Chapter 2 Mathematical Modelling 2.1 Coordinate Systems In control and guidance applications, the most used kinematic representations are Euler angles and quaternions. Both rep.esentations will now be described in more detail. 2.1.1 Euler Angles It is desirable to describe the orientation of marine and flight vehicles relative to the earth. If we denote the local body-fixed coordinate eystem X,Y,Z, and the earth-fixed coordinate tic ight path relative to the earth-fixed coordinate system is given by a linear velocity transformation Td, 212)” is the linear velocity vector in the earth-fixed coordinate system and 2% = (u,v,w)” is the linear velocity vector in the local coordinate system. ‘The notation is according to the SNAME (1950) notation. The coordinate transformation raatrix J; is related through the functions of the Buler angles: roll( 6), pitch( 9 ) and yaw( y), Abkowitz (1969) and Roskam (1982). The coordinate transformation matrix Jy is orthogonal i.e. ITI = I. The inverse linear velocity transformation can be written as: ) 26 Po = Fz"(6,0,) ve = JT(9, 0,8) ve10 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 1 Rotadon vac hain ry ‘Y about Note matw saw @) Rotation over rot Figure 2.1: The rotation sequence according to the xy2-convention showing both the linear (u.v.w) and angular (p. 9,7) velocities2.1. COORDINATE SYSTEMS a It is conventional to describe J, by three rotations. Note, that the order in which these rotations are carried out is aot arbitrary. In control and guidance applications it is common to use the xy2-convention speciiwd ia terms of Euler angles for the rotations. Let XYZ, be the coordinate system obtained by translating the earth-fixed coordinate system XYZ parallel to itself until its origin coincides with the origin of the body-fixed coordinate systema, ‘Thea, the coordinate system X3¥3Zs is rotated a yawangle about the Z axis. This yields the coordinate system X2¥2Z2. The coordinate system X2¥3Za is rotated a pitch angle @ ‘about the Yo axis. This yields the coordinate system X,Y; . Finally, the coordinate system XA%2; is rotated a bank or roll angle about the X, axis. This yields the body-fixed coordinate system X,Y,Z,, see Fig. 2.1. The rotation sequence is written as: FTb,6,8) = Cre CyeCry Here Ci. is a rotation matrix describing a rotation angle j about the i-axis. The basic rotation matrices are defined as: 1 00 8 0-98 [ v wo Cro=]0 66 96] C=] 01 0] Cis=|-sb oO 0-36 6 0 0 01 where 5 - = sin(-),¢- = cos(-) and t - = tan(-). Since the coordinate transformation matrices (Cis aze orthogonal matrices, J; is simply found as: F689) = (CasCysCug)” 7 CT oT Cra Cpe Cre which yields <3 sb Bed The body-fixed angular velocity vector w, = (p,q,r)7 and the Euler rate vector w, = (©, 6,6)? are related through a transformation matrix J as: UA sed + ob3039 sh3h-+ evedsO Fi(6,8,¥) = | svc? ced + sbsOsb —c¥sd + sb sep We = Jx(9,8,8) wo This relationship should not be interpreted as 2 coordinate transformation because the Euler ‘angles can not be treated as coordinates. They simply express how the body-fixed coordinate system is orientated with respect to the inertial reference frame. Hence, the transformation matrix Jz does not satisfy the orthogonal coordinate transformation property i.e. Jz" # JT. The transformation can be expressed as: é 0 ° 0/+C.. #|-c.00 0 | =JF(9,8,8) we (2.2) 0 o ls2 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING This relationship is verified by inspection of Fig. 2.1. Equating Eq, 2.1 yields 1 0 36 Fz(6,8,0) =| 0 6 cso 0 35 bee Jz is thea 1 st8 oto JG,0,0)=|0 ob -s6 0 36/8 oh/cb Notice that Ja is singular for a pitch angle of @ = + 90°. For ships this is not a problem ‘while both underwater vehicles and aircraft may operate close to this singularity. In such cases, the kinematic equations can be described by two Euler angle representations with different singularities. Another possibility is to use a quaterajon representation. This is the topic of the next section. ‘Summarizing the results from this section implies that the kinematic equations can be ex- pressed in a compact form as: [Z]-2eee[t] mee = [24 ey] 09 or according to the SNAME (1950) notetion: [2]-[7" abs] [a] = += Here 2, = (z,y,2)? is the position vector and 2; = (4,0,#)" is a vector of Euler angles, both referred to the inertial reference frame. The vehicle-fixed linear and angular velocity vectors are denoted as @; = (u,v,1)® and @ = (p.9,7)", respectively. 2.1.2 Quaternions ‘Am alternative to the Euler angle representation is a four-parameter method based on quater- nions or Cayley-Klein parameters, Kane et al. (1983). The singularity of the matrix Jz(z2) for @ = + 90° can be avoided by using four parameters to describe the three basic rotations. Euler's theorem of rotation states that: Every change in the relative orientation of two rigid bodies or reference frames Ry and Re can be produced by means of a simple rotation of Rp in Ra