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EGYPT

I.BASIC INFORMATION OF THE COUNTRY 1.Area: Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Total area of Egypt is approximately 1 million Km2 , Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.( 2135 to 3135 N ; 25 to 36 E. ) 2.UTC : UTC/GMT +2 hours 3.Flag As a result of their conditional independence from Great Britain in 1922, the Egyptian royal family issued a Royal Decree establishing a national flag. This first flag was a major step for Egypt, and its colors were green with a white crescent and three stars in the middle. The next version of the flag was established in 1958 by Presidential Decree, to incorporate aspects of Syria and Egypt, since they were merged into one country, the United Arab Republic. This new flag had three colors: red, white with two green stars, and black. The rectangular flag had a width of 1/3 the size of its length. 1 KS0806_Group1 2011

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The flag was changed once again in 1972, with an amendment to the law. This new flag had the stars removed, and replaced with a golden hawk. The hawk was replaced in 1984 by the golden eagle of Salah El Dine, the Ayubbid Sultan of the Crusades who ruled Egypt and Syria in the 12th century. This is the same flag that still waves over Egypt today: The Eagle on the Egyptian flag stands for the Eagle of Saladin , depicting power, beauty and independence. It is the national emblem of Egypt. The red color refers to the period before 1952 Revolution which brought a group of army officers to power after deposing King Farouk, then King of Egypt. This was a period characterized by the struggle against the British occupation of the country. The white symbolizes the advent of the 1952 Revolution which ended the monarchy without bloodshed. The color black symbolizes the end of the oppression of the people of Egypt at the hands of the Monarchy and British colonialism. 4.Political system Egypt has been officially named a "Republic" since 18 June 1953. However, it has been under Emergency Law continually since 1967 (with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980). Between 1981 and 2011, Egypt was ruled autocratically by Mohamed Hosni Mubarak, who came to power after the assassination of President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik was sworn in as Prime Minister on 29 January 2011, following the resignation of Ahmed Nazif. Although power is nominally organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, was held in September 2005. In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the NDP, described Egypt as a "pharaonic" political system, and democracy as a "long term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military". In late February 2005, Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy." However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, designed to prevent wellknown politicians such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory. After the 2005 presidential elections observers alleged government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, and police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators. After the election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, and the U.S. government stated the "conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law." Most Egyptians were skeptical about the process of democratization and the intent of the election rules. Less than 25% of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 72 million) turned out for the 2005 elections. Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on 19 March 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, authorize broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, give the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring. Opposition members of parliament abstained from voting on the proposed changes. Only 27% of registered voters turned out under heavy police presence and tight political control. It was officially announced on 27 March 2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved the KS0806_Group1 2 2011

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constitutional amendments. The results were endorsed by the rump parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curb the activity of opposition elements, particularly Islamists. The Egyptian military receives billions of dollars of aid from the United States. It remains Egypt's most powerful institution. It has dozens of factories manufacturing weapons as well as consumer goods, and it exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. The CIA World Factbook states that the legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and that judicial review takes place by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction only with reservations. 5.Monetary unit The unit for Egypt currency is the pound (EGP; symbol E) = 100 piastres. Notes are in denominations of E100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 1, 50 piastres and 25 piastres. Coins are in denominations of 20, 10 and 5 piastres. Two interesting peculiarities of Egypt currency are that each note is written in two languages, Arabic and English, and that the smaller the note denomination, the smaller its physical size. The Arabic side of the note has engravings of architecturally and historically important mosques. The English side depicts the legacy of Ancient Egypt, with engravings of figures, statues and temples. Egyptian paper money is among the most beautiful, on account of its color and the use of Egyptian and Arab motifs in its design. Egyptian pound exchange rate (approximate) :1 USD = 5.94 EGP II.LOCATION 1.Geography location Arab Republic of Egypt enjoys a strategic location in the northeast corner of the African continent. Egypt shares its boundary with Mediterranean Sea in the North, Sudan in the South, Israel and Red Sea in the East and Libya in the West. Egypt has played a major role in transportation between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe due to its important geographical location. The approximate land area of Egypt is 9,97,738 sq km and it is 1085 km north to south and 1255 km east to west. BOUNDARY LENGTHS: Total coastline, 2,450 kilometers (1,520 miles); Israel, 255 kilometers (160 miles); Gaza strip 11 kilometers (7 miles); Sudan: 1,273 kilometers (790 miles); Libya, 1,150 kilometers (716 miles) 2.Names of important precincts/provinces

