Power - October 2011

Vol. 155 No.
10 October 2011

Top Plants:
Six Winning Coal-Fired Plants
ZLD Fundamentals
SCR Hg Removal Co-benefits
How to Design a CCB Landfill
Redirect Fish Clear of Intakes
RENTECH breaks new trails in the
boiler industry with its focus on custom
engineering and design.
Theres no on the shelf inventory at RENTECH because we design and build each and every
boiler to operate at peak efciency in its own unique conditions. As an industry leader, RENTECH
provides solutions to your most demanding specications for safe, reliable boilers. From design and
manufacture to installation and service, we are breaking new trails.
CIRCLE 1 ON READER SERVICE CARD
October 2011
|
POWER www.powermag.com 1
ON THE COVER
City Utilities of Springfield, Mo., placed its new John Twitty Energy Center Unit 2 into
commercial service in January 2011. It includes a steam turbine from Toshiba, digital con-
trols from Emerson, boiler island from Foster Wheeler, and dry fluidized bed scrubber and
baghouse from Allied Environmental. Stanley Consultants provided detailed design, cost
estimating, scheduling, and resident engineering services during construction. Courtesy:
Stanley Consultants, photo by Mike Williams
COVER STORY: COAL-FIRED TOP PLANTS
30 Coffeen Energy Center, Montgomery County, Illinois
Investments in new equipment and control systems have improved the operation
and reliability of this Midwestern plant. Theyve also helped to make it one of the
cleanest coal-fired plants in the nation and one that will be well-positioned to meet
new emissions regulations.
34 J.K. Spruce 2, Calaveras Power Station, San Antonio, Texas
The largest municipal utility in the U.S. made new coal-fired generation part of its
plan to ensure a reliable, diverse, and price-hedged power supply. The low-sulfur-coal
plants emissions systems are delivering levels below its air permit requirements.
36 John Twitty Energy Center Unit 2, Springfield, Missouri
This Powder River Basin coalfueled facility is the first new coal plant constructed
by City Utilities of Springfield since 1976. Despite challenges that included a tight
contractor market at the time, flexible contracting approaches resulted in a success-
ful project that will ensure sufficient baseload generation at least through 2024.
40 Masinloc Power Plant, Zambales Province, Philippines
Privatization, substantial upgrades, and retooling of the plants culture have resulted in
enormous availability and production gains at this award-winning plant. Most impor-
tantly, the changes have improved the reliability of electricity in a power-short country.
44 Plum Point Energy Station, Mississippi County, Arkansas
Successful completion of this project required engineering and construction ap-
proaches that could accommodate a plant site on a major fault line, where seismic
acceleration factors are greater than in California. Today, the new plant is helping to
put the region on firmer economic footing.
46 St. Johns River Power Park, Jacksonville, Florida
When a 1,280-MW late-1980s plant committed to lowering NO
x
emissions, it faced
an undertaking that was complicated by the huge variety of fuels burned by its two
units. The number of possible fuel combinations required pilot testing to get the
selective catalytic reduction catalyst just right.
SPECIAL REPORTS
PLANT DESIGN
50 CWA 316(b) Update: Fish Guidance and Protection
Proposed rules for once-through cooling water intake structures could affect as
many as 670 U.S. power plants. Barriers and screens are familiar options for fish
protection at such structures, but technologies using behavior modification are
proving highly effective while avoiding the problems created by physical barriers.
WATER TREATMENT
56 Fundamentals of Zero Liquid Discharge System Design
A new approach to handling the soluble salts found in power plant wastewater
eliminates the necessity of water pretreatment and thereby avoids the need to in-
stall expensive solids-settling and filtration equipment, sludge dewatering equip-
ment, and chemical feed/storage facilities.
36
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October 2011 2
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FEATURES
POWER VIEWS
64 New EPA Rule Calls for Flexibility
Quin Shea, vice president, environment for the Edison Electric Institute, comments
on the Utility MACT rule that is expected to be finalized in November.
MERCURY REMOVAL
66 An SCR Can Provide Mercury Removal Co-Benefits
A new catalyst known as TRAC is showing promise for better performance than
conventional selective catalytic reduction catalyst when it comes to mercury oxida-
tion activity. It can also be a cost-effective approach to making the most of existing
emissions control equipment.
PLANT DESIGN
75 Managing Equipment Data Through Asset Virtualization
Imagine being able to walk through your power plant in virtual reality, touching
an asset and having everything that is known about that asset appear before you.
That vision is fast becoming reality.
COAL ASH MANAGEMENT
78 Constructing Marylands First Permitted Landfill for Coal Combustion By-products
Maryland is leading the U.S. in reforming its regulations governing coal combustion
by-products (CCB). Before the end of this year, a new state-of-the-art landfill will go
into operation in the state that could well become the standard for next-generation
CCB landfills.
DEPARTMENTS
SPEAKING OF POWER
6 Epic Fail
GLOBAL MONITOR
8 Germanys Nuclear Phase-Out Has Widespread Implications
8 Ling Ao 4 Starts Up While Sanmen Gets First AP1000 Reactor Vessel
10 THE BIG PICTURE: A Solar Switch
12 New Peaking Plant to Balance Californias Renewables
14 Kuwait Starts First Turbines of 2,000-MW Gas Plant
14 Hydro Reservoir GHG Emissions Lower Than Estimated
14 POWER Digest
FOCUS ON O&M
18 JEA Increases Power Output Through CFB Improvements
20 Applying Acoustic Pulse Reflectometry in a Geothermal Plant
LEGAL & REGULATORY
28 Too Much of a Good Thing Creates Legal Havoc
By Brian R. Gish, Davis Wright Tremaine
84 NEW PRODUCTS
COMMENTARY
92 Shaping Americas Energy Policy
By Richard F. Dick Storm, Storm Technologies Inc.
Web Exclusive
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency began rolling out its long-anticipated power
plant regulations this year. U.S. Coal-Fired Power Development: Full Employment
for the Lawyers at www.powermag.com examines how some utilities have already
shuttered some older plants, citing the new rules as the cause; some are waiting, hop-
ing that knee-jerk reactions of neighboring utilities will allow them to keep operating
their older plants; and only the lawyers are happy with the result.
|
October 2011 4
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October 2011 6
SPEAKING OF POWER
Epic Fail
O
ver the past 18 months, four so-
lar energy equipment companies
have closed their doors. Each
one blamed poor market conditions for
its economic woes, even though each
had fundamental weaknesses that went
unaddressed. It now appears that the
Department of Energy (DOE) did insuffi-
cient due diligence before backstopping
one of those four companies, Solyndra,
with a $535 million loan guarantee.
Solyndra announced on September 2
that it was entering Chapter 11 bank-
ruptcy and immediately released the com-
panys more than 1,100 employees, with
no notice. The company opened a massive
$700 million dollar manufacturing facility
in Fremont, Calif., earlier this year us-
ing cash from a $535 million dollar DOE
loan guarantee and reportedly $1 billion
in venture capital funding. The Treasury
Departments internal Federal Financing
Bank loaned the money, so a loan guaran-
tee in default is lost cash.
Solyndra joined Hopewell Junction,
N.Y.based Spectrawatt Inc. (an Intel
Corp. spinoff) and Evergreen Solar of
Marlboro, Mass., both of which filed for
Chapter 11 bankruptcy in August. BP
Solar closed its Frederick, Md., plant in
March of last year.
Great Expectations
You may recall that Solyndra was
praised by President Obama as a prime
example of how green jobs were being
created through government backing
of promising renewable energy firms.
During a well-publicized plant visit
on May 26, 2010, the president said,
Its here, that companies like Solyndra
are leading the way toward a brighter,
more prosperous future. He went on to
say that The true engine of economic
growth will always be companies like
Solyndra and that their technology
was game-changing.
The Solyndra technology was far from
innovative, much less game-changing.
Its plan was to produce tubes lined with
thin-film technology solar cells that
are mounted in a flat panel-like rack.
Solyndra publicized that this design
was better than flat panels because the
racks can be inexpensively mounted on
a flat surface, like a roof, and because
reflected solar energy from a light-col-
ored background improves collection ef-
ficiency. However, the well-known flaw
with this technology is that it is does
not scale wellthe production costs
dont drop much per unit when produced
in large quantities like conventional flat
photovoltaic panels. The DOE fell in love
with the technology but failed to quan-
tify the elasticity of production costs in
a highly competitive market where solar
panels are a commodity.
The cracks in Solyndras faade began
to appear well before the presidents vis-
it. Solyndra floated the idea of a $300
million initial public offering (IPO) in
December 2009, after receipt of the
loan guarantee in March of that year.
The registration statement prepared by
the privately owned company was exam-
ined by independent accountant Price-
waterhouseCoopers. The accountants
conclusion was that the companys huge
losses and negative cash flow raised
substantial doubt about its ability to
continue as a going concern, even af-
ter a $1.5 billion cash infusion. The IPO
was withdrawn in June 2010, a month
after the presidents visit, and was fol-
lowed by the founder and CEOs depar-
ture on August 19.
The selection of Solyndra for a loan
guarantee is all the more distasteful
when you realize that the DOE must have
known the product stood little chance
of commercialization in the first place.
When Solyndras original loan guarantee
application was submitted in 2006, the
company had a couple of dozen em-
ployees and technology that the mar-
ket had already rejected as uneconomic
compared with flat panels. By 2009, the
company had a couple of hundred em-
ployees but was shipping panels sold at
about half the cost of production. Dur-
ing those three years, many companies
considered investing in Solyndra, but
there were few takers. Then Solyndra
caught a break. With the loan guarantee
in the bag, venture capitalists jumped
in with big money, hoping for a bigger
score. They believed that they couldnt
fail, especially by investing in a com-
pany that proudly wore the presidents
personal seal of approval.
Just as irksome to me was the cava-
lier attitude of the DOE when it learned
of Solyndras demise. That same day
the DOE released a statement on its
web site: We have always recognized
that not every one of the innovative
companies supported by our loans and
loan guarantees would succeed. . . .
In essence, the DOE dismissed the half-
billion-dollar loss as the price of doing
business, and without any hint any re-
sponsibility. Apparently, failures of this
magnitude are an acceptable option at
the DOE.
More Failures Will Follow
The Solyndra failure highlights the gov-
ernments push-pull-plus marketing
plan for these technologies. The push
occurs when the government substitutes
its judgment of what constitutes a good
product for that of the collective free
market and then uses public funds to jam
the product into an unreceptive market.
The pull occurs when the government
creates artificial market demand, such as
state or proposed national renewable en-
ergy portfolio standards. The plus is the
sweetener added to the deals in the form
of incentives and tax credits. A marketing
plan predicated on the government inject-
ing cash every step of the transaction is
unsustainable today.
Solyndra was the first loan guaran-
tee signed off on by the DOE under the
American Recovery and Reinvestment
Act, but that didnt save the company
from filing for bankruptcy protection.
Given the many other companies with
shaky financials that have received loan
guarantees, I expect well see more and
larger epic fails like Solyndra in the
coming years.
Dr. Robert Peltier, PE is POWERs
editor-in-chief.
Bleed: 8.125x11, Trim: 7.875x10.75, Live area: 7x10
Power Magazine,
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|
October 2011 8
Germanys Nuclear Phase-Out Has
Widespread Implications
The German government in July finalized a package of bills
that will phase out nuclears 23% contribution to the countrys
power supply by 2022 and increase renewable generation from
the current 17% to 35%. In August, the Federal Network Agency
(Bundesnetzagentur) said it wouldnt rely on power from seven
of the nations oldest reactors (and another shut down for tech-
nical problems) for reserve power this winter, despite warnings
from grid operators that the phase-out could result in winter
blackouts (Figure 1). Saying the grid would remain control-
lable, the agency instead urged states to approve more than a
dozen new coal and gas plants and transmission upgrades over
the next several years.
Meanwhile, the suspension of significant nuclear generation
following the Fukushima crisis has forced Germanya net ex-
porter of about 14 TWhto begin power imports of nearly 4 TWh
from the Czech Republic, France, and Austria. And, according to
the Dena Energy Agency, a researcher part-owned by the Ger-
man government, Germany will have to spend about 10 billion
($14.3 billion) by 2020 to expand the nations grid, including
adding lines from offshore wind farms in the north to factories
in the south, if it is to stop using neighboring networksfunds
that will be hard to come by in a fragile global economy.
The phase-out has already had a dire financial impact on the
countrys industrial sector. Fears are mounting that the shutdown
will increase industrial operating costs by nearly a fifth (and
Germany already has one of the highest rates in the European
Union), hitting the countrys energy-intensive manufacturing in-
dustries such as steel production, chemicals, and cars.
Perhaps nuclear plant owners have been hit the hardest.
E.ON in August said it would be forced to cut 11,000 jobs as
a result of the governments decision to shutter the reactors.
The closures and a new tax on spent nuclear fuel rods have
cost the company 1.9 billion ($2.74 billion), driving it to
declare the first quarterly loss in a decade: a second-quarter
loss of 1.49 billion ($2.2 billion). German competitor RWE
has also been hard-hit: Net profits for the first half of the
year collapsed 40% on the nuclear closures and spent fuel
tax. The closures and taxes would cost it almost 900 mil-
lion ($1.3 billion), RWE said, but added that to alleviate its
current substantial financial burdens, the company plans to
increase its renewable energy holdings.
Vattenfall has also taken a hit. The Swedish state-owned
group operates two German nuclear facilities, Brunsbuettel
and Krmmel, though both have been offline since 2007 (one
due to a short circuit and the other due to a fire). Neither
will be reopened. Vattenfall in July reported that it had taken
a charge of 10.2 billion crowns ($1.62 billion) related to the
German nuclear plants and had a second-quarter operating
loss of 3.2 billion crowns ($490 million).
Ling Ao 4 Starts Up While Sanmen Gets
First AP1000 Reactor Vessel
In China this August, as Ling Ao Unit 4the second unit
of the Ling Ao Phase II nuclear plantstarted commercial
operation, Westinghouse and its consortium partners marked
the milestone of receiving the reactor vessel for the Sanmen
nuclear power plantthe worlds first AP1000in Chinas
Zhejiang province.
The start-up of Ling Ao Unit 4 in Guangdong province
means that more than 50% of Chinas total units in opera-
tion are at the Daya Bay Ling Ao complex. Like Ling Ao Unit
3, which began commercial operation last September, Unit
4 also started up before schedule to help meet the regions
surging energy needs.
Built by Alstom and its long-established Chinese partner,
Dongfang Electric Corp., the plant uses a CPR-1000, an im-
proved Chinese pressurized water reactor technology based
on an AREVA-derived three-loop design (Figure 2). Alstom
said in a statement that of all four units in the Ling Ao
nuclear plant, Unit 4 enjoys the highest localization rate.
Key components include a GIGATOP 4 pole turbogenerator,
moisture separator reheater, the condenser and the low pres-
1. Shutdown at Landshut. In the wake of springs Fukushima
crisis in Japan, Germany idled seven nuclear plants built before 1980
and one newer facility at Krmmel for technical problems. Among those
was E.ONs 1977-built Isar Unit 1 near the city of Landshut (shown
here). The 1988-built Isar 2 continues to be used for baseload supply.
Courtesy: E.ON
2. Made in China. The second reactor of the Ling Ao Phase II nu-
clear plant started commercial operation in August. Courtesy: Alstom
October 2011
|
sure heater, and Alstoms ARABELLE half-speed steam turbine,
which is compatible with several reactor types.
Some 700 miles northeast, in Chinas Zhejiang province, West-
inghouse and consortium partners the Shaw Group, State Nuclear
Power Technology Corp. (SNPTC), and Sanmen Nuclear Power Co.
received the first AP1000 nuclear reactor vessel from Doosan
Heavy Industries & Construction, which manufactured the reactor
vessel in South Korea.
When installed in the Sanmen Unit 1 plant, the AP1000 reactor
vessel will undergo installation and operational testing before
starting commercial operation, which is planned for late 2013.
Westinghouse said the vessels arrival is a key project milestone
for the project. The second AP1000 unit at Sanmen is expected
to come online in 2014, and two others under construction in
Haiyang, in Shandong province, will start commercial operations
between 2014 and 2015.
Chinas nuclear building frenzy was paused after the Fukushi-
ma accident in Japan this March until the China Nuclear Energy
Association completed mandatory safety inspections of existing
nuclear plants in the country in August. Its reactor building pro-
gram is now expected to continue at full steam. The country,
which has 14 reactors already operating and 28 reactors under
construction, has ambitious goals to raise nuclear capacity to 40
GW by 2015 from the current 11.88 GW.
Many of Chinas future builds will be AP1000 designs,
though all will be built by SNPTC under a technology transfer
agreement negotiated between the state-owned company and
Westinghouse.
Westinghouse may get an overhaul of its own. In September,
Louisiana-based engineering firm the Shaw Group exercised its
option to sell its 20% stake in Westinghouse to Toshiba for $1.6
billion, forcing the Japanese firm to raise its holdings to 87%.
The companies had bought Westinghouse from the British gov-
ernment for $5.6 billion in 2006. Kazatamprom and IHI hold 10%
and 3% stakes in Westinghouse, respectively.
Shaw has said it will continue to work on projects with
Toshiba and Westinghouse building new AP1000 reactors in
the U.S. (six are under contract, including at Southern Co.s
$14 billion Vogtle expansion in Georgia) and at the Sanmen
3. The first AP1000 reactor vessel. Westinghouse and
consortium partners received the first AP1000 reactor vessel for the
twin-unit Sanmen power plant under construction in Chinas Zhejiang
province. The vessel weighs about 340 tons, is 12.2 meters (40 feet)
long, and measures about 4.5 meters in diameter. Two other AP1000
pressurized water reactors are under construction in Haiyang, in Shan-
dong province. Courtesy: State Nuclear Power Technology Corp.
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October 2011 10
AES Solar
709-MW Imperial Valley
Solar Project
Imperial Valley, Calif.

