A LABORATORY MANUAL CUM OBSERVATION IN PHYSICS FOR II P U (AS per the new syllabus) PHYSICS PRACTICALS

IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Theory of relativity ,photoelectric effect Albert Einstein Law of gravitation, corpuscular theory of light Issac Newton. Raman effect Sir C.V Raman. Evolution of stars S.Chandrashekar Wave theory of light Huygen. Electromagnetic theory Max well Quantum theory of radiation Max planck Electron J. J Thomson Nucleus Ruther ford

10. Neutron James Chadwick 11. Radioactivity Henry Becqueral 12. X- ray Roentgen 13. Laser Theodore Mainman 14. Superconductivity Kamerlingh Onnes 15. Transistor Bardeen ,Brattain & Shockley 16. Electric bulb Thomas Alva Edison 17. Telephone Graham Bell. 18. Refrigerator Caree 19. Steam Engine Thomas Newcomen 20. Electromagnet William Sturgeon 21. Barometer Toricelli 22. Cyclotron Lawrence 23. Rocket Robert Goddard 24. Discovery of expanding universe Hubble. 25. Thermal Ionisation M N Saha 26. Wireless telegraphy Marconi 27. Colour Photography Lippman 28. Holography Gavor 29. Dynamo Faraday 30. Logarithms John Napier

PHYSICS PRACTICLS
List of Experiments: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. To find f by shift method and n of a convex lens To find the dispersive power of a prism using spectrometer Air wedge To determine thickness of paper by interference pattern Grating To determine the wavelength of the spectral lines by using a diffraction grating Polarimeter To determine the specific rotation of sugar solution using Laurents half shade polarimeter 6. 7. 8. Ohms law To verify Ohms law and the laws of combination of resistances Meter bridge To determine the resistivity of the material of a wire using a meter bridge Thermistor To determine the temperature co-efficient of resistance of a thermistor using a meter bridge 9. Potentiometer To determine the internal resistance of a cell using Potentiometer

10. Current sensitivity of a pointer galvanometer 11. Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter 12. Tangent galvanometer To determine the reduction factor of TG and hence to calculate horizontal component of earths magnetic field 13. Joules calorimeter To determine the specific heat of a given liquid by electrical method 14. Self inductance To determine self inductance of a coil by direct method 15. To draw the forward bias characteristics of a semi conductor diode and hence to determine Knee voltage and forward resistance. 16. Logic gates To construct OR & AND gates using diodes and to verify their truth table. 17. To determine the value of the given capacitor by drawing its charging and discharging curves.

CONTENTS
EXPERIMENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Convex lens Dispersive power of a prism Air wedge Diffraction grating Polarimeter Ohms Law Meter bridge Thermistor Potentiometer

10. Current sensitivity of pointer galvanometer 11. Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter 12. Tangent galvanometer 13. Joules calorimeter 14. Self inductance 15. Semiconductor diode 16. Logic gates 17. Charging and discharging of capacitor 18. Log table

Scheme of Practical examination

The practical examination will be for duration of two hours .The maximum marks allotted are twenty. The scheme for allotment of marks is as follows 1. 2. Relevant formula for the experiment (if there are two formulae 1 mark each) For electrical experiments circuit diagram and for other experiments of experimental set up. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Brief procedure of the experiment Tabular column of the experiment Observation and entering the reading in tabular column Substitution and calculation using log tables Result with unit and accuracy Practical Record Total 4 marks 20 Marks 2 marks 3Marks 1 marks 3 marks 3 marks 2 marks 2marks

CONVEX LENS
EXPT NO:1 Date: Aim : To determine the focal length and refractive index of the material of a convex lens Apparatus : Convex lens, lens holder, object screen, image screen, meter scale, etc Formula : 1) focal length f !
D2  S 2 4D

Where, D= distance between the object and image screen S = distance between the positions S1 and S 2 of the lens 2) Radius of curvature R !
fd f d

d = distance of the lens from the object. 3) Refractive index n ! 1 

R1 R2 f R1  R2

R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of the lens.