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Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate. In April 2008, Cairo and Giza were subdivided into 4 governorates, namely the governorates of Cairo, Giza, 6 October and Helwan. As of April 2011, 6 October and Helwan governorates were again incorporated into Giza and Cairo respectively. In 2009, the city of Luxor was declared an independent governorate. The Upper governorates are located south of Cairo, while the Lower governorates are located in the Delta of the Nile, north of Cairo. Capital : Cairo Capital city: Governorate Capital Alexandria Aswan Asyut Beheira Beni Suef Cairo Dakahlia Damietta Faiyum Gharbia Giza Ismailia Kafr el-Sheikh Luxor Alexandria Aswan Asyut Location Northern Upper Upper Governorate Capital Matruh Location

Damanhur Lower Beni Suef Upper Cairo Middle Mansura Lower Damietta Lower Faiyum Upper Tanta Lower Giza Upper Ismailia Canal Kafr el-Sheikh Lower Luxor Upper

Mersa Western Matruh Minya Minya Upper Shibin elMonufia Lower Kom New Valley Kharga Western North Sinai Arish Sinai Port Said Port Said Canal Qalyubia Banha Lower Qena Qena Upper Red Sea Hurghada Eastern Sharqia Zagazig Upper Sohag Sohag Upper South Sinai el-Tor Sinai Suez Suez Canal

III.GEOGRAPHY PATTERNS 1.Landforms Egypt is divided into four major parts: 1. The Nile Valley and Delta It extends from the North Valley to the Mediterranean Sea and is divided into Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, extending from Wadi Halfa to the south of Cairo and from North Cairo to the Mediterranean Sea. The River Nile in the north is divided into two branches, Damietta and Rachid embracing the highly fertile agricultural lands of the Delta.

2- The Western Desert (approx. 680,000 Km2) KS0806_Group1 4 2011

Tourism Geography Extends from the Nile Valley in the East to the Libyan borders in the west, and from the Mediterranean in the north to the Egyptian southern boarders. It is divided into: - The Northern Section: it includes the coastal plain, the northern plateau and the Great Depression, the Natroun Valley and Baharia Oasis. - The Southern Section: it includes Farafra, Kharga, Dakhla, and El-Owainat in the far south.

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3- The Eastern Desert (approx. 325,000 Km2) It extends from the Nile Valley in the West to the Red Sea, Suez gulf, and Suez Canal in the East, and from Lake Manzala on the Mediterranean in the North to Egypt's southern borders with Sudan in the south. The Eastern Desert is marked with the Eastern Mountains that range along the Red Sea with peaks that rise to about 3000 feet above the sea level. This desert is a store of Egyptian natural resources including various ores such as gold, coal, and oil. 4- Sinai Peninsula (approx. 61,000 Km2) Sinai has a triangular shape having its base at the Mediterranean in the North and its apex in the South at Ras Mohammed, the Gulf of Aqaba to the East and the Gulf of Suez and Suez Canal to the west. It is topographically divided into three main sections: - The southern section: it involves extremely tough terrain that is composed of high-rise granite mountains. Mount Catherine rises about 2640 meters above sea level, thus making it the highest mountaintop in Egypt. - The Central section: it comprises the area bounded by the Mediterranean to the North. - At-Teeh plateau to the south: it is a plain area having abundant water resources derived from rainwater flowing from southern heights to the central plateau. 2.Mountains

Mount Sinai
Mount Sinai is located in Saint Katherine City, which is on the south of the Sinai Peninsula. Situated next to Mount Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai stands at 7,497 feet (2,285 meters). Though not the tallest mountain in its greater range, Mount Sinai has ample religious significance, as the Bedouin tradition has it as the location where God gave laws to Israelites (but this is disputed). Today, people can ascend Mount Sinai on two different routes, on foot or on camel. The summit of this mountain has a mosque and Greek Orthodox church. Mount Catherine

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Next to Mount Sinai, Mount Catherine is the tallest mountain in all of Egypt, standing at 8,625 feet (2,629 meters). Though taller, it is not as visited as Mount Sinai.

Gebel Elba Gebel Elba, or Elba Mountain, is a peak that is currently under Egyptian control, but this ownership is disputed with neighboring Sudan. It is situated in the southeast region of Egypt, by the Red Sea, in the Halaib triangle. Gebel Elba has a height of 4,708 feet (1,435 meters), and there are some other nearby peaks, like Gebel Shellal and Gebel Shendib. The summit of Gebel Elba is considered a mint oasis, as it is affected by dew, mist and clouds, creating an interesting environment unlike any other place in Egypt. This area has a higher concentration of different plant species than anywhere else in Egypt. Mount Shaiyb al-Banat