AES Solar bought this
project from Tessera
in February and then
asked California
regulators in May for
approval to change it
to PV from Tesseras
flagship SunCatcher
Dish Stirling system.
THE BIG PICTURE: A Solar Switch
The plummeting cost of photovoltaic (PV) panelsresulting from lower costs for high-grade silicon and advancements in thin-film
technology, solar storage, and electronic control technologieshas a slew of firms rethinking concentrating solar power (CSP)
projects. Although there is a CSP project pipeline (including both CSP and concentrating PV) of more than 9 GW in the U.S., and more
than 2.4 GW of those projects have signed power purchase agreements, only 509 MW of CSP have been grid-connected to date (see
http://bit.ly/hqmL0W for a detailed list of major projects). Meanwhile, according to the Solar Energy Industries Association, in the
first quarter of 2011, grid-connected PV installations in the U.S. surged 66% over the same period in 2010 to reach 252 MW, at a
capacity-weighted average price of 5.63 cents/watt. That brought total U.S. grid-connected PV capacity to more than 2.3 GW. Here
are some projects (with a combined capacity of 4,056 MW) that have announced a switch from CSP to PV and brief notes about the
reasons cited. Sonal Patel, senior writer
K Road Power
663-MW Calico
Solar Farm
Barstow, Calif.
K Road bought the
project from Tessera last
December after Southern
California Edison
cancelled its power
purchase agreement
(PPA). K Road has since
said it would convert
most of the project
from Stirling dish to PV
due to financing and
market conditions for
SunCatcher technology.
NextEra
250-MW Beacon Solar
Energy Project
Kern County, Calif.
No reason cited.
NRG Solar
92-MW Alpine SunTower
Lancaster, Calif.
NRG in June 2010
said it switched the
project from eSolars
SunTower technology
to PV to meet timelines
for electricity delivery
in the PPAs with
Pacific Gas & Electric.
Transmission constraints
were a secondary
consideration.
NRG Solar
92-MW New Mexico
SunTower
Doa Ana County, N.M.
In June 2010, NRG
switched this project
to PV to meet solar
PPAs with El Paso
Electric Co. It also
said that construction
of eSolar technology
would be contingent on
Department of Energy
(DOE) loan guarantees,
which would delay
commercial operation
beyond the PPA
requirements.
Solar Millennium
250-MW Ridgecrest
Power Plant
Kern County, Calif.
The company in January
withdrew its applications
for this project from
the California Energy
Commission and
U.S. Bureau of Land
Management, citing
unfavorable study results
concerning the impact
it could have on native
species. The company
may consider PV to
lessen this impact.
Solar Millennium
1,000 MW total
California and Nevada
In August, a
spokeswoman said
the company is also
considering a switch
to PV for projects
near Palen, Calif., and
Amargosa Valley, Nev.
Solar Trust of
America
1-GW Blythe Solar
Power Project
Riverside County, Calif.
This Solar Millennium
subsidiarys $2.8 billion
project received a $2.1
billion DOE conditional
loan guarantee
commitment earlier this
year, but in August the
company said the switch
was a response to
favorable conditions in
the PV and commercial
lending markets.
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and Haiyang sites in China. Toshiba, which intends to con-
tinue pushing sales of the AP1000 in countries like the UK,
India, and Brazil, is reportedly considering new engineering
partners for future projects, however, and it could invite new
investors into Westinghouse. Several companies have al-
ready expressed interest, it has said. Shaw will likely focus on
upgrading the output of existing nuclear plants.
Westinghouse continues to believe that the future of the
nuclear energy industry is robust, and that a significant num-
ber of additional new construction projects around the world
will be announced over the next few years, said Dr. Aris
S. Candris, president and CEO of Westinghouse. To further
ensure that we are able to maintain our leadership role in
the successful deployment of new plants, and to fulfill the
expectations of our customers and other stakeholders, we will
continue to identify additional partners and suppliers, in-
cluding local construction companies with which we can part-
ner while maintaining our collaborative relationship with the
Power Group at Shaw to capture and share best practices.
New Peaking Plant to Balance
Californias Renewables
As utilities in California are scrambling to meet the states
33% renewable mandate by 2020, a 49.6-MW peaking plant in
Modesto, Calif., built by Finnish firm Wrtsil for the Modesto
Irrigation District, has been commissioned to provide flex-
ible, fast-start peaking generation to balance the states in-
crease in intermittent renewable generation (Figure 4).
The Woodland 3 Generation Project gas power plant, com-
missioned in July, is a modular plant that features six gen-
erating sets based on 20-cylinder Wrtsil 34SG engines
running on natural gas, which meet the stringent California
state permit requirements. The flexible power plant is able to
dispatch any or all of the six units and reach full plant output
in five minutes or provide 25% power in just two minutes,
Wrtsil said. The concept represents a multi-unit solution
with the highest simple cycle efficiency available in the in-
dustry, the firm added.
4. Flexible peaking. Wrtsil in July handed over the new Wood-
land 3 Generation Project gas power plant, a 49.6-MW peaking plant
in Modesto, Calif., that has been designed to balance Californias in-
crease in intermittent renewable generation. Courtesy: Wrtsil
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October 2011 14
Kuwait Starts First Turbines of 2,000-MW
Gas Plant
Kuwait put online the first 1,400 MW of its massive 2,000-
MW combined cycle gas turbine Sabiya facility in June to
mitigate looming power shortages it faces each summer. The
plantKuwaits largest power plant and one of the largest in
the Gulf regionis now operating six GE 9FA gas turbines;
the remaining 600 MW are expected to come online in 2012
(Figure 5).
The government of Kuwait, which owns the Sabiya facil-
ity, last year instituted energy efficiency measures to battle
shortages posed by a 2.5% power reserve, including cutting
working day hours for public sector employees and install-
ing smart meters in residential areas. Before Sabiyas units
came online this June, the countrys power capacity stood at
around 11,200 MW, but power demand was expected to surge
about 7% to 10% per year.
The countrys ministry of electricity also has other projects
in the pipeline, including the 1.5-GW Al-Zour North indepen-
dent power and water project. The Sabiya plant was built as
part of a $2.65 billion turnkey contract between the govern-
ment, GE, and Hyundai Heavy Industries. GE is expected to
operate and maintain the plant for seven years from the date
it enters full combined cycle commercial operation.
Hydro Reservoir GHG Emissions Lower
Than Estimated
A new analysis of 85 hydroelectric reservoirs distributed around
the world suggests that these systems emit about 48 million
metric tons of carbon annually. That figure is much lower than
earlier estimates of 64 million metric tons that were based on
studies relying on more limited data and which cautioned that
reservoirs of all types could be a major source of greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions.
Damming rivers to make reservoirs for hydropower creates flood-
ing that emulates lake-like conditions. Decomposing vegetation
and soil organic matter in an anaerobic environment within the
reservoirsparticularly when they are being constructedhave
been thought to cause major emissions of heat-trapping carbon
dioxide and methane. Methane is 20 times more effective in trap-
ping heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide (Figure 6).
Studies like those conducted by Swiss scientists at Lake
Wohlen near Bern, Switzerland, last year suggested that sub-
stantial amounts of methane are released not only from large
tropical reservoirs but also from run-of-river reservoirs in
Switzerland, especially in the summer, when water tempera-
tures are higher.
But the analysis published in July in the journal Nature
Geoscience found that hydroelectric reservoirs emit less than
16% of total carbon dioxide and methane emissions from all
types of human-made reservoirs combined.
The study says that emissions decline as reservoirs age,
with cold-water systems stabilizing more than warm-water
systems. It also suggests, however, that impacts are not
equal across all landscapes: The amount of GHGs generated
by hydroelectric reservoirs depends on where they are built,
and the analysis indicates that emissions are correlated with
latitude and the amount of biomass in the watershed. Res-
ervoirs in tropical locations, such as the Amazon, emit more
methane and carbon throughout their lifecycles.
POWER Digest
Siemens Gets $1 Billion Order to Build Gas Power Plants
in Thailand. Siemens on Aug. 17 said it received two or-
ders worth $1 billion from Thailand for the engineering, pro-
curement, and construction (EPC) of combined cycle power
plants. The firm will build Chana Block 2 in the province of
Songkhla and Wang Noi Block 4 in the vicinity of Bangkok
with Japanese partner Marubeni. Chana Block 2, an exten-
sion to the Chana Block 1, will be the first single-shaft power
plant built in Thailand based on the Siemens field-proven
design, whereas Wang-Noi will be of multishaft configuration.
The two plants, built for state-owned utility Electricity Gen-
erating Authority of Thailand, will each have an installed
capacity of about 800 MW and are scheduled to come online
in the summer of 2014.
5. Nation-saving power. Kuwait put online 1,400 MW of its
2,000-MW Sabiya combined cycle gas turbine facility in June to allevi-
ate tight power supplies and to help meet soaring demand the country
sees each summer. Courtesy: Kuwait Ministry of Electricity and Water
6. Hydropower emissions. Hydropower reservoirs like the
UHE FURNAS one owned by Brazilian utility FURNAS may not emit as
much greenhouse gas as had been previously suggested, a new analy-
sis shows. Located in the middle of the Rio Grande, the UHE FURNAS
reservoir is one of the largest in Brazil. It impounds the Grande River
and has a capacity of 22,590,000,000 cubic meters (18,314,011 acre
feet) and a surface area of 1,473 square kilometers (569 square miles).
Courtesy: FURNAS
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October 2011 16
In addition to EPC, Siemens will supply the main compo-
nents, namely, an SGT5-4000F gas turbine, an SST5-3000-se-
ries steam turbine, an SGen5-2000H generator, all electrical
equipment, an SPPA-T3000 instrumentation and control (I&C)
system, and the ancillary and auxiliary systems. Marubeni will
be responsible for supply of the heat-recovery steam genera-
tor, the main transformers and switchgear, and for erection
and installation of the overall plant.
The Wang Noi Block 4 combined cycle power plant will
be built as an extension to the existing complex Wang Noi
Blocks 1 to 3. The plant will be of multi-shaft design con-
sisting of two SGT5-4000F gas turbines, an SST5-5000 steam
turbine, three SGen-1000A generators, the entire electrical
and I&C (SPPA-T3000) equipment, and the ancillary and aux-
iliary systems.
Thailand is the largest per capita power consumer in South-
east Asiaowing to high consumption by its steel, textiles,
and rubber industriesand currently has an installed power
plant capacity of approximately 39 GW. Demand is expected
to grow at 3.5% per year, and the government has plans to
increase the countrys total installed capacity to 52 GW by
2020. Gas-fired power plants, which already have a major
share of the countrys capacity profile, are expected to sup-
ply 5% of the countrys power by 2015. Siemens recently
posted several orders from the country for the supply of 20
industrial gas turbines.
GE Energy Completes $3.2 Billion Deal to Acquire
Converteam. In early September, GE completed its $3.2
billion acquisition of Converteam, a provider of power con-
version and automation systems and high-efficiency power
electronics, motors, and generators. The acquisition will en-
able GE to better replace or improve mechanical processes
with high-efficiency electric alternatives, the company said.
Converteams portfolio includes variable-frequency drives and
other power electronics that are widely used in the renewable
energy sector, turning intermittent and variable power from
solar, wind and, tidal sources into power.
NRG Solar Begins Operations at New Mexicos Road-
runner Facility. NRG Solar, a subsidiary of New Jersey
based NRG Energy, on Aug. 31 began producing power at its
20-MW Roadrunner Solar Generating Facility, a photovoltaic
(PV) project in Santa Teresa, N.M., about 10 miles from El
Paso, Texas. The plant, the first operated by the company
outside California, uses First Solars advanced thin-film PV
solar modules, which are mounted on single-axis trackers.
First Solar, which was the projects EPC contractor, will also
be the operations and maintenance contractor for the 210-
acre facility. Power generated by the Roadrunner facility will
be sold to El Paso Electric under a 20-year power purchase
agreement (PPA).
GDF SUEZ to Expand Brazilian Hydroelectric Plant.
GDF SUEZ and International Power, a company owned 70%
by GDF SUEZ, on Aug. 18 announced that it would expand
the already massive 3,300-MW Jirau hydroelectric project on
the Madeira River in Brazil to 3,750 MW, adding six units
to the original concession of 44 units. The announcement
comes on the heels of new PPAs as a result of the A-3 energy
auction held in Brazil on Aug. 17. GDF SUEZ said in a state-
ment that power from the six additional unitsa total of
209 MWwould be sold at a regulated market price of 102
reals/MWh ($64/MWh) for 30 years, starting in 2014. About
73% of the power that will be produced by the project has
been contracted under long-term PPAs, and the balance will
be sold in the free marketmostly to industrial customers.
GDF SUEZ and International Power are building the plant (50
units of about 75 MW each) with Energia Sustentavel do
Brasil and will transfer the project to Tractebel Energia
when fully complete.
Voith Wins Order for 1,850-MW Hydropower Plant in
Brazil. Brazils per-capita electricity use is expected to rise
by almost a third, prompting the South American nation to
add 6,920 MW of generating capacitymuch of which is hy-
dropowerevery year during the next decade. The countrys
environmental agency, IBAMA, in August granted an environ-
mental license to the 1,850-MW Teles Pires hydropower plant
on the border of the Mato Grosso and Para states. Following
the approval, on Aug. 22, Voith Hydro said it signed a 220
million ($312 million) contract for the supply of 404-MVA
generators for the plants five Francis turbines, as well as its
control and automation systems, its substations, mechanical
and electrical balance of plant, associated transmission sys-
tem, and the projects detailed engineering.
MHI, CTCI to Build Three Supercritical Coal Plants for
Taiwanese Firm. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. (MHI)
and CTCI Corp.Taiwans largest EPC firmsaid on Sept. 1
they received a full turnkey order from state-owned Taiwan
Power Co. (Taipower) for a project to construct three coal-
fired supercritical-pressure power generation units at Taip-
owers Linkou Thermal Power Plant. The three units (1, 2, and
3), each rated at 800 MW, will replace existing facilities at
the plant based on Taiwans energy source development plan.
Units 1 and 2 are scheduled to come online in November 2015
and November 2016 respectively, and Unit 3 will go online in
November 2020. The Linkou Thermal Power Plant is located in
northern Taiwan, approximately 12 miles west of central Tai-
pei. Each power generation unit consists primarily of a boiler,
steam turbine, and generator. MHI will be responsible for the
manufacture and supply of the three boilers and three steam
turbines. The three generators will be produced by Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
Taiwans electricity needs have been increasing every year,
along with continuous economic growth supported by robust
external demand. Although Taiwans power generation busi-
ness has been liberalized since 1994, Taipower continues to
generate near 75% of all electricity. The company transmits
and distributes energy by purchasing electricity produced by
independent power producers. In 2010, Taiwans total power
generation capacity was 40,250 MW.
E.ON Commissions Russian Gas Turbines. E.ON in July
officially commissioned two new combined cycle gas turbine
units, each 400 MW, at its Surgutskaya GRES-2 power station
in West Siberia, Russia. The German company said it is now
one of the largest buyers of Russian gas and also the biggest
foreign investor in the Russian power market. E.ON said in
a statement that the efficiency of each unit at Surgutskaya
GRES-2 is 55.9%.
Alstom Signs Contract for 125-MW Solar Steam Tur-
bine. Alstom in August signed a contract with U.S. firm Co-
bra Thermosolar Plants to supply a 125-MW steam turbine
and a generator for a thermal solar plant in Tonopah, Nev.,
using tower technology. The turbine will be delivered in Sep-
tember 2012 and the solar plant will be commissioned by the
end of 2013. The project is the application of an innovative
solar energy storage technology and will produce 500,000
MWh per year to be sold to Nevada utility NV Energy.
Sonal Patel is POWERs senior writer.
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Acidic condensate. Positive pressure. Thermal
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HKl625_SOE_POWER_203x273_AW 8/7/08 4:09 pm Page l
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October 2011 18
JEA Increases Power Output Through
CFB Improvements
JEAs Northside Generating Station in Jacksonville, Fla., Units 1
and 2 were built in 1966 and 1972, respectively, although the Unit
2 boiler had not operated since 1983. Both were heavy oil and
natural gasfired steam units rated at about 300 MW. The util-
ity repowered those two units by removing the old boilers and
adding new circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boilers (Figure 1) that
entered service in 2002. At that time, they were the worlds two
largest CFBs, and the plant won POWERs Plant of the Year Award.
The CFB burns crushed limestone (sorbent), which is inject-
ed into the bed where the coal or petroleum coke is burned,
absorbing the released sulfur. A polishing spray dryer absorber
completes the sulfur-removal process. The low temperature of
combustion, about 1,650F, also minimizes NO
x
production. The
bed of ash, solid fuel, and sorbent is fluidized by air accelerated
through nozzles located in the bottom of the bed. The fluidizing
air also supplies most of the needed combustion air.
As the solid fuel particles burn and reduce in size, the fluidizing
air will carry the light particles upward through the boiler with the
combustion gases. These particles are then separated in a cyclone
and recycled back to the bed, the circulating part of the CFB
boiler system. Ash is removed from the bottom of the bed through
a stripper cooler that recovers heat as new fuel and sorbent are
added. A fabric filter removes any remaining particles entrained in
the flue gas. Uniquely, steam is superheated in tubes placed in the
solids circulating stream and in the flue gas path.
As is often the case, deploying state-of-the-art technology
often means that plant upgrades and operational improvements
will closely follow emerging technology advancements prompted
by actual operating experience. This is what JEA has experienced
with the two new CFB boilers.
Solving Operating Problems
At Northside, concerns arose about boiler reliability and load
reductions principally caused by unstable main steam tempera-
tures that were in turn caused by high bed pressures. High bed
pressures were caused by too much limestone and ash in the
furnace bed and overfiring the CFB. Another side effect of these
off-design conditions was high ammonia consumption. Ammonia
is injected into the backpass (cyclone inlet) area of the boiler for
additional control of NO
x
production.
Beginning in 2006, many improvements were made to the
plant that included upgrading the air quality control system, im-
proving stripper cooler reliability, and optimizing fuel/limestone
mixtures. These and other modifications produced immediate
benefits. For example, correcting hot combustion spots in the
furnace resulted in lower ammonia use, saving $1.5 million per
year. Better control of furnace temperatures also reduced coal
usage and improved ash quality (ash is resold into the build-
ing materials market), resulting in lower cost of generation. In
addition, reduced limestone use improved coal combustion and
increased boiler efficiency.
Further improvements to the plant were made in the fall of
2009. One major improvement was replacement of the original
1966-vintage steam turbine low-pressure rotor in each unit. Re-
design of the integrated recycle heat exchangers (known as In-
trex, located in the return leg from each cyclone and used for
steam superheating) and other modifications have also boosted
unit output about 15 MW per unit, producing significantly higher
power sale revenue.
Modifying the Intrex
The Intrex are integral to the CFB furnaces and function to reduce
the height of the bed material in each furnace bed for improved
combustion and steam production, operating at about 1,600F to
1,650F. Furnace temperature is directly controlled by changing
the solids loading in the upper furnace, by control of the primary
and secondary airflow, and by efficient flow of solids over the
Intrex tubes.
Heat transfer problems occurred previously in the Intrex units
when solids agglomerated on the tubes, reducing the airflow and
heat exchanger performance. The solids buildup was first observed
during initial furnace start-up in 2002. The replacement cost of
each Intrex is about $1 million. Despite the CFB improvements
made between 2006 and 2008, Intrex airflow issues continued to
limit power generation (Figure 2).
There were other problems related to ash agglomeration. The orig-
inal 10-inch damper valves controlling airflow to the Intrex units
would stick when completely closed, requiring a 5% limit stop to be
placed in the control system to prevent full closure. As a result, un-
1. World record holder. JEA repowered two old steam boil-
ers at the Northside Generating Station with circulating fluidized bed
(CFB) boilers. When installed in 2002, the two CFB boilers were the
largest in the world. The steam turbine portion of the plant remained
unchanged. Courtesy: JEA
2. Intrex tube shelf problem. The end tube support design
promotes agglomeration under the superheater tube bundle and on the
return wall. Source: JEA
Ash recirculation
due to lack up
upward air flow
Tube shelf
agglomeration
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October 2011 20
desirable inflow at start-up caused overheating of the heat exchanger
tubes, contributing to metallurgical damage and premature tube fail-
ures. Those 10-inch valves also tended to hunt, meaning that they
were unstable, especially in the range of 10% to 30% open.
The designers realized well-controlled airflow was essential to
ensure good circulation within the Intrex units to prevent ag-
glomeration of solids on the tubes and for improved combustion
in the CFB. As a result, the Intrex units were redesigned.
Three modifications were implemented during the fall 2009 shut-
down: moving the superheater tube support, replacing weir walls with
a new design to aid circulation, and using a three-pipe air supply
inside of the single, 10-inch-diameter pipe (Figure 3). The original
10-inch air supply line was replaced by three pipes, each equipped
with a new 4-inch-high performance butterfly valve designed to pass
the same amount of air, but with improved accuracy.
A New Butterfly Valve
High-performance butterfly valves are traditionally used in throttling
applications requiring close flow control, but their accurate operating
range is usually limited to a very narrow control range, about 30% to
50% open. When pushed to open wider, operation usually becomes
sluggish and unpredictable. Perhaps this is why high-performance
butterfly valves were not used in the original Intrex design, which
had airflow controlled by the 10-inch damper valves.
Meanwhile, engineers at the Fisher Controls Division of Emerson
Process Management were working to broaden the control range of
high-performance butterfly valves. By testing various butterfly valve
disk designs in their testing laboratory, they created a disk with an
inherent equal percentage flow characteristic. This means that the
percentage flow through the valve was proportional to the percent-
age valve opening, so there were more predictable flows over a much
wider valve travel range, in this case up to 70% open.
Following successful field trials, the new 4-inch control disk
valve system was introduced early in 2009, just in time for the
new technology to be adopted by JEA. A Fisher spring and dia-
phragm actuator operates each of the new valves. Post-upgrade
tests confirmed that during normal Intrex operation, the desired
pressures in each of the three sections of the air supply plenum
were achieved, which improved the flow of bed material. A dozen
of the 10-inch damper valves were replaced by 36 of the 4-inch
control disk valves on each of the two units. Another advantage
was the control disc valve design is the complete shutoff of the air
supply to the bed during start-up, avoiding Intrex tube damage.
Final Test Results
The redesign and modifications completed in 2009 greatly improved
control of the airflow into each of the three Intrex heat exchangers in
each of the two units. Ash flow through the Intrex heaters was also
improved, reducing tube fouling and producing better heat transfer.
The stability of bed levels in each furnace resulted in lower air pres-
sures required to fluidize the bed material. The improved fluidization
also prevents plugging of the Intrex heat exchangers. Other observed
benefits have been reduced emissions of SO
2
and NO
x
and increased
load output. The valves can also control accurately at lower flows,
making it easier to adjust to lower power loads at night.
Figure 4 shows before and after views of the superheater tubes
in one Intrex. One year after the valve modifications were made,
the Intrex tubes remain clear and problem-free. Recently, the
distributed control system (DCS) monitor of one CFB showed very
precise valve opening of 63.69%, 70.02%, and 66.79% on each
of three control disk valves serving one Intrex heater. These valve
opening readings represent gas flows of 2,056 lb/hr, 1,999 lb/
hour, and 1,997 lb/hour, respectively, indicating that the Intrex
heaters are operating as designed.
Also shown on the DCS screen was the power output of 308.37
MW for that unit, confirming that the upgraded Intrex system
and other plant modifications have produced improved furnace
operation and increased power output.
Looking Ahead
JEA intends to continue its leadership in CFB boiler design and
operation with further improvements to the Northside plant. To-
day, JEA management believes that more fine-tuning will further
increase plant output and efficiency. The next step is restoration of
a number of Intrex tube bundles, already scheduled during the fall
2011 shutdown. Other plans call for improvement of secondary and
primary air control, limiting Intrex tube temperatures on start-up
to 1,050F, and analyzing start-up control factors such as feedwater
flow, primary and secondary airflow, bed pressures, and above-bed
burner uses to improve the responsiveness of each unit.
Contributed by Frank Thomas (thomfh@jea.com), a reliability
engineer, and John Kang (kangjj@jea.com), an electric generation
optimization specialist, for JEA.
Applying Acoustic Pulse Reflectometry
in a Geothermal Plant
Acoustic pulse reflectometry (APR) is a tube inspection method
that has been gradually gaining acceptance as a tool for heat ex-
changer inspection. Different types of heat exchangers operating
All weir walls
modified to
Hoover Dam
design
Raised return
channel floor
Heavy refractory
Light refractory
Tube support moved
to mid span
Partitioned air supply
Lowest
pressure
Middle
pressure
Highest
pressure
Acts as
support for
modified
tube shelf
3. Intrex design improvements. In the fall of 2009, a number of
additional design improvements were made to the Intrex. Source: JEA
4. Good results from Intrex upgrades. On the left is Intrex
2C in as-found condition before the 2009 outage. Note the agglomera-
tion formation above the tube shelf. Agglomeration forms above the
tube shelf due to poor fluidization. This buildup causes load reduction
and cyclone plugging. Targeted modifications made in 2009 eliminated
this problem, as shown in the photo on the right. Courtesy: JEA
October 2011
|
in different operating environments have different failure mecha-
nisms, making some of them more suited than others for inspec-
tion by APR. Finned tube heat exchangers are a typical example
of heat exchangers particularly conducive to APR inspection.
The reason APR is particularly useful on finned tube heat ex-
changers is that it is purely an internal pipe inspection method.
This is a limitation where tubes are susceptible to external dam-
age by corrosion or abrasion from support plates. In finned tube
exchangers, however, the tubes often rest on top of each other,
supported by the fins. There are no support plates, and in cases
where the external fluid is forced air, there are no hostile chemi-
cals on the exterior of the tubes.
Dual-cycle geothermal power plants often employ this type
of heat exchangers. In this type of geothermal plant, hot brine
heats an organic liquid having a low boiling temperature, turn-
ing it into vapor. This higher-pressure gas expands through the
turbine, producing power. The lower-pressure gas is then con-
densed using finned tube heat exchangers (condensers in this
case), which are cooled by air forced across the highly finned
heat exchanger tubes by large fans. Thoroughly inspecting these
heat exchanger pipes has been problematic, until now.
How APR Works
The theory behind APR is to inject a wideband acoustic pulse into
a pipe. This pulse acts as a form of virtual probe. As long as
the pulse encounters no discontinuities, it continues to propa-
gate down the tube. Whenever a discontinuity is encountered
such as a blockage, expansion (due to wall loss, for example), or
holea reflection is created. The reflected waves propagate back
down the tube, where they are recorded for analysis (Figure 5).
The ultimate purpose of tube inspection should be to examine
tubes as rapidly as possible and then analyze the measurements
both rapidly and using objective criteria. Keeping this in mind,
APR is very well-suited to this task on both counts. The pulse
acting as a probe travels through the tube at the speed of sound,
resulting in inspection rates much faster than those possible
with other techniques. Measurement of a single tube takes only
several seconds, and there is no physical probe to push through
the tubes or become stuck. The resultant measurements can then
be analyzed by appropriate signal processing software, which is
faster and more objective than human analysis.
5. Different discontinuities have different signatures.
In tubes belonging to heat exchangers, any sensed discontinuity repre-
sents a fault. Source: AcousticEye
Impinging pulse
Reflection from
a constriction
Reflection from
a dilation
Reflection from
a leak
|
October 2011 22
Signal Analysis Techniques
Carrying out the physical measurements on a large number of
tubes is the first step toward assessing the material condition of
a condenser. Analyzing these measurements to reach actionable
conclusions is a daunting task best performed by sophisticated
analysis software. Such software can flag problematic measure-
ments and diagnose them or present them for further expert
evaluation.
The raw measurements always contain a certain degree of vari-
ability, due to ambient noise, internal noise, and fluctuations
caused by reflections off residual fouling. Thus, the first step in
analysis is to find the ground level of noise, defining a noise
threshold. Any reflections crossing this threshold are considered
to represent faults. To aid in assessing fault sizes, a series of
thresholds are calculated so that the size of a fault can be esti-
6. Tubular tests. APR was used to measure the response of 20
different pipes. The length along each pipe from the point of measure-
ment is shown on the horizontal axis, in meters. The noise thresh-
oldsignal variability due to ambient, internal, and reflected noiseis
shown with the red lines. The signals with the large peaks from the
horizontal axis represent faults. Source: AcousticEye
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
x105 Position: 4.88853817 Value: 0.00002175 Mean: 0.00004 Min: 0.00166 Max:0.00001
m_140
<Noise top>
<Noise bottom>
m_139
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
7. Typical fault detection. A single APR signal was taken from
the 20 shown in Figure 6 to illustrate how the technology can identify
the location of a fault. In this test, the fault is located at 15.3 meters
downstream. Source: AcousticEye
2.7
2.4
2.1
1.8
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
14.9 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 16.0 16.1 16.2
<ThrPB> 25%
<ThrPB> 20%
<ThrPB> 15%
<ThrPB> 10%
<ThrPB> 5%
<Noise top>
<Noise bottom>
m_140