Diagram

Rays from distant object

S1

S2

O S D>4f Procedure: I. Shift method: To find focal length of the lens. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Approximate focal length is determined by distance object method Image screen is placed at a large distance D from the object (D>4f) A lens is introduced between the object and image screen

The position of the lens is adjusted to get an enlarged image on the screen and the position S1 is marked The lens is moved towards the screen to get a diminished image on the screen and the position S 2 is marked

6. 7. 8.

The distance S between the positions S1 and S 2 is measured. The focal length is calculated using the above formula The experiment is repeated for the different values of D and the mean value of f is calculated.

TABULAR COLUMN: Trail no Distance between object and image screen D(cm) 1 2 3 Mean f = II. Boys method: To find the radii of curvature 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The lens is placed in front of the object. The position of the lens is adjusted to get a sharp image of the object on the side of the object Distance between the lens and object screen d1 is measured Radius of curvature R1 is calculated.
d 2 is measured by reversing the lens and the radius of curvature R2 is calculated

Distance between
S1 and S 2 . S (cm) S1 S2 S ! S 2  S1

The refractive index of the lens is calculated using the formula

Diagram

O I
x1

O I
x2

I surface x1 =

cm
fx1 ! f  x1

II surface x2 = cm
R2 ! fx2 ! f  x2

Radius of curvature, R1 !

Substitution and Calculation:

Result: 1. 2. The focal length of the convex lens = cm

Refractive index of the material of the lens =

f !

 S2 cm 4

cm

cm cm

DISPERSIVE POWER OF A PRISM

EXPT NO: 2 DATE:

Aim: To determine the dispersive power of a prism using a spectrometer Apparatus: Spectrometer, prism, mercury vapour lamp, spirit level, reading lens.
AD sin 2 Formula: 1) Refractive index of the prism n ! A sin 2 A = angle of the prism. D = angle of minimum deviation n n 2) Dispersive power of a prism [ ! 2 1 n 1 = refractive index of the prism for blue. nb n g =Refractive index of the prism for green n1  n2 2 Where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of the material of the prism n!

Diagram:

Collimator Collimator

A Telescope B C

Prism Table

Prism Table Telescope

R2

R1
Initial adjustment
1. 2. 3. 4.

R0

The telescope is turned towards a white wall and the eye piece is moved until the cross wires are clearly seen. The telescope is turned towards a distant object .Rack and pinion screw of the telescope is adjusted until a clear image of the distant object is seen. The collimator is placed in line with the given source. The telescope is placed in line with the collimator. The rack and pinion screw of the collimator is adjusted until the image of the slit becomes sharp and the slit is made narrow. Prism table is made horizontal by using spirit level and adjusting the leveling screw.

Procedure:
I. To find the angle of prism (A) 1) The least count of the spectrometer is calculated 2) Prism is placed on the prism table. 3) Telescope is turned towards one face of the prism to view the reflecting image of the slit.

4) The image of the slit is made to coincide with the intersection of the cross Wire MSR & CVD are noted and the total reading R1 ! MSR  CVD v LC is calculated. 5) R2 found by turning towards the second face 6) Angle of prism A ! 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
R1 ~ R2 is calculated 2

II. To determine the angle of minimum deviation (D)

The prism is place on the prism table such that light from collimator on one of its refracting faces Telescope is turned towards the base of the prism to view the spectrum. Looking through the telescope at a particular spectral line the prism table is rotated such that the line moves towards the collimator axis The prism table is fixed at the position where the spectral line just turns back. Now the prism is in minimum deviation position. The telescope is adjusted in such away that vertical cross wire coincides with green colour. The reading R is noted . The same procedure is repeated for blue colour and reading R is noted. Prism is removed and the telescope is aligned along the collimator axis. The direct reading Ro is noted Angle of minimum deviation for green ( Dg ) and blue ( Db ) colors calculated.

10. Dispersive power of the material of the prism is calculated using the formula.

Observation: To find the least count of spectrometer.

Value of IMSD = S = degree Total no of the VSD = N = S Least count = = degree. N

Tabular column I. To find angle of prism (A)

MSR (degree) CVD
R1

degree

MSR (Degree)

CVD

R2

degree

A!

