ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY: DO PHOTOGRAPHIC

PLATES STILL HAVE A PLACE IN PROFESSIONAL

ASTRONOMY?
ROBERTO BARTALI

ABSTRACT
Before 1727, when the first attempt to record pictures was made, astronomers only
can do visual observation and drawn their impression of the object, about after a century,
the application of the photographic plates to astronomy made a big difference; thousand of
new stars and very fine details on nebulae allows many new discoveries and made possible
direct measurements without subjective errors. In the beginning of the XX century, a new
improvement, color photography, show a new face of the universe. Until the third quarter
of the XX century, many film manufacturers made special films for scientific and
astronomical purposes increasing the spectral sensitivity on both sides of the visible, in the
infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV).
A new revolution take place in astronomical imaging with the introduction of the
Charge Coupled Device (CCD). In the last 30 years, electronic technology grows in giant
steps and the development of more sensitive CCD, with an enormous number of pictures
elements (pixels), together with powerful computers and software algorithms for image
processing, seems to let photographic films as an obsolete technique.
The aim of this essay is to show the advantage or disadvantage of the CCD over
photographic films and try to see if the electronic imaging can be the best choice for
astronomers.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS
Photographic films came in a variety of formats, from large size plates to rolls and
they are divided in two type: color and black and white. For professional astronomical
purposes, color film is not as interesting as for amateurs. The reason is the spectral
sensitivity of each different film. If we take a picture with the same telescope, same
exposure time and on
the same night, we get
very different result, so
there is no reason for
using, scientifically
speaking, color films.
Instead of that we can
Figure 1
Spectral sensitivity of
different Kodak films
High speed infrared
Technical Pan 2415
Spectroscopic 103aO
Spectroscopic 103aF

use several techniques to get the best from black and white pictures, as false color

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processing, contrast enhancement or contour processing (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7). Another way to
analyze the picture is to scanning it and then process it electronically using some computer
software like Adobe Photoshop (23) (for general purpose) or other specifically developed
for astronomy like Iris (21), DS9 (19), Cadet (20), Astra (22), etc.
Between 1940 and 1980 many film manufactures developed special films for
scientific imaging, Kodak, Ilford and Agfa are most important. Their workhorse products,
series “103a” spectroscopic films from Kodak (8) and “HP5+” from Ilford was the most
used by professional astronomers. These films was replaced by Kodak Technical Pan 2415
(8) with better spectral response (2)(8). In figure 2 we can see the different sensitivity of
some films from Agfa (10), Konica (12), Ilford (9) and Fuji (11), all are professional type
and they have, in theory, similar characteristics.
Due to the chemical and physical reactions that took place in the film when it is
exposed to light, the sensitivity is best on the blue and UV side of the visible spectrum
(Figure 1 and 2).
This is a problem
because Hydrogen,
the most common
element in the
universe, emit at
wavelengths in the
red side of the
spectrum. The
sensitivity of the
film depends on the
size of the silver
bromide crystals, there is a direct proportional
Figure 2
Spectral response of the following films relationship between size and the capability to
Agfa APX400 catch photons. Most sensitive films have large
Ilford Delta Professional crystals (2), so the picture loose resolution and
Ilford HP5+
Fuji Neopan when enlarged present a grainy effect. Many
Konica INF750 films present another drawback, the reciprocity
effect: that is the loss of sensitivity as the
exposure increase (2)(3)(5). Due to the very low light received from celestial object, the
exposure time can be several hours for reaching the limiting magnitude, it is absolutely
necessary the use of a free reciprocity effect film for do that.
Many techniques are used in order to increase the sensitivity and the performance
before and after the exposition (1)(2)(3). The most used is the hyper sensitization before
exposing the film, several other are used in the developing stage, such as pushing and
contrast enhancement. All are chemical reactions and needs a special environment, security
rules and procedures to be observed strictly.
Even for the best film, the quantum efficiency (the relation between input light and
the number of crystals in the emulsion sensitized, in case of film) is very low, about 3% and
can be increased to 10 % with hyper sensitization.
Resolution for a medium speed astronomical film (400 ASA) is about 20 micron, to
achieve more resolution we have to reduce sensitivity (2)(8)(10), but the exposure time
must increase, the reciprocity effect also increase with time, so the end result is a poor
picture.