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October 2011 24
mated by observing the highest threshold
crossed by the corresponding peak in the
signal.
For example, 20 APR measurements are
shown in Figure 6. Clearly, most of the sig-
nals fluctuate close to the horizontal axis,
though some of them exhibit large peaks,
which probably represent faults. Adding
positive and negative noise thresholds
(the red line) helps distinguish random
fluctuations from faults.
Finally, observing one of the measure-
ments along with the blockage thresholds
(Figure 7) shows there is a blockage at
15.3 meters, blocking about 23% of the
cross section.
Geothermal Plant Case Study
The multiple condensers in a geothermal
plant were recently inspected by APR
techniques. There are multiple condens-
ers because multiple, small, standard-size
geothermal modules are used. At this
plant, multiple condensers are grouped
into banks or units, each condenser hav-
ing 284 finned tubes of about 18 meters in
length. The units are placed in long rows,
several feet above ground (Figure 8).
A leak of organic gas was found in one
of the condensers. In this case the leak
was large enough that the pressure dif-
ferential caused the leaking gas to freeze
into visible clumps at the bottom of the
condenser. Further analysis revealed a loss
of approximately 70 kilograms of gas per
day. The failed unit was shut down and
the faulty condenser bank was taken out
of service. The unit was put back online a
day later, excluding the faulty condenser
(Figure 9).
Metallurgical analysis confirmed what
was visually apparent: The leaks were
caused by advanced corrosion. Such cor-
rosion does not normally occur in these
tubes because, in operation, they are
filled with a noncorrosive organic fluid.
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8. Bank of condensers. This group of
air-cooled condensers is used to condense
the organic turbine exhaust vapor from a
series of small geothermal power systems.
APR was used to track down the location of
several tube leaks in only two days. Source:
AcousticEye
9. Clean pipes first. The presence of
a leak was considered highly irregular given
that the condenser bank was only three
years old. To facilitate inspection, some of
the condenser tubes were removed, reveal-
ing large amounts of corrosion and debris.
Source: AcousticEye
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October 2011 26
The best explanation for this condition was that water residues
had been left in the tubes when the condenser was put into service.
The source of these residues was assumed to be the hydrotesting that
had been carried out upon installation, three years earlier.
At this point the operator was left with two possibilities: the
very expensive prospect of replacing the problematic condensers
or cleaning out the corrosion. The operators main concern was
that, after cleaning, the tubes would be shown to be in such
bad condition that they would have to be replaced anyway. The
decision was made to first clean out a single condenser unit and
inspect the tubes.
The leaking condenser was hydroblasted and then inspected
by a commercial service provider, using APR. Several additional
holes were found, as were tubes with severe pitting. However,
the majority of tubes were in satisfactory condition.
In view of the condition of the tubes after cleaning, and the
rapid inspection time available with APR, the operator made two
major decisions:
To follow the initial approach of cleaning out the entire bank,
then inspecting all the tubes with APR, and plugging the prob-
lematic ones. A full inspection over a short outage would not
be possible with other technologies.
To purchase the APR equipment, train several of the companys
own people, and carry out the inspection itself. This was made
possible through the high level of automated analysis avail-
able in this equipment, which enables technicians to use it
properly after a training course of only two days.
The entire bank was hydroblasted and treated with a chemical
wash intended to coat the tubes to prevent further corrosion.
The remaining 2,840 tubes in the unit (10 condensers with
284 tubes each) were inspected in two days. In contrast to many
condenser types where removal of access plates makes tube ends
available to direct inspection, these condensers have a header
box, about 12 inches deep, at either end. Opposite each tube is
a plug that can be removed to enable inspection. Nevertheless,
inserting an eddy current probe across the gap between the plug
hole and the tube is awkward and time-consuming. Using APR,
an extension tube is fitted to the APR probe, and the inspection
is then carried out as usual (Figure 10).
A detailed report was provided in two additional days, recom-
mending that about 4% of the tubes be plugged. When the unit was
brought back online, losses of organic gas dropped back down to nor-
mal background levels and overall plant output increased by 1.5%.
Useful Report Extracts
Many interesting and useful observations were made, based on the
measurements. For example, the signals in Figures 6 and 7 were
taken from one of the inspected condensers. Numerous positive-
negative peak patterns can be seen, indicating the presence of
many blockages. Most of these were quite small, having some ef-
fect on the efficiency of the unit, but not justifying a complete
replacement. Figure 11, on the other hand, shows a typical signa-
ture of a hole. A final report was then prepared for each condenser,
reporting all faults in graphic and tabular form (Figure 12).
APR has been demonstrated in the field as a viable tool for
condenser tube inspection. Both test time and report genera-
tion are fast in comparison to existing nondestructive inspection
technologies. APR enables 100% inspection of large condenser
banks while maintaining very short downtimes.
Contributed by Dr. Noam Amir (noam@acousticeye.com), chief
technology officer, AcousticEye.
10. Easy inspection. When inspecting a condenser with a header
box, an extension tube is fitted to the APR probe to span the box, and
the inspection is then carried out as usual. Source: AcousticEye
11. A hole pattern. An APR inspection returns electronic signatures
that represent faults. Different discontinuities have different signatures.
In this figure, a leaking hole is observed. Source: AcousticEye
12. Fault report. A complete picture of the condenser material
condition can be reported on a single figure based on the individual
reports (see Figure 11). Source: AcousticEye
4.5
3.6
2.7
1.8
0.9
0.0
0.9
1.8
2.7
3.6
4.5
5.4
17.2 17.4 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16.0 16.2 16.4 16.6 16.8 17.0
<ThrPB> 5%
<Noise top>
<Noise bottom> m_142
No fault, or erosion <10% of tubewall depth
Wall depth erosion / pitting >70%
Full blockage
Wall depth erosion/pitting 10%-30%
Many/massive partial blockages
Wall depth erosion/pitting 30%-70%
Holes
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October 2011 28
Too Much of a Good Thing
Creates Legal Havoc
By Brian R. Gish
A
s last winters abundant snowfall in the Pacific Northwest
melted, rivers swelled and hydroelectric operators enjoyed
substantial increases in generation. That bountiful clean
and cheap power generation was a blessing, but it also triggered
a host of legal issues.
Free Power, Anyone?
So much water flowed down the Columbia and other Northwest
rivers in May and June that more hydropower was generated at
times than there was electric demand in the region. Due to trans-
mission constraints, the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA)
the regions marketer for federal hydropower and the primary grid
operatorcould not dispose of all the power flowing into its sys-
tem, even when it offered to give the power away for free. Because
power going into a system needs to be balanced with power going
out of the system, BPA had an overgeneration problem.
The seemingly obvious remedy of allowing the river water to
spill over the dams rather than run through turbine generators
was not available due to environmental restrictions. Spilling wa-
ter causes air to be dissolved in the water, and too much dis-
solved gas can kill fish, including federally protected endangered
salmon in the Columbia River. According to BPA, it was bound by
the Endangered Species Act and Clean Water Act to limit spill and
concluded that it had no choice other than to run the river flow
through turbine generators, which inject less air, but also gener-
ated unneeded power.
Hydro Versus Wind
To solve its problem, BPA adopted an Environmental Redispatch
policy, which, in part, claimed authority to unilaterally amend its
interconnection agreements with non-BPA generators to allow
BPA to shut those generators down whenever regional supply ex-
ceeded demand. BPA would then substitute, for free, its excess
power for the power that would otherwise have been produced by
the shut-down generators.
Although this policy was generally a good deal for thermal
generators, which would save fuel costs by shutting down and
receiving free power to serve their customers, it was not a good
deal for the owners of thousands of megawatts of wind genera-
tion that had been recently connected to BPAs grid. Wind gen-
erators have no fuel costs to save, and many lose money when
they are not generating because of lost production-based federal
tax credits and/or state renewable energy credits (RECs). Thus,
BPAs redispatch policy collided directly with governmental poli-
cies encouraging wind power.
BPA could have disposed of its excess power by letting the
market decide who could absorb the power most economically,
but this would likely have required BPA to pay customers to take
the power (that is, negative pricing). BPA, however, declared
as part of its new policy that it would not pay customers to take
its excess power, because that would impose extra costs on its
regular power customers. Instead, BPA decided to use its author-
ity over the grid to protect its power customers from additional
costs, and to push the responsibility for excess hydropower onto
other generators in the region, primarily wind generators with
government-provided incentives. Because no one argued that
fish should not be protected, but only who should pay for protec-
tion, BPAs policy was not so much environmental redispatch as
it was cost-shifting redispatch.
BPAs Remedy Raises Complex Issues
A number of wind generators filed a complaint against BPA at the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) under the Federal
Power Act, arguing, among other things, that BPA: had no au-
thority to unilaterally amend interconnection agreements; was il-
legally discriminating against wind projects; was violating open
access principles by using its transmission grid to benefit its
power marketing function; was manipulating the power markets;
and was violating the Constitution and other laws by confiscating
wind projects transmission rights to ship more BPA power out of
the region. Interestingly, fishery interests intervened to say that
fish could withstand, and even benefit from, higher levels of spill
over the dams, and they blamed BPA for advocating for the lower
spill limits in other proceedings where they were adopted.
BPA responded to the FERC complaint, arguing, among other
things, that FERC had no jurisdiction over BPA to grant the rem-
edies requested; BPA was legally authorized to implement its
policy; there was no discrimination against wind; and that all
appeals of BPAs actions were required by law to go exclusively
to the 9th Circuit Court. In fact, in proceedings separate from
the FERC complaint, 10 petitioners filed court appeals of BPAs
actions.
Thus, in Rube Goldberglike manner, the beneficial high spring
river flows in the Northwest have resulted in the forced shutdown
of over 97,000 MWh of wind generation; the loss of tens of millions
of dollars in tax and REC wind production credits; the initiation of
a hotly contested FERC proceeding with approximately 50 partici-
pants; the filing of 10 petitions for court review; and the raising of
a host of thorny legal and policy issues. As of the date this article
was written, the FERC and court actions were pending.
Brian R. Gish (briangish@dwt.com) is of counsel in Davis
Wright Tremaines Energy Practice Group.
BPAs policy was not so much
environmental redispatch as it
was cost-shifting redispatch.
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October 2011 30
TOP PLANTS
Coffeen Energy Center, Montgomery
County, Illinois
Owner/operator: Ameren Energy Resources
B
ordered on the east by the historic
Route 66 Highway, Montgomery
County, Ill., includes large tracts
of fertile croplands and protected natural
areas. Management and staff at the coal-
fired Coffeen Energy Center work hard to
control air emissions and take other proac-
tive steps to protect the natural resources
of the area.
Recently, Ameren Energy Resources
(AER) invested in new energy center equip-
ment and control systems that have improved
operation and reliability at the Coffeen plant
and helped to make it one of the cleanest
coal-fired plants in the nation.
Coffeen is located in Montgomery
County, which is mostly rural, with small
towns and limited business base, Jeff
Coyle, plant manager told POWER in Au-
gust. The plant provides jobs and a tax
base to the local community, and we work
hard to be a good corporate neighbor.
As one example of the facilitys efforts,
Coyle explained that Coffeen Lake is
owned by Ameren, but Ameren has a lease
agreement with the Illinois Department of
Natural Resources to manage it, and the
lake is considered a wonderful year-round
hunting and fishing resource.
Visitors to Coffeen Lake can find a di-
verse range of wildlife. Muskrats, turtles,
herons, and mussels can be seen in or near
the water. Bobwhites, coyotes, white-
tailed deer, black rat snakes, red-tailed
hawks, and blue jays are also common to
the area.
Plant Upgrades
In February, the plant began a major outage
that involved replacing all 14 of the 1970s-
era cyclones in the Unit 2 boiler and several
other plant improvements. The plant returned
to service in May.
Coffeens Unit 1 came online in 1965.
The original engineering firm was Sargent
& Lundy, and Alberici was the original con-
struction company. Unit 2 went commercial
in 1972 with the same engineering and con-
struction partners.
New environmental control systems
have been installed on both units during the
past decadebringing to more than $1 bil-
lion the investment made in environmental
controls at this site alone. (Additionally,
in the past few years, AER has spent more
Situated in predominantly rural central Illinois, the 1,000-MW Coffeen Energy
Center has installed a number of controls in recent years and achieved signifi-
cant environmental performance. For example, in 2010 a new scrubber facility
was added that reduces SO
2
from combustion gases coming from the plants two
coal-fired boilers. The plant personnels continuing commitment to protecting the
environment helps to promote a strong relationship between the plant and the
local community.
By Angela Neville, JD Courtesy: Ameren Energy Resources
E N E R G I Z I N G T H E W O R L D F O R 1 2 5 Y E A R S
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When we designed the AP1000 nuclear reactor, we asked
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TOP PLANTS
|
October 2011 32
than $1 billion on environmental improve-
ments on scrubbers, precipitators, new
landfills, and mercury reduction technolo-
gies at its other power plants.) In 2009 and
2010, scrubbers were installed on Coffeen
Units 1 and 2. These sophisticated systems
help to significantly cut the plants sulfur
dioxide (SO
2
) emissions and also reduce
mercury emissions. Reducing SO
2
emis-
sions by more than 90%, the scrubbers are
designed to redirect the outlet stack gas
through a spray-tower scrubber design,
where the gas mixes with water, a 20%
limestone mixture, and compressed air.
The SO
2
in the flue gas then reacts with the
limestone to produce a gypsum by-product
that can either be sold for commercial use
or placed into a landfill for disposal.
In addition to scrubbers, other recent
environmental improvements at Cof-
feen included an electrostatic precipitator
(ESP) upgrade on Unit 1 and a new ESP on
Unit 2. Though ESPs have been around for
many years, the ones installed at Coffeen
offer the latest improvements that make
them very effective in ash removal. Recent
environmental projects also have included
installation of new selective catalytic re-
duction (SCR) systems on both units and
the addition of other environmental con-
trol equipment and systems that support
cleaner water and air.
Alberici, the construction company in
charge of the project, handled the mechan-
ical installation of two large, state-of-the-
art absorber vessels and related equipment
supplied by Hitachi Power Systems Amer-
ica Ltd., while Sachs Electric of St. Louis
did the electrical portion of the work. Al-
berici worked with Amerens engineering
firm, Sargent & Lundy, to deliver this proj-
ect on an aggressive schedule driven by
the need to meet regulatory commitments
while adapting to the economic downturn.
One of the major construction challenges
is the configuration of Lake Coffeen in re-
lation to the plant, according to Coyle. The
1,100-acre lake was created in the early
1960s by building a dam to capture the flow
from the McDavid Creek. The resulting lake
is horseshoe-shaped with the plant sitting in
the middle. The area available for environ-
mental equipment additions is very limited.
It took a lot of effort to design and con-
struct the interface tying the plant to air,
water, and electrical systems in this small
space, he said. Building the new equip-
ment very close to the operating plant and
maintaining operations was also a chal-
lenge. Additionally, the new scrubbers
require as much as two million gallons of
water per day and a state-of-the-art pump-
ing station was installed in a nearby creek
to capture additional water from a larger
watershed area to support operation.
The plants recent large construction
projects at their peak meant jobs for up
to 800 craftspersons along with numer-
ous engineers and other professionals and
added large amounts of money to the lo-
cal economy. Coyle said, We continue
to infuse significant dollars into the local
economy each year through contracted
work and services.
Facility Overview
Coyle summed up Coffeens efficiency rate
by pointing out that we expect to produce
more than 7 million MWh net per year.
The heat rate of Unit 1 is approximately
10,200 Btu/kWh; Unit 2 is about 9,800
Btu/kWh.
The facility has upgraded its rotors over
the past decade, with the most recent im-
provement being a Toshiba high- and inter-
mediate-pressure turbine installed in Unit
2 in 2010. High-efficiency turbines have
been installed in both units, which have
allowed us to increase generation output
for the same coal use, Coyle said. This
has the benefit of offsetting the increased
auxiliary load required by the new scrub-
bers by implementing energy efficient
projects.
The expectation is that future equivalent
availability will be >90% and the capac-
ity factor will be nearly the same level to
take advantage of the units low-cost, low-
emission capability, Coyle explained.
The plant is operated and maintained
by 170 full-time employees (Figure 1).
There is a strong emphasis on plant safety,
which has dramatically reduced accidents
in recent years. Coyle pointed out that the
plant had zero accidents through the first
half of 2011.
Striving for Ongoing
Environmental Excellence
As part of the recent environmental im-
provements, the plant added new certified
fly ash and gypsum landfills that are used
to store by-products from burning coal.
Coyle explained that 100% of the bottom
ash is reclaimed and beneficially used in
post-combustion aggregate products.
Coyle emphasized that the Coffeen plant
is one of the cleanest fossil plants in the
nation in terms of regulated emissions. He
gave credit for the very effective con-
taminant control to a recent investment in
equipment for both units, including over-
fire air systems for NO
x
control, SCR, ESP,
and wet scrubber technologies.
Multiple federal and state environmen-
tal regulations have been added since the
plant first came online, Coyle said. We
presently operate within stringent Illinois
Multi-Pollutant Strategy requirements and
are well-positioned to meet the new Cross
State Air Pollution Rule.
Angela Neville, JD, is POWERs
senior editor.
1. Keeping things under control. In the control room at Ameren Energy Resources
Coffeen Plant, in central Illinois, operations and engineering personnel discuss the operating
parameters of one of the newly installed scrubbers. Courtesy: Ameren Energy Resources
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October 2011 34
TOP PLANTS
J.K. Spruce 2, Calaveras Power
Station, San Antonio, Texas
Owner/operator: CPS Energy
I
n the U.S., where coal accounts for around
45% of generating capacity, new coal
plants entering commercial service are be-
coming scarce. Moreover, those utilities with
existing coal plants remain very busy install-
ing costly new air quality control systems
(AQCS) and other environmental protection
systems. The cost of coal power is increasing,
but it remains relatively inexpensive.
CPS Energy, based in San Antonio, Texas,
is one utility that continues to rely on coal to
fire about 38% of the electricity consumed by
its customers. In total, CPS Energy has about
2,200 MW of coal-fired capacity in service
today. In addition, the utility purchases the
energy produced by five wind farms, total-
ing 859 MW, making it the largest munici-
pal purchaser of wind energy in the U.S. The
utility also purchases production from the
14-MW Blue Wing photovoltaic solar facil-
ity, the largest in the state of Texas, located
on 113 acres southeast of San Antonio.
Clean Energy Strategy
CPS Energys Strategic Energy Plan was
adopted by the Board of Trustees in June
2003. The plan set energy conservation
goals, required increased use of renewable
energy sources, and included an expansion
of coal-fired generation.
In early 2005, the utility updated its strate-
gic energy plan to address its future electric-
ity generation needs. The plan was aligned
with a fuel diversification program that would
have the utility utilize coal, nuclear, and natu-
ral gas as well as increase the share of wind
and solar in the energy mix.
With electricity demand climbing at ap-
proximately 3% per year at the time, CPS
Energys forecasts indicated that an ad-
ditional 1,300 MW would be required by
2013, and a significant new source of gen-
eration was needed by 2010 to meet that
goal. As the utility had recently invested
in two gas-fired plants, it determined that
a coal-fired unit would be the best option
to meet future electricity demand. A coal
plant would ensure reliable supplies and
diversify the utilitys energy supply by
balancing scarce, high-priced, and volatile
fuels with more plentiful and affordable
ones. Ultimately, a coal plant would pro-
vide significant baseload electricity at low
cost, and this would enable CPS Energy to
pursue a balanced portfolio approach at af-
fordable costs for its retail customers.
Planning Ahead
Later in 2005, Alstom Power was awarded
contracts to supply equipment for a new $1
billion, 750-MW coal-fired unit: Spruce 2,
at the utilitys Calaveras Power Station.
Under the contracts, Alstom supplied a
new coal-fired boiler as well as an AQCS,
resulting in a plant that is one of the clean-
est in the U.S. in terms of SO
x
, NO
x
, and
particulate emissions.
CPS Energy, the largest municipally owned
utility in the U.S. providing both natural gas
and electric service, implemented an energy
plan in 2003 that required energy conservation
measures, use of available renewable energy
sources such as wind and solar, and additional
coal-fired generation. The $1 billion 750-MW
Spruce 2 fits into that plan by being one of the
cleanest coal-fired plants in the country.
By Dr. Robert Peltier, PE
Courtesy: Alstom Power
TOP PLANTS
October 2011
|
There are also four other units at the
site: the Sommers power plant (two gas-
fired boilers) and the Deely power plant
(two coal-fired units).
The new unit is located next to Spruce
1, a 550-MW coal-fired unit that began
operation at the end of 1992 and was de-
signed with provisions for an additional
unit. Those provisions for a future Spruce 2
included much of the necessary infrastruc-
ture, such as the water treatment build-
ing, machine shop, coal-handling supply
conveyors, and scrubber wastehandling
equipment. That approach saved as much
as $300 million in construction costs for
the new unit.
The process of obtaining a permit from
the Texas Commission on Environmental
Quality to build Spruce 2 was challenging
but ultimately successful. To obtain the
permit, CPS Energy proposed emissions
levels that were stricter than those estab-
lished for SO
x
and NO
x
at the time for
other plants in Texas.
The project was handled by Calaveras
Power Partners LP (CPP), a consortium of
Black & Veatch, TIC (The Industrial Com-
pany), and Zachry Construction. Following
an evaluation of bids for the project, CPP
awarded Alstom the contract to supply the
boiler in September 2005 and the contract
for the environmental control equipment a
month later.
Under the first contract, Alstom was re-
sponsible for delivering the complete boiler
island and the selective catalytic reduction
(SCR) equipment. The scope of supply in-
cluded fans, motors, boiler water circulation
pumps, valves, coal mills, bottom ash equip-
ment, and air heatersessentially, all equip-
ment connected to the air heater outlet.
Under a separate contract for environ-
mental control equipment, Alstom sup-
plied a reverse gas fabric filter to reduce
particulates and a wet flue gas desulfuriza-
tion (FGD) system to remove SO
2
, hydro-
gen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride.
The Proper Way to Burn Coal
The boiler at Spruce 2 utilizes a subbitu-
minous low-sulfur coal delivered by train
from Wyomings Powder River Basin. One
to two trains arrive each day, with each
train comprising 135 cars and carrying
more than 100 tons of coal per car.
Coal is unloaded from the trains to the
coal yard and transported to silos large
enough to provide 12 hours of storage at
the plant. Spruce 2 consumes 425 tons/
hour of coal. The coal is pulverized and
dried in bowl mills before being combust-
ed; five of the six bowl mills are required
to achieve full load.
The boiler is a two-pass design with
straight wall furnace tubing. The design
main steam temperature measured at the
superheater outlet is 1,050F. The in-furnace
NO
x
control reduces NO
x
at the boiler out-
let to approximately 0.12 lb/MMBtu. The
SCR, CPS Energys first SCR system on a
coal-fired unit, further reduces NO
x
emis-
sion to about 0.05 lb/MMBtu at the stack.
A reverse gas fabric filter removes par-
ticulate emissions. The fly ash collected is
reused in the cement industry, while the
bottom ash is used for roadbed and other
construction applications; consequently,
there is very little disposal of ash waste
products on site. CPS Energy has been
meeting its particulate emissions and opac-
ity targets since the start of operation.
Upon leaving the baghouse and induced
draft fans, the flue gas enters a wet FGD
for the final stage of cleaning. The wet
scrubber is an open spray tower, wherein
the reactive slurry from the tank portion of
the vessel is recirculated to the top of the
tower and sprayed down onto the gas us-
ing a header with a series of nozzles. SO
2

