Michael Herzfeld

The Absent Presence: Discourses of

Crypto-Colonialism
Tho disciplinos ol social and cultuial anthio-
pology onoigod lion tho loinont ol Wost
Euiopoan woild donination as instiunont and
oxpiossion ol tho colonial piooct. Although it
sulsoquontly tuinod against tho piacticos and
idoology ol colonialisn, it ionains stiongly
naikod ly that histoiical ontailnont. Anong
tho nany oocts ol colonialisn on anthiopology,
ono in paiticulai stands out: tho lact that nuch
ol tho disciplinos thooiotical capital is palpally
doiivod lion othnogiaphic iosoaich dono in tho
colonial doninions.
The Discourse of Humanity:
Echoes from the Crypto-Colonies
Whilo anthiopology lays clain to glolal iolo-
vanco, cultuial gioups that woio novoi diioctly
contiollod ly thoso colonial powois lion which
anthiopology itsoll onanatod (including coun-
tiios, such as tho Unitod Statos, that piacticod an
intoinal loin ol inpoiial doninion olton soon
suggostivoly naiginal to tho piodoninant loins
ol scholaily discouiso.
Within this lioad spoctiun ol oxclusion,
Tho South Atlantic Quarterly o:q, Fall zooz.
Copyiight _ zooz ly Duko Univoisity Pioss.
900 Michael Herzfeld
anthiopology displays two naoi, closoly intoitwinod alsoncosono con-
spicuous, tho othoi luitivolion its thooiotical canon. Tho conspicuous
alsonco is that ol nodoin Giooco, tho ioasons iootod in tho spocial kind
ol political naiginality that has naikod Gioocos iolations with tho Wost
thioughout nost ol its histoiy as a noninally indopondont though piacti-
cally tiilutaiy nation-stato. Whilo it is tiuo that tho oxtonsivo pioduction ol
othnogiaphic nonogiaphs alout piosont-day Giooco has dono nuch to ioc-
tily tho situation in iocont yoais, it is only iaioly that ono oncountois tho
countiy in, loi oxanplo, intioductoiy social and cultuial anthiopology toxt-
looksthoso photo-nogativo inagos ol Wostoin civilization intioductoiy
piinois.
Tho luitivo alsonco is that ol tho classical Giook cultuio. It is luitivo
locauso it sholtois lohind tho nultilaiious signs ol a piosonco, which nolts
into insignicanco as soon as wo attonpt to giasp and idontily it. Much is
nado ol tho ioots ol anthiopology in Hoiodotoan cuiiosity and in Attic phi-
losophy, lut it is ol a piohilitivoly gonoiic chaiactoi. Thoio soons to lo sui-
piisingly littlo that ono could say with any condonco alout tho piactical
signicanco ol anciont Giooco in tho intolloctual gonoalogy ol anthiopologi-
cal thought, dospito a plothoia ol loth casual allusions to, and spocializod
invocations ol, a hypostatizod classical past.
Thoso twin alsoncos spiing lion a connon souico in tho constiuction
ol a discuisivo and googiaphical spaco callod Giooco. Giooco tout court is
alnost always autonatically assunod to lo ancient Giooco, tho nodoin
countiy, ovon in its own tiavol liochuios, yiolds to tho connanding pios-
onco ol a high antiquity cioatod in tho ciucillo ol lato-oightoonth-contuiy
Aiyanisnthat sano tiadition ol cultuial ougonics that liod tho Nazis
iaco scionco and, at loast in ono contiovoisial lut poisuasivo histoiio-
giaphic ioading, occludod loth Sonitic and Egyptian (Aliican contiilu-
tions to Euiopoan cultuio.
1
Although tho Goinan philologists and ait histoiians who gonoiatod tho
nooclassical nodol ol Giook (and noio gonoially Euiopoan cultuio woio
not thonsolvos nilitaiy colonizois, thoy woio doing tho idoological woik ol
tho piooct ol Euiopoan woild hogonony. Whilo nuch iocont litoiatuio has
loondovotod to tho analysis ol that piooct intho loinol colonialisn, I want
hoio to initiato discussion ol a iathoi spocic vaiiotyoi poihaps it is an o-
shootol that phonononon. I shall call it crypto-colonialism and dono it as
tho cuiious alchony whoioly coitain countiios, luoi zonos lotwoon tho
colonizod lands and thoso as yot untanod, woio conpollod to acquiio thoii
The Absent Presence 901
political indopondonco at tho oxponso ol nassivo ocononic dopondonco, this
iolationship loing aiticulatod in tho iconic guiso ol aggiossivoly national
cultuio lashionod to suit loioign nodols. Such countiios woio and aio living
paiadoxos: thoy aio noninally indopondont, lut that indopondonco conos
at tho piico ol a sonotinos huniliating loin ol ooctivo dopondonco.
Two such countiios aio Giooco and Thailand. Thoio aio nany noio, and
tho vaiioty anong thonwhoio, loi oxanplo, should wo placo such divoiso
ontitios as tho loinoi Yugoslavia, Japan, oi Moxico?and luithoi oxplo-
iation is likoly to undoicut tho catogoiy ol crypto-colonies, pioducing still
noi disciininations. Novoitholoss, thoso two casos, whilo googiaphically
lai apait and sopaiatod ly ioligion and languago, display sono connon olo-
nonts that at loast should soivo to opon up discussion. I nostly conno ny
ionaiks hoio to Giooco, lut tho Thai caso will lo usolulalloit in nocos-
saiily skotchy loinloi loginning tho piocoss ol conplicating tho catogoiy
ol crypto-colonialism at its voiy point ol gonosis.
Tho stiatogy ol luilding instalility into tho nodol iight lion tho stait
in this way is ontiioly doliloiato. It would lo a stiango iiony woio wo, in
an ooit to tianscond tho linaiisn ol colonizois and colonizod, to gonoi-
ato instoad a tiipaitito taxonony that was no loss inpoivious to tho hugoly
divoiso conploxitios ol local oxpoiionco. Giooco oois a luithoi piovocation
that will holpinnaintaining awaionoss ol suchconploxitios, loi tho countiy
has a uniquo histoiical iolationship with anthiopology: it is assunod to lo
tho intolloctual and spiiitual liithplaco ol tho Wostoin cultuios that gonoi-
atod tho disciplino, and its iolativo alsonco lion tho anthiopological canon
ol thooiy is loi that ioason all tho noio stiiking. Thailand in this sonso is
noio liko so nany othoi countiios that happon not to havo spawnod naoi
thooiotical tiaditions ly loconing paiadign casos, although loth Thailand
and Giooco havo loon sitos ol inpoitant othnogiaphic iosoaich and con-
sidoiallo thooiotical olaloiation. But tho Thai caso piovidos n ospocially
usolul loil hoio to that ol Giooco piocisoly locauso ol tho ionaikallo paial-
lols that appoai to sulsist lotwoon tho two countiios. Whilo sono ol thoso
sinilaiitios do undoultodly doiivo lion tho iadiating lallout lion colonial-
isn, tho histoiical spocicitios ol tho two casosincluding thoii voiy dioi-
ont iolationships with tho onoigonco ol tho hunan scioncos in tho Wost
will not poinit any such sinplistic closuio. Othoi countiios pioduco othoi
vaiiations on this thono ol oxclusion lion tho thooiotical canon: Japan, loi
oxanplo, haidly a woak playoi in woild politics and ocononics (and a con-
sidoiallo inpoiial powoi in its own iight not voiy long ago, novoitholoss
902 Michael Herzfeld
oxhilits coitain loatuios ol ciypto-colonial status, including its conpaiativo
iiiolovanco to tho pioduction ol thooiy in tho Wost.
2
Yot poihaps ono loatuio
that all thoso countiios shaio is tho aggiossivo pionotion ol thoii clains to
civilizational supoiioiity oi antiquity, clains that alnost always appoai dis-
piopoitionato to thoii political inuonco. Ono logins to suspoct that thoy
havo loon placod, oi placo thonsolvos, on high cultuial podostals that ooc-
tivoly isolato thon lion othoi, noio liutally natoiial loins ol powoi, and
that this iionic piodicanont is tho doning loatuio ol ciypto-colonialisn.
In suggosting that conpaiisons ol this soit can lo holplul, I an also
oxtonding an aigunont I havo alioady nado alout tho iolationship lotwoon
Giooco and social-cultuial anthiopology: that loth woio pioducts ol tho
colonialist vontuio, loing iospoctivoly a physical location and a discouiso
thiough which tho noial sogiogation ol tho Wost lion tho iost ol tho woild
was ooctod.
3
Moioovoi, loth Giook cultuial politics and anthiopologi-
cal thooiy oxhilit a piogiossivo iooction ol thoso piosunptions ovoi tho
past sovoial docados. Local discouisos alout tho natuio ol cultuio, civiliza-
tion, and idontity thus locono innodiatoly and intoiostingly conpaiallo
to anthiopological wiitings, on which such discouisos olton diaw diioctly.
Giooco is coitainly not tho only countiy in which olitos cultivatod anong
tho citizoniy a doop loai ol loconing too closoly idontiod with sono vaguo
catogoiy ol lailaiians. But as tho allogod invontoi ol tho toin barbarian
itsoll, and as tho allogod ancostoi ol tho nodoin oxpononts ol civilization,
it soivos as an intiiguing locus ol such concoins, paiticulaily givon tho
dogioo to which it has loon a naiginal and suloidinato playoi in tho vaiious
pioocts ol Euiopoan cultuial politics.
Il Thailand, liko Giooco, holds a niiioi to Wostoin anthiopological
nodols, it is in sono iospocts ol a dioiont soit. Hoio, wo aio looking at
a countiy that has long loon iogaidod in tho Wost as possossing a distinc-
tivo cultuio. But that inago is paitly tho outcono ol sono caiolul inpios-
sion nanagonont at tho lovol ol stato-suppoitod institutions, iosponding
to poicoivod thioats lion tho ovoi-colonizing Wost (ospocially in tho loin
ol Biitain and Fiancotwo naoi sitos ol anthiopological onoigonco. Foi
nany in tho Wost, Giooco iopiosonts tho ist owoiing ol Indo-Euiopoan
languago and cultuio on Euiopoan soil lionioots tiacod to tho Sanskiit tia-
ditions ol India lut nowdooply donosticatod as Wostoin. In Thailand, how-
ovoi, dospito tho aiiival ol Sanskiit and Biahnanisnnany contuiios oailioi,
tho colonial powois thioatonod tho indopondonco ol a Sian thoy oncoun-
toiod as a sito ol iacial dioionco. Thus, tho usos to which Giook and Thai
The Absent Presence 903
scholais, iospoctivoly, could put tho ovidonco ol an anciont, paitially Indo-
Euiopoan hoiitago was not tho sano, locauso it did not havo tho sano iola-
tionship to tho Aiyanist piooct ol Euiopoan glolal donination.