R1

II. To find angle of minimum deviation (D)

Direct reading Ro ! Colour MSR (degree) CVD TR(R) Degree
D ! R ~ Ro AD sin 2 n! A sin 2

Green Blue

Dg = Db =

ng= nb =

Substitution and calculation:

Result: Dispersive power of the material of the prism =

R2

degree

degree

AIR WEDGE
EXPT NO: 3 Date:

Aim : To determine the thickness of paper by interference pattern. Apparatus: Plane glass plates, traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, etc. Formula : Thickness of the paper is given by t !
PL 2F

Where : P = wave length of monochromatic light = 5893 A0 L = length of the air wedge
F ! fringe width

Diagram

Microscope

Glass Plate

Paper L

Procedure:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The least count of the traveling microscope is calculated. A thin paper is fixed at one end of the horizontal glass plate and the other glass plate is placed over it to form an air wedge. Light form the source falls on the wedge normally and the traveling microscope is adjusted to get an interference pattern consist of alternate dark and bright fringes and note down the reading of the microscope. The vertical cross wire is made to coincide with nth central dark fringe and note down the reading of the microscope. Experiment is repeated for n  5 n  10 n  15 successive dark fringe and note down the microscope reading. , , The fringe width F is calculated by the method of differences. The length L of the air wedge is measured. The thickness of the paper (t) is calculated using the above formula.

Observation: To find least count of traveling microscope.

Value of I MSD = S = cm Total no of VSD = N= S LC = ! cm N

TABULAR COLUMN: Fringe TM reading no MSR CVD TR1 cm cm n n+5 n+10 n +15 n+ 20 Mean fringe width. F = Length of air wedge L =

Fringe no

TM reading MSR CVD cm

TR2

cm

Width of 25 fringes X !  1 ~ TR2 TR cm

F!

x cm 25

n+ 25 n+ 30 n+35 n +40 n +45

v 10 2 m v 10 2 m

Substitution and calculation:

Result: The thickness of the paper is found to be = m.

DIFFRACTION GRATING
EXPT NO 4 Date:

Aim: To determine the wave length of the spectral lines by using diffraction grating. Apparatus: Diffraction grating, mercury vapour lamp, spectrometer, spirit level, etc. Formula: Wave length of the spectral line is given by P !
Where C= Grating constant. D = Angle of minimum deviation. n = Order of the spectrum.
2C sin D / 2 n Ao

Diagram

Collimato r

Diffraction Grating D Prism Table

Telescop e

R0

Procedure:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Least count of the spectrometer is calculated. Initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made The grating is placed on the prism table such that the slit is parallel to the ruling of grating and the telescope is moved to one side to view the First order spectrum (n =1 ). The grating is adjusted for the minimum deviation position. The telescope is adjusted to one of the spectral line and the reading R is noted. The procedure is repeated for other spectral lines. The grating is removed. The telescope is brought in line with collimator such that cross wire coincides with the slit. Direct reading Ro is noted. Minimum deviation is found for each colour using D ! R ~ Ro . By assuming P g ! 5461 A o , the grating constant C is calculated.

10. The wave length of different spectral lines is calculated using the above formula.

Observation: To find least count of spectrometer. Value of 1 MSD = S = degree Total no of VSD = N= S ! = degree LC ! N Wave length of green light P g ! 5461 A o Order of spectrum, n = Direct reading Ro =

TABULAR COLUMN
Colors MSR (degree) R (degree)
D ! R ~ Ro

R0 ! _____degree P!

degree

2C sin D / 2 Q A n

Yellow Green Blue Violet

Substitution & Calculation:

Result:
1. 2. 3. 4. Wave length of violet Wave length of blue Wave length of green = = =
AQ AQ AQ AQ

Wave length of yellow =

POLARIMETER
EXPT No:5 DATE:

Aim : To determine the specific rotation of sugar using Laurents half shade polarimeter. Apparatus: Polarimeter, sodium vapour lamp, sugar, beaker, distilled water, filter papers, physical balance, etc Formula : Specific rotation S !
U rad m 2 kg 1 LC Where, U = Angle of rotation. C = concentration of sugar solution. L = Length of the polarimeter tube.