removal occurs as the flue gas is directed
up and through a series of headers or spray
levels that are spraying the limestone-
based reactive slurry. The desulfurized
gas exits the tower and goes to the stack.
The solid by-product from the scrubber
is gypsum. The wet FGD system has also
achieved its design target emissions of less
than 0.06 lb/MMBtu SO
2
, well below the
levels required by the air permit.
The new unit uses cooling water taken
from the man-made Calaveras Lake. From
the outset, the control room was designed
to house controls for both Spruce units.
Operators can manage operation of the
boiler, turbine, scrubber, and waste-han-
dling system of each unit from this com-
mon control room.
Ready for the Peak
The erection of any coal-fired plant often
presents significant challenges, but the
erection of Spruce 2 by CPP proceeded
well from start to finish. After a construc-
tion period lasting approximately four
years, commercial operation began on
May 28, 2010, just in time to meet the CPS
Energy summer peak season (May through
September), saving $45 million compared
to power that would have been purchased
from the state grid for that period, ac-
cording to CPS Energy.
With electricity demand in the U.S. ex-
pected to grow by more than 25% through
2030, coal will continue to be an important
fuel in the countrys energy mix. Reducing
its environmental effects will always be the
key. In fact, CPS Energy says that 25% of
the Spruce 2 price tag was for equipment
to meet environmental regulations. As one
of the cleanest coal power plants in the
country, Spruce 2 demonstrates how coal-
fired plants can continue to have a long-
term role in the nations energy mix.
editor-in-chief.
1. Younger sibling. CPS Energy completed construction of its second Spruce unit, the
750-MW Spruce 2, just in time to meet the summer 2010 peak demand season (May through
September). The $1 billion plant took 50 months to construct. Courtesy: Alstom Power
|
October 2011 36
TOP PLANTS
John Twitty Energy Center Unit 2,
Springfield, Missouri
Owner/operator: City Utilities of Springfield, Missouri
C
ity Utilities of Springfield (CU), Mis-
souri, is a community-owned utility
serving 110,000 customers in south-
west Missouri with electricity, natural gas,
and water services. The utilitys electricity
generation resources include the 203-MW
coal-fired Southwest No. 1 (renamed the
John Twitty Energy Center [JTEC] Unit 1 in
May 2011), which entered service in 1976,
and the five-unit James River Power Station
with a total nameplate of 255 MW, whose
units entered service between 1957 and 1970.
In addition, CU owns 359 MW of combus-
tion turbines that satisfy the regions peak-
ing power requirements. The utility contracts
for another 101 MW under long-term power
purchase agreements. The CU 2010 net peak
demand was 772 MW.
By 2003, increasing electrical demand
from existing and new customers required
CU to add additional generation, especially
because its last plant had been constructed
almost 30 years earlier. After considering
several different generation alternatives, the
decision was made to add a second coal-fired
unit rated at 300 MW to the JTEC because
it appeared to be the best life-cycle cost op-
tion. Construction of the $555 million (total
construction and commissioning cost) proj-
ect designed to burn low-sulfur western coal
began in July 2006 with early construction of
the chimney foundation. Unit 2 was formally
dedicated on November 10, 2010, and in
commercial operation in January 2011. CU
doesnt expect additional baseload genera-
tion will be needed until 2024 or later.
With this new unit, we believe that a bal-
ance of reliable, affordable, and responsible
power has been met, said retired City Utilities
General Manager John Twitty, after whom the
plant was recently renamed (Figure 1). The new
unit is expected to enhance the citys ability to
bring jobs to the area. Springfield is open for
business, said Mayor Jim ONeal. And weve
got the power to prove it. A four-year time-
lapse video of the plants construction is avail-
able at www.tinyurl.com/cus2010.
Designing a New Plant
Design of the new unit began in 2006. Stan-
ley Consultants was retained as the owners
engineer for the project with responsibility
for the detailed design of the entire plant,
cost estimating, scheduling, resident engi-
neering services during construction, start-up
services, and performance testing. Much of
the design ran concurrent with construction
because of the tight project schedule.
Lessening the plants environmental foot-
print was a key consideration. The design in-
cluded the plants state-of-the-art emissions
reduction technologies: activated carbon
injection for mercury emissions control, a
urea-based selective catalytic converter for
NO
x
control, and an Allied Environmental
dry fluidized bed desulfurization system with
Courtesy: City Utilities
City Utilities of Springfield elected to add a 300-MW coal-fired plant to its fleet to
meet rising demand for electricity. It was the first coal plant constructed by the
utility since 1976. An extremely competitive construction market required the
utility to adopt new contracting practices to meet a tight project schedule, an
approach that proved very successful. The $555 million plant commissioned
in January 2011 is expected to cover system growth at least through 2024.
EMERSON. CONSI DER I T SOLVED
.
You Deserve an Ovation.
Congratulations to POWERs 2011 Top
Coal-Fired and Gas-Fired Plants, including the
2011 Plant of the Year, Kansas City Power &
Lights Iatan 2. Were proud of the fact
that so many of you rely on Emersons
Ovation control technology.
Iatan 2
Kansas City Power & Light
John Twitty Energy Center Unit 2
City Utilities of Springfield
Plum Point Energy Station
LS Power Development
Spruce Unit 2
CPS Energy
Coffeen Power Station
Ameren
Hopkins Station Unit 2
City of Tallahassee
Astoria II
Astoria Energy
To find out how Emersons Ovation
expert control technology can make
your plant a Top-Notch Performer, visit
www.EmersonProcess-Power.com.
The Emerson logo is a trademark and service mark of Emerson Electric Co. 2011 Emerson Electric Co.
Ovation and the Ovation logo are trademarks of Emerson Process Management.
Emerson_You Deserve an Ovation_Power Mag_Layout 1 9/13/11 1:14 PM Page 1
EMERSON. CONSI DER I T SOLVED
.
You Deserve an Ovation.
Congratulations to POWERs 2011 Top
Coal-Fired and Gas-Fired Plants, including the
2011 Plant of the Year, Kansas City Power &
Lights Iatan 2. Were proud of the fact
that so many of you rely on Emersons
Ovation control technology.
Iatan 2
Kansas City Power & Light
John Twitty Energy Center Unit 2
City Utilities of Springfield
LS Power Development
Spruce Unit 2
CPS Energy
Coffeen Power Station
Ameren
Hopkins Station Unit 2
City of Tallahassee
Astoria II
Astoria Energy
To find out how Emersons Ovation
expert control technology can make
your plant a Top-Notch Performer, visit
www.EmersonProcess-Power.com.
The Emerson logo is a trademark and service mark of Emerson Electric Co. 2011 Emerson Electric Co.
Ovation and the Ovation logo are trademarks of Emerson Process Management.
Emerson_You Deserve an Ovation_Power Mag_Layout 1 9/13/11 1:14 PM Page 1
TOP PLANTS
|
October 2011 38
baghouse for SO
2
control, acid gas emissions
reduction, and particulate control.
Many of the major equipment purchases
were made by CU, including the steam turbine
generator (Toshiba), condenser (Ecolaire), and
the circulating, boiler feedwater, and conden-
sate pumps (Flowserve). Oscar J. Boldt Con-
struction was responsible for erection of the
boiler island supplied by Foster Wheeler, and
Cherne Contracting Corp. handled construction
of the balance of plant. Alberici Constructors
provided major equipment erection, including
the turbine generator. Other major equipment
suppliers included:
Boiler: Foster Wheeler
Coal silos and mills: Foster Wheeler
SCR catalyst: Ceram Environmental
Air heater: Alstom Power
CFB scrubber, baghouse: Allied Envi-
ronmental
PAC system: ADA-ES
Chimney: Pullman Power
Bottom ash and fly ash systems: United
Conveyor Corp.
Coal handling: Brahma Group (equipment
and construction)
Cooling tower: Midwest Towers (equip-
ment and construction)
The coal pile was expanded to account
for much-increased coal usage at the plant.
Powder River Basin (PRB) coal is delivered
by unit train using bottom dump railcars that
arrive every 48 hours. Each delivery is about
18,000 tons of coal. Coal is unloaded from
the railcars into hoppers, then to a transfer
tower and stockout conveyors, and then de-
posited on the coal pile. Coal is reclaimed
from the pile, crushed, and conveyed to Unit
2s storage silos before delivery to the plants
pulverizers. A dead storage pile is used to
protect against interrupted or delayed deliv-
eries. The Unit 2 boiler burns up to 170 tons
per hour of PRB coal.
Challenges Abound
Compliance with all the environmental per-
mits is often the critical path for these large
construction projects. For JTEC Unit 2, the
air permit required CU to begin construc-
tion prior to November 2006 or the permit
would expire. Because the air permit defined
the stack height and diameter, the foundation
was designed based on past project experi-
ence. As seen in the video, construction be-
gan with drilling about 20 piers for the stack
foundation, each more than 25 feet deep,
followed by a continuous pour 10-foot-thick
and 80-foot-diameter chimney foundation.
Procurement of major equipment and com-
modities, such as steel, took place in 2006
when marketplace activity was at historic
highs and contractors had large backlogs. For
example, when soliciting bids for the boiler is-
land installation, of the three firms qualified to
bid, two did not submit proposals. A negotiat-
ed contract with the remaining firm resulted.
Early procurement of major equipment,
along with open book construction con-
tracts, allowed significant owner involvement
in the equipment selection and subcontract-
ing processes. Often, nonstandard contracting
approaches were required, such as accepting
bond limits, incorporating target pricing for
payment structures, and negotiating lump sum
contracts with variable risk-sharing provisions.
The cost risk was shared with the major con-
struction contractors on market pricing for ma-
terials and equipment and on labor availability
and productivity. City Utilities served as its
own construction manager for the project.
A hybrid contracting approach was used
for plant construction:
Stand-alone work (such as chimney, coal
handling, and cooling tower) used supply
and erect contracts.
Substructure work was separately con-
tracted in phases.
Separate contracts were signed for boiler
erection and balance-of-plant construction.
Over 90% of the site construction labor
was hired from a 100-mile radius of Spring-
field. Of $160 million spent on labor, 90%
stayed in the region.
Unique Design Practices
Treated municipal wastewater from the South-
west Wastewater Treatment Plant (SWTP) is
used for cooling water makeup and wet flue gas
desulfurization sprays, saving approximately
five million gallons per day of water that would
otherwise have been supplied from underground
aquifers. The water is pumped from SWTP,
located about a mile away, through a 20-inch-
diameter pipe to the plant. Water is stored on site
in a 2.7 million gallon storage tank. The water
quality, especially the chloride levels, required
using SeaCure condenser tubes and titanium
plates in other plant heat exchangers.
Emerson supplied its Ovation distributed
control system for Unit 2. The plant makes ex-
tensive use of digital bus technologies with near-
ly 4,200 I/O points, more than 500 Foundation
fieldbus devices, and more than 100 Profibus DP
devices. The plant also uses Emersons Intelli-
gent Device Manager to streamline installation
and the configuration of each field device during
start-up. In addition, the AMS Device Manager
provides diagnostic and predictive maintenance
information during plant operation.
Although not part of this project, Unit 1
controls were also recently upgraded to Em-
ersons Ovation Expert digital controls. The
new control room constructed for Unit 2 in-
cluded sufficient room to house the control
panels from both units.
The plant was designed using 3-D model-
ing software. This allowed a virtual check for
interferences, particularly between structural
steel, electrical cable tray and conduit, and
piping. The software allowed users to take a
virtual walk through the facility prior to be-
ginning construction. Building information
such as equipment tag numbers, valve num-
bers, and object specifications, were also col-
lected in the 3-D model for future use.
editor-in-chief.
1. Same plant, new name. After completion of Southwest 2, City Utilities of Springfield
in May renamed its energy complex the John Twitty Energy Center in honor of the utilitys re-
tired general manager. The energy center has a combined gross output of 503 MW. Unit 2, the
larger structure on the left, is rated at 300 MW. The 203-MW Unit 1, the smaller structure on the
right, was completed in 1976. Courtesy: City Utilities
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|
October 2011 40
TOP PLANTS
Masinloc Power Plant,
Zambales Province, Philippines
Owner/operator: AES Corp.
In April 2008, AES Philippines purchased the Masinloc coal-fired power plant in
Zambales Province in the Luzon region. Originally constructed in 1998 as a two-
unit, 600-MW plant, the facility uses coal from a variety of sources in the Pacific
Rim. After AES finished overhauling much of its equipment, the expanded 660-
MW (gross) plants availability increased from 48% to 74%, which enabled net
electricity production to jump by 129% by 2010.
By Angela Neville, JD
T
hough somewhat off the beaten path in
Southeast Asia, the Philippines is the
second-largest archipelago in the world
and includes a string of more than 7,000
tropical islands located in the western Pacific
Ocean. With an economy based on an ex-
panding industrial base and a wide range of
agricultural products, the country is increas-
ingly attracting foreign investors.
In 2008, AES Corp. (AES) purchased the
600-MW (gross) Masinloc coal-fired power
plant from the Republic of Philippines Pow-
er Sector Assets and Liabilities Management
Corp. (PSALM) for $930 million. AESs ac-
quisition is one example of a foreign company
making a significant long-term major invest-
ment in the countrys infrastructure. Masinloc
is the Philippines first privatized thermal
plant (Figure 1). In addition, last year AES
announced that it has begun developing an
expansion project, Masinloc II, which would
add an another 660 MW and represent an in-
frastructure investment of up to $800 million.
The Philippine Power Industry
The Philippines has a population of more than
94 million (2010 estimate) and continues to
face important challenges related to sustain-
ing its growing economy. Its government has
prioritized the need to improve employment
opportunities, alleviate poverty, and increase
its production of safe and reliable electricity.
After emerging from a crippling power cri-
sis that occurred in the early 1990s, the Phil-
ippine government embarked on an industry
privatization and restructuring program to
ensure an adequate supply of electricity to
energize its developing economy. This re-
structuring scheme is embodied in Republic
Act No. 9136, the Electric Power Industry
Reform Act (EPIRA).
Enacted on June 8, 2001, EPIRA seeks to
ensure a reliable, secure, and affordable elec-
tric power supply; encourage free and fair
competition; enhance the inflow of private
Courtesy: AES Corp.
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TOP PLANTS
|
October 2011 42
capital; and broaden the ownership base of
power generation, transmission, and distri-
bution. PSALM was created to carry out the
mandates established by EPIRA.
The Philippines total annual gross power
production is approximately 60,821 GWh.
Its energy industrys own use of electricity
is approximately 3,935 GWh, including the
consumption of power plants and electricity
used for pumped storage plants. Generation
is fueled by natural gas (32%), coal (25%),
geothermal (17%), hydro (16%), and approx-
imately 10% by oil and renewables (all Inter-
national Energy Agency 2008 estimates).
Operations Overhaul
When AES bought the Masinloc Plant,
which consisted of two 300-MW units, from
PSALM, it was 10 years old. The plants his-
tory of inadequate maintenance and capital
expenditures, which were further compound-
ed by poor operating practices, had placed the
facility in a poor state of repair, and it faced
significant operational limitations. These is-
sues resulted in high equivalent forced out-
age rates, low equivalent availability factors,
and low net capacity factors.
Prior to the plants turnover to AES, the
maximum net generation achieved by the
Masinloc Plant was 433 MW on a nameplate
capacity of 600 MW. Given the plants opera-
tional history, AES saw an opportunity to initi-
ate a rehabilitation program to transform the
plant and substantially increase its output. The
rehabilitation program had two phases: The
first focused on mechanical and major rotating
equipment, and the second focused on boiler
rehabilitation and environmental controls.
Efficiency and heat rate improvements
were among the most notable achievements.
The plants overall efficiency increased by
13%, which reduced the amount of fuel oil
used for start-up. And the AES team reduced
the plants overall heat rate by 1,500 points
from the time AES took over the facility,
dramatically increasing its overall efficiency.
Specifically, the turbines efficiency improve-
ment cut the plant heat rate by 500 points; the
boiler by 500 points; the condenser system
by 250 points; and the steam and water sys-
tems by 250 points.
These improvements helped to cut the
plants carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions by
140,000 tons in 2010. Plant management
also took other steps to reduce the facilitys
carbon footprint:
Diesel fuel usage for start-ups and daily
operations was cut by 70%.
Chemical usage was reduced over 60%.
The plants coal unloading period was cut
from over eight days to an average of 2.8
days, eliminating 2 MWh of in-house load.
The Masinloc management replaced three
existing electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
fields in each boiler and added a fourth ESP
field to each boiler. This change significantly
reduced the dust and particulate emissions
and allowed a greater amount of ash to be
captured, which in turn is sold to generate
revenue.
Rehabilitation of the coal storage dust
control systems greatly reduced coal dust
emissions. This improvement eliminated the
excessive spontaneous combustion of coal
storage piles, as well as the foul fugitive coal
pile combustion emissions and heavy sulfur
emissions. The ash storage areas also were
improved by implementing better storage
techniques.
Promoting a Culture of
Empowerment
To make the rehabilitation of the Masinloc
plant sustainable, the AES management team
improved the technical skills of its workers
while fostering a culture of empowerment.
The company led teams through job scope
and skills analysis and equipped them with
the necessary tools to drive improvements
and achieve positive results. Today, through
an empowered workforce that strives for ef-
ficiency and reliability, the operations of the
Masinloc plant are achieving world-class
performance levels.
To implement the new policy, team lead-
ers reinforced a culture of improvement
and continuously reviewed operations and
maintenance performance to confirm the
root cause of every problem in order to en-
hance the safety, planning, and execution of
future tasks. Employees were encouraged to
respond positively to the post-execution re-
views; the process is not viewed as criticism
but as a means of learning.
Making Safety Paramount
Safety is AESs first value, and Masinloc is
a good example of AES living by that value.
At Masinloc, improving personnel safety
performance has been an integral part of
transforming the plant into a top tier facil-
ity. To successfully drive this change, the
AES management team not only promoted
more thorough technical safety skills among
employees but also encouraged a proactive
safety culture. After providing the technical
safety foundation through training sessions,
pre-job planning, and safety walks, the AES
management team had employees focus on
leading safety indicators so they could stop
problems in their early stages. Although there
is always room to improve safety knowledge
and culture, the AES management team has
worked hard to create a culture in which the
employees recognize their part in being re-
sponsible for each other.
Masinlocs Financial Turnaround
AESs success in rehabilitating the Masin-
loc plants operations has not only made a
positive impact on the local community and
helped the Philippines meet its increasing
demand for energy, but it also had a positive
impact on the companys bottom line.
During AESs 2010 annual earnings con-
ference call, AES Executive Vice President
and CFO Victoria Harper noted that the
companys strong operating performance
[in Asia] was largely driven by our 660-MW
plant in the Philippines, Masinloc, which
should begin to meaningfully contribute be-
yond its prior operating forecast.
In 2010, Masinlocs gross margin improved
by approximately $50 million compared to
2009. In 2011, AES was recognized for its
improvement efforts related to the Masinloc
plant by the Edison Electric Institute with its
annual Edison Award, the electric utility in-
dustrys most prestigious honor.
senior editor.
1. Pacific Rim powerhouse. The Masinloc coal-fired power plant is located about 250 kilome-
ters (approximately 155 miles) northwest of Metro Manila and covers about 137 hectares (approxi-
mately 338 acres), including 11 hectares of land reclaimed from the sea. Courtesy: AES Corp.
|
October 2011 44
TOP PLANTS
Mississippi County, Arkansas
M
ississippi County, Ark., has long
been known for agriculture and
the hard-scrabble lives of many of
its residents. The county is part of the First
Congressional District in Arkansas, which
has been ranked as the poorest congressio-
nal district in the U.S.
On May 31, 2006, at the groundbreak-
ing ceremony for the Plum Point Energy
Station, then U.S. Congressman Marion
Berry commented on the impact the new
plant located in Osceola would have on the
community: I would submit to you today
that the Delta is moving forward like it
hasnt since cotton seed was first unloaded
here, he said. Its like we just discovered
the Mississippi River and all the wonderful
things it brings and businesses just discov-
ered it, too.
One of the key accomplishments of the
Plum Point Energy Station, which began
commercial operation in August 2010, is
that it is helping to transform this delta
blues region into the center of the new
delta boom. The power plant has already
brought additional jobs to the region and is
now providing reliable electricity to sup-
port a growing number of new businesses.
Roger Lenertz, director of major proj-
ects in Black & Veatchs global energy
business, told POWER in August how
construction of the Plum Point Energy
Station has affected the region. The eco-
nomic impact of an investment exceeding
$1 billion reaches and benefits a very large
population, he said. The project has had
a very marked and positive impact on the
local community.
The mayor of Osceola was a key driver
in developing the project and helped shep-
herd the local business communitys inter-
actions with the projects management.
Big Construction Challenge:
Fault Line
A number of significant construction ob-
stacles made building the plant a chal-
lenge, according to Lenertz. Most were
related to geological and civil engineering
aspects of the location. The New Madrid
fault line lies directly below the plant, he
said. The design seismic acceleration fac-
tors are greater than any in California.
The site is adjacent to the Mississippi
River in an area with about 900 feet (deep)
of silty, clayey soil (muck). The water ta-
ble is less than 10 feet below the surface.
Courtesy: Black & Veatch
Owners: Plum Point Energy Associates, Missouri Joint Municipal
Electric Utility Commission, Empire District Electric Co., East Texas
Electric Cooperative, and Municipal Energy Agency of Mississippi
Operator: NAES Corp.
The new 665-MW Plum Point Energy Station is energizing the Arkansas Delta,
an area that is ready to supplement its farming heritage by promoting new jobs
that offer residents a higher standard of living. But first, the plants construction
team had to overcome a number of significant challenges related to building a
facility in the New Madrid fault zone.
TOP PLANTS
October 2011
|
Lenertz emphasized that whenever one
opens an excavation, you are working in
water and in a difficult soil composition.
It should be no surprise that dewatering the
construction area was very challenging.
Lenertz explained that a large power
plant requires deep, massive foundations.
The rotary car dumper required a substruc-
ture that extended 85 feet below the sur-
face for the handling equipment.
Any large power plant represents a
complex project. This one provided some
additional unique challenges, he said.
The project team used some very special-
ized engineering and construction tech-
niques to overcome these challenges.
For example, the use of the buck-
ling resistant brace at the plant serves as
a structural shock absorber. This brace
substantially reduced the amount of steel
required to protect the facility from high
seismic acceleration and helps limit poten-
tial damage to the energy station from an
earthquake over the next 50 years.
People Power
The construction team had to meet the var-
ious regulatory environmental restrictions
governing construction. For example, they
took extraordinary measures during con-
struction to reduce volatile organic com-
pound emissions (by using a high-solids
siloxane paint) and to minimize ground-
water disruption during construction. The
owners brought in their environmental
specialists very early in the project and
exercised diligent monitoring and control
over its environmental aspects. Black &
Veatchs design engineers and the owners
professionals worked together to make sure
prudent measures were always in place.
This project employed many local
workers. Site construction staff peaked
at more than 1,600 people, and the work
took place over the course of about four
years. Many craft workers received train-
ing, as new craft workers were beginning
their construction careers. This sizeable
construction project meant a lot to the lo-
cal areas economy and helped generate a
major growth spurt for businesses.
Plant Profile
The plants performance test demonstrated
a heat rate that was lower than 9,100 Btu/
kWh, Lenertz explained. The units actual
generating capacity exceeded the guaran-
teed value of 665 MW by more than 2%.
The data were generated under test condi-
tions just before commercial operation be-
gan in August 2010.
Flue gas treatment performance test re-
sults show the facilitys emissions control
systems are exceeding guaranteed removal
rates. These technologies include:
A selective catalytic reduction system for
nitrogen oxides control.
A dry flue gas desulfurization system
(scrubber) for sulfur dioxide removal.
A carbon injection system for mercury
removal.
A fabric filtration system (baghouse) for
particulate material removal.
Toshiba manufactured the steam tur-
bines and shipped them to Osceola from
Tokyo. The steam generator was also
manufactured by a Japanese company,
IHI, which has utilized manufacturing
facilities in a number of areas in South-
east Asia. Alstom provided the air quality
control system scrubber and the baghouse.
Thermal Engineering Inc. manufactured
the condenser, which was shipped from
Missouri. The transformers were manu-
factured in Korea by Hyundai Heavy In-
dustries, a major supplier to the power
industry. Emerson provided its state-of-
the-art Ovation distributed control sys-
tem. Black & Veatch utilized its global
procurement system to select and procure
the plants equipment.
Equipment installed at the new plant
includes:
Geomembrane liners (ESI)
Continuous emissions monitoring systems
(Forney)
Compressed air system (Ingersoll Rand)
Cooling tower (GEA Cooling Technol-
ogies)
Steam turbine generator (Toshiba)
Condensers (Thermal Engineering)
Deaerators (Ecodyne)
Feedwater heaters (Thermal Engineering)
Fly and bottom ash handling system (Unit-
ed Conveyor Corp.)
Wastewater treatment equipment (Siemens
Water Technology)
The owners contracted NAES Corp. to
operate the plant, and it has been doing
so from the start of its commercial opera-
tion. The operations and maintenance staff
includes more than 80 permanent staff
members on site, plus some contract per-
sonnel. In addition, temporary workers are
brought in for plant outages or key mainte-
nance periods.
Regional Economic Impact
Having low-cost, reliable power is para-
mount to any economy in todays world,
Lenertz said. Can you think of any eco-
nomic activity or even personal life activi-
ties that do not require electrical power?
The U.S. is retiring many coal-fired
power plants because they are at the end
of their operating lives, do not have high
efficiency, and do not have the necessary
environmental controls to meet the new
standards, he pointed out. However, lost
power must be replaced, or the strong sup-
ply that we have enjoyed over the decades
will be disrupted. The Plum Point Energy
Station is a major, baseload unit that helps
fill that need.
The city of Osceola actually owns a
small piece of the plant as an investor. The
electrical power gets distributed to a num-
ber of other states, where others members
of the plant ownership group sell it to their
respective customers.
The Plum Point Energy Station has be-
come a fixture in the local area, and the
people in the area are proud of its place
in their community, Lenertz said. The
revenues from employment, ongoing oper-
ational needs, etc. will continue to contrib-
ute to the local areas economic well-being
over the long-term life of the plant.
senior editor.
1. From the bottom up. A worker
stands beneath the header where the down-
comers terminate at the bottom of Plum
Points pulverized coal boiler. Courtesy: Black
& Veatch
|
October 2011 46
TOP PLANTS
St. Johns River Power Park,
Jacksonville, Florida
Owner/operator: St. Johns River Power Park
S
t. Johns River Power Park (SJRPP)
consists of two identical 640-MWnet
coal-fired baseload generating units
placed into service in 1987 and 1988. SJR-
PP is jointly owned by Jacksonville Elec-
tric Authority (JEA) and Florida Power
& Light Co., which each take 50% of the
plants generation.
The plant is fueled with coal delivered
from Kentucky and West Virginia that is
carried to the plant by four utility-owned
unit trains. The plant enjoys a million tons
of coal storage capacity, enough to keep it
operating for 90 days. Coal is reclaimed
and forwarded to each unit by enclosed
2,100-foot-long conveyors. Coal can also
be delivered by ship or barge to the St.
Johns River Coal Terminal and then for-
warded to the plant by a 3.2-mile-long
conveyor system at the rate of about 1,500
tons/hour, through seven transfer stations.
Both units were configured with the
latest air emissions systems when con-
structed: A flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
system removed 90% of the sulfur dioxide,
and an electrostatic precipitator removed
more than 97% of solid particulates from
the flue gas before it was released to the
atmosphere through a common 640-foot
stack. Uniquely, the FGD system is config-
ured with two operating absorption vessels
and one spare vessel for increased plant re-
liability. Bottom ash, fly ash, and synthetic
gypsum by-products from the plants two
FGD systems are either marketed for use
in construction materials or landfilled on
site. Plant cooling for each unit is provided
by a single 460-foot-tall natural draft cool-
ing tower using makeup water originating
in the St. Johns River.
Selecting the Catalyst
In 2006, SJRPP began preparations to up-
grade the air quality control system of each
unit with a selective catalytic reduction
(SCR) system to reduce NO
x
emissions.
SJRPP retained Black & Veatch to perform
the engineering, procurement support, and
construction management services for the
SCR upgrade project. Tackticks (now a part
of FuelTech Inc.) provided process consult-
ing services to SJRPP.
The first step was to select an SCR ca-
pable of reliable and economic operation on
A recent NO
x
reduction project added selective catalytic reduction equipment
to each of the two 640-MW, mixed coalfired units at the St. Johns River Power
Park. The selection of precisely the right catalyst required extensive long-term
testing with mini reactors. Once the right catalyst formula was identified, the
actual retrofit project was completed in a mere 23 months, an aggressive project
schedule that required overcoming many design and construction challenges.
Courtesy: Black & Veatch
MAGENTA (MI) - ITALY
via Robecco, 20
Tel. +39 02 972091
Fax +39 02 9794977
e-mail: stf@stf.it
www.stf.it
BURMEISTER & WAIN ENERGY A/S
DK - 2820 Gentofte.Denmark
jaegersborg Alle 164
Tel. +45 39 45 20 00
Fax +45 39 45 20 05
e-mail: info@bwe.dk
www.bwe.dk
TOP PLANTS
|
October 2011 48
a variety and combination of fuels, including
domestic bituminous coals, Columbian coal,
and petcoke. Since 2004, combustor modifi-
cations allowed burning 100% petcoke in up
to eight burners (two pulverizers) and coal
in the remaining 16 burners. The high vana-
dium and sulfur in the petcoke, high arsenic
and low calcium in the domestic coal, and
high silica (up to 18% ash) in the Columbian
coke made design and selection of the SCR
problematic.
High arsenic levels can accelerate the
rate of catalyst deactivation, and sulfur
concentration determines the catalyst min-
imum operating temperature that is a factor
in the production of visible SO
3
emissions.
Increased vanadium in the fuel (vanadium
is also an active metal in the catalyst) will
increase the production of SO
3
emissions,
further complicating the already complex
SCR selection process. Further confus-
ing the fuels selection, at SJRPP fuels are
direct-bunkered (a specific fuel goes to a
specific set of burners, as the fuels are not
mixed prior to burning), meaning that no
benefit could be realized for any individual
fuel characteristics that might cancel out
when blended with other fuels with differ-
ent characteristics.
Given the large number of combinations
of fuel mixtures possible, the only defini-
tive approach to characterizing combina-
tions of fuels and their interactions was to
perform pilot testing. Therefore, a series
of baseline or characterization tests were
designed to establish actual flue gas oper-
ating conditions at various plant operating
conditions.
In February 2006, Clean Air Engineer-
ing began tests to define flue gas flow and
temperature distributions, emission con-
centrations, boiler operating conditions,
and fuel and ash analyses at nine different
fuel and load combinations. Other plant
operating data from the plant information
system were also added to the test data-
base. The result of the test program was a
definitive design basis for the SCR system;
the maximum allowable percentage of pet-
coke in different fuel mixes that produce
temperatures at the SCR less than 850F
(limited bymaterial properties) is known,
NO
x
production goals are met, and the ex-
pected concentration of SO
3
produced re-
mains low.
The next step was physical testing of
catalyst offerings from three suppliers in
the actual gas path to confirm predicted
performance, such as catalyst activity and
the mechanical design of the reactor. The
suppliers provided mini SCR reactors
that were placed in the actual flue gas path,
in three separate locations for 2,100 oper-
ating hours spread over six months.
The test process ensured that each was
secured in the gas pass in exactly the same
orientation and each catalyst spent the
same number of hours in each of the three
test locations. When the test was complet-
ed, the catalysts were shipped back to the
suppliers for activity and oxidation rate
testing.
Based on this rigorous testing regimen,
Ceram Environmental Inc. was selected as
the catalyst supplier for the project. The
confidence developed by Ceram during test-
ing resulted in a performance guarantee of
85% NO
x
reduction and an 18,000-hour life
when using 70% coal and 30% petcoke.
Unexpectedly, petcoke was later
dropped from SJRPPs future fuel plans,
which meant that the design fuel would be
a combination of domestic coalsa more
difficult operating requirement. The con-
cern was that the catalyst deactivation rate
would greatly increase given the new mix
of elements in the flue gas, thereby reduc-
ing catalyst life. Ceram repeated the in-
situ testing and determined that a change
in catalyst chemistry was possible without
any commercial impact to the project. NO
x

reduction and catalyst life guarantees were
maintained while burning 100% bitumi-
nous coal.
Project Challenges
Construction of the two SCR additions
was completed in just 23 months, for both
units. Given the compact area of the site
and poor access to the space between the
boiler and stack, the SCR reactors were
positioned to the east and west of each
boiler-airheater center line, two 50% reac-
tor modules per unit (Figure 1). In addi-
tion, locating SCR steel support structures
directly behind each boiler, in a tradition-
al SCR arrangement, would have required
an additional outage for each unit (instead
of the two outages that are typically seen
with large complex retrofit projects). The
one-outage approach also required as
much pre-outage construction of ductwork
and the SCR reactor as possible.
A further complication of using this re-
actor arrangement was the need for double
isolation dampers on the inlet and outlet of
the SCR. Coupled with the need for large
particle ash (LPA) screens, this added
complexity to the ductwork and SCR re-
actor arrangement. Existing above- and
below-grade utilities in the vicinity of the
SCR units (such as cooling water piping),
along with the requirement to design the
structures to withstand 120-mile-per-hour
hurricane winds and high groundwater
levels, further complicated design of the
structures and foundations.
Adding an SCR also increases the pres-
sure drop of the plants gas path, reducing
the performance of the plant fans, espe-
cially at high loads. At SJRPP, each unit
has four induced draft fans with the re-
quirement to operate three to achieve full
load. In order to keep that operating flex-
ibility, the rotors and motors of each fan
were replaced, leaving the fan housing and
foundations in place. Because of the pos-
sibility of pressure drop increasing dur-
ing operation (for example, plugged LPA
screens), SJRPP wanted to maintain as
much fan margin as possible. The forced
draft and primary air fans were also modi-
fied by adding fan tips while keeping the
existing motors.
A significant challenge overcome af-
ter the SCR systems entered service was
the production of LPA. Under certain op-
erating conditions, ash particles can ag-
glomerate to form larger particles that
can physically plug the catalyst. The LPA
capture design process began with both
computational fluid dynamics and physi-
cal flow modeling. The result was that a
set of aerodynamic baffles were added to
the economizer outlet to divert most of the
LPA from the flue gas path into the econo-
mizer hoppers. Also, the LPA screen was
coated with a special erosion-resistant ma-
terial designed to withstand the erosive ef-
fects of the high-silica Columbian coals.
Commissioning of both units went
smoothly. Tuning of the ammonia injec-
tion grid took less than 8 hours before the
required outlet NO
x
and NH
3
slip require-
ments were achieved. The LPA screen and
flow baffles have also performed as de-
signed.
editor-in-chief.
1. Double play. Two 50%-sized SCR reac-
tor modules were placed east and west of the
boiler-airheater centerline. Also included were
double isolation dampers on both the inlet and
outlet and large particle ash screens on the in-
let of each module. Courtesy: Black & Veatch
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October 2011 50
PLANT DESIGN
CWA 316(b) Update: Fish Guidance
and Protection
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed new Clean Wa-
ter Act section 316(b) regulations for once-through cooling water intake
structures. Comments on the proposed rules closed in August, and a fi-
nal rule is expected mid-2012. The EPA estimates that at least half of the
power plants using once-through cooling will be required to implement a
best technology available solution in coming years. That typically means
barriers and screens, but you may want to consider other options.
By Kaveh Someah, Ovivo USA LLC
T
he U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) recently proposed regu-
lations, under section 316(b) of the
Clean Water Act (CWA), designed to reduce
the mortality of fish and other aquatic life
entering cooling water intake structures of
existing power plants. CWA 316(b) requires
that the location, design, construction, and
capacity of cooling water intake structures
for facilities having NPDES [National Pol-
lutant Discharge Elimination System] per-
mits reflect the best technology available
(BTA) for minimizing adverse environmental
impact. An NPDES permit, which requires
compliance with CWA 316(b), is required for
any point source discharge into the navi-
gable waters of the U.S. Most states are au-
thorized to issue State Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permits.
The proposed rule covers roughly 1,260
existing facilities that each withdraw at least
2 million gallons per day of cooling water,
according to the EPA. The agency estimates
that this rule will affect about 670 power
plants. Comments on the proposed rulemak-
ing closed on August 18, 2011, and a final
rule is expected in July 2012. The current
rulemaking process will be interesting to
watch. Twice, prior CWA 316(b) rulemak-
ings (2004 and 2006) were successfully chal-
lenged in federal court and were remanded
for corrections.
The proposed rule comes in three parts.
First, existing facilities that withdraw at least
25% of their water from an adjacent water
body used exclusively for cooling purposes
and that have a design intake flow of great-
er than 2 million gallons per day would be
subject to an upper limit on the number of
fish killed by impingement against intake
screens or other parts at the facility. Impinge-
ment occurs when fish and other organisms
are trapped against screens when water is
drawn into [a] facilitys cooling system, ac-
cording to the EPA.
The owner of the facility will be required to
select a technology to reduce those organism
deaths, including reducing its intake velocity
to 0.5 feet per second. Fish can swim away
from the structure in water flowing at this ve-
locity. This rule no longer allows restoration
of a facility as a compliance alternative.
The second component of the new rule
pertains to large users of once-through cool-
ing water, at least 125 million gallons per day,
which probably means all power plants using
once-through cooling, whether it is ocean,
river, or lake water. Those users must con-
duct studies that will determine site-specific
technology alternatives, including conversion
to the use of closed-cycle cooling (cooling
towers), that will reduce aquatic organism
mortality. The BTA option selected for use at
a particular facility will be determined on a
case-by-case basis.
The third and last requirement states that
new units constructed at existing plants will
be required to reduce intake flow to a level
similar to a closed cycle, recirculation sys-
tem. In essence, new units must use cooling
towers to handle the additional load, or the
equivalent.
The EPA requires BTA compliance within
eight years of the new rules effective date.
Also, the EPA estimates that more than half
of the facilities affected by the rule already
use technologies that will likely put them
into compliance, although the EPA estimates
covered all industrial plants, not just power
plants. The rule does not apply to new fa-
cilities, defined as those plants that began
construction after January 17, 2002.
Todays Technology Options
Many plants continue to move forward and
implement voluntary plans to meet the origi-
nal guidelines set by the EPAs 2004 Phase
II Rule, specifically aimed at large power
plants, which was suspended in July 2007.
That rule required many existing facilities
that were withdrawing their cooling water
from rivers, oceans, and the Great Lakes to
reduce their entrainment and impingement
of aquatic organisms by an estimated 60%
to 90%.
There are a number of technology options
that can be used to comply with the Phase II
Rule and BTA as defined by the pending rule.
BTA is usually a combination of physical or
nonphysical barriers: fine mesh intake trav-
eling or passive screens, modification of ex-
isting screens for fish collection and return,
special angled or louvered bar racks, or the
addition of behavioral modification for fish
guidance or deterrence.
Recent studies and field-testing of each
option have produced positive results that
are close to the desired levels previously
set by the EPA. Each technology offers
its own set of challenges and advantages.
However, in our experience, deploying a
combination of two or more technologies
has proven to be the most effective ap-
proach to reaching a plants fish mortality
reduction goals.
The use of physical barriers such as fish
gates or rock barriers is the least desirable
method because such barriers create an ob-
stacle to waterway navigation and require
frequent maintenance. Passive screens can be
effective, but they have limited applications.
The use of fine mesh screens will result in ve-
locities greater than those set by the EPA, and
high debris loading on the screen will reduce
its effectiveness.
Impinged fish often come in a wide vari-
ety, often 50 to 100 species of juvenile and
adult fish. Delicate pelagic (silver) fish such
as shads, smelts, and herring are often the
There are only two dates
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7.875x10.75 PowerMag K1100.qxp:7.875x10.75 PowerMag K1100.qxp 7/7/11 12:09 PM Page 1
There are only two dates
you need to remember once a year
Your anniversary and calibration of your dissolved oxygen sensors
The Hach Orbisphere K1100 dissolved oxygen sensor is virtually maintenance free.
Unlike other oxygen sensors, the K1100 only requires one calibration and two minutes of maintenance per year.
Watch the video to see just how fast it is.
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7.875x10.75 PowerMag K1100.qxp:7.875x10.75 PowerMag K1100.qxp 7/7/11 12:09 PM Page 1
|
October 2011 52
PLANT DESIGN
bulk of the impinged fish. These smaller,
weaker swimming fish are unable to escape
the intake current and are drawn in to the in-
take screen.
Technologies growing in favor are those
that use behavioral modification, a system
that uses stimuli such as electricity, sound,
light, and air bubbles. The results obtained at
several power stations and other water intakes
over the past 10 years have proven such tech-
nologies to be effective in protecting many of
the juvenile or mature fish species.
Multi-Purpose Fence
The bio-acoustic fish fence (BAFF) system
is a novel approach to blocking fish from im-
pinging on intake structures. The pneumatic
nonphysical barrier system introduces sound
and, in some cases, light into a bubble cur-
tain. This wall of sound, light, and bubbles is
very effective in guiding and deflecting fish.
Sound Fence. The BAFF system con-
sists of series of sound projector arrays
(SPA) connected to a source signal genera-
tor via a series of amplifiers by special un-
derwater cables. The sound projectors are
designed to transmit sound into water for
varying water depths.
The difference in effectiveness of the
BAFF is attributed to differences in specie
sensitivity, principally the anatomy of the
hearing mechanisms. Sound is detected in all
species by the otolith organs of the inner ears.
The hearing range of most fish falls within
the audible range to humans, maximum sen-
sitivity lying in the sub-3-kHz band down to
infrasound (less than 20 Hz).
An acoustic fish deterrent (AFD) system
exploits fish hearing sensitivity in the 20 Hz
to 500 Hz range. Low-frequency sound (10
Hz to 3 kHz) is used for all species other
than clupeids (small river fish like herring);
for clupeids, either low-frequency sound or
ultrasound (a frequency above the limit of
human hearing, about 20 kHz) has been used
with good results.
The sensitivity of fish to sound frequency
can be depicted on an audiogram that de-
scribes the detectable sound pressure thresh-
old to different frequencies (Figure 1). A
well-designed BAFF is a deterrent for up
to about 80% for many teleost species (ray-
finned bony fish possessing a developed
swim bladder) and for up to 90% to 100% for
the most sensitive species, such as herring.
The AFD has been extensively tested
in various power plant applications, usu-
ally with good results. For example, at the
Hartlepool Nuclear Power Station, located
in northeast England, an AFD was 79% ef-
fective in deflecting herring but only 55%
effective with whiting. Scotlands Blantyre
Hydroelectric Plant tests were effective on
74% of the salmon and 92% effective on
mixed cyprinid species (soft-finned fresh-
water fish). And testing at Electrabels
Doel Nuclear Power Station, Units 3 and
4, located in Belgium, found the follow-
ing diversion effectiveness: herring (95%),
sprat (88%), bass (76%), smelt (64%), and
gobies (46%).
Light Fence. High-intensity flashing light
has been found to be effective as a fish deter-
rent. The BAFF can include a narrow line of
high-intensity flashing lights that are located
near the SPA. A special signal generator and
accumulator powers the light bars. Operat-
ing results at several stations have proven the
effectiveness of light stimuli on various spe-
cies, especially juvenile American shad.
Air Bubble Fence. At the base of the SPA
and the high-intensity light bar, a bubble cur-
tain is created by using specially designed dif-
fuser tubes to create a dense and continuous
air curtain. The number of SPAs, light bars,
and the length of the curtain of air bubbles
are selected based on specific site conditions.
An air bubble curtain is the most basic stimu-
lus successfully used as a fish deterrent, with
deflect efficiencies up to 98% reported, but
fish quickly adapt to bubble curtains alone,
so they become less effective over time.
When using SPA or high-intensity light
bars alone, neither the sound nor the light
is concentrated. Instead, the bubble curtain
creates an intense and largely contained
field. The result is an electromagnetic or
pneumatic sound transducer coupled to a
bubble curtain, causing the sound waves to
propagate within the rising curtain of bub-
bles. Water, which is more transparent in the
bubble sheet, allows light to reach the sur-
face even in turbid water (Figure 2).
The novel method of entrapping sound
and light inside the specially developed in-
1. Fish hearing test results. The reference for the figure is a relative loudness value
of 1.0, which translates into 0 dB as the baseline. Because the scale is logarithmic, at 10 dB,
the relative loudness is reduced to 0.5 of the baseline; at 20 dB, 0.25 and so on. A sound level
measurement of 1 pascal is equivalent to a sound pressure level (SPL) of 94 dB, the volume
level we actually hear. This graph allows us to estimate the SPL hearing threshold of various fish
species for different frequencies. For example, cod can detect very low sound levels in the 100
Hz to 250 Hz frequency range. Source: A.D. Hawkins, The Hearing Abilities of Fish, Hearing
and Sound Communication in Fishes, 109-33 (Springer-Verlag, 1981).
+20
+10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
S
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.
1