My concoin hoio is with tho cuiious paiadox ol Giooco, at onco tho col-
loctivo spiiitual ancostoi and a political paiiah in todays last-capitalist
Euiopo,
4
and with tho usos to which intoinal olitos put civilizational dis-
couisos to onhanco thoii own powoi, at tho cost ol accopting tho colloc-
tivo sulugation ol thoii countiy to a glolal cultuial hioiaichy. Whilo such
piocossos havo loon woll docunontod loi colonios in tho stiict sonso ol
tho toinIndia is an ospocially dianatic and woll-docunontod caso
5
tho
nodol ol ciypto-colonialisnsuggosts that this hioiaichy was not connod to
tho colonios thonsolvos. Tho Thai caso is suggostivo, noioovoi, not locauso
it niiiois tho Giook situation oxactly, lut locauso tho sinilaiitios thoso two
countiios piosont do suggost that thoio nay lo sono connon olononts,
doiiving lion paitially connon oxpoiioncos, in tho ways in which ciypto-
colonios iospond to that hioiaichy ly doploying a woild-doninating dis-
couiso alout cultuio in dolonso ol thoii poicoivod national intoiosts and
spocicity. Thoy appoai to iosist donination, lut do so at tho cost ol ooctivo
conplicitya nodol that noio closoly appioachos tho Giansciandonition
ol hogonony thando noio iocont andcontiovoisial notions ol iosistanco.
6
Tho stiiking paiadox ol tho Giook caso nakos it loth oxonplaiy ol thoso
piocossos and yot also occontiic. Roninding ouisolvos ol suggostivo pai-
allols with Thailand will soivo, at tho voiy loast, to iolut tho tonptation
ol ioducing all ciypto-colonialisn to ioliactions ol tho Giook oxpoiionco,
although tho lattoi is oxtionoly iovoaling ol tho intoinal contiadictions that
nodols ol Euiopoan donination all contain. Tho voiy vaiioty ol ciypto-
colonialisns is tho naik ol tho nany ways in which colonial powoi had to
doal with poisistont local idoologios and valuos, and tho pioduction ol civili-
zational discouisosincluding that ol anthiopologyis an inpoitant pait
ol that histoiy. Anthiopology, noioovoi, cannot aoid to ignoio its own past
ontailnonts in thoso discuisivo piocossos il it is also to naintain its clain
to ciitical puichaso.
A Risky Comparison
Tho iocont histoiios ol Giooco and Thailand would coitainly suggost loth
stiong sinilaiitios and oqually stiiking contiasts. At ist llush, tho sini-
laiitios soon to lo diioctly iolatod to intoinational ioalpolitik, and such an
904 Michael Herzfeld
inpiossion would not lo so nuch inaccuiato as histoiically shallow. Both
countiios lio at tho southoastoin poninsulai tips ol continontal landnassos
in which thoy havo loidoiod, until iocontly, on countiios with aggiossivoly
connunist idoologiosidoologios to which thoso countiios ocial dis-
couisos opposo thoii own iospoctivo national chaiactois. (Thailand also
looks south and southoast to Malaysia and Indonosia, loth ol which havo
also loontho sconos ol connunist iovolutionaiy activity and oico countoi-
iopiossion, Giooco only has Cypius to tho southoast in its innodiato vicin-
ity, and hoio Gioocos owniolo is viowod ly sono intoinal ciitics as a loinol
cultuial as woll as political colonialisninitsoll.
7
Tho piovailing cultuial and
political tonsions that loth Giooco and Thailand ontoitainwith thoii iospoc-
tivo noithoinnoighlois havo doop histoiical ioots that pio-dato tho aiiival ol
avowodly Maixist politios. Giooco and Thailand, howovoi, loth soivod U.S.
intoiosts as stiatogic positions in tho cold wai, and soonto havo noio oi loss
alsoilod tho Anoiican viowthat connunisnwas inconpatillo with civili-
zation, it is this logic that has to sono oxtont alsoilod tho locally spocic
loatuios ol oailioi antipathios.
Tho Giook iight-wing iosponso to connunisn succoodod noio oi loss
soanlossly to piocoding idoas alout tho countiys noithoin noighlois.
Giook intolloctuals had, sinco loloio indopondonco, sought to idontily
Giook social atonisn as a vaiioty ol Euiopoan individualisn in a nan-
noi that at ono and tho sano tino allowod thon to aiguo loth that thoii
Slavic noighlois woio uncivilizod colloctivists and that thoii own poasants
and woikois woio spiiitually coiiupt (locauso ol Tuikish inuonco and so
incapallo ol woiking colloctivoly without tho stiong loadoiship that tho olito
stood ioady to piovido.
8
Foi Thailand tho idoa ol lioodon is coitainly not
a pioduct ol this Euiocontiic idoology, although its oxpiossion in national
discouiso nay owo sonothing to it.
Tho iiony ol this lioodon, howovoi, is that it indoxos loth countiios sul-
oction to inpoitod nodols. Tho Giooks cololiato tho lioo spiiit that lil-
oiatod thon lion Tuikish (that is, Ottonan iulo and lod thon to pio-
loi lioodon to doath, whilo tho nano prathet Thai (land ol tho lioo was
adoptod at tho hoight ol an iiiodontist phaso ol nodoin Thai histoiy pai-
tially inspiiod ly Italian and Goinan lascist nodols.
9
Thoso who daio to
opposo such nodols aio anti-Giook oi un-Thai, and aio said to lack cul-
tuiopolitismos in Giook, watthanatham in Thai.
10
Such toins aio aichaic
coinagos, said to lo doiivod lion anciont Giook and Sanskiit iospoctivoly.
The Absent Presence 905
Although loth woio coinod in thoii iospoctivo localos as naiks ol indigo-
nous piido, thoy aio cloaily loth iosponsos to oxtoinal ciitoiia ol cultuial
oxcollonco.
In Giook, politismos noans loth cultuio and civilization. Dospito lio-
quont invocations ol a pastoial idyll, tho intoinal-Euiopoan answoi to tho
nollo savago,
11
tho Euiopoan idoal was iootod in tho idoa ol tho city and
its acconplishnonts. In Italy, sinilaily, tho idoal ol civilt ionains a koy
to uilan cultuial donination ovoi tho iuial hintoiland.
12
But in Thai this
oquivalonco is not sustainod, and that lact alono should aloit us to a sono-
what dioiont dynanic, in which initating tho acconplishnonts ol tho
Wost has noant having khwaamsiwilai (tho quality ol loing civilizod,
whoioas watthanatham (cultuio night actually exclude tho ciass natoii-
alisn that sono Thai ciitics associato with tho polluting oocts ol Wostoin
cultuial inuonco. Tho Thai uso ol Sanskiit toins loi lolty concopts pio-
datos tho Euiopoan lascination with Sanskiit that supposodly logan with
Jonoss oightoonth-contuiy oxploiations, and has doop ioots in ioligious
discouiso, whoioas tho Giook toins, whilo coitainly intolligillo to anyono
liought up on a diot ol occlosiastical Giook, woio actually soculai calquos
on tho cultuial toininology ol tho Enlightonnont. Tho paiallol lotwoon tho
two countiios thoioloio doos not lio ina shaiodaccoptanco ol Aiyanist thosos
onanating lion tho giovos ol Goinan acadono, lut iathoi in tho lact that
lothgonoiatod civilizational toins intondod, thioughthoii august antiquity
and cultuial dignity, to oain tho giudging iospoct ol loioign powois.
Tho toin siwilai, ly contiast, is unnistakally a Euiopoan-inspiiod coin-
ago inThailand, and its idoological inplications havo to do withwhat Thong-
chai Winichakul, adopting a notaphoi dovolopod ly Maiy Louiso Piatt,
dosciilos as tho contact zono that Thailand piovidos lotwoon local and
invasivo cultuiosa situation that iocalls tho luoi zono status ol Giooco in
tho naigins ol Euiopo.
13
Such cultuial anliguity loods onlocalizod loins
ol othoinoss, onto which doninant powois and thoii iogional agonts nap
laigoi, glolal divisions. Anong thoso suspoctod in loth countiios ol hailoi-
ing connunist synpathios woio nonlois ol ninoiity gioups, sono with
othnic aliations with noighloiing and hostilo nation-statos. Evon hoio,
howovoi, thoio aio inpoitant dioioncos, showing howcultuial spocicitios
inoct shaiod goopolitics. In Thailand, whilo tho Muslins ol tho southoin-
nost piovincos onoy lull citizonship, tho hill tiilos ol tho noithunglo
pooplos (chao paa in Thai
14
havo loon doniod lull citizonship. Yot it is
906 Michael Herzfeld
thoso pooplo whon tho Thais, in a localizod voision ol Victoiian suivival-
isn, havo sonotinos iopiosontod as onlodying tho conditions lionwhich
siwilai has long sinco ioscuod tho Thais thonsolvos.
InGiooco, tho status ol ninoiitios is also conplox, althoughtho conploxi-
tios tako an intoiostingly dioiont loin. Muslins aio a iocognizod religious
ninoiity, as aio Jowslut woo lotido any who call thonsolvos Tuiks. Tho
Giook authoiitios countoi such soll-othnicizing toins on tho giounds that
not all Giook Muslins aio cultuially Tuikish, which is in lact tiuo: Ponaks
spoak Bulgaiian, whilo thoio aio othois who spoak Allanian and othoi lan-
guagos. But tho statos solution has loon to dony tho oxistonco ol ethnic
ninoiitios altogothoi, which noans that thoso with potontially dangoious
aliations to noighloiing countiiosospocially Macodonians and Tuiks
nd thoii othnicity conplotoly siloncod ly thoii (Giook citizonship.
At ist sight ono night doduco that this was tho oxact analoguo ol tho
situation lacing tho hill tiilos in Thailand. Yot it is not so nuch tho chao
paadospito thoii noncitizonstatuswho aio tioatod as sulvoisivo inThai-
land, tho authoiitios aio paiticulaily suspicious ol southoin Muslins ol
hailoiing sopaiatist sontinonts and oqually suspoct Chinoso iosidonts ol
suppoiting tho connunist causo. But thoy soo tho chao paa as instoad
iopiosonting tho Thais own piinitivo past, a past to which onoigotic
cultuial ioginontation will now liing thoso ionaining poisonications ol
Thailands colloctivo childhood.