Diagram
polarimete r

Source

Polarise r

Half shade Device

Sugar Solution

Analyser

Eye Piece

Procedure: 1. The polarimeter tube is filled with distilled water and placed in its position. 2. The polarizer is illuminated with monochromatic light. 3. The analyzer A is rotated until both the halves of field of view appears equally bright. The reading Ro is calculated using the formula Ro ! MSR  CVD v LC . 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The water in the tube is replaced by sugar solution of known concentration (C). Again analyzer A is rotated until both the halves of field of view appears equally bright. The reading R is noted. U. The difference between R and Ro gives angle of rotation  i.e U ! R ~ Ro The value of
U is calculated. C U is found C

The experiment is repeated for different concentrations (c) and the mean value of

9. The length (L) of the polarimeter tube is measured. 10. The specific rotation of sugar solution is calculated

Observation: To find least count of polarimeter

Value of IMSD = S= degree Total number of VSD =N = S ! degree LC = N Length of the polarimeter tube L = Reading for distilled water Ro =
v 10 2 m degree

Tabular column:
Trial No 1 2 3 Mean U / c = Result: Specific rotation of sugar solution =
radm2 Kg 1 radm2 kg 1

Concentration C Kg m 3

R degree

U ! R ~ RQ Degree

Ux

T Rad 180

U C

OHMS LAW
EXPT NO:6 DATE:

AIM: To verify Ohms law and the laws of combination of resistances.

Apparatus: Battery, plug key, resistance coils, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat

Formula :
1. Resistance of the given coil R !
V ; I Where, V=potential difference across the coil. I = Current through it 2. For series combination Rs ! R1  R2 ;

Where, R1 and R2 are the individual resistances. 3. For parallel combination R p ! Circuit + V R1 R2 ; R1  R2

y
Ba Pk

Rh

Procedure: a) Verification of Ohms law.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Circuit connections are made as shown in figure. The key is closed and the rheostat is adjusted for small current Ammeter reading I and corresponding voltmeter reading V are noted. The ratio V/I is calculated Experiment is repeated for different values of current by adjusting the rheostat and corresponding voltmeter reading are tabulated, the ratio V/I is calculated in each case. The ratio V/I is found to be constant in each trial, this verifies Ohms law.

Tabular column To find R1

Trial no 1 2 3

I(A)

V(volts)

R1 ! V / I ;

Mean R1 = To find R2 Trial no 1 2 3 Mean R1 = b)

;

I(A)

V(volts)

R2 ! V / I ;

Law of series combination.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Circuit connections are made as shown in figure. The key is closed and the rheostat is adjusted for small current. Ammeter reading I and the corresponding voltmeter reading V are noted. The effective resistance Rs exp t is calculated from V/I Experiment is repeated for different values of current by varying the rheostat

6) 7)

Rs th ! R1

It is found that Rs ! Rs exp t which verifies the law of series combination. Th

Circuit
+ V -

R1 =

Trial no 1 2 3

I (A)

V (volts)

Result: In series Rs exp t !

Rs Th !
c)
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Law of parallel combination.

Circuit connection is made as shown in the figure. The key is closed and the rheostat is adjusted for small current . Ammeter reading I and the corresponding voltmeter reading V are noted Rp ! V / I is calculated .

 exp t

Experiment is repeated for different values of current by varying the rheostat.

R p Th ! R1R2 / R1  R2 is calculated . It is found that  p !  p , which verifies the law of parallel combination. R R Th exp t
+ V
R1

R1 !

Trial no 1 2 3 Results: R p

I (A)

 th !

R2 is calculated.

y
Ba Pk

Rh

R2 =

; ;

Rs exp t ! V / I

Mean Rs exp ;

Rs th ! R1  R2 ;

; ;

R2

y
Ba
;

Pk

R2 ! ; ;

Rh

V (volts)

R p exp t ! V / I

Mean R p

 exp

R p th ! R1  R2 ;

R p exp

METRE BRIDGE EXPT NO: 7 DATE:

Aim: To determine the resistivity of the material of a wire using a meter bridge. Apparatus: Meter Bridge, sliding contact, Galvano meter, wire, screw gauge, resistance box, etc. Formula: 1) Resistance of the given wire R ! Where S = standard resistance l ! Balancing length 2) Resistively of given Wire V !
T d 2R ;m 4L d = diameter of wire L = Length of the wire Sl ;

