which is
given off as a waste gas.
2 at is also 
 
by a series of carriers known as
c ½

. ½ (flavin
adenine dinucleotide
2 ixaloacetate is regenerated to combine with another acetyl Co-enzyme ÷.
2 For each turn in the Krebs cycle! two carbon dioxide molecules are produced and 1
F÷ and 3 N÷ molecules are reduced.
2 ine ÷
molecule is generated via an intermediate compound.
 2 he most important contribution of the Krebs cycle is the production of hydrogen
in N÷H and F÷H which can be used in oxidative phosphorylation to provide
energy to make ÷
.
2 his reaction takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.


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2 his is the electron transport chain.
2 his takes place in the mitochondrial membranes.
2 Êeduced N÷ and F÷ are passed to the electron transport chain.
2 he hydrogen is removed from the two hydrogen carriers and each is split into its
constituent hydrogen ion (H+ and electron.
2 he electron is transferred to the electron carriers! whilst the hydrogen ions
remain in solution in the mitochondrial matrix.
2 he transfer of electrons along a series of electron carriers makes energy available
which is used to convert ÷
+
i to ÷
.
2 his occurs because as an electron passes from a carrier at a higher energy level to
a lower one! energy is released.
2 hree molecules of ÷
can be produced by one molecule of reduced N÷ and two
molecules of ÷
can be produced by one molecule of reduced F÷.
 2 ince the electron is transferred to the oxygen (also in the mitochondrial matrix! a
hydrogen ion will be drawn from the solution to reduce the oxygen to water.

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2 an ÷naerobic respiration there is no oxygen so hydrogen cannot be disposed of
from N÷H and F÷H by combining with oxygen.
2 his therefore causes the electron chain to stop working.
2 No further ÷
is formed by the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
2 at is essential to remove the hydrogen from the reduced N÷! in order for
glycolysis to continue.
2 here are two different anaerobic pathways which solve the problem of dumping
hydrogen.
c !1*&
! * *c
*c
)! 

2 First! pyruvate (produced from glycolysis is decarboxylated to ethanal.
2 hen the ethanal is reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase. he
hydrogen comes for the reduced N÷ produced in glycolysis.
2 he conversion of glucose to ethanol is known as alcoholic fermentation.
 2 an other microorganisms and in mammalian muscles when deprived of oxygen!
pyruvate produced in glycolysis acts as the hydrogen acceptor.
2 herefore the pyruvate is reduced to lactate by the enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase. he hydrogen comes from the reduced N÷ produced in glycolysis
2 Hence N÷ is released and allows glycolysis to continue in aerobic conditions.

2 he lactate pathway can be reversed in mammals.

2 he lactate is carried in the blood plasma to the liver and the liver oxidizes the
lactate into carbon dioxide and water when oxygen is available.
2 he remainder of the lactate is converted by the liver to glycogen.
2 he oxygen needed to allow the removal of lactate from the body is called the
oxygen debt.

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2 ost energy liberated during aerobic respiration comes from the oxidation of
hydrogen to water when reduced N÷ and reduced F÷ are passed to the electron
transport chain.
2 Hence the greater number of hydrogen in a structure of the substrate molecule!
the greater the energy value.
2 Fatty acids have more hydrogen per molecule than carbohydrate so lipids have a
greater energy value per unit mass! than carbohydrates or proteins.
2 he energy value of a substrate is determined by burning a known mass of the
substance in oxygen in a calorimeter.
 2 he energy liberated by oxidizing the substrate can be determined from the rise in
temperature of a known mass of water in the calorimeter.
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2 Êespiratory quotient is a term used to describe the ratio of the volume of carbon
dioxide given out during respiration to that of the oxygen used.
2 he Ê can show whether aerobic respiration is occurring or not and the type of
substrate being used.
2 Ê of carbohydrates is 1.0
2 Fats 0.7
2
roteins 0.9