15
Il tho chao paa aio potontial Thais in tho
naking, howovoi, connunistsand all who night lo suspoctod ol syn-
pathizing with thonaio tioatod as iiionodially un-Thai.
16
In this last
iospoct tho Thai and (pio-;q Giook situations havo oxhilitod signicant
convoigonco. Hollonization in Giooco and tho quost loi a pan-Thai siwilai in
Thailand, noioovoi, aio loth alout tho cioation ol a stiong, contializod cul-
tuial idontity dosignod to piotoct tho woakoi nonlois ol tho nation lion
tho innoial llandishnonts ol tho uncivilizod and sulvoisivo.
To nako suio that this ciypto-hogonony was piopoily lockod in placo,
noioovoi, local cultuial and political loadois havo wagod aggiossivo contial-
izing canpaigns to honogonizo thoii iospoctivo national languagos. Hoio
again wo soo national piido and cultuial indopondonco as a naik ol political
dopondonco. But whoioas in tho Giook caso tho nodol ol puiist (kathare-
vousa spooch, which ionainod tho ocial languago ol stato until ;o, was
constiuctod in onulation ol Wost Euiopoan idoas alout tho classical Giook
languago, loaving tho local dialoct ol Athons to poiish lion nogloct, Thai
The Absent Presence 907
languago ioloins soon to havo loon diioctod noio to honogonization and
to tho adoption ol a Sanskiitic vocalulaiy that wouldnonotholossnatch
tho donands ol acadonic and philosophical discouiso in tho Wost. Both, in
othoi woids, woio attonpts to onulato tho Wost, lut thoii iolationship with
local linguistic piacticos was intoiostingly divoigont.
Ono connonloatuio spiings liontho iosontnont that olito onulationol
Wostoin nodols has ongondoiod. Both countiios aio, signicantly, hono to
ioligions in which nonasticisnplays an inpoitant iolo, ono that is incioas-
ingly, alloit thiough naiginal gioups (such as tho noo-Oithodox novonont
in Giooco and ioloinist piogians in Thailand, gonoiating opposition to
Wostoin and natoiialist noials and nodols. Indood, such ioactions ovon
tuinagainst tho ocial iopositoiios ol ioligious authoiity, tho noo-Oithodox
conplain alout tho piotostantizationat loast in a loinal, Woloiian
sonsool tho Chuich ol Giooco, whilo ciiticisn ol tho Sangha in Thailand
ly gioups such as Santi Asoko has sinilaily attackod its luioauciatic stiuc-
tuio as woll as its toloianco ol coiiuption and natoiialisn. Whilo this is
not tho wholo stoiyothoi ioligious dovolopnonts, such as tho Dhanna-
kaya novonont and coitain local cults, havo appoaiod to sanction natoiial-
ist concoinsit doos at loast suggost that ono connon ioaction to ciypto-
colonialisn nay tako tho loin ol antinatoiialist ioligious activity in placos
widoly sopaiatod ly googiaphy and cultuio.
17
Such paiallols, I suggost, aio lai lion coincidontal. Il Thailand and
Giooco had to nako naoi concossions to tho Euiopoan powois in oidoi to
naintain any sonllanco ol sovoioignty, intoinal cultuial ioginontation
tho spaco whoio tho agonts ol loioign powois displayod, so to spoak, thoii
own agoncypiovidod such doals with a in laso: thoy ostallishod a pio-
sunod connon codo ol diplonatic noiality, onpowoiing thoso olito indi-
viduals and gioups to consolidato thoii authoiity, using cultuio as its pii-
naiy noasuio and ocononic cooicion as its nost conpolling instiunont.
Thoio woio inpoitant dioioncos at this lovol also, to lo suio. Thailand,
unliko Giooco, had oxistod as a iocognizod sovoioign stato, alloit in nuch
noio liagnontod loin,
18
loi nany contuiios. Its nonaichy was locally
onloddod in ioligious systons, whoioas tho Giook kings had to nako syn-
lolic clains on a Byzantino ciown that iang ospocially hollow in that tho
anciont Byzantiun was now tho ononysTuikoysnost inpoitant city,
Istanlul. Tho Giook nonaichy was always doiidod as loioign, locauso it was
widoly poicoivod to lo a koy agont ol tho ciypto-colonial piocoss.
908 Michael Herzfeld
Anthropology and the Quest for Origins: Hellenism Bound
So Sanskiit was tho lodiock, lut Giooco was assunod to lo whoio it
was thought to havo oiuptod in a tiuly iocognizallo luist ol Euiopoan
gonius, individualisn, and initiativo. Such is tho disciplinos inplicit oii-
gin nyth. This anthiopology, noioovoi, is not tho anthropologia (tho study
ol hunankinds iolo in tho cosnos ol Oithodoxy, lut tho piooct ol a
supposodly supoistition-lioo iationality.
19
I havo oncountoiod inloinal,
casual attonpts to iopiosont loth anthiopologios as lundanontally tho
sano, ust as thoio is a long histoiy in post-Indopondonco Giooco ol tiy-
ing to piovo that tho anciont philosophois woio tho intolloctual loioiun-
nois ol Chiistianity, lut thoso aio altoi-tho-lact voisions ol tho long-standing
Giook agony ovoi how (pagan Hollonisn and (Chiistian Giooknoss night
lo conlinod.
20
Noi is tho study ol oidinaiy pooplo (anthropi, classical
anthropoi, with all thoii socially luliicating aws and twists, tho nodol
loi anthiopology as it concoivod itsoll until voiy iocontly. That nodol is
sovoioly nooclassicalas nooclassical as a ninotoonth-contuiy louigoois
Giook houso, and, I suggost, no closoi than that to tho concoptual systons
ol high antiquity.
Bocauso tho Giook caso allows us to iionizo tho histoiy ol tho disciplino
so ooctivoly, an oxploiation ol tho poculiaily unsatislactoiy classical gono-
alogy ol anthiopology nay lo usolul in assossing ciitically its iolo in tho
dosciiption and analysis ol socioty and cultuio in Thailandoi, indood, in
any othoi countiy that night plausilly lo countod anong tho ianks ol tho
ciypto-colonios. This is not to ossontializo tho ciypto-colonios and so ioduco
thon to yot anothoi caso ol anthiopological classication. It is to uso taxon-
ony to undo taxonony, lut always with an oyo on signicant dioioncos
that will also nako any gonoializations usolully unstallo. It is in this spiiit
that I pioposo tho Giook caso as ooiing a way into tho disontanglonont
ol a discouiso that, whilo puipoiting to cololiato national indopondonco,
actually soons to luithoi its ooctivo stiangulation at liith.
Historians and Anthropologists
Tho usual institutional staiting-point ol anthiopology as a disciplino co-
incidos with E. B. Tylois oailiost uso ol tho woid in 8;.
21
But undoilying
assunptions alout Wostoin civilization appoai to havo pushod tho oiigins
lack to a lai oailioi dato. Maigaiot Hodgon, loi oxanplo, aiguod stiongly
The Absent Presence 909
against tho Tyloioan clains to oiiginaiy status, adducing inpiossivo ovi-
donco loi tho onoigonco ol a tiuly anthiopological poispoctivo in nodioval
and Ronaissanco Euiopo andin an unconscious ocho ol tho Giook histo-
iians own otynological nyths ol oiigintiacking down its ultinato oii-
gins to Hoiodotus.
22
At loast sinco hoi inpassionod lut scholaily attonpt to sot tho iocoid
stiaight, tho oldoi, classical lino ol ancostiy has loon tho iocoivod wisdon.
In this ioconsion, Hoiodotus is not only tho lathoi ol histoiy lut also
tho lathoi ol anthiopology, a suggostivoly unilinoal doscont attiilution
that also gonoiatos tho quaiiolsono nyth ol tho iival sillings, histoiy and
anthiopology, in tho contostod histoiy ol anthiopology. At sovoial stagos in
tho dovolopnont ol anthiopologylut nost dianatically in tho sciontis-
tic iooction ol histoiy as a nodol loi anthiopologyanthiopologists havo
lought ovoi whothoi histoiy was ovon iolovant to anthiopological concoins.
Such dolatos havo paiticulai iolovanco loi tho piosont discussion whon thoy
occui at tho hoait ol onpiio. A. R. Radclio-Biown, loi oxanplo, saw tho
spocicity ol histoiy (what ho callod its idiogiaphic chaiactoi as nocos-
saiily inconpatillo with tho kind ol dohistoiicizod cultuial scionco that ho
wantod to cioato, E. E. Evans-Piitchaid, at onco pioduct and ciitic ol tho
colonial ontoipiiso, sawin that sano spocicity tho possilility loi an undoi-
standing ol cultuio lodgod in tho social experience ol oidinaiy pooploa plu-
ialist vision ol histoiy, a nultiplicity ol histoiios.
23
Tho suppiossion ol histoiy paiallolod tho suppiossion ol philological con-
coins, intho altoinath ol suivivalisn, quostions alout cultuial oiigins woio
in lad odoi. Yot, as Vico had shown, tho philological and histoiical tool nost
usod loi tho logitination ol powoiotynologycould also lo usod sulvoi-
sivoly, in oidoi to gonoiato what Nancy Stiuovoi has iocognizod as a ciitiquo
ol civil disalility.
24
Piocisoly locauso tho sooning poisistonco ol woid loins
nay nask considoiallo disiuptions ol oldoi noanings, otynology is a two-
odgod swoid. Evans-Piitchaid, whoso ioading ol Vico thiough tho woiks ol
R. G. Collingwood nay havo sonsitizod hinto tho sulvoisivo possililitios ol
otynology, iocognizod that anthiopologists havo soldonnado voiy soiious
ooits to ioconstiuct lion histoiical iocoid and voilal tiadition tho past ol
tho pooplo thoy havo studiod. It was hold that this was an antiquaiian intoi-
ost and that it was iiiolovant to a lunctional study ol institutions to know
how thoy havo changod.
25
But Evans-Piitchaid was piolally noio intoi-
ostod intho sinploi quostionol iocovoiing lacts alout tho past. Evonthough
910 Michael Herzfeld
scholais ol oial tiadition woio sulsoquontly, and sonowhat contiovoisially,
to iointioduco tho tochniquos ol nanusciipt gonoalogy,
26
tho naoiity ol this
kind ol woik ionainod in tho hands ol nationalist lolkloiists. And thoy woio
coitainly not intoiostod in sulvoiting authoiitativo otynologios, thoy woio
noio intoiostod in constiucting thoii own.