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CCD IMAGING

The first attempt to use electronic imaging was

made in 1935 when Lallemand took planetary pictures
with an electronic camera (1), but the first CCD used
for astronomical purpose was in 1975 (6).
CCD is a collection of photosensitive
semiconductor elements organized in rows and columns
forming a matrix (Figure 3). Each photo element (pixel)
is capable to free electrons when incoming photon hit
the semiconductor element. Electrons are then stored
Figure 3
into another part of the semiconductor until the exposure time
2048x2048 pixel Kodak ends. Electrons (charges) are then shifted, applying a voltage,
KAF4202 CCD from one site to the next until all of them reach the output
Courtesy of Kodak amplifier (4)(6)(7)(8).
There are many different CCD, we can divide them into
2 types: linear and matrix array. Linear arrays have not application in astronomy (only the
camera on first vehicle landed on Mars have one) and each type may be for color or
monochromatic picture capture. Color CCD are effectively a set of three identical
monochrome arrays each one covered by a tiny color filter (red, blue and green) this way
the image is formed by the quantity of each color is present in the incoming light. As stated
in the Photographic Film Section, is better to use monochrome sensor instead of color,
because image processing can do a best job revealing many more details.
Due to the semiconductor
intrinsic characteristics, CCD are much
more sensitive to the red and IR part of
the spectrum (Figure 4, 5, 6), only
recently manufacturers improve the blue
sensitivity, in most cases covering the
sensitive part with some fluorescent
material making some kind of
wavelength conversion; (5)(6)(8) when
UV and blue wavelength photons hit that
material, it emits photons at longer
wavelength where the semiconductor is
more sensitive.
Figure 4 Quantum efficiency of CCD (the
SITe S100A CCD spectral response ratio of incoming photons to the output
From SITe web page electrons) is very high, so they are very
sensitive, manufacturer are working now on sensors with 100% QE (each photon is capable
to generate a free electron). Dynamic range, or the number of different gray levels is very
high too, reaching 16 bits (65536 different levels).

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Most CCD have an integrated output amplifier and some have all the electronic for analog
to digital conversion. Full frame CCD are best suited for astronomy and many of them are
divided into 2 or 4 section for increasing the readout speed. As the number of pixels in the
array increase, the time needed for reading
all the sensor increase, even at high speed
(10 Mhz or more) for reading a 8K x 8K
pixel CCD we need more than 6 seconds.
Figure 5
Kodak KAF4202 CCD spectral response
From Kodak web page

The resolution of CCD can be very

high, some manufacturers make sensors
with square pixel of 6 micron, the
average pixel size is 20 micron. The
sensitivity of the CCD permit very short exposure time and can show stars with much faint
magnitude than photographic films can do.
With all of this good characteristic, CCD seems to be a marvel, but they have their own
drawbacks. As all electronic components, they suffer from heat. For exposure times longer
than a few seconds they must be cooled,
normally at -20 or less degree Celsius. Another
problem is the blooming, when the full capacity
of the pixel is exceeded, due to long exposure or
when light from bright object strike the sensor,
electrons jump to neighborough pixels. Some
CCD manufacturers place a special cell to
collect the excess of electrons (antiblooming).

Figure 6
Thomson TH7888A CCD spectral response
From Thomson web page

CONCLUSION
Table 1 show a comparison of the characteristic and performance of CCD and
photographic film. There are many advantages using CCD for image detection against
films; sensitivity, QE, resolution, red spectral response, capability of see the final image
almost instantaneously and the possibility of further processing, are most important.
For orbiting telescopes, satellites and interplanetary ships, CCD imaging is
imperative. For terrestrial based telescopes the possibility to see the picture just a few
seconds after the exposure and transmitting it to a remote scientist is a big advantage,
because the astronomer can take a quick decision, for example, take another picture, change
the exposure time, change the field of view, without the need for wait to develop the film
(operation that take a lot of time and must be made where the telescope is). This time delay
can be the difference from discovery or not, for example, an object moving fast like an
asteroid in close Earth orbit. A remotely controlled telescope is cheaper, because the