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a
)
Frequency (Hz)
30 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000
Salmon
Dab
Cod
Catfish
2. Virtual fence. A typical sound projector
array with a high-intensity light bar with a cur-
tain of bubbles forms an effective fish fence.
Source: Ovivo USA LLC
October 2011
|
PLANT DESIGN
tense small air bubbles provides a significant
deterrent in the immediate area of the barri-
ers, but it also results in sound pressure lev-
els only about one-tenth of that found in the
center of the curtain at a distance of 5 meters
(m/16.4 feet) from the barrier. The formation
of the sound, light, and bubble curtain creates
a sharp and intense barrier to divert the fish
as they approach the barrier.
Case Study: Lambton Power Station
The effectiveness of the SPA and high-inten-
sity lights was evaluated at Ontario Power
Generations Lambton Station located on the
St. Clair River, during 2004 and 2005. The
demonstration proved the system was effec-
tive in deterring gizzard shad.
The Lambton Power Station was expe-
riencing operational problems resulting
from gizzard shad impingement. Follow-
ing the initial demonstration, the plant
installed a system consisting of 18 SPA
and nine high-intensity light bars. A large
number of gizzard shad were present in
the discharge during testing and were con-
centrated in the dimensions of the thermal
plume. It was reported that these fish were
the source of fish impingement at Lamb-
ton, especially during winter months.
Gizzard shad reside in the warm cooling
water discharge during winter and leave in
spring (April to May). In tests conducted
during the day and at night, the SPA and
high-intensity light barrier were effective
in deterring the gizzard shad (Figure 3).
Case Study: Sacramento Delta
Irrigation offtakes, pumping stations, and
natural predations in Californias Sacramen-
to Delta have significantly reduced the popu-
lation of chinook salmon, which are now
protected under the Endangered Species Act.
Temporary porous rock barriers were used
in the past to stop the chinook from travel-
ing toward a major pumping station on the
San Joaquin River in the Northern California
Sacrament Delta. However, the rock barrier
also stops boats from navigating the river and
3. Effective barrier. This photo shows the fish barrier being installed before the cooling
water intake at Ontario Power Generations Lambton Power Station. Courtesy: Ontario Power
Generation, Kinectrics Inc.
Your Vision
Is Our Mission
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October 2011 54
PLANT DESIGN
is detrimental to certain other fish species. A
better solution was required.
In 2007, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
(USBR) constructed a scale model test at its
Hydraulic Laboratory in Colorado, where the
effectiveness of the BAFF using SPA, high-
intensity light bars, and an air bubble curtain
was tested (Figure 4).
The data collected from the USBR flume
testing was used to design a full-scale 112-
m barrier that was later installed by the
California Department of Water Resources
(CADWR) at the Head of Old River, lo-
cated in Lathrop, Calif. (Figure 5). The
configuration of the BAFF unit consisting
5. Barrier installation. A close-up of the
bio-acoustic fish fence before installation at the
Head of Old River. Courtesy: Ovivo USA LLC
4. Scale-model testing. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation tested a scale model of the Head
of Old River located in the Sacramento Delta to determine the effectiveness of the bio-acoustic
fish fence at its Hydraulic Laboratory in Colorado. Courtesy: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
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October 2011
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PLANT DESIGN
of an SPA, lights, and air bubble curtain
installed on the San Joaquin River at the
Head of Old River Divergence is shown in
Figure 6.
The effectiveness of the BAFF system
was tested by randomly releasing approxi-
mately 1,000 acoustically tagged hatchery
smolts in batches over time about 15.5
miles upstream of the barrier, as part of
the CADWR Vernalis Active Management
Program. The travel of each tagged fish
was monitored by series of hydrophones,
located near the barrier. The travel path
of the smolts fitted with acoustic tags was
tracked as the barrier was turned alternate-
ly on and off over time (Figure 7).
At the conclusion of the tests, the deter-
rence efficiency of the active BAFF barrier
was estimated at 81.4%. The BAFF was
put into operation in April 2009 during
the chinook salmon migration. In March
2011, CADWR deployed another, similar
328-yard-long BAFF system at the Geor-
giana Slough in Walnut Grove, near Sac-
ramento.
Kaveh Someah (kaveh.someah@
ovivowater.com) is general manager
of the energy group for Ovivo USA LLC,
formerly Eimco Water Technologies.
6. Modular design. A segment of the bio-acoustic fish fence being installed. Courtesy:
Ovivo USA LLC
7. Altered paths. The location of the bio-acoustic fish fence is illustrated by the straight line.
The yellow line represents the travel path of the tagged smolts with the barrier turned on (left)
and turned off (right). Courtesy: Ovivo USA LLC
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October 2011 56
WATER TREATMENT
Fundamentals of Zero Liquid
Discharge System Design
Power plants often produce wastewaters that contain salts, such as those from
wet gas scrubbing, coal pile run-off, and leachate from gypsum stacks.
Evaporation of those liquid wastes in a modern zero liquid discharge sys-
tem produces clean water that is recycled into the plant plus a solid prod-
uct suitable for landfill disposal. Here are the options to consider.
By William A. Shaw, PE, HPD LLC
I
n most power plants, the largest wastewa-
ter producer is the cooling water system.
Historically, natural evaporation of the
cooling tower blowdown from holding ponds
has been very successful, particularly in the
western U.S. This approach to waste liquid
disposal is a simple but effective example of
a zero liquid discharge (ZLD) system. The
downside is that the water is permanently lost
from the system through natural evaporation,
and the remaining residue must be periodi-
cally cleaned from the pond.
Because cooling tower blowdown is rela-
tively dilute, generally less than 10,000 mg/L
total dissolved solids (TDS), reverse osmosis
(RO) membranes are often used to pre-con-
centrate the cooling tower blowdown prior to
concentrating the liquid in an evaporator; the
remainder is reduced to solids in a crystal-
lizer. The salts present in cooling tower blow-
down, for example, are usually composed of
sodium sulfate and sodium chloride with
small quantities of calcium, magnesium, sul-
fate, and bicarbonate. All of these salts can be
readily crystallized by evaporation.
However, wastewater from wet flue gas
desulfurization (wet FGD) systems and in-
tegrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
plants contains highly soluble salts, such as
calcium and ammonium chlorides, and cer-
tain heavy metal salts, which are not so easy
to crystallize by evaporation. Conventional
ZLD evaporation-crystallization processes
for wet FGD and IGCC waste streams require
clarification and extensive pretreatment. Usu-
ally, the wastewater must be treated with lime,
soda ash, and other chemicals to replace the
calcium, magnesium, ammonium, and heavy
metal ions with sodium ions so that a crystal-
line solid can be produced. The pretreatment
equipment and chemicals increase the ZLD
system footprint as well as the capital cost
and system maintenance requirements.
Burning or gasifying coal or petcoke pro-
duces a gas that can contain sulfur dioxide,
hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, NO
x
,
fly ash, and many other chemical species. In
coal-fired power stations, wet FGD systems
are used to remove those pollutants from the
flue gas. Similarly, a gas-scrubbing step is
used in most coal and petcoke gasification
processes. Most use wet scrubbing, in which
an alkaline agent dissolved in water reacts
with and removes those noxious constituents
from the flue gas. Wet FGD typically requires
a continuous blowdown to limit the accumu-
lation of corrosive salts and suspended solids
absorbed from the gas stream.
The composition of wet FGD wastewaters
varies widely, although they are primarily
chloride solutions. There may also be a large
concentration of nitrate or formate, depending
on the conditions of combustion. The domi-
nant anion in the wastewater depends on the
sorbent used as the reagent in the wet FGD;
typically, it is calcium carbonate (limestone),
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), ammonium
hydroxide, calcium hydroxide (slaked lime),
or magnesium hydroxide.
Therefore, wet FGD and IGCC wastewa-
ters are typically solutions of highly soluble
salts such as calcium chloride or sodium for-
mate, usually in the range of 5,000 to 40,000
mg/L TDS. Discharge of these wastewaters is
usually regulated due to the presence of rela-
tively small amounts of toxic contaminants,
such as heavy metals, selenium, boron, and
organics. Often, some type of treatment is
required to reduce or eliminate these toxins
from the wastewater before discharge to the
environment.
Pretreatment Is Often Required
In the power generation industry, treatment
for the removal of small concentrations of
regulated inorganic contaminants in waste-
water often includes precipitation and set-
tling processes.
Typically, wastewater is fed to a series of
reactor tanks, where heavy metal ions can
be precipitated as insoluble hydroxide and
sulfide salts by adding caustic soda or lime,
and sodium sulfide or proprietary organosul-
fide. Ferric chloride or alum and specialized
polymers are typically added to coagulate the
precipitates and form large flocs, which will
quickly settle in a clarifier.
Often, two precipitation/flocculation stag-
es are included, due to the wide variation in
the optimum pH values for the precipitation
of the metals present. The settled metal pre-
cipitates are collected from the bottom of the
clarifier and filtered. This treatment process
works well to reduce the suspended solids,
metals, and acidity in the wastewater, but it
leaves in solution the highly soluble salts,
including calcium, magnesium, sodium, and
ammonium combined with chloride and ni-
trate, as well as any organic compounds.
Biological treatment prior to discharge can
reduce the nitrates, ammonia, organics, and ox-
ygen demand, as certain bacteria can use these
molecules as food, converting them to water,
CO
2
, and N
2
. Some bacteria are capable of re-
ducing oxidized anions of certain toxic metals
(such as selenates and arsenates) to the insolu-
ble metal. Common bacteria used in commer-
cial biological treatment systems, however, do
not affect the concentration of most chloride
salts; in fact, wastewaters containing highly
soluble calcium and/or magnesium chloride
often must be diluted to avoid killing the bac-
teria. Chemical and biological treatment meth-
ods also produce costly sludges.
As the rules for discharging wastewater be-
come more stringent, physical, chemical, and
biological treatment methods may not reduce
concentrations to the part per trillion levels re-
quired for discharge of some chemical species,
such as mercury and selenium. Membrane-
based technologies are often used to recover
water in recycle/re-use and ZLD schemes.
However, membranes are generally limited
to the treatment of dilute wastewater streams.
In the case of treating wastewater from wet
October 2011
|
WATER TREATMENT
FGDs, for example, the option of using RO
membranes must be eliminated because the
osmotic pressures rise beyond accepted lim-
its due to the high concentration of dissolved
salts (30,000 to 60,000 mg/L). Once the
dissolved salt concentration in wastewater
reaches a few percent by weight, evaporation
must be used to achieve further recovery of
water and concentration of salts.
Understand the Process
When the conventional treatment methods
discussed above are unable to treat purge
streams high in chlorides, evaporation of the
purge stream is favored. The attractiveness of
evaporation as a way to treat wet FGD blow-
down is that, in theory, all of the dissolved
species, whether benign, hazardous, or toxic,
can be separated completely from the water.
Also, the process produces a stable solid that
can be landfilled, and a high-quality distilled
water is returned for reuse in the plant.
The first steps in the evaporation process
are chemical addition (feed tank), preheat-
ing (feed preheater), deaeration, and primary
evaporation (brine concentrator), as shown in
Figure 1.
The wastewater flows to the evaporator
feed tank, where acid is added to neutralize
bicarbonate alkalinity so that the solution
can be preheated in plate heat exchangers.
Proprietary antiscalant formulations are usu-
ally added to avoid scaling in the preheaters
with calcium carbonate. The preheated purge
stream is then deaerated using steam from the
evaporator (the red line in Figure 1) to drive
off dissolved carbon dioxide from the alka-
linity reduction, dissolved oxygen, and any
other non-condensable gases (the red vertical
vent). Venting these gases reduces the poten-
tial for corrosion of the evaporator vessel.
Most of the water evaporation occurs in a
falling film evaporator (inside the brine con-
centrator vessel) that is seeded with calcium
sulfate to minimize scale formation. Wet
FGD wastewater is typically saturated with
calcium sulfate, which will tend to precipi-
tate and form scale on the evaporator tubes.
When calcium sulfate seed crystals are pres-
ent, the dissolved calcium sulfate precipitates
preferentially on the seed crystals rather than
the evaporator tubes.
The process also requires electric-
ity to drive a mechanical vapor compression
1. Evaporation process. Most of the water evaporation occurs in a falling film evaporator (inside the brine concentrator vessel) that is seeded
with calcium sulfate to minimize scale formation. The process also requires a lot of electricity to operate the vapor compressor, about 18 to 35 kWh
per metric ton of water evaporated. To minimize the size and cost of the vapor separator and compressor, evaporation occurs at atmospheric pres-
sure. The process flow diagram and a photo of the system are shown. Source: HPD LLC
2. Crystallizer process. The falling film evaporator will concentrate wastewater but will not crystallize large quantities of dissolved salts, so
additional processing is required. A crystallization of the solids occurs in the forced-circulation evaporator-crystallizer. The remaining solids-heavy
waste stream is then sent to a solids dewatering system to remove any remaining water. The process flow diagram and a photo of the system
are shown. Source: HPD LLC
Chemicals
Feed
Feed tank
Recovered water
Feed preheater
Level
tank
NCG vent
Deaerator
Brine
concentrator
Compression
device
Concentrated
brine
Seed
recycle
Recirculation
pump
Crystallizer
vapor body
Steam
NCG vent
Crystallizer
heater
Recovered
water
Feed
Crystallizer
feed tank
Solids to
disposal
Recirculation
pump
Dewatering
device
Recovered
water
Cooling water
Surface
condenser
|
October 2011 58
WATER TREATMENT
(MVC) cycle. Because MVC recycles the
latent heat of vaporization, the energy input
is quite lowin the range of 18 to 35 kWh
per metric ton of water evaporated. To mini-
mize the size and cost of the vapor separator
and compressor, evaporation occurs at atmo-
spheric pressure.
The Cost of Crystallizing
The falling film evaporator will concentrate
wastewater, but it will not crystallize large
quantities of dissolved salts. Crystallization
occurs in the forced-circulation evaporator-
crystallizer, an evaporator design especially
suited to the propagation and growth of crys-
tals within the bulk solution (Figure 2). The
evaporator/crystallizer is integrated with a
solids-dewatering device (such as a centri-
fuge or pressure filter), which separates the
salt crystals from the product slurry. The
mother liquor is returned to the crystallizer
for further concentration.
The forced-circulation evaporator is usu-
ally driven by an external source of steam.
The steam heating is required because of the
high boiling point rise (BPR) of the solution
at the high concentration when crystallization
of the dissolved salts takes place. The crystal-
lizer requires slightly more than a metric ton
of steam to evaporate a metric ton of water.
For most wastewaters containing 1% to
5% dissolved solids by weight, it is relatively
easy to remove 75% to 95% of the water in
a falling film evaporator. When highly sol-
uble salts are present in the wastewater, the
last 5% to 25% of water may be difficult to
evaporate and require further processing, as
discussed in the following section. As water
is evaporated from a solution, the concentra-
tion and ionic strength of the salts increase,
as does the boiling temperature of the solu-
tion. The increase in boiling temperature of a
solution above that of water at a given pres-
sure is called the BPR. The BPR increases as
the concentration of dissolved salts increases
when evaporating water from a solution.
Calcium chloride is the main dissolved
salt in wet limestone FGD blowdown. As the
concentration of calcium chloride increases
in the solution, so does the boiling point tem-
perature (Figure 3). The two curves intersect
at the solubility limit of calcium chloride in
a boiling solution. Figure 3 also shows that
calcium chloride is very soluble in water; as
a solution is concentrated by evaporation at
1 atmosphere (atm), its boiling point contin-
ues to rise, until the solubility limit of about
75% by weight is reached and calcium chlo-
ride dihydrate (CaCl
2
2H
2
O) crystallizes out
from solution. Figure 3 further shows that a
saturated solution of calcium chloride at a
pressure of 1 atm has a boiling temperature
of almost 350F, a BPR of 138F.
At this high temperature, calcium chlo-
ride, like magnesium chloride and ammoni-
um chloride, undergoes hydrolysis in water;
that is, it releases hydrochloric acid that will
aggressively attack steel. The rate of hydroly-
sis increases with the temperature, so materi-
als of construction for the evaporator vessels
and heat transfer surface must be carefully
selected to resist the extremely corrosive na-
ture of these salts at high concentrations and
temperatures. Experience shows that suitable
corrosion-resistant materials at these temper-
atures and concentrations are very expensive
noble alloys, such as palladium-alloyed tita-
nium and high nickel-chrome-molybdenum
alloys. The requirement for such expensive
materials makes the use of a final crystallizer
economically challenging in most wastewa-
ter ZLD applications.
A Lower-Cost Approach
On projects where the use of a crystallizer
is not economically feasible, a falling film
evaporator will recover 75% to 95% of the
water and concentrate the wastewater that can
then be sent to an evaporation pond. If your
project requires a full ZLD system, there are
several options to consider when exploring
ways to handle the remaining 5% to 25% of
the original volume of wastewater (produced
by the system shown in Figure 1). For exam-
ple, it may be possible and economically at-
tractive to construct a surface impoundment
to store the concentrate and let nature handle
the evaporation.
Another alternative is spray drying to re-
move the remaining moisture from the con-
centrate that produces a dry product suitable
for landfill disposal. A spray dryer does burn
fuel oil or natural gas and will probably re-
quire an air emissions permit.
Other methods of drying the evaporator
concentrate include flakers, prilling towers,
and other methods common to industrial salt
production. The common drawback to drying
technologies is that they are quite energy-in-
tensive (as high as 1,500 kWh per metric ton
of water removed) for the small amount of
water evaporated.
For wet FGD wastewater where calcium
and magnesium chloride salts predominate,
a pretreatment process may be preferable.
Chemical softening using lime (calcium hy-
droxide) and soda ash (sodium carbonate)
can be used to remove most of the magne-
sium and calcium ions in the wastewater as
precipitates of magnesium hydroxide and cal-
cium carbonate (Figure 4). These precipitates
3. Depressed boiling point. This figure illustrates the relationship of the boiling tem-
perature for pure calcium chloride solution against its solubility curve at atmospheric pressure.
As the weight percentage of the calcium chloride increases in solution, the boiling point of the
solution rises. This fundamental property of salt solutions is an important design parameter.
Source: HPD LLC
Boiling point
Solution
CaC1
2
H
2
O
& solution
CaC1
2
2H
2
O
& solution
CaC1
2
4H
2
O
& solution
Solution & ice
Ice & CaC1
2
6H
2
O
C
a
C
1
2

6
H
2
O

&

s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
C
a
C
1
2

6
H
2
O

&

C
a
C
1
2

4
H
2
O
C
a
C
1
2

4
H
2
O

&

C
a
C
1
2

2
H
2
O
C
a
C
1
2

2
H
2
O

&

C
a
C
1
2

H
2
O
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
356
320
284
248
212
176
140
104
68
32
4
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Calcium chloride weight (%)
T
e
m
p
.

(
C
)
T
e
m
p
.