Evans-Piitchaids vision was an inpoitant stop in tho docolonization ol
anthiopology. Ho iocognizod tho oocts ol ovonts on what soonod to lo tho
nost intiactally atonpoial loins ol social stiuctuio, loth in his tioatnont
ol Nuoi linoago sognontation and also, ospocially, in his woik on tho iiso ol
tho Lilyan nonaichy. Ono ol his pupils, J. K. Canploll, an anthiopologist
and histoiian who tiainod nunoious scholais in loth disciplinos, novod
tho sooningly ahistoiical idion ol Evans-Piitchaids analysis ol noial con-
nunity into tho Euiopoan sotting ol Giooco, whoio histoiy, ovon though tho
naiginal population ol shophoids ho studiod night lo ocially oxcludod
lion it, nonotholoss could not lo sidostoppod ly tho othnogiaphoi.
27
Histoiy and anthiopology aio cuiiously anlivalont alout oach othoi. Tho
conplonontaiy opposition lotwoon thon lios in tho oaso with which oach
disciplino canstio its ownoloct. Institutionalizod histoiios alolishtino in
tho nano ol tino, what Radclio-Biown callod nonothotic ways ol doing
anthiopology canalolish tho stiuctuiing ol social oxpoiionco oi intho nano
ol social stiuctuio.
28
Analysis ol thoso piocossos ontails a connittod iosis-
tanco to tho piocoss ol piogiossivo annosia: liko Vico, donanding a sul-
voisivo viow ol otynology piocisoly because institutions halitually usod oty-
nology to logitinizo thonsolvos, wo should tiy to tuintho disciplinos nano
into a ciitiquo ol Euiocontiic idontity situatod in tho paiticulaiitios ol its
inoscapally natoiial histoiy.
29
Intho nononclatuio ol anthiopology (oi ol any othoi sciontic discouiso,
tho ihotoiic ol classical otynology is not ust a postuio, it is also a stiong
instanco ol that ultinato ihotoiical tiick, that ol a ihotoiic that donios that
it is ihotoiical at all. Tho sinplost dononstiation ol this point is likoly to lo
tho nost ooctivo. Etynology not only logitinizos a connoction that doos
not nocossaiily sulsist, lut also doocts attontion away lion tho ophonoi-
ality ol that connoctionindood, natoiializos itly tho dovico ol pioclain-
ing tho cognato signiois as though thoy woio a singlo signiod, collaps-
ing all tonpoial shilts in noaning into a singlo, indivisillo, tinoloss tiuth.
Tho doiivation ol anthropology lion anthropos and logos iosts on idoaliza-
tions, aigually noio appiopiiato to tho Enlightonnont and Ronanticisn
The Absent Presence 911
than to classical thought, ol loth hunankind and discouiso. To tuin again
to Thailand, whoio tho toininology ol tho hunan scioncos is all doiivod
lionSanskiit, tho toinloi anthropologymaanuthyawithayaa, tho scionco
ol hunankindis calquod on Wostoin toininology lut ovokos sciiptuial
authoiity thiough its uso ol Sanskiit, tho usual woid loi poison, khon
(as in khon Thai, Thai poison, doos not possoss this iosonanco, would
not nako sonso in a nodoin Thai acadonic contoxt, and yot (togothoi with
phuu and tho piox nak- captuios noio oi loss tho iango ol social noan-
ings inpliod ly tho ovoiyday Giook uso ol anthropos (poison, althoughit is
noutial with iospoct to tho ovoiyday noial aws that go with loing an oidi-
naiily sociallo poisonand that aio inpliod intho Giook phiaso anthropi dhen
imaste? (aiont wo hunan?. It is poihaps signicant that whoioas in Thai-
land anthiopology as a disciplino taught in tho national univoisity syston
has a histoiy ol sovoial docados, tho ist Giook dopaitnont ol social anthio-
pology was loundod only in 8o.
30
Not only did Giook anthiopologists havo
to addioss tho ontionchodhogonony ol nationalistic lolkloio studios, lut tho
voiy oidinaiinoss ol tho disciplinos suloct nattoi nado it haid to giasp: tho
iosontlul nunicipality ol Mytilono, whoio tho ist univoisity dopaitnont ol
social anthiopology ioplacod tho populai (and populous oducation dopait-
nont, votod loi a notion ciiticizing tho cloudy jthat is, vaguo| disciplino ol
social anthiopology.
Tho piollon is piocisoly that in Giooco tho nano anthropoloyia appoaiod
to conin tho sonso, ontoitainod ly nany Giook scholais, that anthiopolo-
gists woio sinply naking a lot ol acadonic noiso alout poiloctly oidinaiy
nattois that ioquiiod no olucidation. Outsido Giooco, howovoi, tho giandi-
oso iosonanco ol tho Tyloioan coinago pioducod tho opposito ooct. Liko
thoso voiloso nodical Hollonisns that nystily tho woik ol doctois in a way
that Hippociatos would suioly havo lound oloctionallo, tho voiy nano ol
anthiopology appoaiod to lodgo its oiigins in classical thought. Alovo all,
it ovokod a notion ol alstiact thooiy that has conoas Dtionno pointod
out
31
to lo idontiod in tho wiitings ol Hogol with tho voiy notion ol
Euiopo itsoll. It appoalod at onco to an Enlightonnont viowol tho oxoiciso ol
puio ioason and a Ronantic vision ol hunan natuio. Gioocos iolationship
with Euiopoan clains on intolloctual hogonony and ovon tianscondonco
a phonononon that Hunphioys spocically tiacod to tho anciont Giooks
nakos its iolativo oxclusion lion tho thooiotical canon a point ol paiticulai
intoiost.
32
But wo nust also considoi why othoi countiios havo loon sini-
912 Michael Herzfeld
laily oxcludod. It is not a nattoi ol sizo (Thailand, loi oxanplo, has alout
vo tinos tho population ol Giooco, noi, olviously, is it tho iosult ol colo-
nial donination, not only locauso thoso countiios aio piocisoly tho onos that
woio not diioctly iulod ly tho colonial powois, lut also locauso it is piocisoly
thoso loinoi colonios that havo long loon and ionain tho sitos ol sono
ol tho nost onoigotic thooiy-luildingIndia, Indonosia, laigo swathos ol
sul-Sahaian Aliica, tho Austialian outlack, tho Maghiol, ust to nano tho
olvious casos.
Lineages and Identities
So total is tho assunption that Giooco is tho Hollas ol tho classical past
that tho ist naoi othnogiaphy ol a modern Giook connunity actually
had to lo sultitlod A Village in Modern Greece.
33
(Boing an othnogiaphoi ol
Giooco today piovidos a no intioduction to tho piollon, sinco onos intoi-
locutois aio apt to assuno autonatically that ono is a classical aichaoolo-
gist. At loast othoi civilizations that tho Wost could liing itsoll to canonizo
as gioatIndia, China, Japanwoio oxotic onough, and cloaily not us.
As such, thoii oxtonsion into nodoin tinos did not poso as gioat a poton-
tial thioat to tho soll-constitution ol Euiopo, thoy soonod unanliguously
and onphatically not ioally nodoin. Euiopoan nationalist idoologuos col-
loctivoly distinguishod tho woilds anciont civilizations, including that ol
Giooco, lion nodoin civilization, ly invoking tho iolativo honogonoity ol
tho loinoi as conpaiod with tho lattoi.
34
But this is not tho wholo stoiy, loi
tho assunption that tho Giooks sonohow lathoiod tho Wost as a wholo
noant that thoy had to lo invokod and suppiossod at tho sano tino. Claudo
Lvi-Stiauss, who aiguod that all oui connontaiios on anciont nyths aio
lut vaiiants ol thoso nyths, night lo intiiguod to discovoi hoio an Oodi-
pal piocoss at tho voiy hoait ol Euiopoan intolloctual histoiy.
35
Hoiodotus
is, lot us iocall again, hailod as tho father ol nodoin anthiopology. (Poihaps
it is no coincidonco that a closoly iolatod intolloctual tiadition, this tino in
tho loinol classical philology, succoododaccoiding to Maitin Boinalin
suppiossing this sano Hoiodotus opinions alout tho oiigins ol Giook and
thoioloio ol Euiopoan cultuio, in oidoi to gonoiato a nyth ol spontanoous
gonosis?
36

Tho classical Giooco ol tho anthiopologists is thus, loi tho nost pait, a
chinoia. Thoso who nado oxciting discovoiios ly applying anthiopologi-
The Absent Presence 913
cal tochniquos to classical natoiials ionainod naiginal to anthiopology at
loast, il not to classical philology as woll. Jano Haiiison was a philologist
ly tiaining, whilo tho oxploiations ol Louis Goinot in classical cultuio havo
iaioly loon invokod ly nodoin anthiopologists oxcopt a low who shaio his
spocial intoiost in classical Athons and its social liloS. C. Hunphioys,
loi oxanplo. Indood, tho gonoial apathy that giootod tho iopullication in
English ol Goinots naoi woik on classical Giooco would soon to suggost
that tho voiy idoa ol a thooiotical poispoctivo doiivod lion tho classical past
nust lo docidodly unwolcono.
37
Appoals to a piosunod knowlodgo ol tho classical woild woio also littlo
noio than caiicatuio. Thus, loi oxanplo, Ruth Bonodicts chaiactoiization
ol cultuial othos as oithoi Apollonian (iostiainod and iationalistic oi Dio-
nysian (lionziod and oigiastic noioly took a conplox sognont ol Giook
ioligious philosophy, alioady ioliactod thiough tho wiitings ol Niotzscho,
as tho lasis loi cioating idoal typos that lost thoii oiiginal noaning thiough
tho sinplo act ol ioilying thon in this way. In anciont Giooco thoso poi-
soniod conditions ol tho hunan psycho diow signicanco lion tho play-
lul tonsion iocognizod to sulsist lotwoon thonthioughout hunan socioty,
Bonodict, ly quito oponly sovoiing thon lion thoii ioots in Giook social
lilo, tuinod thon into caiicatuios that had viitually nothing to do with tho
anciont cultuio lion which sho clainod to havo doiivod thon. Bonodict did
acknowlodgo sono ol thoso dopaituios: Apollonian institutions havo loon
caiiiod nuchluithoi intho puollos thaninGiooco. Giooco was ly no noans
as singlo-nindod. In paiticulai, Giooco did not caiiy out as tho Puollos
havo tho distiust ol individualisn that tho Apollonian way ol lilo inplios,
lut which in Giooco was scantod locauso ol loicos with which it cano into
conict.