1  l

Diagram R
G

A
l

Ba

P K

()

Procedure: 1. Electrical connections are made as shown in figure. 2. A suitable resistance S is unplugged from the resistance box and key is closed 3. The position of the sliding contact on the wire is adjusted for zero deflection in the galvanometer. 4. The balancing length l (AD) is measured and the resistance R is calculated by using the formula. 5. Experiment is repeated for different values of S and in each case R is calculated. 6. Length of wire (L) is measured 7. Diameter of the wire (d) is determined using screw gauge. 8. Resistivity of the given wire is calculated. Tabular Column: To find unknown resistance(R) Trial S ; l in m 1  l m no 1 2 3 Mean R= Observation: To find the diameter of the wire (d) istance mo ed on itch scale Pitch = ! m er of rotation i en to LC ! ZE=
Pitch ! No of HSD mm ;

R!

sl

1  l

division



mm

Trail no 1 2 3

PSR mm

HSR

TR=PSR+(HSR-ZE) x LC mm

Mean d = L=

mm=
v 10 2 m

v 10 3 m

Substitution & Calculation

Result: Resistivity of the given wire is found to be =

;m

THERMISTOR EXPT NO:8 DATE:

Aim: To determine the temperature co-efficient of resistance of a thermistor using a meter bridge. Apparatus: Meter Bridge, galvanometer, battery, resistance box, thermistor, beaker, thermometer etc. Sl Formula: 1) Resistance of the thermistor R ! ; 1  l Where S =standard resistance box. l ! balancing length. 2) Temperature co-efficient of resistance of a thermistor is 2.303 log R1  log R2 E! /K T1  T2 Where R1 and R2 are the resistances of the given thermistor at temperatures T1 K and T2 K respectively. Diagram B p A G R D S Q C

()
Ba PK

Procedure: 1. Electrical connections are made as shown in figure 2. Thermistor is immersed in hot water. 3. A suitable resistance S is unplugged from the resistance box and key is closed. 4. Sliding contact is moved along the bridge wire until the galvanometer shows zero deflection. The balancing length l ( AD ) is measured and the corresponding temperature of hot water is measured. Resistance R of the thermistor at that temperature is calculated. 5. 6. Experiment is repeated for every 50 C fall in temperature and the corresponding balancing lengths are noted. Temperature co-efficient of resistance of a thermistor between any temperatures is calculated.

Tabular Column: Trial T ! t  273 k t 0c no 1 2 3 4 75 70 65 60

lm

1  l m

R!

Sl

1  l

log R

Calculation:

Result: The temperature co-efficient resistance of given thermistor =

/K

POTENTIOMETER
EXPT NO: 9
Aim: To determine the internal resistance of a cell using a potentiometer. Apparatus : Potentiometer, storage cell, plug keys, rheostat, resistance box , sliding contact, leclanche cell.
l Formula: r ! R 1  1; l 2 Where r= Internal resistance of cell. R= Resistance unplugged from the resistance box l1 ! balance length when cell is in the open circuit l2 ! balancing length when cell is in the closed circuit.

DATE:

Circuit Ba

y
B

A
l2
G

)
R

K2

Procedure: 1. Electrical connections are made as shown in the figure (care is taken that positive terminal of storage battery and positive terminal of experimental cell are connected to the same end of the potentiometer wire) 2. The key K1 is closed in the primary circuit and K 2 is kept open. 3. 4. 5. 6. The jockey is adjusted for null deflection in the galvanometer. The balancing length l1 is measured. A suitable resistance r is calculated using the above formula. Internal resistance r is calculated using the above formula Experiment is repeated for the mean value of internal resistance r is calculated.