(
F
)
|
October 2011 60
WATER TREATMENT
settle in a clarifier, and the resulting sludge is
dewatered and then disposed of in a landfill.
The net result of the softening process is that
sodium ions are substituted for most of the
calcium and magnesium ions, so the softened
stream becomes mainly an aqueous solution
of sodium chloride.
The softened stream is next evaporated
in a falling film evaporator and water is re-
covered, as discussed earlier. The final con-
centration step is using a forced-circulation
evaporator-crystallizer, in which the sodium
chloride crystallizes at a relatively low tem-
perature and concentration (its solubility
is 28.3% by weight at its boiling point of
227.6F at 1 atm). The solid sodium chloride
produced is mixed with the softener sludge
and is disposed of in a landfill.
The drawbacks to this scheme for ZLD are
the cost of the additional equipment required
to soften the wastewater, the cost of chemi-
cals and sludge disposal, and the additional
complexity of the overall process. On the
other side of the ledger, this process allows
the use of less-expensive alloys in major pro-
cess equipment.
A New, Low-Temperature Approach
HPD has developed a new ZLD process
employing the approach used in industrial
crystallization of very soluble chloride salts:
Operate the evaporator at low pressure. Low-
ering the operating pressure allows water
from the waste stream to evaporate at lower
temperatures. The chemistry of wet FGD and
IGCC wastewater favors the formation of
many hydrates and double salts that precipi-
tate at lower concentrations as the temperature
of the solution is lowered. The BPR of solu-
tions is usually less at lower temperatures.
When the waste stream, consisting of high-
ly soluble salt solutions, is concentrated at low
temperature, dissolved solids will precipitate
and crystallize at relatively low concentra-
tion. Using the phase diagram of pure calcium
chloride solution (Figure 3), we see that sever-
al hydrated salts can form from calcium chlo-
ride solution, depending on the temperature.
The concentration at which these hydrated
salts form decreases with the temperature. For
example, calcium chloride dihydrate forms at
350F from a solution having a concentration
of 75% by weight calcium chloride, but at
115F, it will solidify from a solution having a
concentration of only 56%.
Low operating temperatures have many
advantages. First, they reduce acid hydroly-
sis at high chloride concentration, allowing
less-noble alloys to be substituted for the
highNi-Cr-Mo alloy materials of construc-
tion usually required for a crystallizer train
processing highly soluble chloride brines.
The low process temperature also eliminates
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|
October 2011 62
WATER TREATMENT
the need to pretreat the feed brine to the ZLD
process. Eliminating pretreatment avoids sol-
ids settling and filtration equipment, sludge
dewatering equipment, and chemical feed/
storage facilities, substantially reducing the
footprint of the overall water treatment facil-
ity. It also avoids producing a sludge waste
product that is expensive to dewater and dis-
pose in a landfill.
By operating under vacuum, the boiling
temperature of the solution is reduced from
that at atmospheric pressure, and a solid can
be obtained at a relatively low concentration.
For example, the BPR is also lower when
operating under vacuum at low temperature:
At 75% calcium chloride the BPR is 135F,
but at 56%, the BPR is only 56F. Therefore, a
saturated solution of calcium chloride (58%
by weight) will boil at 140F if the vapor pres-
sure is maintained around 0.5 psia, which is
well within the capability of typical indus-
trial vacuum systems. The BPR of saturated
calcium chloride solution at these operating
conditions is 60F. This means that the water
vapor that evaporates from the solution will
be 60F less than the boiling temperature of
the solution, or 80F.
A Simple Treatment System
HPD has used these low-temperature proper-
ties of very soluble salts found in plant waste-
water to design a unique low-temperature
crystallization process known as the CoLD
Process (Crystallization of high-solubility
salts at Low temperature and Deep vacuum).
This crystallization process is derived from
methods used in the industrial production of
very soluble chloride salts.
The CoLD process is very simple, yet it
is the only method that results in direct crys-
tallization of highly soluble salts, including
chlorides, nitrates, and salts of organic acids.
The CoLD process combines a conventional
vacuum-forced circulation crystallizer with
conventional heat pump technology to take
advantage of the reduced solubility and BPR
of high-solubility salts at low temperature.
Direct crystallization of calcium chloride,
magnesium chloride, ammonium chloride,
or other high-solubility salts using the CoLD
process eliminates the need for extensive
pretreatment of the wastewater with lime,
soda ash, and other chemicals to replace the
calcium, magnesium, and ammonium ions
in the wastewater with sodium ions so that a
crystalline solid can be produced.
Figure 5 is a schematic of a CoLD crystal-
lizer designed to operate at low temperature
and pressure. In this system, the heat required
to boil the solution (it no longer requires a sep-
arate source of steam) and the cooling neces-
sary to condense the water vapor are supplied
by a closed-cycle heat pump. The refrigerating
fluid is heated by compressing it in the refrig-
erant compressor. Electrical energy, which
drives the compressor motor, provides the
work that is the source of heat for the crystal-
lizer. Part of the heat imparted to the refrigerant
by the compressor is transferred to the process
solution in the crystallizer heat exchanger by
the condensation of the refrigerant.
The liquid refrigerant flows through an
expansion valve into the condenser, where it
evaporates by heat transferred from condens-
ing water vapor from the crystallizer. The cy-
cle is closed as the refrigerant flows back to
4. Lime-soda ash-softening process. In wet FGD wastewater, for example, where
calcium and magnesium chloride salts predominate, chemical softening using lime (calcium
hydroxide) and soda ash (sodium carbonate) can be used to remove most of the magnesium
and calcium ions before the wastewater enters the evaporation process shown in Figure 1.
Source: HPD LLC
Feed
Initial clarifier
Lime
Mix tank Mix tank
Mix tank
Polymer Soda ash Clarifier
To evaporator
Seed sludge
Underflow
Underflow
Thickener
Filter press
Mg(OH)
2
& CaCO
3
sludge
5. CoLD crystallizer. HPDs new crystallizer is designed to operate at low temperature and pressure. The heat required to boil the solution
and the cooling necessary to condense the water vapor are supplied by a closed-cycle heat pump. The process flow diagram and a photo of the
system are shown Source: HPD LLC
Crystallizer
vapor body
Vacuum pump
Refrigerant
Refrigerant
compressor
Surface
condenser
Vapor
Recovered water
Dewatering
device
Solids to disposal
Crystallizer
feed tank
Crystallizer
heater
Recirculation pump
Expansion valve
Feed
October 2011
|
WATER TREATMENT
the compressor. The energy input is roughly
70 kWh per metric ton of water evaporated.
Besides a lower BPR, the lower operat-
ing temperature results in a much lower acid
hydrolysis rate for acid salts such as calcium
chloride. The low-temperature operation
makes selection of the materials of construc-
tion easier when dealing with mixtures of
chloride salts, which are subject to hydro-
lysis. Low operating temperature translates
into a much less aggressive solution, so high-
nickel or highmolybdenum alloy construc-
tion materials are not required.
Laboratory testing has proven the effec-
tiveness of this process on typical waste-
waters containing highly soluble salts. The
solution depicted in Figure 6 is that of a typi-
cal wastewater from a coal-fired power plant
wet FGD system. After evaporation at low
temperature (131F), the wastewater was sep-
arated into high-quality distilled water and a
stable solid suitable for landfill.
Eliminating the need for water pretreat-
ment avoids the need to install expensive sol-
ids-settling and filtration equipment, sludge
dewatering equipment, and chemical feed/
storage facilitiesessentially, all the equip-
ment shown in Figure 4. It also avoids high
chemical consumption and extensive sludge
production and the resulting cost of chemi-
cals, dewatering, and landfill disposal. The
CoLD process produces a solid product con-
sisting only of the solids originally contained
in the wastewater plus a small amount of acid
required to eliminate the bicarbonate alkalin-
ity in the equalized wastewater.
The low operating temperature in the
crystallizer reduces the need for high-alloy
materials of construction that are usually
required for a crystallizer train processing
high-chloride brine. Direct crystallization of
high-solubility salts using the CoLD process
also eliminates the need for inefficient and
expensive drying equipment to produce a
solid product for disposal.
William A. Shaw, PE (bill.shaw@
veoliawater.com) is a senior process
engineer for HPD LLC, a Veolia Water
Solutions & Technologies company.
6. Final results. The low-temperature (131F) crystallization of typical wet FGD purge water
(left) produces high-quality distilled water and a stable solid suitable for landfill disposal (right).
Courtesy: HPD LLC
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|
October 2011 64
POWER VIEWS
Quin Shea, vice president, environment for the Edison Electric Institute, comments
on the Utility MACT rule that is expected to be finalized in November.
New EPA Rule Calls
for Flexibility
T
he short-fused deadlines, extent of cov-
erage, and complexity of new air emis-
sions regulations proposed by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
have been cited by several utilities as the rea-
son for recently announced plant closures.
Heres how the Edison Electric Institutes en-
vironmental point man sees the situation.
Which new air emission rule is
the utility industry most
concerned about?
Shea: The electric power industry values a
healthy environment. Every year, electric
companies comply with hundreds of federal
and state environmental laws and regula-
tions. They spend billions of dollars on envi-
ronmental measures and operational controls
to protect human health and the environment.
At the same time, the industry takes great
pride in its capability to meet the nations
ever-growing demand for electricity in a reli-
able and affordable manner.
Maintaining this balance between protect-
ing the environment and keeping the lights
on is the main job for every electric company.
In that vein, it is very important that our in-
dustry and the EPA work closely together on
the range of rules that the EPA is promulgat-
ing for utilities.
Because of the proposed Utility MACT
rules complexity and timing, we are urging
the EPA to give electric utilities greater flex-
ibility in implementing it. Greater flexibility
will help to achieve the desired results. And
it will do so without raising compliance costs
or compromising electric system reliability.
What is the Utility MACT rule?
Shea: The Utility Maximum Achievable
Control Technology, or Utility MACT
rule as it is commonly called, is the EPAs
first-ever proposed rule to regulate power
plant emissions of mercury and other hazard-
ous air pollutants (HAPs). This new rule rep-
resents one of the agencys most ambitious
undertakings, both in scope and in potential
impact.
The Utility MACT rule will create nation-
al emission standards for HAPs under section
112 of the Clean Air Act (CAA). The EPA
proposed its MACT rule in March 2011, and
the agency is scheduled to put the rule into
final form in November 2011.
The new rule will affect almost all of the
countrys existing coal- and oil-based gener-
ating unitsapproximately 1,350 boilers at
525 power plants. Once the rule is issued,
power generators will have up to three years
to install the necessary emissions control
technology. They must reduce their HAPs
emissions to a level equal to or better than
the average emissions of the best-performing
12% of the plants for which the EPA has
emissions data. For those planning to build
new coal- or oil-based generating units,
planned emissions must be based on the best-
performing existing source.
What options do utility plant
owners have, if any?
Shea: If plant owners decide not to install
the necessary control technology, they have
two options. They can choose to replace or
repower their coal- or oil-based generating
unit with another fuel source, such as natural
gas or biomass. Alternatively, they can shut
down the unit and, if needed, expand trans-
mission capacity to maintain system reliabil-
ity. The three-year time limit applies to these
options as well.
The EPA predicted most facilities would
be able to comply with the Utility MACT
rule within the three years. The agency has
said, however, that a one-year extension
would likely be an option for utilities that are
unable to meet that deadline.
In our comments on the proposed Utility
MACT rule, we emphasized that if a plant
owner does decide to comply by shutting
down a generating unit, then that unit should
be shut down within the three years allotted
after the effective date of the final rule. This
timeframe should be extended only if it is
determined that operation of the unit is re-
quired for reliability purposes and the utility
demonstrates that the reliability issue is be-
ing diligently addressed.
What additional flexibility do
utility plant owners require?
Shea: For those plant owners that wish to
choose one of the other compliance options,
we also emphasized the need for flexibility in
our comments to the draft rule. We urged the
EPA to extend the compliance deadline by an
additional year, as allowed under the CAA.
This extra time will be needed for each of the
compliance options.
In the instances where a plant owner
wants to install control technologies, they
will need their state regulatory agencies to
issue permits as well as approve the design,
engineering, siting, permitting, and financing
of these controls before actual construction
begins. And according to the National Asso-
ciation of Regulatory Utility Commissioners
(NARUC), a retrofit timeline for multimil-
lion dollar projects may take up to five-plus
years.
If a plant owner decides to close a unit
and upgrade existing transmission systems
or build new systems to ensure continued
reliability, utility experience indicates that
the entire process of siting, planning, permit-
ting, and constructing transmission generally
takes more than three years, and typically
takes four to eight years to complete.
Another factor that calls for more time
is that the Utility MACT rule will require
an unprecedented number of power plants
to install controls at nearly the same time.
Although the EPA acknowledges that the
control technology industry would have to
ramp up quickly, the agency does not take
into consideration the reality that manufac-
turing delays could occur given the increased
volume of orders.
In addition, once the Utility MACT rule
takes effect, NARUC has cautioned that a
retrofit timeline may need to be lengthened
due to the large number of multimillion dol-
lar projects that will be in competition for the
same skilled labor and resources.
October 2011
|
POWER VIEWS
What also has to be taken into consid-
eration when determining how much time
it will take to install the necessary controls
is that utilities schedule power plant main-
tenanceincluding retrofits and installa-
tion of environmental controlsduring the
spring and fall months. This is because peak
demand on their system generally occurs
during the summer and winter months, and
electric utilities must have enough genera-
tion facilities online to meet the maximum
demand on their systems. As a result, the
majority of utilities will not be able to work
year-round to install control technologies to
reduce mercury and HAPs.
What was the EPAs response to
your suggestions?
Shea: The EPA has suggested a willingness
to consider extensions on a unit-by-unit ba-
sis. But the number of generating units need-
ing additional time likely will be sufficiently
large that a case-by-case review of individual
requests for extensions actually could delay
overall compliance.
Given these realities, we plan to ask the
president to issue an executive order using
the CAA exemption authority for power
plant owners or operators who are unable
to comply with the Utility MACT require-
ments within four years (the standard three-
year compliance period plus the EPAs
optional one-year extension). We will ask
the president, or any designated agency or
department, to grant these extensions in
the instances where a utility is making a
diligent, good-faith effort to comply but
the control technology is unavailable, or
in those instances where the appropriate
national, state, or regional grid operator,
North American Electric Reliability Corp.,
or state regulators certify that an extension
of time is necessary to address reliability
and economic impact issues.
What other steps to reduce
mercury and HAP emissions are
utility plant owners taking?
Shea: It is important to emphasize that al-
though we are asking for greater flexibility
in implementing the new MACT rule, elec-
tric utilities are not opposed to reducing their
emissions of mercury and HAPs. In fact,
electric utilities have made significant strides
over the last two decades in reducing the in-
dustrys overall emissions.
Coal-based power plantswhich still
generate nearly half of the nations elec-
tricityemit about 70% less sulfur di-
oxide (SO
2
) and nitrogen oxides (NO
x
)
emissions today than they did in 1990. And
in the eastern United States, we have cut
ozone-related summer NO
x
emissions by
80% during the same period. What is truly
remarkable, however, is that while these
emissions reductions were taking place,
electricity demand grew 38%. Other reg-
ulations being proposed by the EPA also
will lead to SO
2
, NO
x,
mercury, and other
emissions being reduced by 80% to 90% in
most eastern states compared to 1990.
In addition, companies also are invest-
ing in advanced generating technologies
to reduce emissions even further. And we
have begun exploring methods for captur-
ing and storing carbon emissions.
The EPAs Utility MACT is as complex
as it is far-reaching. With greater flexibil-
ity in complying with it, we believe that
the new MACT rule will achieve its objec-
tives, while working to lower compliance
costs, increase system reliability, and pre-
serve valuable economic resources.
Dr. Robert Peltier, PE, POWERs editor-in-
chief, conducted and edited this interview.
|
October 2011 66
MERCURY REMOVAL
An SCR Can Provide Mercury
Removal Co-Benefits
Complying with various state (and expected federal) requirements governing
mercury removal from the stack gas of coal-fired power plants has usually
been achieved by adding an expensive activated carbon injection system.
Now there is another alternative: a catalyst that features higher mercu-
ry oxidization activity than conventional catalysts while maintaining the
same SO
2
to SO
3
conversion activityand all at a lower operating cost.
Full-scale installations are under way at several Southern Company plants
that burn a variety of coals.
By Anthony Favale, Stephen Guglielmo, and Peter Jin, Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.; Yoshinori Nagai, Babcock Hitachi,
K.K., Japan; and Corey Tyree, Southern Company Research & Environmental Group
I
n March 2005, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) announced two
final rules for air pollution that apply to
coal-fired power plants: the Clean Air Inter-
state Rule (CAIR) and the Clean Air Mer-
cury Rule (CAMR). CAIR was intended to
reduce nitrogen oxides (NO
x
) and sulfur ox-
ides (SO
x
) emissions that contribute to high
levels of ambient O
3
and particulate matter
(PM2.5). CAMR separately addressed the re-
duction of mercury (Hg) emissions from U.S.
power plants. Although CAMR was eventu-
ally vacated, the release of state rules requir-
ing mercury reduction continued.
These prior federal rules have been re-
placed by new regulations focused on haz-
ardous pollutants (HAPS), such as the Utility
MACT (maximum achievable control tech-
nology) Rule proposed in March 2011 and
slated to become final in November 2011.
In particular, mercury is a major focus of the
new regulations, creating new mercury emis-
sion control challenges for power generating
station owners. In particular, the draft Utility
MACT Rule requires that mercury emissions
meet a concentration level of 11 lb/TBtu for
coal with a heating value less than 8,300 Btu/
lb and 1 lb/TBtu for coals with a heating val-
ue equal to or greater than 8,300 Btu/lb for
existing units. For new units, the targets are
a function of generation: 0.040 lb/GWh for
coal less than 8,300 Btu/lb and 0.00001 lb/
GWh for coals equal to or greater than 8,300
Btu/lbabout one-thousandth the levels re-
quired for existing units.
The challenge for coal-fired plant owners
is to select the most cost-effective and reli-
able method to meet these new, aggressive
mercury reduction standards.
A number of technologies have been
shown to reduce mercury emissions, such as
activated carbon injection (ACI) and halogen
injection (which reduces the speciation of
Hg). However, these systems potentially cre-
ate other problems, such as adding to the cost
of installing and operating the equipment, as
well as the time and cost to maintain it.
There are also other negative economic
consequences of mercury control. For exam-
ple, ACI may increase carbon in the fly ash,
reducing its marketability. In our experience,
sometimes the easiest and most cost-effective
way to control mercury is to leverage the
co-benefit of the air quality control system
(AQCS) equipment already present.
Different Forms of Mercury
It is well known that increasing the propor-
tion of oxidized mercury (Hg
2+
) existing in
the form of water-soluble mercuric chloride
(HgCl
2
) allows for high Hg emission re-
duction because HgCl
2
can be removed in
downstream equipment such as a particulate
control device (PCD) and the wet flue gas
desulfurization (FGD) system. Therefore, to
increase the proportion of Hg
2+
upstream of a
wet FGD system will facilitate higher over-
all mercury removal for the plant. Selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) catalyst has dem-
onstrated the ability to increase Hg
2+
by con-
verting elemental mercury (Hg
0
) to Hg
2+
in
coal combustion flue gases.
In general, an SCR catalyst can oxidize
elemental form mercury (Hg
0
) to its oxidized
form (Hg
2+
) in gaseous form and particulate
form (Hg(P)); however, the mercury oxidation
rate on the SCR catalyst correlates with the
SO
2
oxidation/conversion rate to SO
3
that can
cause air heater fouling, flue corrosion, and
visible stack plumes. Several downstream SO
3

mitigation technologies have become com-
mercially available in recent years, but these
systems can have high initial and operating
costs, performance limitations, and mainte-
nance concerns. Therefore, an SCR catalyst
with high Hg
0
oxidation activity and a low SO
2

to SO
3
conversion rate is economically opti-
mal, especially for U.S. coal-fired plants using
high-sulfur coal. (See SO
3
s Impacts on Plant
O&M, Part I, Oct. 2006; Part II, Feb. 2007;
and Part III, Apr. 2007 in POWERs archives
at www.powermag.com.)
The effect of SCR catalyst on Hg
0
oxida-
tion appears to depend on the coal type. Pow-
er plants burning high-chlorine (Cl) coals,
such as U.S. eastern bituminous coals, tend to
show relatively high Hg
0
to Hg
2+
conversion
across the SCR, whereas plants burning low-
Cl coals, such as Powder River Basin (PRB)
coals, tend to show limited or no Hg
0
to Hg
2+

conversion across SCR catalyst. In such ap-
plications, an enhanced mercury oxidation
catalyst capable of achieving higher mercury
removal across the plants AQCS would be
highly desirable. (See Determining AQCS
Mercury Removal Co-Benefits, July 2010.)
SCR Catalyst Designed to Oxidize Hg
Through extensive research and develop-
ment, pilot testing, and field demonstration,
Hitachi has successfully developed a new
type of SCR catalyst, TRAC, which satisfies
the highHg
0
oxidation and lowSO
2
oxida-
tion requirements for low-chlorine coal-fired
power plants. TRAC has been successfully
tested and demonstrated in several slipstream
pilot facilities in the U.S. It has been com-
mercially available with full mercury oxida-
tion guarantees since its first installation in a
640-MW PRB-fired U.S. plant in 2008.
Since 2008, TRAC catalyst with high mer-
cury oxidation activity has been supplied to
several utilities worldwide, including South-
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October 2011 68
MERCURY REMOVAL
ern Companys Plant Miller Units 1 and 2
and Plant Barry Unit 5.
By adding active catalyst components to
conventional catalysts to increase Hg
0
oxi-
dation activity, the SO
2
to SO
3
conversion
activity will also increase at the same active
sites in the catalyst components (Figure 1).
The fundamental reaction mechanisms of Hg
oxidation and SO
2
to SO
3
conversion across
SCR catalysts were investigated in a Hitachi
laboratory to ascertain the most appropri-
ate catalyst composition and manufacturing
methods for the new catalyst.
Figure 2 illustrates test results for Hg
0
oxi-
dation of the TRAC catalyst and conventional
catalyst at Hitachis Environmental Research
Center in Akitsu, Japan. Test results have
demonstrated that the Hg
0
oxidation activ-
ity of TRAC catalyst was 1.4 to 1.7 times
higher than that of the conventional catalyst
while improving NO
x
removal activity and
maintaining the same SO
2
to SO
3
conversion
activity.
Plant Pilot Testing on PRB Coal
To ascertain the performance of the TRAC
catalyst in an actual operating unit, a slip-
stream reactor (SSR) was installed at a north-
ern U.S. power plant with an SCR system in
2003. The 640-MW plant has a wall-fired
boiler and was burning 100% PRB fuel
during testing. Following the SCR, the flue
gases pass through an air heater, an electro-
static precipitator (ESP), and then a wet FGD
system (Figure 3). The testing was conducted
from December 2005 to April 2007.
The SSR, with four layers of TRAC cat-
alyst, designed for 90% NO
x
removal, was
installed next to the existing SCR reactor.
The TRAC catalyst is specifically designed
for subbituminous fuels containing very
low amounts of chlorine. In order to repre-
sent actual SCR operating conditions, the
inlet duct of the SSR is connected direct-
ly to the inlet of the full-scale SCR, just
1. Relationship between SO
2
conversion and Hg
0
oxidation across activ-
ity for a conventional catalyst. Source: Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Conventional catalysts
SO
2
conversion activity ratio
H
g
0

o
x
i
d
a
t
i
o
n

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

r
a
t
i
o

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been published in its current format since 1990.
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ore inform
ation
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|
October 2011 70
MERCURY REMOVAL
above the first layer of catalyst. This gas
contains an adequate amount of ammonia
for the de-NOx process, so no halogen in-
jection was used during the testing.
In addition to mercury oxidation, inlet
and outlet NO
x
and ammonia slip are mea-
sured simultaneously in order to ascertain
the interaction between mercury oxidation
and de-NO
x
at various conditions and time
intervals. The commercial ammonia (NH
3
)
injection system placed at the SCR inlet
flue was injected at the commercial NH
3
/
NO
x
mole ratio.
Each layer of SSR catalyst is equipped
with air sootblowers, which are operated
automatically or at user-specified inter-
vals. The SSR is also equipped with elec-
trical heaters to keep the same temperature
across all catalyst layers. An induced-draft
(ID) fan and gas flow control damper is
provided at the SSR outlet in order to al-
low adjustment of the amount of gas flow
through the SSR. Instrumentation is pro-
vided in the SSR at various locations to
measure temperature, catalyst pressure
drop, and total gas flow. A local control
panel is used to provide user interface at
the SSR, and a programmable logic con-
troller is included for communication with
the plant distributed control system. All of
this data is acquired and stored on an hour-
ly basis for future trending and analysis.
Table 1 show the representative coal and
flue gas data from this testing. Based on
measurements taken during about 1,000
hours of operation, hydrochloric acid
(HCl) concentration in the flue gas was
very low (1 to 4 ppm) due to low chlorine
content (33 mg/kg) in the PRB coal, which
is a good representation case for mercury
oxidation for a low-chlorine coal-fired
power plant.
To address the primary objective of this
test program, mercury sampling was peri-
odically conducted at test ports through-
out the test program. The SSR is equipped
with test ports at the inlet, outlet, and an
intermediate point for performing mea-
surements using the Ontario Hydro Meth-
od. Along with mercury speciation, other
measurements simultaneously recorded
include HCl concentration at the SSR in-
let, ammonia and NO
x
concentration at the
SCR inlet and outlet, and total gas flow.
The mercury sampling activities in this
test program were divided into five major
events: January, April, July, and December
2006 and April 2007. Figure 4 summarizes
Hg speciation profiles at each sampling
point across the SSR.
One of the major objectives of this SSR
testing is to quantify the mercury oxida-
tion rate over a long period. The SSR dem-
2. Hg
0
oxidation of TRAC catalyst at the Hitachi pilot-scale test facility.
Source: Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
100
90
80
70
60
50
644 680 716 752 788
Temperature (F)
H
g

o
x
i
d
a
t
i
o
n

(
%
)

Conventional TRAC TRAC
3. Schematic of SSR test configuration. Source: Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
Coal analysis Flue gas analysis
Heating value (Btu/lb as received) 8,280 Inlet NO
x
(ppm) 260300
Moisture (% as received) 30% O
2
(% dry) 2.9
Ash (% as received) 5.2% CO
2
(% dry) 15
Sulfur (% as received) 0.3% H
2
O (%) 12.6
Chlorine (ppm) 33 HCl (ppm) 14
Hg (ppm) 0.1
Boiler
De-NOx AH
DESP
fan
WFGD
Stack
SSR
SCR
reactor
(actual)
ID
Control
valve
DP
TF
TF
1st layer
2nd layer
3rd layer
4th layer
SSR pilot
Table 1. Coal and flue gas analysis during slipstream reactor testing.
October 2011
|
MERCURY REMOVAL
onstration test for the PRB-firing plant
showed very good mercury oxidation. It
was observed that a significant amount of
Hg
0
was oxidized to Hg
2+
across the cata-
lyst in the SSR for all sampling events,
even with very low Hg
0
content level at the
inlet of the SSR. Hg oxidation capability
of the TRAC catalyst remained robust af-
ter one year of operation. More than 80%
mercury oxidation was achieved across the
catalyst in the SSR after 8,000 hours of op-
eration, although HCl concentration in the
flue gas for PRB firing was very low.
Figure 5 shows the mercury oxidation
rate during 8,000 hours of testing. HCl
concentration at the inlet of the SSR was
changed with each test run within the
range shown in Table 1. Hg oxidation
rate for the TRAC catalyst remained high
during a one-year test period under low
chlorine level condition, even though the
results indicate a gradual decrease in mer-
cury oxidation over time. The mercury ox-
idation deterioration rate of TRAC catalyst
was the same as that for de-NO
x
. Robust
mercury oxidation performance and supe-
rior durability of the TRAC catalyst were
observed and confirmed through the SSR
testing. Therefore, full-scale commercial
application of the TRAC catalyst became
the next logic step.
Pilot Plant Testing at Southern
Company
A large-scale pilot test was subsequently
conducted at Southern Companys Mercury
Research Center (MRC) using low-sulfur bi-
tuminous coal in 2009. This plant is equipped
with an AQCS downstream of the SSR, as
shown in Figure 6. At the MRC, flue gas is
extracted from the outlet of an actual low-
sulfur coal-fired boiler and introduced into
the SSR-AQCS system by an ID fan, and
then returned to the air heater outlet duct.
The tested SSR consisted of two layers of
4. Slipstream reactor mercury speciation measurements. Source: Hitachi
Power Systems America Ltd.
50
40
30
20
10
0
Initial (January, 2006)
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
Particle Hg Oxidized Hg Elemental Hg
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
50
40
30
20
10
0
2,000h (April, 2006)
50
40
30
20
10
0
3,550h (July, 2006)
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
50
40
30
20
10
0
5,640h (December, 2006)
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
50
40
30
20
10
0
Approximately 8,000h (April, 2007)
Inlet Middle Outlet
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
5. Mercury oxidation efficiency with operating hours at SSR. Source: Hi-
tachi Power Systems America Ltd.
100
80
60
40
20
0
H
g

o
x
i
d
a
t
i
o
n

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
Operating hours
Data Condition
Gas flow rate (lb/hr) 50,500
Temperature (F) 626752 (698)
NO
x
(ppm) 180230
Chlorine (ppm) 110350 (130)
Bromine (ppm) 050 (0)
NO
x
removal (%) 90
Ammonia slip (ppm) 2
Note: ( ) indicates the standard operating condition.
Table 2. Test conditions at the
Southern Company Mercury Re-
search Center. Source: Hitachi Power
Systems America Ltd.
Sampling point
|
October 2011 72
MERCURY REMOVAL
full-scale catalyst modules. The flue gas
velocities and temperatures were fully con-
trolled during testing. Table 2 shows the mer-
cury oxidation test conditions, and Figure 7
illustrates the outline of the SSR. At this test
facility, Hitachi was also able to confirm the
performance differences between its typical
conventional SCR catalyst and TRAC under
actual flue gas conditions.
Figures 8 and 9 show mercury oxidation
activity for both conventional SCR cata-
lyst and TRAC against halogen concentra-
tion and flue gas temperature. As can be
seen in both figures, TRAC has excellent
mercury oxidation performance at both
lower halogen concentration and high flue
gas temperature zones compared with con-
ventional catalysts. The results illustrate
the superior performance of TRAC under
all tested operating conditions.
Full-Scale Commercial Application
The first commercial application of TRAC
involved adding a full layer of catalysts to
a full-scale replacement reactor at the same
PRB-fired plant where pilot testing had been
conducted earlier.
The three-layer replacement reactor con-
sisted of three layers with a spare, empty
fourth layer. For testing, the first layer of ex-
isting honeycomb catalyst was removed and
a layer of TRAC catalyst was installed as the
fourth layer. Table 3 shows the coal and flue
gas analysis data during testing.
The TRAC catalyst was supplied and
installed in the reactor, and the operation
started in June 2008. Hg speciation pro-
files at the wet FGD inlet and outlet (stack
inlet) locations were recorded by using
6. Schematic of the pilot test facility at Southern Companys Mercury
Research Center. Source: Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
Boiler
AH
AH SCR EP FF Fan
7. The arrangement of the two lay-
ers of catalyst installed during pi-
lot testing at Southern Companys
Mercury Research Center. The cata-
lyst volume was 6.7 m
3
. Source: Hitachi Pow-
er Systems America Ltd.
14m
8. Mercury oxidation activity of the catalyst versus halogen concentra-
tion. Source: Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

r
a
t
i
o
0 100 200 300 400
CI (ppm)
Temp. 370 C
Br:0 ppm
TRAC
Conventional
9. Mercury oxidation activity of the catalyst versus flue gas tempera-
ture. Source: Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

r
a
t
i
o

320 340 360 380 400
Temperature (C)
TRAC
Conventional
420
Br:5 ppm
CI: 125-150 ppm
October 2011
|
MERCURY REMOVAL
the plants mercury continuous emission
monitoring (CEM) system. The effect of
TRAC catalyst on Hg oxidation was deter-
mined by comparing the results during two
Hg sampling events, in April 2008 (before
TRAC replacement) and in June 2008 (af-
ter TRAC replacement). For both events,
Hg speciation profiles at the wet FGD inlet
and outlet were measured and recorded.
The effect of TRAC catalyst on Hg spe-
ciation was determined by comparing the
results obtained during the April 2008 sam-
pling event before TRAC replacement (exist-
ing three layers without TRAC) and during
the June 2008 sampling event after TRAC
replacement (existing two layers plus one
TRAC layer). Mercury speciation profiles at
the wet FGD inlet and outlet for each sam-
pling event are shown in Figure 10.
The presence of TRAC catalyst signifi-
cantly affected the Hg speciation profile
at the inlet of the wet FGD system. In the
absence of TRAC catalyst (existing three
layers without TRAC), the ratio of Hg
2+
/
Hg (total) at the inlet of the wet FGD aver-
aged about 40%. The presence of TRAC
catalyst increased this ratio to about 70%.
By observation, the presence of the TRAC
catalyst significantly increased Hg
2+
level
at the inlet of the wet FGD system.
As a result of the increased Hg
2+
at the
wet FGD inlet, total Hg removal across the
wet FGD increased from 30% (before TRAC
replacement) to 70% (after TRAC replace-
ment). Results from the full-scale application
are in good agreement with SSR testing re-
sults and demonstrate that the Hg
0
oxidation
Table 3. Coal and flue gas analysis for first commercial application of
TRAC. Source: Source: Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
Coal analysis Flue gas analysis
Heating value (Btu/lb as received) 8,1208,400 Inlet temperature (F) 723741
Moisture (% as received) 28.731.0 Moisture (%) 11.013.8
Ash (% as received) 4.95.7 O
2
(% dry) 2.93.1
Volatile matter (% as received) 17.933.6 CO
2
(% dry) 16.016.6
Sulfur (% as received) 0.270.36 NO
x
(ppm) 297336
Chlorine (ppm) 2554 HCl (ppm) 0.420.57
Fluorine (ppm) 3361 HBr (ppm) 0.010.13
Hg (ppm) 0.1 Cl
2
(ppm) 0.040.07
10
8
6
4
2
0
H
g