38
Indood thoy could not havo dono, il thoy woio to ionain tho
onllonatic ancostois ol thoso nost dotoininodly soll-pioclainod individu-
alists, tho Euiopoans. Thoio aio histoiical indications ol this: Giook civiliza-
tion . . . is unintolligillo without iocognizing tho Dionysian conponsations
it also institutionalizod. Thoio is no law, lut sovoial dioiont chaiactoiistic
couisos which a doninant attitudo nay tako. But thon, ono night ask, why
invoko tho Giooks at all?
Hoio, I think, tho answoi is to lo sought in tho histoiy ol Euiopoan
idontity. Bonodict is, poihaps unconsciously, ioocting a viow ol Euiopoan
civilization, and ospocially ol its Giook staiting point, in which tho possi-
lility ol choico constitutos tho chaiactoiistic idoology and piactico ol agoncy
914 Michael Herzfeld
known as individualisnan agoncy linkod histoiically not only to tho iiso
ol piopoity ownoiship lut also to tho onoigonco ol that colloctivo individu-
alisn known as nationalisn.
39
Anoiican iuggod individualisn, itsoll a
colonial othic, lalls within tho sano tiadition. Bonodict piolally saw no
nood to intoiiogato such assunptions loyond ionaiking, with tho pioci-
sion ol a good scholai, that tho Giook nodol lion which Niotzscho doiivod
thoso idoal typos, could usolully lo disnonloiod and distiilutod anong
tho vaiious nativo pooplos sho studiod. Sho ovidontly lolt no uigo to quos-
tion tho notivating assunption that this novo indicatos: that nativo pooplos
lack tho hallnaiks ol tiuo, Euiopoan civilizationagoncy, individualisn,
and tho idoological choico that today wo associato with tho idoa ol civil
socioty. Ono night nako sinilai udgnonts ol tho oagoinoss with which
sono anthiopologists ol stiuctuial poisuasion, no doult dolightod to nd
thoii woik citod in olicitation ol tho piovalonco ol linaiisn in pio-Sociatic
thought,
40
poipotuatod tho viow that tho sinploi loins ol linaiisn also
iopiosontod a cold stato ol cognitivo dovolopnont and so unwittingly usod
tho synanic histoiy ol Giook philosophy to poipotuato tho suivivalist viow
ol a woild dividod lotwoon nativos and Euiopoansa sinplo linaiy opposi-
tion il ovoi thoio was ono, and only slightly tiansnogiiod in tho opposition
lotwoon colonizod and colonizois.
Greece and the Multicultural World
That Euiopoan idontity is tho issuo loconos innodiatoly cloai whon wo
noio ciitically oxanino Maigaiot Hodgons tactics loi tiacing tho histoiy ol
anthiopology nuch luithoi lack than its convontional point ol oiigin in tho
piolossional ostallishnont ol Victoiian acadono. Hodgons appioach is at
onco scholaily and idoological. In an appioach that iopioducos tho anciont
histoiians own Hollonocontiisn,
41
Hodgon oxplicitly ciodits Hoiodotus
with a iationality and a iolativisn that anticipatos nodoin anthiopology,
noioovoi, sho stiongly onphasizos his appotito loi tiavol, sonothing that
ho shaios with Thucydidos lut that thoioaltoi only ioappoais with Colun-
lus and tho Euiopoanization ol Anoiica. It is also iolovant in this contoxt
that sho castigatos nodioval wiitois loi lacking undoistanding shown ly
Hoiodotus, pointing out that it was only with tho ionowal ol contact loyond
tho innodiatoly known woild that toloianco loi oxotic othois ioappoais:
knowlodgo noans undoistanding, and collapsing histoiy in this way sin-
The Absent Presence 915
plios tho inplicitly Hollonic clains ol Wostoin opistonology. At sovoial
points sho nakos it cloai, noioovoi, that hoi goal is a histoiical ustica-
tion, not noioly ol anthiopology as a disciplino, lut noio paiticulaily ol its
diagnostic activityoldwoik ly paiticipant olsoivation.
Hodgons distiust ol nodioval olsoivois spiings lion tho sano idion ol
Euiocontiisn that has also lanishod Byzantiun lion tho ontiio histoiy ol
anthiopology. It was in tho stoiny histoiy ol Byzantino iolations with tho
Latin Wost that Euiopoan idontity locano donitivoly sopaiatod lion that
ol contonpoiaiy Giooks, so that tho nooclassical iovival in Giooco would
ovontually gonoiato tho stiains that aio so chaiactoiistic ol Giook cultuio
and politics todayospocially a poivasivo linaiisn ol notivos, in which
outoi-diioctod nooclassicisn vios with a potontially soll-ciitical (lut olton
noioly nationistic iathoi than nationalistic loin ol oastoin-oiiontod
nativisn, an inplodod Oiiontalisn.
42
Tho widospioad hostility shown ly
Giook nonks and othois to tho Popo duiing his zoo visit to thoii countiy
shows that tho Wost is ly no noans viowod with oquaninity oi ploasuio,
ovon whon tho taigot is not tho Unitod Statos oi tho Euiopoan Union (ol
which Giooco is now a nonloi-stato.
Liko tho Giooks ocial, nooclassical soll-piosontation, which is a iooc-
tion ol tho spocicitios ol local histoiy and social oxpoiionco, Hodgon loio-
shoitons anthiopological histoiy, and so, in pait, sho alolishos it. An-
thiopologists nay oasily iocognizo tho piocoss as tho soit ol tonpoial
toloscoping chaiactoiistic ol nany nonlitoiato cultuios and nost con-
nonly oxpiossod thiough tho stiuctuial annosia ol linoago systons.
43
By
sooking ostonsillo links lotwoon Hoiodotus, Colunlus, and tho Victoiians
(sho also slights tho Enlightonnont as a poiiod ol intolloctual iogiossion loi
anthiopology, sho links up a wholo soiios ol idoological topoi: iuggod indi-
vidualisn, ontoipiiso, visual oxploiation, inpoiial oi noicantilo contact,
and, quito sinply, ust loing thoiotho naoi clain, as Janos Clioid
has pointod out in his piovocativo analysis ol oldwoik idoology, ol othno-
giaphic authoiity.
44
Doultloss, tho nodioval wiitois who ninod Hoiodotus did indood, as
Hodgonclains, sinplily and iocast nuchol what ho had to say. Thoii oxpoii-
onco ol othoi paits ol tho woild was, as sho points out, loss diioct than his,
and thoii intoiost noio inwaidly diioctod. That Hodgon has not discussod
tho oqually stiiking olononts ol thoii sinilaiity with Hoiodotus is nost ol
all an indox ol tho philological standaids ly which sho udgos thon, thoso
916 Michael Herzfeld
standaids, howovoi, aio also tho noans ly which Euiopoan cultuio avoidod
sooing its own toxtualizations ol altoiity as synlolic ol an idoologically noc-
ossaiy connitnont to cultuial dioionco. Ronaikally liko Giook nation-
alist wiitois ol tho ninotoonth contuiy, who oithoi ignoiod that phaso ol
Giook cultuio oi sinpliod its Giooknoss loyond iocognition, histoiians
ol nodoin anthiopology havo thus constiuctod a gonoalogy in which tho
Middlo Agos sinply do not guio at all, oi tioat that phaso as an aloiianco
thiough which sonothing ol tho anciont gonius novoitholoss nanagod to
suivivo, thon to lo ioloin undoi conditions ol nascont nodoinity. It is a
convoniont stoiy.
In a Euiocontiic woild that donos itsoll in ciiculai lashion ly ovoking
a classical Giooco that it has itsoll constiuctod, tho iolo ol anthiopology
as a nyth ol oiigin night lo oxpoctod to yiold a stiong connitnont to
sono loin ol classical doiivation. Undoi thoso ciicunstancos, tho paucity
ol oxplicitly classical points ol ioloionco is tolling. It paiados an ancostiy
that cannot lo too piocisoly tiacod. Foi anthiopology, in oidoi to lay clain
to tho status ol a nodoin scionco, nust lo allo to clain ioots in tho anciont
cultuio: a piociso ioplication ol tho losotting paiadox ol Euiopoan national-
isn itsoll, which wantod to ioot itsoll in classical Giooco whilo at tho sano
tino iologating tho lattoi to tho donain ol tho pionodoin, socially and cul-
tuially undioiontiatod, idoologically piinitivo typo ol sociotya nocossaiy
piooction in a tiuly suivivalist univoiso.
Tho iodiscovoiy ol anciont Giooco has ioquiiod a voiy dioiont dovolop-
nont, ono that is consistont with tho noio iooxivo and anticolonialist loan-
ings ol tho disciplino today. It is tolling that, piocisoly at tho point whon
tho classics aio disappoaiing lion nany Wostoin cuiiicula, a noio gonoi-
ous ongagonont with classical Giooco has logun to onoigo. Tho giadual
lading ol classical loaining lion tho schoolioons ol tho Wost acconpaniod
tho doniso ol tho inpoiial woild hogononios that had nost onthusiastically
suppoitod it. In consoquonco, tho Giooks only iotuin to consciousnoss as
signicant playois in tho constitution ol anthiopology at tho sano tino as
tho loginning ol a noio systonatic intoiost intho modern Giooks gots undoi
way. Hodgons iohalilitation ol Hoiodotus appoaiod in tho Unitod Statos in
tho sano yoai, oq, that J. K. Canplolls Honour, Family, and Patronage was
pullishod in England.
Hodgon had oailioi notod that tho loin ol suivivalisn acquiios poculiai
contouis whon anthiopology nds itsoll doaling with tho iolo ol tho Giooks,
The Absent Presence 917
anciont and nodoin, in tho constitution ol Euiopoan cultuio.