Observation: Balancing length l1 = Tabular column: Trail R ; l2 m no 1 2 3 Mean r =

;

l r ! R 1  1; l 2

Result: Internal resistance of the given cell is found to be =

;

CURRENT SENSITIVITY OF A POINTER GALVANOMETER EXPT :10 DATE:

Aim: To determine the current sensitivity of a given pointer galvanometer Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, fractional resistance box, two resistance boxes (0- 500 ; ), battery, key etc. Er A / div Formula: I ! U Gr  G  r R U Where, I / U = current sensitivity E = emf of a cell G = galvanometer resistance U = deflection of galvanometer R = resistance unplugged from fractional resistance box Circuit
C X A r

y
Ba Pk

Procedure: 1. Circuit connections are made as shown in figure. 2. Keeping X = 0, suitable resistance are unplugged from the boxes R & r 3. The key is close so that deflection in galvanometer is even number. The value of R,r and U are noted. 4. The resistance X is adjusted until the deflection in galvanometer becomes U / 2 , the resistance unplugged in X is noted. It gives the value of G i.e (X=G) 5. Experiment is repeated for different values of R and r. 6. The emf of a cell is measured using a voltmeter. 7. I / U is calculated in each trial and mean value is calculated. Tabular Column: Trail R; r; No 1 2 3

division

X ! G ; for U / 2

I /U

A / div

Mean I / U !

A/div

Substitution & Calculation

Result: Current sensitivity of the given pointer galvanometer =

A/div

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER EXPT NO:11 DATE:

Aim: To convert given galvanometer into a voltmeter of range (0-3V) volts. Apparatus: Galvanometer, standard voltmeter, resistance box, battery, rheostat, etc. Formula: 1. Current for full scale deflection,
I Ig ! U N amp

Where, I / U = current sensitivity of a galvanometer scale. N = Total no of division on the galvanometer scale. 2. High resistance, R ! V  G ;
Ig

Where, V = Maximum pd to be measured G = Galvanometer resistance. Circuit

Ba K

()
Rh

R
G

Converted voltmeter +

Procedure: 1. The galvanometer resistance G and the current for full scale deflection Ig are noted . High resistance that required in series with galvanometer is calculated using the formula. 2. Circuit connections are made as shown in the figure 3. Rheostat is adjusted as to get suitable readings Vs in the standard voltmeter. 4. The corresponding galvanometer deflection U is noted. The reading of converted voltmeter is calculated using Vc = (V/N) U 5. The error (Vs ~ Vc) volt is calculated. 6. The experiment is repeated for different values of Vs. Observation: 1. Galvanometer resistance G = ; 2. Current sensitivity I / U = A/div 3. Total no of division on the galvanometer scale (N) = 4. Voltmeter range (V) = Volts.

Calculation of R.

Tabular Column: Trial Standard voltmeter No reading Vs (volt) 1 2 3

Deflection U division

Vs =(V/N) volt

Error (Vs ~Vc ) volts

Result: A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting high ; in series with given galvanometer. Resistance R =

TANGENT GALVANOMETER EXPT NO: 12 DATE:

Aim: To determine the reduction factor of TG and hence to calculate the horizontal component of earths magnetic field ( BH ) . Apparatus: TG, battery eliminator, rheostat, ammeter, commutator .. Formula: 1. Reduction factor K ! I A
tan U

Where, I = current through TG. U = mean deflection in the TG. 2. Horizontal component of earths magnetic field Where
Q 0 ! permeability BH !

of free space T v 10 7 Hm 1 4 n = number of the turns used K = reduction factor. r = radius of the coil.

Q o nK Tesla 2r

Circuit
Ba

()
+ A -

Pk

Rh

)
Commutator
TG

Procedure: 1. The TG is set into the magnetic meridian by making the following initial adjustment. a) The base of the TG is made horizontal using spirit level b) The compass box is rotated until the 900  90 0 line is parallel to the plane of the coil. c) The coil as a whole is rotated until the pointer reads 0 0  0 0 2. Electrical connections are made as shown in figure. 3. By using the rheostat the current in the circuit is adjusted so that the deflections in the TG lies between 30 0 and 60 0 4. The readings U1 and U 2 are noted. 5. The current through TG is reversed by using the commutator and the readings U 3 and U 4 are noted. 6. The mean value of U is calculated . The ammeter reading I is noted. 7. Experiment is repeated for different values of current and the reduction factor K is calculated in each case. 8. The horizontal component of earths magnetic field BH is calculated using the formula.

Observation: 1. Circumference of the coil C = 2. Radius of the coil, r = C !