(
g
/
d
s
c
m
)
April 2008 June 2008
Hg
(2+)
Hg
(0)
Wet FGD inlet
80
60
40
20
0
H
g

(
g
/
d
s
c
m
)
Existing 3 layers
without TRAC
Existing 2
layers with one
layer of TRAC
10
8
6
4
2
0
H
g

(
g
/
d
s
c
m
)
Wet FGD outlet/stack inlet
80
60
40
20
0
H
g

r
e
m
o
v
a
l

(
%
)
Existing 3 layers
without TRAC
Existing 2
layers with one
layer of TRAC
10. Effect of TRAC catalyst on Hg oxidation and removal across the wet
flue gas desulfurization system before and after TRAC replacement.
11. Mercury CEM system data collected before (left column) and after (right) one layer of TRAC replaced a
conventional layer of catalyst. Source: Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)
4/22 4/27 5/2 5/7
100
80
60
40
20
0
H
g
(
2
+
)
/
H
g
(
T
)

(
%
)
4/22 4/27 5/2 5/7
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)
5/26 5/31 6/5 6/10
100
80
60
40
20
0
H
g
(
2
+
)
/
H
g
(
T
)

(
%
)
6/15 6/20 6/25 6/30
5/26 5/31 6/5 6/10 6/15 6/20 6/25 6/30
|
October 2011 74
MERCURY REMOVAL
activity of the TRAC catalyst was signifi-
cantly higher than that of the conventional
catalyst with low-chlorine coal. Figure 11
presents the Hg CEM results before and after
TRAC replacement.
The superior performance benefits of
TRAC have been demonstrated, but what
about the costs? The economics of adding
TRAC catalyst are illustrated in Table 4. For
most eastern bituminous coal applications,
the existing catalyst is sufficient to oxidize
the mercury. However, some units can ben-
efit from an extra boost of mercury oxidation
with one or two layers of TRAC. For PRB
applications, TRAC can help to minimize the
amount of ACI required and thereby save the
cost of mercury oxidation.
The most cost-effective mercury control
strategy is to use existing equipment in order
to comply with new standards. In particular,
Southern Company has evaluated mercury
oxidation across catalysts with enhanced
mercury oxidation, such as TRAC. This strat-
egy requires that the oxidation be maintained
across a range of temperatures, fuel halo-
gen contents, and NO
x
control levels. Such
a catalyst would allow utilities to reduce or
eliminate the need for halogen injection and
simultaneously comply with stringent NO
x

emission standards.
Based on pilot-test results, Southern
Company moved forward with full-scale
applications of TRAC catalyst at several
generating facilities burning PRB and bi-
tuminous fuels.
Anthony C. Favale, PE (anthony.
favale@hal.hitachi.com) is the director
of SCR products; Stephen Guglielmo
(stephen.guglielmo@hal.hitachi.com)
is the northeast sales manager; and
Dr. Peter Jin, PE (peter.jin@hal.hitachi.
com) is SCR engineering manager for
Hitachi Power Systems America Ltd.
Yoshinori Nagai (yoshinori.nagai.kw@
hitachi.com) is the general manager of
reserch and development for Babcock
Hitachi, K.K., Japan. Dr. Corey A. Tyree
(catyree@southernco.com) is a project
manager in Southern Companys Re-
search & Environmental Affairs Group
in Birmingham, Ala.
Coal type
3 regular
layers
1 TRAC plus 2
regular layers 3 TRAC layers
Eastern bituminous
Hg oxidation @ air preheater outlet (APH; %) 90 92 95
Rate of activated carbon injection (ACI; lb/MACF) 10 6 0
Cost of ACI ($/yr) 7,600,000 4,600,000 0
Powder River Basin
Hg oxidation at APH outlet (%) 30 63 80
Rate of ACI (lb/MACF) 1.5 1.0 0.5
ACI cost ($/yr) 1,140,000 760,000 380,000
Notes: Assumes $0.75/lb for untreated activated carbon. MACF = million actual cubic feet.
Table 4. Economics of TRAC catalyst for a typical 680-MW unit. Source: Hitachi
Power Systems America Ltd.
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October 2011
|
PLANT DESIGN
Managing Equipment Data Through
Asset Virtualization
Asset virtualization extends and combines the technologies of 3-D visualiza-
tion and virtual reality to a new, practical level for the life-cycle manage-
ment of power industry equipment. All pertinent data for a component,
subsystem, or plant is associated with, stored, and accessed through as-
built 3-D digital models of the actual plant that are constructed using laser
scanning techniques.
By Costantino Lanza, INOVx Solutions Inc. and Jason Makansi, Pearl Street Inc.
T
he next wave in digital technology
and power plant knowledge manage-
ment is integrating complex plant op-
erations and maintenance (O&M) into the
virtual reality environment, or asset virtu-
alization (AV).
The value of earlier initiatives applying
variations of AV is already evident. Entergy,
for example, applied the technology for mov-
ing huge, complex pieces of equipment during
outages at its nuclear plants, converting pa-
per-based procedures and processes to digital
ones, and reducing worker radiation exposure.
Other nuclear plant owner/operators have also
applied the technology for similar objectives
(see Laser Scanning Produces 3-D Plant Da-
tabase, November 2008 and Modeling and
Simulation Tools Reduce Plant Outage Dura-
tion, November 2009 in the POWER archives
at www.powermag.com).
The vision articulated in this article is to
anchor the power plants overall asset man-
agement program with 3-D models of the as-
built equipment.
The Vision of Asset Virtualization
Imagine being able to walk through your
power plant in virtual reality, touching an
asset and having everything that is known
about that asset appear before you. Further-
more, imagine mixing and matching infor-
mation from different sources so that you
achieve insights never before possiblefor
example, dynamically color the plant equip-
ment based on the probability of failure ver-
sus the consequence of failure (Figure 1).
INOVx and others have mastered a highly
precise 3-D representation of the physical
world and extended it to include complete
access to all available data. Experience to
date shows that the greatest value of AV is
enabling new work processes to improve dai-
ly work habits for safety, compliance, opera-
tions, and maintenance.
Safety aspects are of particular interest
given the recent events in Japan and cata-
strophic events at energy facilities in the U.S.
Being able to clearly see plant conditions
during a crisisbefore it happensimproves
planning and emergency response, especially
when addressing previously unexpected cir-
cumstances. Having a virtual world in which
to review actions allows the best plan to be
put forward and then rehearsed away from
immediate danger and damage.
3-D Virtual Models in Engineering. Al-
though 3-D technology in computer-assisted
design (CAD) systems has been used for over
a decade, the models and documentation cre-
ated in the design do not serve O&M tasks
over the life of the assets. This is because
the as-designed CAD representations al-
most always deviate from as built or field
conditions. Over time, they become less and
less representative of the actual plant and
equipment. The 3-D models typically are
not updated as modifications are made to the
process equipment, nor is it cost effective to
maintain these CAD models.
A plant requiring a major planned outage
recently faced this exact situation. Documen-
tation of the facility was substantially out of
date. To support the upgrade project, a high-
fidelity, location-accurate 3-D model of the
facilities and equipment was created by on-
site laser scanning and subsequent modeling.
Every object was identified and labeled in
accordance with the actual equipment. The
model served the project in many important
ways:
Engineers walked the scanned images
of the as-built model and identified dis-
crepancies in existing process and instru-
mentation diagrams (P&IDs). The P&IDs
were corrected and made suitable for en-
gineering work at a fraction of the labor
otherwise required.
Using the 3-D virtual model, engineers
were able to identify and clearly commu-
nicate throughout the upgrade process.
When new plant components were de-
signed, these were clashed against the
laser scan images (also referred to as point
clouds) to ensure no interference.
Tie-in points were accurately determined
from the 3-D virtual model, and the new
design was fabricated and installed with
zero rework.
These benefits were not only experienced
at this specific plant but also have been re-
peated at other plants. Importantly, with ac-
curate 3-D virtual models, many engineering
tasks can be converted from a field exercise
with paper and pencil to an office task, where
1. More information made available. This example illustrates how it is now possible
to dynamically view risk profiles across an industrial complex using color. Source: INOVx
0 0 0 4 9 13
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 2 0 2 4
2 4 0 28 30 64
61 49 49 149 74 382
63 53 51 181 115
Consequences of failure
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
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i
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r
e
|
October 2011 76
PLANT DESIGN
field conditions can be explored, accurate
measurements taken, and general produc-
tivity dramatically improved. Consider the
desire to limit the exposure of workers to
radiation at nuclear plants as a means of im-
mediately monetizing the value of converting
field work to office work.
Figure 2 shows two accurate laser images
of a plant. These are full 3-D images with ev-
ery pixel accurately known in 3-D space to
better than 5 mm. Though the images can be
rotated, panned, and zoomed to any perspec-
tive, the included images represent a small
sample of what is possible.
3-D Virtual Models for Outages. Plant
outages are complex endeavors with myriad
distinct work packages involving significant
internal staff, and often hundreds (and some-
times thousands) of contractors and suppliers.
3-D virtual models of the affected facilities en-
hance communications and ensure team famil-
iarity with tasks and their environment without
time-consuming walkthroughs of the facility.
Specific views that support and inform
each individual work package are easily iso-
lated from the clutter of the real world and the
full 3-D virtual model. These are shared with
the staff, supporting workers, and contractors.
They capture and share knowledge about the
plant and planned work tasks. These views
are also combined for added perspective. For
example, structural steel views are combined
with piping views so that proper access and
routing can be planned and communicated
to outage staff. When needed, scaffolding
plans can be overlaid on the views to ensure
suitability. Nuclear plants have already docu-
mented significant savings in scaffolding
alone in applying 3-D virtualization. In pe-
troleum processing plants, savings have been
documented on the order of 10% of the total
cost of the outage. This includes being able to
reduce the total down time by one-tenth.
3-D Virtual Models in Plant Mainte-
nance. In one petroleum refinery the issue
of temporary leak repairs was addressed. The
specific concern was, How to ensure that the
temporary repairs are made permanent in the
most efficient manner, by taking full advan-
tage of both planned and unplanned outages?
Before the virtual model, it was very chal-
lenging to identify all eligible temporary leak
repairs. With the virtual model, a temporary
repair database is dynamically linked to the
3-D virtual model, and all opportunities for
permanent repair are immediately highlighted
within the boundary of any outage activity.
Other applications of the 3-D virtual
model for plant maintenance are many and
varied. The impact on best practices is sig-
nificant. Maintenance personnel are able to
quickly locate lines, equipment, and instru-
mentation and familiarize themselves with
components location before going to the
field to perform their work. Work orders are
precisely linked to the target equipment or
system and, through that connection, to the
most current asset data. The model is a natu-
ral tool for organizing and visualizing main-
tenance history, operational data, test results,
and analysis.
Work order planning is greatly facilitated
by the 3-D model. Planners can develop li-
braries of work packages for routine tasks
that are supported by their respective views
of the 3-D model. The net result is greater
productivity and quicker repairs, resulting in
shorter downtimes and greater utilization of
the plant.
3-D Virtual Models in Inspection and
Plant Integrity. In the past, inspection
circuits were documented using 2-D iso-
metric drawings with manual placement
of the thickness or corrosion monitoring
locations (TML/CML). In parallel, a data-
base was kept showing corrosion rate, date
of last inspection, and other data for each
point. The challenges in coordinating and
maintaining accuracy under this system
should be obvious.
Today, inspection circuits are generated in
3-D as a subset of the overall virtual model.
TML/CML points are called out in their exact
geospatial location and linked dynamically to
the source data. Even more important, these
inspection points are determined by using
the 3-D virtual model, permitting risk-based
techniques to be used that reduce the number
of inspection points by over 50% without in-
creasing plant operating risk. This has a dou-
ble benefit of reducing the total hours spent
inspecting the plant by 20% to 30% while in-
creasing its reliability and safety (Figure 3).
Inspectors use the 3-D virtual model to
determine scaffolding needs as well as ac-
cess limitations and safety requirements.
As one inspector from Shell Oil put it,
One hour using the virtual model saves
me 8 hours in the field.
2. Believe it or not. Yes, these are laser scans, not photos. Courtesy: INOVx
3. A 3-D model of a corrosion inspection loop. The computer rendering has
replaced hand-drawn 2-D isometrics drawings. Courtesy: INOVx
October 2011
|
PLANT DESIGN
3-D Virtual Models in Plant Opera-
tions. There are many opportunities to uti-
lize the 3-D virtual model in operating a
plant. Operating procedures can be more eas-
ily created and reviewed because the model
provides a true in plant perspective at the
users desktop. Familiarizing personnel with
facilities and procedures is greatly simplified.
How many times have we been in the plant
discussing an operating change when nobody
can hear what anyone is saying because of
ear plugs and rotating equipment noise?
Safety procedures, including isolation
device locations, can be documented in full
3-D and full context. Hazard and operability
(HAZOP) analysis can be performed with
greater clarity and with accurate asset docu-
mentation. The location of persistent alarms
can be visualized in their physical context.
Creating work orders is a much more precise
activity because the virtual model provides
an easy way to tie the work order to the piece
of equipment of interest instead of the unit
level. Importantly, the virtual model also
provides a common basis for communication
between operations and maintenance.
How It Works
The path to AV is surprisingly easy. The
steps are:
1. Identify the specific uses that will be
improved with AV, and plan the imple-
mentation.
2. Create the 3-D virtual model of the plant
facilities.
3. Add intelligence to the model by naming
all the components and connecting them to
the existing enterprise information stores.
4. Establish the new work flow and processes.
5. Assess the implementation and explore
new potential uses.
Start by reviewing the area of potential
benefits, understanding the priorities and
value, and planning the implementation. This
involves reviewing current work practices,
as well as suspected areas of improvement.
Plant personnel are intimately involved in
this step.
Next, the as-built 3-D virtual model of
plant facilities and assets is created. If a 3-D
design model is available, it is used, but only
as the starting point. If one does not exist, then
conventional laser scanning technology (wide-
ly available from many vendors) is used.
Modeling software is employed to convert
the laser scan point cloud into 3-D objects.
The end result is a visual, navigable, multi-
perspective 3-D model that accurately and
precisely reflects the actual facilities. The
3-D virtual model software must be capable
of accepting updates at any time from new
laser scans, altered CAD information, and
direct model changes to reflect field condi-
tions. Furthermore, changes must be auto-
matically propagated (or inherited) to views,
documents, and integrated systems to ensure
that all asset information and the 3-D virtual
model accurately reflect the plant.
By tagging objects, components, struc-
tures, circuits, and sub-systems, the model
shapes gain context and can be used for
searching, sorting, and linking to relevant
data from all other enterprise information
systems. Data is not copied, but accessed
dynamically. O&M systems are tapped,
resulting in a comprehensive digital asset
management environment anchored by 3-D
graphics of the actual equipment
There are several very valuable by-prod-
ucts of this step. For one, the existing doc-
umentation is reviewed and redlined. For
example, P&ID are traced and redlined. Ex-
perience tells us that, on average, one to four
errors are discovered on each P&ID. Indeed,
many facilities commission projects just to
update their P&ID, which often cost millions
of dollars just for this work.
Another by-product is the breakdown of
existing information silos. One has imme-
diate access to information that crosses the
silos with minimal effort. There is only one
version of reality for all to access.
Once the AV environment is in place, we
are ready to establish the new work flow
and practices. These will flow naturally as
plant personnel and managers make use of
the system.
Market and Application Drivers
In addition to the application drivers noted
earlier, industry standards, safety, and eco-
nomics will accelerate deployment of AV in
the power industry. Some of these include:
An emerging international standard for
asset management, PAS 55, effectively
mandates AV best practice. Publically
Available Specifications (PAS) are avail-
able from the British Standards Institution.
Compliance with North American Electric
Reliability Corp.s reliability standards
can be facilitated with AV.
Utilities and owner/operators of large
portfolios of power stations are actively
rationalizing their equipment databases,
which are often in multiple and confusing
paper and digital formats.
The fossil-fired power industryespecial-
ly large, baseload assetswill likely take
the cue from nuclear plants and begin us-
ing AV for many facets of outage planning
and conduct.
AV helps plants deal with the brain drain
issue by providing ways to capture tribal
and expert knowledge before it leaves the
door (retires).
Safety programs and inspections will only
increase in the wake of recent energy fa-
cility disasters (including the Gulf oil spill
last year, the gas pipeline rupture and ex-
plosion in California last year, the power
plant explosion in Connecticut, the nuclear
plant crisis in Japan this year, and so on).
Issues and Challenges
As with implementing anything new, one can
expect issues and challenges in adopting and
implementing AV. Here are some of them:
The general state of as-built asset infor-
mation is poor. We have already noted that
most P&IDs have errors. In fully imple-
menting AV the inconsistencies must be
addressed, which is challenging. But the
end result is a new level of accuracy and
confidence in asset information.
The varying level of detail in existing 3-D
virtual models. Even starting with an
engineering 3-D CAD model, one will
find different organization and level of
detail. For example, are pipe supports
modeled? Are small bore lines includ-
ed? How are internals modeled? The
needed detail must match the applica-
tion or need. Achieving the right level
for each use requires effort.
Resistance to change is ever-present.
Young staff expect to use 3-D models; ex-
perienced staff resist.
What to Expect in the Future
AV is in its infancy. The technology will
keep improving, largely driven by the con-
sumer market, where economies of scale
come into play. Laser scanning technology
will become cheaper, faster, and more ac-
curate. Modeling technology will become
more automated. New technologies such as
augmented reality will permit the merging
of 3-D virtual models with live video feeds,
thus providing an intelligent live view of
the plant. Equipment will be annotated and
linked. Staff, who will carry radio frequency
identification badges, will also be identified
in the video. Plant information can be over-
laid, for example, with manufacturers name
and real-time conditions (such as tempera-
ture and name of the fluid in the pipe). We
expect many new and unexpected uses will
emerge in the years to come.
Costantino Lanza is CEO of INOVx
Solutions Inc. Jason Makansi (jmakansi@
pearlstreetinc.com) is president of Pearl
Street Inc. This article is based on a
conference paper presented to the 54th
Annual ISA Power Industry Division
Symposium, May 2011.
|
October 2011 78
COAL ASH MANAGEMENT
Constructing Marylands First
Permitted Landfill for Coal
Combustion By-products
Constellation Power Source Generation Inc., which owns and operates three
coal-fired power plants in Maryland, has contracted with Charah Inc., an
ash management company, to build a landfill to strict environmental re-
quirements for the disposal of its plants coal combustion by-products
that cant be recycled for other uses.
C
oal-fired power plants produce approx-
imately 40% of the electricity gener-
ated in Maryland. Constellation Power
Source Generation Inc. (CPSGI), an affiliate
of Baltimore-based Constellation Energy,
owns and operates three of these plants that
help meet the growing demand for electricity.
Although more than half of the coal combus-
tion by-products (CCBs) produced by these
three plants is recycled for reuse in products
such as cement and concrete, not all can be
reused due to a lack of market demand. The
remainder is placed in landfills permitted to
dispose of such materials.
Overview of Coal Combustion
By-products
Approximately 43% of CCBs were recycled
for beneficial uses in 2008, according to the
American Coal Ash Association. The remain-
der were landfilled, placed in mine shafts, or
stored on site at coal-fired power plants.
The University of North Dakota has ex-
tensively researched the characteristics of
different types of CCBs typically produced
by coal-fired power plants. Here are the main
types of CCBs the university has identified:
Boiler slag is a molten ash collected at the
base of slag tap and cyclone boilers that
is quenched with water and shatters into
black, angular particles having a smooth
glassy appearance.
Bottom ash consists of agglomerated ash
particles formed in pulverized coal boilers
that are too large to be carried in the flue
gases. Consequently, they impinge on the
boiler walls or fall through open grates to
an ash hopper at the bottom of the boiler.
Bottom ash is typically gray to black in
color, is quite angular, and has a porous
surface structure.
Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) materials
consist of unburned coal, ash, and spent bed
material used for sulfur control. The spent
FBC material (removed as bottom ash) con-
tains reaction products from the absorption
of gaseous sulfur oxides (SO
2
and SO
3
).
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) materi-
als are derived from a variety of processes
used to control sulfur emissions from boiler
stacks. These FGD systems include wet
scrubbers, spray dry scrubbers, sorbent in-
jectors, and a combined sulfur oxide (SO
x
)
and nitrogen oxide (NO
x
) process. Sorbents
include lime, limestone, sodium-based
compounds, and high-calcium coal fly ash.
Fly ash is the coal ash that exits a combus-
tion chamber in the flue gas and is captured
by air pollution control equipment such as
electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, and
wet scrubbers.
Charahs Decision to Develop a
CCB Landfill
In the fall of 2007, CPSGI voluntarily began
hauling and placing its nonbeneficially re-
used CCBs at privately owned lined landfills
in Virginia and western Maryland as part of
a consent decree signed with the Maryland
Department of the Environment (MDE).
At that time, CPSGIs evaluation of alter-
native disposal locations to manage its CCBs
in a manner that ensured the health, safety,
and welfare of the community intensified. In
addition, CPSGI was determined to secure a
disposal site for its sole use, as a monofill for
CCBs. To facilitate this evaluation, CPSGI
turned to Charah Inc., a Louisville, Ky.
based leading ash management provider for
the coal-fired electric utility industry. Charah
was initially tasked with evaluating long-
term, cost-effective CCB disposal opportuni-
ties, including beneficial mine reclamation,
industrial waste landfills, and additional
beneficial reuse applications. In 2008, more
than 300 sites in four states were evaluated
for environmental, regulatory, capacity, and
operational feasibility.
By late 2008, Charah presented CPSGI
with a recommendation to purchase and de-
velop an existing, unused 65-acre industrial
waste landfill, located in Baltimore City, just
miles away from the plants. The site identi-
fied by Charah was already permitted as an
industrial waste landfill and was located with-
in a heavy industrial zoning district separated
from any residential land use. In addition, no
private wells were located within the vicinity
of the site. The site conformed to CPSGIs
strict environmental requirements and pro-
vided for long-term and cost-effective CCB
disposal. The site would also reduce CPSGIs
carbon footprint by decreasing CCB disposal
hauling distances and travel times.
CPSGI accepted Charahs site recom-
mendation and shortly thereafter secured an
option to purchase the property. Having suc-
cessfully completed the site selection process,
and having met the day-to-day needs of CPS-
GI, Charah was then tasked with providing
the design and engineering for converting the
industrial waste landfill into a newly permit-
ted landfill for disposal of CCB materials.
Permitting Process
While CPSGI and Charah were evaluating
alternative disposal locations for CPSGIs
CCBs, the MDE began reforming its regu-
latory program and issued a 68-page report
detailing proposed action on regulations as-
sociated with CCBs. The purpose of this ac-
tion was to establish requirements pertaining
to the generation, storage, handling, process-
ing, disposal, recycling, beneficial use, or
other uses of CCBs.
FLX-11059_Domin.Prtnr_FP4c.indd 1 7/7/11 3:16 PM
FLEXCO. COM
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Engineering & Maintenance,
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into it and we saw we were losing a lot of time and money with cleanup and lost coal.
He decided to talk to Flexco.
Our team designed and installed transfer chutes that worked within Dominions existing
stacker-reclaimer units. The new systems not only cut down on spillage and delivered
soft, centered loads to the belts they also reduced dust, plugging and wear. Today,
reclaimed tonnages are up and transfer issues are down.
We feel comfortable moving more tons per hour now, Dan says. Two million tons
have gone through the Flexco system, and its worked very well. To increase the
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With over 25 years of design
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FLX-11059_Domin.Prtnr_FP4c.indd 1 7/7/11 3:16 PM
|
October 2011 80
COAL ASH MANAGEMENT
At this time the MDE announced that
Additional controls are needed to en-
sure that we protect the public health and
the environment. While the U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
been developing a proposal to regulate the
disposal and use of coal combustion by-
products since 2000, no federal program
currently exists. Therefore MDE believes
it is necessary to move forward with our
own regulatory program (1).
In February 2008, both Charah and
CPSGI submitted comments and recom-
mendations to the MDE on the proposed
regulations. The MDEs CCB regulations
were published on November 21, 2008, in
the Maryland Register, and they took ef-
fect on December 1, 2008. The regulations
provide a regulatory framework for the
disposal of CCBs and the use of CCBs for
mine reclamation. Disposal facilities now
need to meet all the standards required for
industrial solid waste landfills, including
a leachate collection system, groundwater
monitoring, the use of liners, and routine
analysis of CCBs. Requirements were also
specified for CCB transportation and air
quality controls.
To comply with the new MDE regula-
tions, Charah navigated the site design and
engineering, permitting, and construction
process with the State of Maryland and
City of Baltimore over a period of over two
years. Throughout the process, Charah and
CPSGI actively included the participation
of the public and environmental groups,
allowing all parties concerns to be voiced
and addressed. Multiple community asso-
ciation meetings, public hearings, and col-
laboration meetings with nongovernmental
environmental groups were held.
There was never any question that the
site design was outstanding, CPSGI Proj-
ect Manager Beth Pittaway said. MDE
was ahead of other agencies, including
EPA, when they implemented the regu-
lation. Even after design and operations
plans were accepted by MDE, CPSGI
met with national and local environmen-
tal group representatives to address their
concerns. The project gained their support
with some minor operational changes and
increased bonding on the site for long-term
care and closure.
The project resulted in Marylands first
permitted CCB landfill following enact-
ment of the state regulations. This project
serves as a model of how industry and state
regulators worked together to implement
practical, safe, and environmentally con-
scious CCB regulations, stated Charles
Price, Charahs president and CEO. Addi-
tionally, the design conforms to the EPAs
proposed approach [to coal ash disposal]
under Subtitles C or D [of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act].
Coal will continue to be a viable part
of the countrys generation mix. This site
is a great example of how the by-products
of coal-fired generation can be addressed
in an environmentally responsible way,
said John Long, president of Constellation
Power Generation, the Constellation En-
ergy affiliate that oversees the companys
Maryland-based coal plants. He added,
weve always been keenly aware of the
need to manage coal combustion byprod-
ucts in a manner that ensures the health,
safety and welfare of our community. For a
lot of reasons this site was one that allowed
us to meet our own high expectations.
Property Characteristics and
Engineering Design
The property presented a unique and natu-
ral environmental buffer, as it is situated
over a 100-foot-thick clay base at a per-
meability of 1 x 10
-7
cm/sec or less. This
buffer allowed Charah to place 60-mil
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) liner
directly on the graded subbase (Figure
1). The liner preceded installation of the
leachate collection system, which consists
of a network of 8-inch perforated HDPE
pipes surrounded by coarse aggregate, all
encased in filter fabric.
The leachate system also includes a 12-
inch drainage layer and 12-inch protection
layer. Both specify a minimum hydrau-
lic conductivity of 4 x 10
-3
cm/sec. The
leachate collection system was designed to
maintain the leachate depth over the bot-
tom liner to no more than one foot. The
pipe network drains to a leachate sump
that discharges into a double-lined collec-
tion basin on site. The leachate collection
system is equipped with a telemetered and
audiovisual alarm system to provide con-
tinuous monitoring. Once collected, the
leachate will be transported to an approved
wastewater treatment facility.
Long-Term Design and Permitting
Upon reaching fill capacity, the cells will
be closed by placing a 24-in clay cover lay-
er on top of the CCBs and a 40-mil HDPE
liner system over top of the cover layer
(Figure 2). A geocomposite drainage layer
will be installed above the 40-mil liner,
followed by 18 inches of protective soil, 6
inches of topsoil, and vegetation. This will
provide a fully encapsulated system and
will promote stormwater flow across and
off of the landfill to the designed stormwa-
ter conveyance infrastructure.
A permanent stormwater management
(SWM) system will be implemented to
closely maintain the predevelopment run-
off characteristics after site development
and to enhance water quality at permitted
discharge points, as designated according
to the National Pollutant Discharge Elimi-
nation System (NPDES) under the Clean
Water Act. Design parameters will provide
1. The final act. Layout of a typical land-
fill used for the disposal of coal combustion
by-products (CCB). Courtesy: Constellation
Power Source Generation Inc. (CPSGI)
Leachate
collection
system
Liner
system
Final cover
system
Groundwater
monitoring
well (typ)
CCBs
Existing clay base
(over 100 feet deep)
Patapsco aquifer
2. Topping it off. Upon reaching fill capacity, the cells of the CCB landfill will be closed by
placing a 24-inch clay cover layer on top of the CCBs and a 40-mil HDPE liner system over top
of the cover layer. Courtesy: CPSGI
Vegetation
6 topsoil
18 protective soil layer
Final intermediate cover
24 compacted clay
(k=1x10
-7
cm/sec)
Prepared subgrade surface
Existing clay base
(over 100 feet deep)
(k10
-7
cm/sec)
Groundwater (Patapsco aquifer)
Geocomposite drainage layer
Geomembrane
12 protective layer
12 drainage layer
Geomembrane
CCBs
690
|
October 2011 82
COAL ASH MANAGEMENT
protection of natural resources by integrat-
ing erosion and sediment (E&S) controls
with SWM practices, minimizing site
imperviousness, taking advantage of the
natural hydrology, and implementing the
use of smaller controls to capture and treat
stormwater closer to the source.
For monitoring during and after CCB
placement, the site is surrounded by six
perimeter groundwater monitoring wells.
An active groundwater monitoring plan
requires semi-annual sampling to docu-
ment groundwater quality, to demonstrate
that the background groundwater quality is
not affected by present operations on the
property, and to record groundwater qual-
ity directly downgradient of the limits of
CCB placement. Groundwater levels in the
wells are monitored monthly.
Long-term engineering design includes
the development of future cells and the
installation of mechanically stabilized
earthen walls for the environmental conser-
vation of existing wetlands located onsite.
The landfill is expected to accommodate
approximately 7 million tons of CCBs
over a projected lifespan of 22 years.
The design of this project incorpo-
rates the environmental criteria which will
be the standard for next-generation CCB
landfills, said Bobby Raia, Charahs proj-
ect coordinator. As we move forward with
the design and permitting associated with
the development of future cells and the
overall landfill expansion, we will contin-
ue to provide innovative and environmen-
tally beneficial solutions to CPSGI.
Current Project Status
With several years of evaluation, design
and engineering, and permitting complet-
ed, approval was granted by the MDE for
the first two of six cells. In March, Charah
began construction of the new CCB land-
fill, which is expected to take between eight
and 10 months to complete. Construction
efforts include the excavation of more than
1,000,000 cubic yards of clay, the deploy-
ment of nearly 12 acres of HDPE liner, and
installation of the leachate collection sys-
tem (Figures 3 and 4).
Charles Price, Charahs president and
CEO, added that the uniqueness of this
project not only lies in the sites charac-
teristics and design but also in the part-
nership between CPSGI and Charah. Our
involvement from the beginning of this
project, starting with site selection, has
forged a knowledgeable, trustworthy, and
transparent relationship with CPSGI.
Charah expects to begin placement of
CCB material in the initial cell by October
2011 (Figure 5).
3. The landfills layout. The CCB landfill site features side slopes at 2:1 extending 60
feet vertically. Crews deploy liner from the top to the bottom of the cell floor. Once in place and
shingled properly to ensure free drainage from panel to panel, fusion welding commences.
Courtesy: Photography by David Starling of CPSGI
4. Installing the liner. Crews complete the installation of a 60-mil textured HDPE liner
at the site of the future CCB landfill in Maryland. Upon installation, welds are tested for their
conformance with the technical specifications by third-party testing. The test must be submit-
ted for approval to third-party construction quality assurance personnel and the MDE. Courtesy:
Photography by David Starling of CPSGI
5. Successful teamwork. Charah President and CEO Charles Price (left) and CPSGI Pres-
ident John Long discuss the 60-mil textured HDPE liner used at the CCB landfill called Lot 15.
Courtesy: Photography by David Starling of CPSGI
October 2011
|
COAL ASH MANAGEMENT
Upon completion of construction,
Charah will begin the landfill management
phase, providing day-to-day operations
that will include hauling, placement, and
compaction of CCBs produced by CPS-
GIs plants. Trucks owned and operated by
Charah will haul CCBs from the plants to
the landfill and will feature a cable-type
tarp system that encapsulates the CCBs,
thus avoiding and controlling any potential
for dusting during transit. After placing the
CCBs within the active working area, and
prior to leaving the landfill site, trucks will
travel through a self-contained truck and
wheel wash system. The system includes
a wash unit and recycling/filtration tank
designed to clean and remove any CCB
residue that may remain on the truck prior
to returning to the public roadways. Any
potential for onsite dusting will be further
controlled by watering the access road,
and other landfill areas as needed, via wa-
ter truck (Figure 6).
To secure the active area and avoid dust-
ing after hours, Charah will apply hydro-
mulch on a daily basis across the exposed
CCB surface. Hydro-mulch is a hydrated
straw mulch that contains tacking agents
that allow the material to adhere to the
CCBs. The hydro-mulch will provide an
initial barrier that will mitigate any pos-
sible wind or stormwater runoff erosion.
senior editor.
6. Hands-on management. CPSGI
Project Manager Beth Pittaway (left) and
Charah Project Coordinator Bobby Raia review
and discuss the landfills liner layout drawings
prior to the final installment of liner. Courtesy:
Photography by David Starling of CPSGI
Proven Experience - Your Choice for World-Class
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The design of this
project incorporates
the environmental
criteria which will
be the standard for
next-generation
landfills.
Bobby Raia, Charah project
coordinator
|
October 2011 84
NEW PRODUCTS
TO POWER YOUR BUSINESS
NERC CIP
Information
and Security
E-Learning
Series
Global Training Solutions
Inc. released an
interactive, self-paced,
and fully customizable
electronic training
program to achieve
compliance with
the North American
Electric Reliability
Corp.s (NERCs) Critical
Infrastructure Protection (CIP) security standards. The
company designed its NERC CIP Information Security
E-Learning Series on open-web standards, sharable
content object reference model (SCORM) compliance,
and advanced technical concepts. It says that through
its program, system operators can earn a fraction
of their continuing education credit hours for NERC
requirements.
Courses incorporate text, voice, video, animation,
simulation, interactive sessions, testing, and
reporting. The e-learning series is part of a complete
awareness and training program that promotes and
reinforces critical security principles, the company
says. The program also incorporates a variety of other
security awareness aids such as posters, calendars,
brochures, newsletters and e-mail tips. (www.
globaltrainingsolutions.ca)
High-Horsepower, High-Pressure Water Jet Pumps
The new NLB 605 series of water jet pump units from NLB Corp. gives users a powerful
combination of ultra-high pressure and high horsepower in a rugged unit they can
convert to a variety of operating pressures. The range of the NLB 605 Series has been
expanded to include eight operating pressures from 4,000 psi to 40,000 psi (275 bar
to 2,800 bar), with engines of up to 600 hp (447 kW). Diesel and
electric models are available. Offering flows as low as 20 gallons
per minute (83 liters per minute), the units can be converted
from one pressure to another in about 20 minutes and are easy to
maintain. (www.nlbcorp.com)
High-Flow Gas Regulators for
Pipeline Monitoring
The BelGAS division of Marsh Bellofram Corp. introduced
Type P627, a high-performance, spring-loaded, direct-
operating high-ow gas regulator that is designed to
control both low- and high-output pressure in oil and
gas applications. Designed for maximum durability,
Marsh Bellofram BelGAS Type P627 regulators are
compact and offered in multi-position body and spring
case congurations. Units offer
installation versatility, ease of
operation, and set pressures,
as well as a wide range of
available ow capacities and
spring ranges. Regulators
are also available in an
external pressure registration
model (P627M) and with
optional National Standard
of Corrosion Engineers
compliant construction.
(www.marshbellofram.com)