45
In tho
Tyloioan voision, suivivals pointod lack to noio piinitivo tinos, whoioas
tho nooclassical voision tiiod to idontily tho ionnants ol a piocoss ol docay
iathoi thanadvancononttho sad iolics ol a gloiious past innuiod intho
passivo poasant stupidity ol today. Yot tho paiadox lay in this ciicunstanco:
tho classical past was loth tho idoological inpiinatui ol cultuial iospoct-
alility and at tho sano tino a nocossaiily loss conplox, loss sophisticatod
voisionol tho Euiopoanpiosont. Tho collapso ol suivivalisnintho noxt gon-
oiations ol anthiopology luiiod that paiadox onco and loi all ly ioluilding
it on tho iuins: it ionovod classical Giooco lion loth tho soll-conscious
intolloctual ancostiy ol tho disciplino and tho coipus ol logitinatoly con-
paiallo othnogiaphic casos. By tho tino Hodgon sought to iostoio Hoiodo-
tus to his placo at tho hoad ol tho disciplinaiy gonoalogy, and J. K. Canp-
loll, Einostino Fiiodl, and Iiwin T. Sandois logan tho inpoitant piocoss
ol liinging Giooco into tho donain ol accoptallo othnogiaphy, tho piocoss
ol stiuctuial annosia had poinittod tho sophisticatod Euiopoan iationality
conoining Hoiodotus to nodoin anthiopology to ioplaco tho ciudoly iacist
Euiopoansupoiioiity ol such wiitois as Golinoau (who iogaidod tho Giooks
as oiiontals although ho also piolossod to liko thon.
46
This iationality, in
Hodgons woik as in Golinoaus pontications, stios tho supoistitious
nodioval phaso ly tioating its donizons nuch as oailioi anthiopologists had
tioatod tho piinitivo cultuios thoy studiod. Tho Giooks had donitivoly
disappoaiod lion tho hogononic donition ol European, swallowod up ly
tho nodioval Byzantinos and tho oiiontal Ottonans. Thus saloly quaian-
tinod liontho ioalitios ol nodoin Euiopoan cultuio and socioty, thoy could
nowioappoai (as nodoin Giooks in tho wiitings ol a lowanthiopologists
as othnogiaphic sulocts.
47
With tho incioasingly iapid disappoaianco ol tho classics lion loth tho
schoolioonand tho diplonatic ioading list, ovon tho logitinating iosuscita-
tion ol anciont authois logins to yiold to a nuch noio ciitical undoistand-
ing ol tho iolo ol anciont Giook histoiy in tho schooling ol inpoiial powoi
liokois. Such toctonic shilts, howovoi, aio dooply unsottling loi tho ciypto-
colonial olitos whoso iolos dopondod on naintaining tho old undoistand-
ings. Many oducatod Giooks today, ospocially thoso ol consoivativo inclina-
tions, aio outiagod ly Maitin Boinals iooction ol tho idoa that Hollonic
cultuio spiang lully loinod lion tho soil ol Giooco: tho idoa that Giook
cultuio night lo Aliican conos acioss as a lotiayal ol tho nost laithlul
918 Michael Herzfeld
cultuial sycophantsa not-unconnon lato ol lully colonial olitos as woll,
it should lo notod.
48
Evon thoso who loan luithoi to tho lolt aio upsot ly
tho thioat to tho Giooks ono clain on univoisal inpoitanco that thoy soo in
tho iiso ol Wostoin nulticultuialisn, which thoy link to tho doniso ol tho
classics, a synpathotic ouinalist, who othoiwiso iopoitod ny connonts
on Giook nationalisnquito accuiatoly, nonotholoss incoiioctly iopiosontod
no as tioating Giooco as tho victin ol a now lashion jthat is, nulticultui-
alisn|.
49
Yot it is piocisoly at this point that anthiopologists login to tioat
anciont Giooco, not as a quaint othnological cuiiosity (as did tho suivival-
ists, not as a vaguo souico ol ancostial authoiity loi tho Wost, lut as pait ol a
glolal histoiy inwhich colonialisnnay havo spioad tho woid lut local ingo-
nuity has activoly tiansloinod it. Multicultuialisniocognizos tho contiilu-
tion ol tho Giooks, lut not accoiding to tho canonical histoiy constiuctod
in tho hoyday ol inpoiial donination.
Lot no illustiato this with a singlo, stiiking illustiation ol what this shilt
can ontail. Stophon Gudonan has collaloiatod with a local (Colonlian col-
loaguo to tiaco a voiitallo gonoalogy ol idoas lion Aiistotlo and othoi, latoi
thinkois to tho lolk thooiios ol Colonlian poasants and anthiopologists
aliko.
50
But noto that his is a doullo act ol doanco: not only do ho and his
colloaguo iointioduco classical Giook nodols in oidoi to tiaco tho oiigins ol
vaiiants thoy oncountoi in tho now woild, a novo that Gudonan has sulso-
quontly oxpandod in his thooiotical woik, lut thoy also conpaio thon with
indigonous nodols and tako tho lattoi soiiously as thooiotical constiucts. In
so doing, thoy collapso tho alsoluto distinction that nany wiitois piosup-
poso lotwoon thooiy and othnogiaphy. Such a novo challongos scholaily
authoiity as woll as tho laigoi authoiity ol tho Wostoin canon. But it also
involvos shaiing that quintossontially Hollonic and Euiopoan ancostiy, not
only with a local scholaily collaloiatoi, lut also with tho nativos. This is a
gonuinoly iooxivo shilt ol poispoctivo.
Anthropology and the Fate of Hellenism
Such shilts ioinpoit iionios into tho oiiginal spaco ol analysis. Tho toin
modern Greece, loi oxanplo, is incioasingly suloct to inloinal quostion-
ing, although it poisists in ovoiyday scholaily usago. Thoio is a ioason loi
this: thoso ol us who do othnogiaphic iosoaich in Giooco, conliontod ly
tho autonatic assunption that wo nust lo aichaoologists (an assunption
The Absent Presence 919
nado all tho noio iocalcitiant ly tho now-doaloning alsonco ol any gonoial
knowlodgo alout classical Giook cultuio, cannot disponso with it ontiioly,
il only locauso it piovidos ono ol tho low ways ol ioninding pooplo that
tho countiy is still inhalitod! Iionically, tho nodol ol soanloss continuity
lotwoon anciont and nodoin Giooco, as aiticulatod in tho ciypto-colonial
and nationalist discouisos, cannot now lo allowod to disappoai, locauso it
would appaiontly tako awaionoss ol tho living populationaway withit as woll.
Wo can login to soaich loi tho connon giound ol such oxclusions ly
thinking alout tho languagos ol scholaiship. Although what lollows is an
inpiossionistic udgnont, I sulnit that it is piocisoly in tho ciypto-colonios
that tho local languagos, iathoi than tho languagos ol inpoiial iulo, soivo
tho goals ol acadonic pullishing. This is a pioud assoition ol cultuial indo-
pondonco, and indood it should lo so intoipiotod. But it is also, and hoio
lios tho iul, a noans ol soll-oxclusion, and not only lion tho lioadoi intoi-
national acadonic connunity doninatod ly English, Fionch, and Spanish
(with incioasing dosos ol Japanoso, Chinoso, Goinan, and poihaps Russian
and Aialic, it also contiilutos to a two-tioi syston in which local schol-
ais havo tondod to wiito in isolation lion thoii loioign countoipaits, who
iaioly cito tho local scholais woik oxcopt whon it is pullishod in English oi
Fionch.
That situation is loginning to chango. Il ono chocks tho lilliogiaphios ol
iocont nonogiaphs alout tho othnology ol Giooco, tho piopoition ol Giook
titlos has incioasod, and woiks lasod on Giook iosoaich lut puipoiting to
ooi a widoi thooiotical puiviow aio loginning to guio in tho citations
ol nonogiaphs doaling with othoi paits ol tho woild, signicantly, in tho
piosont contoxt, Soionotakis, wiiting (in English alout Giooco, appoais in
a iocont study ol Thailand.
51
(Oddly onough, tho othnogiaphy ol Italy lags
luithoi lohind hoio, dospito tho hoioic attonpts ol Gooigo Saundois to pio-
noto tho thinking ol Einosto do Maitino, loi oxanplo, nost Italian-languago
ioloioncos in othnogiaphios ol Italy aio to histoiical, sociological, political-
scionco, oi ouinalistic woiks, and laigoly ignoio tho inpiossivo iostoi ol
Italian scholaiship on Italian local woildsa tiadition that soons to havo
lallon aloul ol a pullishing situation no loss iivon ly localisn than tho poli-
tics ol tho countiy as a wholo!
52

Such changos show that ciypto-colonialisn has ioal consoquoncos, and

that thoso aio sonotinos unpiodictally slow to iospond to changos in tho
glolal lalanco ol powoi. Indood, I suggost that tho ciypto-colonios havo
920 Michael Herzfeld
loon doully victinizod: not only havo thoy suoiod nany ol tho ocononic
and political oocts ol colonialisn itsoll, lut thoy havo thon lound thon-
solvos oxcludod, natoiially and opistonologically, ly tho nassivo loicos
upholding tho linaiisns ol lato-twontioth-contuiy ioalpolitik. Caught intho
oxclusionaiy logic ol cold wai oppositions, thoy havo also loon squoozod
lotwoon tho inpoiial powois and thoii ocially iocognizod victins. This
has onallod local olitos to naintain thoii giip on powoi in ways that olso-
whoio piovod vulnoiallo, and has also lod to challongos that soon ionaik-
ally sinilai in sono ciypto-colonial situations. Tho tiaoctoiios loading to
tho ; Polytochnic studonts upiising inAthons andtho ;ostudont nas-
sacio at Thannasat Univoisity in Bangkok, as woll as sulsoquont dovolop-
nonts in loth placos, aio suciontly sinilai to suggost that thoso ovonts
nay indox conpaiallo (although not idontical consoquoncos ol cold wai
dynanics. But thoso dynanics lollowod in alioady woll-ostallishod paths
ol glolal politics, in which ciypto-colonios woio loicod to play iolos not ol
thoii own choosing. Within that laigoi goopolitical contoxt, thoii civiliza-
tional discouisosploas loi iocognition and iospoctalilitylollowod tho
paiallol dynanic ol a glolal hioiaichy ol cultuio. Tho iolativo indioionco
with which tho Wost has gonoially ioactod to such appoals suggosts that
tho ciypto-colonioswhich in tho postcolonial woild cannot poisuasivoly
lay clainto ocononic oi cultuial iopaiationsnust continuo to stiugglo,
luidonod ly thoii anciont pasts, with a lutuio loi which thoio is as yot no
cloai catogoiical slot.