2T

cm
v 10 2 m

3. Number of turns used

n=

Tabular column: Trial IA U1 No 1 2 3

U2

TG deflection U3 U4 Mean

K! U

I A tan U

Substitution & Calculation

Result : 1. Reduction factor of TG is found to be K = A 2. Horizontal component of earths magnetic field BH =

JOULES CALORIMETER EXPT NO:13 DATE:

Aim: To determine the specific heat of a given liquid by electrical method. Apparatus: Joules calorimeter, ammeter, voltmeter, thermometer, battery, rheostat, stop clock, key etc Formula: Specific heat of liquid Where,
m1 ! mass Sw ! 1 VIt  m1 Sc jkg 1 K 1 m3 U 2  U1

of calorimeter +stirrer m2 =mass of calorimeter+ stirrer+ liquid m3 ! mass of liquid V = voltmeter reading I = ammeter reading t = time for which current is passed U1 = initial temperature of the liquid U 2 = final temperature of the liquid Sc = specific heat of the material of the calorimeter

Diagram
+ V

+
() () () ( )( ) () () () () ( ( )

()

(y)

Ba

Pk

Rh

Procedure: 1. Electrical connections are as shown in figure. 2. Mass of empty calorimeter with stirrer m1 is determined. 3. It is filled with 2/3rd of given liquid again weighed m2 . 4. Initial temperature of liquid U1 is noted. 5. Key is closed and simultaneously stop clock is started. 6. Ammeter reading (I) and voltmeter reading (V) are noted. 7. Pass the current till the temperature of liquid raised by 80 C or 10 0 C 8. The circuit is broken by removing the key and the stop clock is stopped. Note down the time taken. 9. The liquid is stirred and final temperature U 2 is noted 10. The specific heat is calculated using the formula.

Observation: Kg 1. Mass of empty calorimeter + stirrer, m1 = 2. Mass of calorimeter + stirrer, m2 = Kg 3. Mass of liquid m3 ! m2  m1 ! Kg 4. Specific heat of calorimeter, Sc =385 JKg 1K 1 . 5. Initial temperature of liquid U1 ! +273= k 6. Final temperature of liquid U 2 ! +273= k 7. Time for which current is passed, t = sec 8. Ammeter reading, I= A 9. Voltmeter reading, V = V

Result: Specific heat of liquid =

JKg 1K 1

SELF INDUCTANCE EXPT NO:14 Aim: To determine self inductance of a coil by direct method. Apparatus : AC/DC power supply, AC/DC ammeter, AC/DC voltmeter, coil, rheostat, etc. Formula:
L! Z 2  R2 2Tf

DATE:

Henry

Where, L= self inductance of a coil. Z= impedance of a coil R = resistance of a coil. f = frequency of AC used. Circuits
+ V + V~ A + Ba L -

A~ +

y
k

R h

~
AC Source

y
k

Rh

Procedure: I. DC part 1. Electrical connections are made as shown in the figure using DC source and meters. 2. Key is closed and the rheostat is adjusted for small current. 3. Ammeter reading (I) and the corresponding voltmeter reading (V) are noted. 4. The ratio V/I=R is calculated. 5. Experiment is repeated for different values of current by varying the rheostat. 6. R is calculated in each case and the mean value of R is calculated.

II. Ac part 1. Electrical connections are made as shown in the figure using AC source and meters. 2. Key is closed and the rheostat is adjusted for small current. 3. Ammeter reading (I) and the corresponding voltmeter reading (V) are noted. 4. The ratio V/I =Z is calculated. 5. Experiment is repeated for different values of current by varying the rheostat. 6. Z is calculated in each case and the mean value of Z is calculated. 7. The self inductance of the coil is calculated using the formula.

Tabular column: Trail no I (A) 1 2 3 4 5 DC part V(v) R ! V / I AC part Z !V / I V (v)

I (A)

Mean R = Substitution & calculation:

Mean Z =

Result: Self inductance of a given coil =

Henry.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE EXPT NO :15 DATE:

Aim: To draw the forward bias characteristics of a semiconductor diode and to determine knee voltage and forward resistance. Apparatus: Semiconductor diode, milliammeter, voltmeter, battery, rheostat. Formula: slope ! AB
BC 1 Slope BC AB

Rf !