October 2011
|
NEW PRODUCTS
Inclusion in New Products does not imply endorsement by POWER magazine.
Preventing Dust
Accumulation on Beams
BeamCaps signature product, the BeamCap,
prevents dust accumulation on I-beams,
structural steel members, pipes, cable trays, and
other difcult-to-clean areas. BeamCap pieces
completely enclose the structures, eliminating
horizontal surfaces where dust consistently
builds up. This eliminates the need for cleaning
in hard-to-reach places and greatly reduces the
potential for res and secondary explosions.
The aluminum enclosures also resist and protect
against corrosive elements. The patent-pending
BeamCap is attached by using industrial-
strength magnets so that installation does not
require a welder, a hot-work permit, or even
a drill. In addition to simple installation, the
use of magnets makes it easy to comply with
the OSHA requirement that covered surfaces be
periodically inspected. (www.beam-cap.com)
Robotic Underwater Debris Remover
Aqua-Vu, a provider of portable underwater viewing systems,
introduced the Claw 360, a device designed for the detection and
removal of objects in an underwater environment. The Claw 360
incorporates a Sharp 520 color camera that can rotate 360 degrees
to scan the environment. Lighting is provided by high-intensity
LEDs that rotate with the camera. The camera is coupled with a
robotic retrieval claw capable of retrieving objects as small as nuts
and bolts or items up to 40 pounds. The control side of the Claw
360 employs a 7-inch LCD color monitor with onboard digital video
recorder in an impact-resistant housing. The housing itself acts as
the cable spool, holding 75 feet of heavy-duty marine-grade cable
with a break strength of 200 pounds. The system comes complete
with rechargeable battery yielding up to eight hours of use.
Capable of operating in temperatures up to 165 degrees, the Claw
360 can be used to detect and remove obstructions, debris, errant
tools and parts from underwater environments as preventative
maintenance. ( www.aquavu.com)
Nut, Bolt, and Flange Face Corrosion
Protection
Advance Products & Systems new Kleerband Flange Protectors and Radolid
Protection caps protect bolts, nuts, and ange faces on raised-face or
full-face anges in conditions where extreme corrosion occurs, such as at
gas plants, pump stations, and above- and below- ground installations.
Kleerband is a patented transparent polymer band with grease injection
ttings and a relief vent plug that allows 360 degrees of continuous
inspection. The ange protectors are used for preventing corrosion from
developing between anges on piping systems, and they enable visual
inspection of the ange surface without removing the ange protector.
Radolid Protection Caps with volatile corrosion inhibitors (VCI) protect
nuts and bolts from destructive corrosion. (VCIs are a class of colorless
vapor corrosion-inhibiting compounds that block the corrosive effects of
electrolytes.) The caps, available in -inch to 3 -inch sizes, are easily
pressed onto nuts and bolts by hand. (www.apsonline.com)
LUNCH SPONSORS
OPENING RECEPTION SPONSORS USB DRIVE SPONSOR
GRAND SPONSOR DIAMOND SPONSOR PLATINUM SPONSORS
GOLD SPONSORS
Promoting the Safe, Efcient, and Economic Use of
Sub-Bituminous Coals by Generating Companies.
REGISTER NOW at www.asiansbcusers.com with code POWER
to receive 10% off a full conference registration
CO-HOSTS ORGANIZERS
Founding Members
BADGE LANYARD SPONSOR
KIOSK BOOTH SPONSOR
ANNUAL MEETING
Harbour Grand Hong Kong Hotel HONG KONG
November 1-2, 2011
HOT TOPICS & CASE STUDIES THAT WILL BE
DISCUSSED IN HONG KONG INCLUDE:
the benets of switching to sub-bituminous coals
coal handling and the challenges facing the seaborne
power plants
lessons learned from actual incidents in
power plants
re risk control including a method to reduce
spontaneous combustion
optimizing the combustion process in the boiler
Need help? Need a job?
LINEAL
RECRUITING
SERVICES
Contact Lisa Lineal in condence
www.Lineal.com LisaLineal@Lineal.com
Toll free 877-386-1091
Electric Power Systems & Service Specialists
Se habla Espaol
Opportunities in Operations and Maintenance,
Project Engineering and Project Management,
Business and Project Development,
First-line Supervision to Executive Level Positions.
Employer pays fee. Send resumes to:
POWER PROFESSIONALS
P.O. Box 87875
Vancouver, WA 98687-7875
email: dwood@powerindustrycareers.com
(360) 260-0979 l (360) 253-5292
www.powerindustrycareers.com
JOHN R. ROBINSON INC. Since 1907
Condenser and Heat Exchanger
Tools & Services
Ph. 718-786-6088
Fax: 718-786-6090
Email: jrrinc@earthlink.net
www.johnrrobinsoninc.com
CONDENSER BRUSHES-PLUGS-SCRAPERS
IN STOCK SHIP TODAY MADE IN USA
READER SERVICE NUMBER 202
POWER PLANT BUYERS MART
George H. Bodman
Pres. / Technical Advisor
Ofice 1-800-286-6069
Ofice (281) 359-4006
PO Box 5758 E-mail: blrclgdr@aol.com
Kingwood, TX 77325-5758 Fax (281) 359-4225
GEORGE H. BODMAN, INC.
Chemical cleaning advisory services for
boilers and balance of plant systems
BoilerCleaningDoctor.com
NEED CABLE? FROM STOCK
Copper Power to 69KV; Bare ACSR & AAC Conductor
Underground UD-P & URD, Substation Control Shielded
and Non-shielded, Interlock Armor to 35KV, Thermocouple
BASIC WIRE & CABLE
Fax (773) 539-3500 Ph. (800) 227-4292
E-Mail: basicwire@basicwire.com
WEB SITE: www.basicwire.com
READER SERVICE NUMBER 203 READER SERVICE NUMBER 204 READER SERVICE NUMBER 205
LUNCH SPONSORS
OPENING RECEPTION SPONSORS USB DRIVE SPONSOR
GRAND SPONSOR DIAMOND SPONSOR PLATINUM SPONSORS
GOLD SPONSORS
Promoting the Safe, Efcient, and Economic Use of
Sub-Bituminous Coals by Generating Companies.
REGISTER NOW at www.asiansbcusers.com with code POWER
to receive 10% off a full conference registration
CO-HOSTS ORGANIZERS
Founding Members
BADGE LANYARD SPONSOR
KIOSK BOOTH SPONSOR
ANNUAL MEETING
Harbour Grand Hong Kong Hotel HONG KONG
November 1-2, 2011
HOT TOPICS & CASE STUDIES THAT WILL BE
DISCUSSED IN HONG KONG INCLUDE:
the benets of switching to sub-bituminous coals
coal handling and the challenges facing the seaborne
power plants
lessons learned from actual incidents in
power plants
re risk control including a method to reduce
spontaneous combustion
optimizing the combustion process in the boiler
Combustion Turbine Engineer
Associated Electric is currently seeking applicants for
a Combustion Turbine Engineer position at our Dell
power plant in Dell, Arkansas; all levels within the job
progression will be considered and compensation
would be commensurate with experience. This engineer
will provide support for all of AECIs combustion
plants in the region. A few primary duties will also
include providing engineering expertise to plant and
department personnel regarding combustion turbine
operations and maintenance. This position will provide
project management responsibilities associated with
maintenance outages and capital funded projects at
combustion turbine sites.
For conidential consideration, an application must
be completed. To learn more about Associated and
apply online visit our web site at www.aeci.org. Up to
four supporting documents may be uploaded to the
application (i.e., cover letter, rsum, references, etc.).
E-mail: employment@aeci.org
A S S O C I A T E D E L E C T R I C C O O P E R A T I V E I N C .
2814 S. Golden, P.O. Box 754 Springield, Missouri 65801-0754 (417) 881-1204
An Equal Opportuni ty Empl oyer M/F/D/V
E-Verify participant
Websi te: www.aeci .org
October 2011
|
Power Classied Advertising
DIANE HAMMES
Phone: 713-444-9939 Fax: 512-213-4855 dianeh@powermag.com
Need a Thorough Mix?
Ash, coal, sludges, what do You need to mix?
Get a thorough mix with:
Pugmill Systems, Inc.
P.O. Box 60
Columbia, TN 38402 USA
ph: 931/388-0626 fax: 931/380-0319
www.pugmillsystems.com
READER SERVICE NUMBER 207 READER SERVICE NUMBER 208
CONDENSER OR GENERATOR AIR COOLER TUBE PLUGS
THE CONKLIN SHERMAN COMPANY, INC.
Easy to install, saves time and money.
ADJUSTABLE PLUGS- all rubber with brass insert. Expand it,
install it, reverse action for tight t.
PUSH PULL PLUGS-are all rubber, simply push it in.
Sizes 0.530 O.D. to 2.035 O.D.
Tel: (203) 881-0190 Fax:(203)881-0178
E-mail: Conklin59@aol.com www.conklin-sherman.com
OVER ONE MILLION PLUGS SOLD
24 / 7 EMERGENCY SERVICE
BOILERS
20,000 - 400,000 #/Hr.
DIESEL & TURBINE GENERATORS
50 - 25,000 KW
GEARS & TURBINES
25 - 4000 HP
WE STOCK LARGE INVENTORIES OF:
Air Pre-Heaters Economizers Deaerators
Pumps Motors Fuel Oil Heating & Pump Sets
Valves Tubes Controls Compressors
Pulverizers Rental Boilers & Generators
847-541-5600 FAX: 847-541-1279
WEB SITE: www.wabashpower.com
FOR SALE/RENT
POWER
EQUIPMENT CO.
444 Carpenter Avenue, Wheeling, IL 60090
wabash
800.290.5460 I POWER@theYGSgroup.com
The YGS Group is the authorized provider of custom reprint products from POWER.
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BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY FOR THE GLOBAL GENERATION INDUSTRY
Vol. 151 No. 10 October 2007 www.powermag.com
Top Plants: Four model coal-fired plants
Shock therapy KOs boiler fouling
Stop your boiler from sucking air
SS tube specs begin at the mill
Buildings
available up to
300' wide.
Low in cost per
square foot.
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lighting.
Easy to relocate.
Expandable.
Sustainable Design-Build Solutions
Call one of our ClearSpan specialists at 1.866.643.1010
or visit us at www.ClearSpan.com/ADPM.
fabric structures
Turbine Controls
Woodward, GE, MHC
Parts and Service
TurboGen (610) 631-3480
info@turbogen.net
GAS TURBINES FOR SALE
LM6000
FRAME 9E
FRAME 5
50/60Hz, nat gas or liq fuel,
installation and service available
Available for Immediate Shipment
Tel: +1 281.227.5687
Fax: +1 281.227.5698
John.clifford@woodgroup.com
|
October 2011 90
PRODUCT Showcase
Power Industry Content for:
Operators
Mechanics
Electricians
I & C Technicians
Coal Handling
Personnel
New Hires
Performance
Engineers
Chemists
OSHA/
Environmental
Combined Cycle
LM6000
Waste-to-Energy
Hydro
Wind
Scrubbers
SCR/SNCR
NERC
For More Information
888.843.4784
Industry leader in
cost-effective, online
power plant training
www.gpilearnwbt.com
GPE-001281 PowerMag_Showcase ad.indd 1 9/8/11 12:48 PM
Boiler Efficiency Gas Turbines
Steam Turbines Gas Expanders
Cooling Towers Chimneys
HRSG Insulation
Condensers Gas Compressors
Cogeneration Duct Design
Heat Exchangers Restriction Orifice
Fanno Flow Fans
Pipe Networks Flash Tanks
Gravity Drain Flow Pumps
Steam Heaters Psychrometrics
Steam Properties Desuperheaters
Space Heating Deaerators
Piping Pressure Loss
CU Services LLC
Ph 847-439-2303
rcronfel@cuservices.net
www.cuservices.net
The Energy Analyst
Award Winning
Power Plant Software
norit-americas.com
To help make his life purer, safer and
healthier, use Norits DARCO
Hg and
DARCO

Hg-LH lignite powdered
activated carbon. Both are proven to
be highly effective in removing mercury
from ue gas emission streams.
Purity for life.
Easily prevent dust accumulation
on I-beams, structural steel
members, pipes, and cable trays.
Simple Installation

www.beam-cap.com
sales@beam-cap.com
256-225-1300
got dust?
October 2011
|
ADVERTISERS INDEX
Enter reader service numbers on the FREE Product Information Source card in this issue.
ABB Ltd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
www.abb.com/powergeneration
Albemarle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
www.albemarle.com
Alcatel-Lucent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
www.alcatel-lucent.com/smartgrid
Ambitech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
www.ambitech.com
AREVA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
www.areva.com
Babcock & Wilcox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cover 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
www.babcock.com
Babcock Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
www.babcockpower.com
Beumer Group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
www.beumer.com
Carboline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
www.carboline.com
CMP Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
www.cmp.co.jp/en
ConocoPhillips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
www.conocophillips.com
Diamond Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
www.diamondpower.com
Emerson Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
www.emersonprocess.com
Fenner Dunlop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
www.fennerdunlopamericas.com
Flexco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
www.flexco.com
Fuel Tech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
www.ftek.com
General Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
www.etaproefficiency.com
HACH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
www.hach.com
Hadek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
www.hadek.com
Harrington Hoists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
www.harringtonhoists.com
Hitachi Power Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
www.hitachipowersystems.us
Houston Dynamic Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
www.houstondynamic.com
IFS North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
www.ifsworld.com/en-NA
Jeffrey Rader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
www.jeffreyrader.com/power
Midwesco Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
www.midwescofilter.com
NAES Corp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
www.naes.com
Nol-Tec Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
www.nol-tec.com
Paharpur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
www.paharpur.com
Pennsylvania Crusher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
www.penncrusher.com
Polaris America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
www.polarisnationalaccounts.com
ProEnergy Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
www.proenergyservices.com/vision
Rentech Boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cover 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
www.rentechboilers.com
Roberts & Schaefer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
www.r-s.com
STF S.p.A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
www.stf.it
Structural Integrity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
www.structint.com
Taggart Global. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
www.taggartglobal.com
Team Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
www.teaminc.com
Tyco Flow Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
www.tycoflowcontrol.com
URS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
www.urscorp.com
Victaulic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
www.victaulic.com
Westinghouse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
www.westinghousenuclear.com
Williams Patent Crusher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
www.williamscrusher.com
Page
Reader
Service
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Reader
Service
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3. FOR POWER PRODUCERS
(check all that apply)
What forms of energy are used at your
power plants?
For non-power producers, what forms of
energy is your company interested in?
oCoal A
oOil B
oNatural Gas C
oNuclear D
oHydro E
oWaste F
oRenewables G
oOther________________________
Do you wish to receive a FREE* subscription to POWER? oYESoNO
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Phone No. ________________________________ Fax No. ______________________________Mobile/Cell No. ____________________________________
E-mail __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
PROCESS MANUFACTURING
oChemicals 3A
oPetroleum 3B
oFood 3C
oPaper 3D
oRubber, stone, glass, clay 3E
oMetal producing 3G
oMining 3F
oMetal fabricating 3H
o Machinery (electrical mechanical) 3I
oTransportation equipment 3J
oLumber, wood products 3K
oTextiles 3L
oOther ___________________________
oInvestor Owned Utility 1A
oIPP/Cogen 1B
oRural Electric Co-op 1C
oMunicipal Utility 1D
oFederal/State
Electric System 1E
o CONSULTING ENGINEERING FIRMS,
INCLUDING CONSTRUCTION, ARCHITECT-
ENGINEER FIRMS 2A
2. PRIMARY JOB FUNCTION
(check one)
o General or Corporate
Management A
oEngineering, Operations or
Maintenance B
oLibrary or Company C
oOther
SUBSCRIBE TO POWER MAGAZINE
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|
October 2011 92
COMMENTARY
Shaping Americas
Energy Policy
By Richard F. Dick Storm
A
mericas energy and environmental policies have been dys-
functional for decades. Obsessively moving toward green
has made America weaker and has damaged our econo-
my. During POWERs first 100 years (18821982), the magazine
chronicled the U.S. growing into the strongest industrialized
economy in the world. America designed and built products for
the world using raw materials and energy from within our own
borders. Now we are in a recession and the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agencys (EPA) War on Coal continues. Does anyone
get the connection? Ever-worsening regulations are killing jobs
by the thousands.
Past Turning Points in U.S. Energy Production
Remember when America took risks and led the world in energy
innovation? Lets review some of the past milestones.
The pace-setting power stations Eddystone and Philo are ul-
trasupercritical power plants that were designed in the 1950s.
Hailed as the most efficient coal power plants in the world when
they were launched, these plants were designed for over-40%
thermal efficiency.
Then Admiral Hyman G. Rickover and President Dwight D.
Eisenhower followed through on the Atoms for Peace Initia-
tive to commercialize the success of the Navy nuclear propul-
sion systems, which were to be applied to electricity generation
for peaceful purposes. The Shippingport nuclear power plant be-
gan operations in the early 1960s, and larger commercial nuclear
plants were on the drawing boards. By the mid-1960s, it was
said that nuclear power was such a technological breakthrough
that electricity will be too cheap to meter. America went on to
build more than 100 commercial nuclear plants, most of which
are still operational. U.S. nuclear plants remain economical and
have earned an enviable safety record.
Then came oil embargos, followed by volatile natural gas pric-
es. The high oil and gas prices resulted in a surge in building new
coal plants from 1975 to 1985. The nuclear fleet grew until 1978,
when the Three Mile Island accident created a major setback. In
recent years, nuclear power morphed into the politically correct,
carbon-free fuel. However, the tsunami in Japan in March and
the resurgence of anti-nuclear groups around the world seem to
have once more stalled future nuclear plant development.
The Need for Energy Policies That Promote Our Economy
U.S. energy policy should promote the use of all fuels. America
is the Saudi Arabia of coal. If mining permits, EPA regulations,
and common sense energy policies were practiced, then power
engineers could replace our aging coal plants with new clean
coal plants exceeding 40% thermal efficiency. This would be an
efficiency improvement of about 7 percentage points above the
existing coal fleet.
It is absurd that environmental activists can shape the U.S.
energy policy based on ideology alone, with little concern for
keeping electricity prices reasonable and our economy growing.
Why dont environmental activists embrace new, more efficient
clean coal plants? America should be replacing our aging fleet
with new, more efficient, clean coal plants. Will we ever learn?
My concern is that the same type of political correctness that
nearly killed nuclear power after Three Mile Island may harm the
future of clean coal plants. If the U.S. rebuilt the aging 300+
GW coal fleet with all new, clean ultrasupercritical coal plants,
it would employ well over three million Americans. Jobs and
a strong America are related to the utilization of homegrown
energy, including the mining of coal and raw materials; con-
struction; and the production of steel, cement, copper wire, gen-
erators, boilers, balance-of-plant equipment, and environmental
controls. Compare the number of jobs created to build, operate,
and maintain new coal plants with the green jobs of erecting
foreign-built windmills or solar power facilities.
If we want to restore economic prosperity and renew manufac-
turing in America, then we need reasonably priced electricity to
supply power to manufacturing plants. Keeping electricity costs
reasonable for residential consumption is nice, but to restore
manufacturing jobs in America, reasonably priced wholesale
electricity, which is available on a 24/7 basis, is needed. This
point seems to be forgotten in the national dialog on Americas
energy future.
Educating the American Public About Electric
Power Production
I think each of us who understands power production has a re-
sponsibility to educate our friends, neighbors, and elected of-
ficials. There are millions of citizens who believe reasonably
priced, reliable electricity is an entitlement. The right thing for
human advancement is to use the God-given natural resources
that have made living better electrically a way of life in the
developed world.
In my opinion, we should build green power where it is practi-
cal and economic to do so, such as on the roofs of buildings and
parking garages. I support the building of nuclear plants and
combined cycle gas plants, where economically justified. Energy
engineers understand that when the sun sets and the wind is
calm, the U.S. needs reasonably priced, dispatchable power to
energize what is left of Americas manufacturing might.
I urge the readers of POWER to do your part in educating the
public and our elected officials on the true facts of how we can
continue to live better electrically and keep America strong. I
promise to do my part. Will you?
Richard F. Dick Storm (rfstormsea@aol.com) is CEO/senior
consultant of Storm Technologies Inc. in Albemarle, N.C.
DISCOVER SOLUTIONS
to the Biggest Challenges
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Coal. Gas. Nuclear. Renewables. Its All Covered.
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call us. We provide complete air quality control system upgrades, services and replacement
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