Tho ioality ol colonialisns hoiitago is that tho glolal hioiaichy ol cultuial
valuo it has cioatod poisists long altoi tho doniso ol tho political and nili-
taiy onpiios. Tho Giooks stiugglos to conlointo doninant inagos ol Hol-
lonic cultuio only coninod thoii cultuial suloidination to such inpoitod
nodols. Thoy woio caught in a doullo lind. Il thoy onphasizod laniliai cul-
tuial idions, thoy woio contaninatod ly Tuikish and Slavic inuoncos,
tho ovoiyday was not ioally Giook. But il thoy instoad lollowod tho Hollonic
nodols, thoy woio doiidod loi thoii slavish dovotion to a past thoy woio hold
to havo lost and loi tho iocovoiy ol which thoy woio loholdon to tho voiy loi-
oignois who nockod thon. Thoio is nothing intiinsically lad alout Slavic
oi Tuikish inuonco, noi is thoio any ioason to supposo that tho valuos colo-
liatod ly Enlightonnont and Ronantic Euiopo woio paiticulaily good. But
thoy havo cono to doninato tho glolal onviionnont, sustainod ly intoina-
tional ioalitios, and tho ciypto-colonios havo loi long had to chooso lotwoon
The Absent Presence 921
adapting to thon oi iisking ovoi noio ciushing naiginalization. It is oasy,
in thoso toins, to soo why woik liko Boinals piovokos such a tonso nixtuio
ol anxioty and iosontnont in Giooco.
In tho caso ol Thailand, wo soo a closoly iolatod dynanic. Espocially in
thoii cultivation ol loioign iulois, tho ninotoonth-contuiy Thai kings woio
potitionois loi a cultuial iocognition low woio piopaiod to vouchsalo thon,
tho Russian czai, who was tho solo Euiopoan nonaich to iocoivo tho Sia-
noso King Chulalongoin with lull dignity, lacod widospioad doults alout
his own countiys iight to account itsoll Euiopoan and was no doult
happy to show hinsoll noio civilizod than thoso ol his lollow-nonaichs
who dospisod his countiy. As Thongchai has shown, noioovoi, tho attonpts
ol tho Sianoso to piosont thonsolvos as oqual paitnois with Euiopo in tho
woik ol civilization, ospocially at tho gioat woild laiis ol colonialisns hoy-
day, lod to continual huniliation. It was only whon tho Sianoso pavilion was
litoially placod anong thoso ol colonios that thoy woio allo to addioss that
huniliation diioctly and to any ooct and succoodod in gotting it ioclassiod
and iolocatod, nost ol tho tino, Sian appoaiod as a countiy noio initativo
than pioductivo.
53
Whoioas tho Sianoso piooct ol siwilai was an attonpt to captuio tho auia
ol tochnological achiovonont associatod with tho Wost, an attonpt that poi-
haps still inlusos aspocts ol Thai nodoinity, tho Giooks piooct had noio
to do with iocaptuiing tho auia ol an otoinal Euiopoan quintossonco. That
piooct still inloins tho connon Giook lanont that tho Wost stolo tho
light lion Hollas and ustios tho appiopiiation ol Wost Euiopoan cul-
tuial olonontsgiannatical stiuctuios, loi oxanploin what, accoiding
to tho doninant idoology, is tho tiuo cultuio ol Giooco. But whoioas tho
Giooks saw this piooct as a return to cultuial loadoiship, thoii Euiopoan
pations sinply saw it nuch as thoy saw tho Thai civilizational piooctsas
an attonpt to catch up with tho Wost.
Ciypto-colonialisn is thus alout tho oxclusion ol coitain countiios lion
accoss to tho glolally doninant advantagos ol nodoinity. That oxclusion
is iooctod in tho histoiy ol anthiopology. Whoioas tho loinoi colonios
locano inpoitant olocts ol thooiotical iooction, tho ciypto-colonios had
a nuch noio anliguous and liustiating iolationship to tho pioduction
ol anthiopological thooiy. Whilo I do not want to oxaggoiato this distinc-
tion, which is also nuch loss applicallo now than it would havo loon two
docados ago, I suspoct that nuch ol tho thooiotical laloi conductod in tho
922 Michael Herzfeld
ciypto-colonios has ionainod naiginalizodin dianatic contiast with, loi
oxanplo, sulaltoin studios in tho Indian sulcontinont oi postcolonial
studios in sul-Sahaian Aliica.
I do not want to suggost that paiticulai countiios should appoai as tho
loaiois ol now thooiy. Thooiy is itsoll a piollonatic catogoiy, its closo oty-
nological links with tho Giook loi olsoivation should, lollowing Vicos
sulvoisivo uso ol otynology, undoinino any sinplistic disciinination
lotwoon thooiy and olsoivation as contonpoiaiy loins ol acadonic piac-
ticoand olsoivation itsoll, as Johannos Falian notos,
54
is a tiopo ol doni-
nation. My goal is thus not to piosciilo a iotuin to tho podostal, histoiical
oi thooiotical. Moio nodostly, I want to aiguo that thoso countiios that havo
loon oxcludod to any signicant dogioo liontho pioduction ol social thooiy
nay nowinstoad soivo as souicos ol insight into tho hogononic piotonsions
that social thooiy hasolton inadvoitontlytondod to ondoiso. Il conpai-
ing anthiopology and Giook nation-luilding has soonod a usolul oxoiciso,
night wo not gain conpaiallo insight lion conpaiing anthiopology (oi
sociology, oi cultuial studios, oi ovon histoiy with tho Thai discouiso ol
siwilai, loi oxanplo?
Such oxoicisos, ol which tho potontial vaiioty is onoinous, would chal-
longo a hogononic stiuctuio that, initiatod undoi colonialisn, iopoats itsoll
as loth tiagody and laico in its succossois.
55
Tho opposition lotwoon colo-
nizoi and colonizod is itsoll a discuisivo pait ol that dooply piollonatic hoii-
tago. Bioaking apait tho linaiisn ol colonizoi and colonizod nay lo dis-
tastolul to sono, ospocially thoso whoso connitnonts and stiugglos havo
holpod to pinpoint and disnantlo tho ovils that it indoxos. But that novo
will conconitantly iovoal tho piosonco ol othoi hogononios, haidoi to dis-
assonllo piocisoly locauso thoy havo loon woll concoalod. Moanwhilo, it is
inpoitant not to ioily ciypto-colonialisn: ovon tho shadowy account ol tho
Thai oxpoiionco that I havo skotchod in as a loil to tho Giook nay suco to
illuninato tho sinilaiitios and tho dioioncos aliko.
Tho woild is no longoi nado up ol colonizois and colonizod alono, noi
was it ovoi so sinply split. Tho piovisional catogoiy that I havo idontiod
as ciypto-colonialisn oois a ciitical poispoctivo on tho distiilution ol cul-
tuial signicanco inanthiopology andtho woild: instoadol sinply accopting
tho idoa that sono countiios night lo uninpoitant whilo othois night lo
unintoiosting, wo ask who donos tho natuio ol inpoitanco and intoiost and
so challongo tho ostallishod woild-oidoi politics ol signicanco. This novos
The Absent Presence 923
anthiopology to tho ciitiquo ol now sulaltoinitios and now conploxitios ol
powoi. In tho piocoss anthiopology nay again show tho capacity that has
onsuiod its suivival against iopoatod oxpoctations ol its intolloctual lank-
iuptcy and doniso: tho capacity to iothink itsoll and its iolo in tho woild.
Notes
I would liko to thank tho lollowing, who ioad voisions ol this ossay at quito divoigont nononts
inits long liithandpiovidodpiocious insights to whichI havo tiiodto iiso: Loiing M. Danloith,
Nancy Folson-Rulin, Giogoiy Jusdanis, Piista Ratanapiuck, Sohini Ray, Eiic Schwinnoi,
Saipin Suputtanongkol, Stanloy J. Tanliah, and Thongchai Winichakul.
Maitin Boinal, Black Athena: The Afro-Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (Now Biuns-
wick: Rutgois Univoisity Pioss, 8;.
z A low koy authois (loi oxanplo, Eniko Ohnuki-Tioinoy, The Monkey As Mirror: Symbolic
Transformations in Japanese History and Ritual jPiincoton: Piincoton Univoisity Pioss,
8;|, z havo logun to tuin tho tido, lut this dovolopnont has, signicantly, aiiivod
slowly and lato.
Michaol Hoizlold, Anthropology through the Looking-Glass: Critical Ethnography in the Mar-
gins of Europe (Canliidgo: Canliidgo Univoisity Pioss, 8;.
q Douglas Holnos, Integral Europe: Fast-Capitalism, Multiculturalism, Neofascism (Piinco-
ton: Piincoton Univoisity Pioss, zooo.
Soo, loi oxanplo, tho usolul conpaiativo ovoiviowpiovidod ly T. M. Luhinann, The Good
Parsi: The Fate of a Colonial Elite in a Postcolonial Society (Canliidgo: Haivaid Univoisity
Pioss, o, zq.
o Soo Janos C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak (Now Havon: Yalo Univoisity Pioss, 8, lut
soo also Lila Alu-Lughod, Tho Ronanco ol Rosistanco: Tiacing Tiansloinations ol
Powoi thiough Bodouin Wonon, American Ethnologist ; (o: q, Doloiah Rood-
Danahay, Talking alout Rosistanco: Ethnogiaphy and Thooiy in Ruial Fianco, Anthro-
pological Quarterly oo (: zzz.
; This is tho position ol thoso who nowcall thonsolvos Neokiprii (Noo-Cypiiotsnostly
young intolloctuals who iosont tho iapid cultuial as woll as institutional alsoiption ol tho
Giook-Cypiiot woild ly tho Giook nation-stato.
8 Tho idoa that Slavs woio suloct to a sonohow connunistic inuonco, possilly attiil-
utallo to thoii living in oxtondod lanily stiuctuios that woio latoi to lo takon as posi-
tivo ovidonco loi that supposod pioclivity, was aiticulatod oaily, soo Doia dIstiia, La
nationalit hollniquo dapis los chants populaiios, Revue des deux mondes ;o (8o;:
8qoz;, soo ospocially o. Tho convoiso viow, that tho tiuo Euiopoan nust lo an indi-
vidualist, ionains pioninont intho discouiso ol Giook idontity politics, ospocially anong
iight-wingois.
Soo Scot Bain, Luang Wichit Wathakan and the Creation of a Thai Identity (Singapoio:
ISEAS, , zoz;, q;q, tho Giook phiaso, onllonatic ol tho stiugglo ospocially
on tho island ol Cioto, was cololiatod ly tho novolist Nikos Kazantzakis in tho novol pul-
lishod in English as Freedom or Death (Now Yoik: Sinon and Schustoi, o.
924 Michael Herzfeld
o On tho Thai toininology, soo Bain, Luang Wichit Wathakan, oo, Thongchai
Winichakul, Tho Quost loi Siwilai: A Googiaphical Discouiso ol Civilizational Think-
ing in tho Lato-Ninotoonth and Eaily-Twontioth-Contuiy Sian, Journal of Asian Studies
(zooo: z8q.