Rf !

Diagram
Ba PK y

Rh I (m A) + C Vk

A
slope !

AB BC

mA

V (volt)

V -

Procedure: 1. Electrical connections are made as shown in the figure. 2. Voltmeter reading is increased gradually from zero in small steps by varying the rheostat. 3. Voltmeter readings (V) and corresponding ammeter readings (I) are tabulated. 4. Graph of I versus V is plotted. 5. The straight line portion of the curve is extrapolated to cut the voltage axis ,this gives knee voltage vk . 6. Slope of the straight line part of the curve is found. The reciprocal of the slope gives the forward bias resistance of the diode.

Tabular column: V volt 0 0.1 0.2 I mA

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5 0.55

0.6

0.65

0.7

Result: 1. Knee voltage Vk = Volt. 2. Forward bias resistance R f !

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR EXPT NO: 17 DATE:

AIM: To determine the value of the given capacitor by drawing its charging and discharging curves. Apparatus: Capacitor, Voltmeter, Resistor, Battery, Stop clock, key etc. Formula:
C! T1/2 F 0.693R

Where, C=capacitance of a capacitor. T1 / 2 =Average time R = Resistance Circuit:

R DC Source
K1 ( g )
( )

g K2

Procedure: Charging of capacitor 1. Circuit connections are made as shown in the figure. 2. Key K1 is closed and simultaneously stop clock is started. 3. The readings of the voltmeter at t = 0 second and after every 30 second are noted until it reaches a maximum steady value 4. Plot a graph of V versus t. 5. From the graph, time t1 and t 2 corresponding to the voltage value of V0  V0 and V0  V0 are
2 4

found. 6. From the know value of R, Capacitance of the capacitor is calculated using the formula.

I Charging: Times 0 S V volt

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

Discharging of capacitor 1. Key K 2 is closed and simultaneously stop clock is started. 2. The reading of the voltmeter at t =0 seconds and after every 30second are noted until it reaches a steady minimum value t. 3. Plot a graph of V versus t. 4. From the graph, time t1 and t 2 corresponding to the voltage value of V0 and V0 are found
2 4

5. From the know value of R, Capacitance of the capacitor is calculated using the formula

II Discharging: Times 0 S V volt Graph a) Charging

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

b) Discharging
V0

V
V0 

V0

V0 2 V0 V0  4

V
V0 2 V0 4

t1

t2

Time

Time

Result: Capacitance of the given capacitor is found to be 1. During charging C = QF 2. During discharging C= QF

Logic Gates
EXPT No: 16 Date Aim: To construct OR and AND gates using diodes and verify their truth table Apparatus : Diodes, resistors, 5 V DC power supply, Voltmeter etc. Formula: 1) For OR gate 2) For AND gate

Y = A+B Y = A.B

Where, Y=output state, A and B are the input state. OR gate :circuit diagram:
D1

A Y=A+B
D2

A B

y =A+B

R=470 ; B

Procedure: 1. Construct OR gate circuit as shown in the figure 2. Connect A to Zero (-ve terminal) of the battery and record the out put state. 3. Connect A to Zero (-ve terminal) and B to l ( +ve terminal ) of the battery and record the out put state 4. Connect A to l and B to zero of the battery and record the output state 5. Connect A to I and B to zero of the battery and record out put state 6. Thus truth table of OR gate is verified

Truth table: A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

Y = A +B 0 1 1 1

Out put voltage Low High High High

AND gate :circuit diagram:

D1
A Y=A.B
D2

A B

y =A.B

R=470 ; B 5V

Procedure: 1. Construct AND gate circuit as shown in the figure 2. Connect A and B to Zero (- ve terminal ) of the battery and record the output state 3. Connect A to Zero ( - ve terminal ) and B (+ ve terminal ) of the battery and record the out put state 4. Connect A to l and B to zero of the battery and record the output state 5. Connect A and B to l of the battery and record the out put state 6. Thus truth table of AND gate is verified Truth table: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y = A. B 0 0 0 1 Out put voltage Low Low Low High

Note: Out put voltage > 3.5v is taken as logic state l and less then 0.8v is taken as logic state 0

Result: OR and AND gates are constructed and their truth tables are verified.