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astronomer don´t need to travel, be exposed to below zero temperature, etc. Other
technological improvements, not possible with normal photographic films, are:
• the interferometric connection of various telescopes (like VLT) and summing the
image take by each one into one picture.
• Active and adaptive optic systems do not work without the processing speed of a
computer and the fast acquisition time of the images by a CCD
Storing electronic images do not need special environment, in a CD rom we can record
hundred of pictures, saving space and money because photographic plates needs more
space and a climatic controlled room for storing. Sending by mail a CD rom is as easy as
send a letter, instead a photographic plate needs special package and care and it cost much
more.

Table 1
CCD and Film condensed comparison characteristics

FILM CCD
Type of reaction Chemical, physical Physical
Quantum Efficiency <10% >80%
Resolution 10 to 25 micron 6 to 24 micron
Pixel matrix size 1200x1800 (24x36 format) 512x512 to 8192x8192
Spectral response 350 to 650 nm 400 to 900 nm
can be extended from 250 to 950 can be extended from 300 to 1100
nm nm
Time from the end of the exposure >30 minutes < 10 seconds (for larger format
to image CCD)
Dynamic range <16 bits >=16 bits (65536 gray levels)
Equipment cost Low High
Auto guiding when exposing Not possible Yes
Direct image processing Only after scanning the image Yes
Remotely image acquisition Not possible Yes
Automatic image capturing (no Not possible Yes
need for operator)
Need for cooling system No Yes
Special chemical and physical Yes No need
processes and procedures for
sensitivity increment
Special environment for Yes No
developing
Interferometric telescope Not possible Yes
connection capability
Automatic correction on adaptive Not possible Yes
and active optics capability
Automatic protection against Not possible Yes
saturation
Antiblooming capability Not possible Yes
Reciprocity effect failure Yes No
Loss of sensitivity if not cooled Yes but low Yes but high
Binning capability Only after scanning the image Yes
Resolution increasing Not possible Yes

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 I really think, after comparing data, that CCD will make obsolete the photographic film
in a very short time, not only for astronomy, but in all kind of imaging process, letting films
only for artistic imaging purposes. As people use more CCD, their cost will be less and will
be better. The day when manufacturers can do a really blue and UV sensitive CCD, there
would be no reason to use films.

REFERENCES
1) Muller P, DIZIONARIO DI ASTRONOMIA, S.E.I. 1972
2) Ferreri W, FOTOGRAFIA ASTRONOMICA, Il Castello, 1977
3) Covington M, ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY FOR THE AMATEUR, Cambridge, 1999
4) Buil C, CCD ASTRONOMY, Willmann Bell, 1991
5) Kitchin C, ASTROPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES, IOP, 1998
6) Howell S, HANDBOOK OF CCD ASTRONOMY, Cambridge, 2000
7) Berry R. et al, THE CCD CAMERA COOKBOOK, willmann Bell, 1994

Internet References
8) www.kodak.com Kodak technical literature (CCD, photographic films and filters)
9) www.ilford.com Ilford technical literature (film)
10) www.agfa.com Agfa technical literature (film)
11) www.fujifilm.com Fuji technical literature (film)
12) www.konica.com Konica technical literature (film)
13) www.ti.com Texas Instruments technical literature (CCD)
14) www.atmel.com Atmel technical literature (CCD)
15) www.st.com technical literature
16) www.sbig.com CCD camera
17) www.photonics.com CCD technology
18) www.site-inc.com CCD

Image Processing Software References

19) DS9: http://hea-www.harvard.edu/RD/ds9/index.html
20) CADET: http://www.terra.es/personal2/oscarcj/introeng.htm
21) IRIS: http://www.astrosurf.com/buil/us/iris/iris.htm
22) ASTRA: http://www.phasespace.com.au
23) Photoshop: www.adobe.com