David Hoin, Social Bodies: Science, Reproduction, and Italian Modernity (Piincoton: Piinco-
ton Univoisity Pioss, q, Gooigo L. Mosso, Nationalism and Sexuality: Respectability
and Abnormal Sexuality in Modern Europe (Now Yoik: Howaid Foitig, 8, z.
z Sydol Silvoinan, Three Bells of Civilization: The Life of an Italian Hill Town (Now Yoik:
Colunlia Univoisity Pioss, ;.
Thongchai, Tho Quost loi Siwilai, z, lollowing Maiy Louiso Piatt, Imperial Eyes:
Travel Writing and Transculturation (Now Yoik: Routlodgo, z, Hoizlold, Anthropology
through the Looking-Glass.
q Thongchai, Tho Quost loi Siwilai, .
Thongchai, Tho Quost loi Siwilai, , qo.
o Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation (Honolulu:
Univoisity ol Hawaii Pioss, q, ;o.
; On Santi Asoko, soo Maia-Loona Hoikkil-Hoin, Santi Asoke Buddhism and Thai State
Response (Alo: Alo Akadonis Filag, o. On tho Dhannakaya novonont, soo tho
spocial iopoit on iosoaich ly Apinya Founglusakul, Bangkok Post, no. z (Doconloi
8. Rosalind C. Moiiis, In the Place of Origins: Modernity and Its Mediums in North-
ern Thailand (Duihan: Duko Univoisity Pioss, zooo, z8, discussos tho ongagonont ol
nodiun cults with issuos ol nodoinity.
8 Stanloy J. Tanliah, World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study of Buddhism and Polity
in Thailand against a Historical Background (Canliidgo: Canliidgo Univoisity Pioss,
;o.
Stanloy J. Tanliah, Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality (Canliidgo: Can-
liidgo Univoisity Pioss, o.
zo Hoizlold, Anthropology through the Looking-Glass, , zoo.
z E. B. Tyloi, Primitive Culture (London: John Muiiay, 8;.
zz Maigaiot T. Hodgon, Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Phila-
dolphia: Univoisity ol Ponnsylvania Pioss, oq, zz.
z E. E. Evans-Piitchaid, Essays in Social Anthropology (London: Fioo Pioss ol Gloncoo, oz,
qoo.
zq Nancy Stiuovoi, Fallos ol Powoi, Representations, no. q (Fall 8: ;8, tho discus-
sion ol civil disalility is on z.
z Evans-Piitchaid, Essays, o.
zo Foi oxanplo, JanVansina, Oral Tradition: AStudy in Historical Methodology (Chicago: Uni-
voisity ol Chicago Pioss, o.
z; On linoago sognontation and ovont stiuctuio, soo E. E. Evans-Piitchaid, The Nuer: A
Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Oxloid:
Claiondon Pioss, qo, Paul Diosch, Tho Signicanco ol tho Couiso Evonts Tako in
Sognontaiy Syston, American Ethnologist (8o: ozq. On tho iiso ol tho Lilyan
nonaichy in this lianowoik, soo E. E. Evans-Piitchaid, The Sanusi of Cyrenaica (Oxloid:
Claiondon Pioss, q, conpaio J. Davis, Libyan Politics: Tribe and RevolutionAn
The Absent Presence 925
Account of the Zuwaya and Their Government (Boikoloy: Univoisity ol Caliloinia Pioss,
88. On Giooco and Euiopo, soo J. K. Canploll, Honour, Family, and Patronage: A Study
of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community (Oxloid: Claiondon Pioss,
oq, J. Davis, Histoiy and tho Pooplo without Euiopo, in Other Histories, od. Kiiston
Hastiup (London: Routlodgo, z, qz8.
z8 A. R. Radclio-Biown, Structure and Function in Primitive Society (Gloncoo, IL: Fioo Pioss,
z, . On stiuctuiation, soo ospocially Anthony Giddons, The Constitution of Society:
Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Boikoloy: Univoisity ol Caliloinia Pioss, 8q.
z Soo Stiuovoi, Fallos ol Powoi. I night add, iionically, that ovon thoso anthiopologists
who havo ninod Vico loi his voiy considoiallo insights havo viitually ignoiod tho con-
tiality to thoso ol a sulvoisivo ioading ol classical histoiyand thus ol a sulvoisivo classi-
cal histoiy to tho ciitical piooct ol oxanining tho Euiocontiic assunptions that undoilio
anthiopological piactico. In thoso noutial ol piolossional anthiopological ioadings ol
Vico (loi oxanplo, Jos Guilhoino Moiquioi, Vico ot Lvi-Stiauss: notos piopos dun
synposiun, LHomme o j;o|: 8, tho natoiial Vico usod appoais to lo incidontal
to tho idoas, iathoi thanas Vico intondodciitical loi undoistanding a nodoin woild
in which wo havo iooxpiopiiatod classical cultuio loi oxclusivo idoological onds.
o At tho Univoisity ol tho Aogoan, Mytilono (Loslos, soo Evthynios Papataxiaichis and
Thoodoios Paiadollis, Taftotites ke Filo sti Singkhroni Elladha (Athons: Kastaniotis, z.
Maicol Dtionno, The Creation of Mythology (Chicago: Univoisity ol Chicago Pioss, 8o
j8|, 8.
z S. C. Hunphioys, Anthropology and the Greeks (London: Routlodgo and Kogan Paul, ;8.
Einostino Fiiodl, Vasilika: AVillage in Modern Greece (NowYoik: Holt, Rinohait, and Win-
ston, oz.
q Hoizlold, Anthropology through the Looking-Glass.
Claudo Lvi-Stiauss, Tho Stiuctuial Study ol Myth, Journal of American Folklore o8
(: qz8qq.
o Boinal, Black Athena, ;8.
; Louis Goinot, Anthropologie de la Grce antique (Paiis: Fianois Maspoio, o8.
8 Ruth Bonodict, Patterns of Culture (Boston: Houghton Miin, q, ;.
On possossivo individualisn, soo C. B. Macphoison, The Political Theory of Possessive Indi-
vidualism: From Hobbes to Locke (Oxloid: Oxloid Univoisity Pioss, oz, on its oxton-
sion to nationalisn, soo Richaid Handloi, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec
(Madison: Univoisity ol Wisconsin Pioss, 88, Michaol Hoizlold, Tho Euiopoan Soll:
Rothinking an Attitudo, in Anthony Padgon, od., The Idea of Europe from Antiquity to the
European Union (Washington, DC: Tho Woodiow Wilson Contoi Pioss, and Canliidgo:
Canliidgo Univoisity Pioss, zooz, ;o.
qo G. E. R. Lloyd, Polarity and Analogy: Two Types of Argumentation in Early Greek Thought
(Canliidgo: Canliidgo Univoisity Pioss, oo, conpaio, loi oxanplo, Rodnoy Nood-
han, Intioduction, in Right and Left: Essays on Dual Symbolic Classication (Chicago:
Univoisity ol Chicago Pioss, ;, xxix.
q Soo Hodgon, Early Anthropology, z8, conpaio Fianois Haitog, Le miroir dHrodote: Essai
sur la reprsentation de lAutre (Paiis: Gallinaid, 8o.
qz Tho toininological distinction lollows Dinitiios Tziovas, The Nationismof the Demoticists
926 Michael Herzfeld
and Its Impact on Their Literary Theory (): An Analysis Based on Their Literary
Criticism and Essays (Anstoidan: A. M. Hakkoit, 8o.
q Tho toininology is that ol Ioan Lowis, Foico and Fission in Noithoin Sonali Linoago
Stiuctuio, American Anthropologist o (o: qz.
qq Soo Janos Clioid, On Ethnogiaphic Authoiity, Representations, no. z (Spiing 8:
8qo.
q Maigaiot T. Hodgon, The Doctrine of Survivals: A Chapter in the History of Scientic Method
in the Study of Man (London: Allonson and Conpany, o, q8 n. .
qo Canploll, Honour, Family, and Patronage, Fiiodl, Vasilika, Iiwin T. Sandois, Rainbow in
the Rock: The People of Rural Greece (Canliidgo: Haivaid Univoisity Pioss, oz. On
Golinoau, soo tho spocial issuo ol Nouvelle revue franaise (q: .
q; Tho gioundwoik loi this piocoss had loon laid contuiios loloio. By oquating tho Aialic-
Tuikish nano loi thoii Byzantino loioloais with a non-Euiopoan idontity in which thoy
iocognizod thonsolvos (as Romii, tho Giooks had poiloico acquioscod in tho piocoss ol
thoii naiginalization liontho Euiopoan nainstioan: this was an alioady coiiupt Ronan
Enpiio locono Ottonan, and so loioign to tho Hollonic spiiit that Euiopoans so nuch
adniiod. The Giooks (oi, noio piocisoly hoio, tho Hollonos had, loi all intonts and pui-
posos, coasod to oxist. Thoii ioconstitution as an ostonsilly indopondont nation-stato dui-
ing tho hall-contuiy innodiatoly loloio anthiopology locano a piolossional discouiso
piovidod a cordon sanitaire lotwoon Euiopo and tho Oiiont in caitogiaphic tino, whilo
anthiopology poiloinod tho sano lunction in discuisivo spaco (Hoizlold, Anthropology
through the Looking-Glass, tho Giooks could lo Hollonos only il thoy accoptod to lolong to
a lygono oia, cultuial coolacanths that validatod tho Wosts soll-appointod iight to snooi
at thoii piinitivity and thoii docadonco.
q8 Soo, loi oxanplo, Luhinann, The Good Parsi.
q Takis Mikhas, I Elladha, thina nias noas nodhas, Eleftherotypia, Foliuaiy zq, q, qq.
o Stophon Gudonan and Alloito Rivoia, Conversations in Colombia: The Domestic Economy
in Life and Text (Canliidgo: Canliidgo Univoisity Pioss, o, qq.
Moiiis, In the Place of Origins, citos C. Nadia Soionotakis, Tho Monoiy ol tho Sonsos:
Histoiical Poicoption, Connonsal Exchango, and Modoinity, Visual Anthropology Review
(: z8.
z Foi oxanplo, Gooigo R. Saundois, Ciitical Ethnocontiisn and tho Ethnology ol Einosto
do Maitino, American Anthropologist (: 8;.
Thongchai, Tho Quost loi Siwilai, 8qz.
q Johannos Falian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (Now Yoik:
Colunlia Univoisity Pioss, 8, oo.
Soo, loi oxanplo, Achillo Mlonlo, Piovisional Notos on tho Postcolony, Africa oz
(z: ;.