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Mount Shaiyb al-Banat is situated in Egypts Eastern Desert, close to the coast of the Red Sea, between the cities of Safaga and Hurghada. This area is known as the Red Sea Hills, and is inhabited by the nomadic Maaza Tribe. There are several peaks in this mountain range, the tallest of which is 7,175 feet (2,187 meters). 3.Bodies of water TERRITORIAL SEA LIMIT: 12 miles. a.Ocean border Egypt is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, the east by the Red Sea, and on the other sides by Lybia, Chad and Sudan. b.Gulf The northern end of the Red Sea is bifurcated by the Sinai Peninsula, creating the Gulf of Suez in the west and the Gulf of Aqaba to the east. The Gulf of Suez is formed within a relatively young, but now inactive rift basin, the Gulf of Suez Rift, dating back about 28 million years. It stretches some 300 kilometres (190 mi) north by northwest, terminating at the Egyptian city of Suez and the entrance to the Suez Canal. Along the mid-line of the Gulf lies the border between the continents of Africa and Asia. The entrance of the Gulf lies atop the mature Gemsa oil and gas field. c.River The Nile is a major north-flowing river in North Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. It is 6,650 km (4,130 miles) long. It runs through the ten countries of Sudan, South Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Egypt. The Nile has two major tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile. The latter is the source of most of the water and fertile soil. The northern section of the river flows almost entirely through desert, from Sudan into Egypt, a country whose civilization has depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along riverbanks. The Nile ends in a large delta that empties into the Mediterranean Sea. d.Hot Springs There are 3 important hot springs in Egypt,very popular for their therapeutic effects.These hot rivers are the Sinais main therapeutic tourism sites.There,the sands are warm,the weather is dry and the waters have the worlds highest sulfur rate.The Pharaohs Bath (Hammam pharaoh) are situated at 250 kilometers from Cairo,laying on 1 kilometer along the Golf of Suez.This group of hot springs represents natural waters containing sulfur and having a temperature of 27 degrees.A mountain is the place from where the water come flowing into a natural lake that has 100 meters and which situated beside the sea shore.A rocky and carved cave lies on the springs top;the cave is small and it is used by locals as a bathe and as natural sauna. The water of these springs helps to the treatment of some diseases such as rheumatoid pains, skin diseases, kidney diseases, rheumatism,lung inflammation.It seems that these springs power to heal was scientifically proven. The Moses Springs(Oyoun Mossa) twelve hot springs are located at the Suez golf Eastern part, in its extreme North zone. These springs help the healing of some skin diseases like the acne and eczema .The people who come here say that they also feel a spiritual peace and comfort. The MosesBath ( Hammam Musa) is a beautiful oasis situated at Ras Sudr which is located at about 3 hours from Cairo, if you travel by car. The lush vegetation surrounds the oasis and the hot spring is situates in the oasis center. The spring can cure the diabetics wounds as well as skin diseases. The water also helps people to get away the stress and to relax.The water here has the ability to heal 7 KS0806_Group1 2011

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skin diseases and wounds,especially those of diabetics.It can also be of more general use to relieve stress and help people to relax. e.Lakes Egypt contain many lakes currently and other lakes that have vanished. A/ Lake Nasser is a vast reservoir in southern Egypt, and northern Sudan, and is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world. Strictly, "Lake Nasser" refers only to the much larger portion of the lake that is in Egyptian territory (83% of the total), with the Sudanese preferring to call their smaller body of water Lake Nubia . The area of Sudan-administered Wadi Halfa Salient was largely flooded by Lake Nasser/Lake Nubia. The lake was created as a result of the construction of the Aswan High Dam across the waters of the Nile between 1958 and 1971. The lake is named after Gamal Abdel Nasser, one of the leaders of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, and the second President of Egypt, who initiated the High Dam project The lake is some 550 km long and 35 km across at its widest point, which is near the Tropic of Cancer. It covers a total surface area of 5,250 km and has a storage capacity of some 157 km of water. B/Lake Manzala (also Manzaleh) is a brackish lake, sometimes called a lagoon, in northeastern Egypt on the Nile Delta near Port Said and a few miles from the ancient ruins at Tanis. It is the largest of the northern deltaic lakes of Egypt. As of 2008 it is 47km long and 30km wide. Lake Manzala is long but quite shallow. Though Lake Manzala's unaltered depth is only four to five feet, alterations to the depth were made during the construction of the Suez Canal to allow the Canal to extend 29 miles lengthwise along the lake. Its bed is soft clay. Before construction of the Suez Canal, Lake Manzala was separated from the Mediterranean Sea by a strip of sand 200 to 300 yards wide. Port Said was established adjacent to Lake Manzala during the nineteenth century to support canal construction and related travel. The lake's location directly south of the Port Said Airport restricts the city's capacity for urban growth Lake Manzala is the northern-most of three natural lakes intersected by the Suez Canal, the other two being Lake Timsah and the Great Bitter Lake. Construction of the canal proceeded from north to south, reaching Manzala first. Due to the lake's shallowness, it was necessary to dig a banked channel for ships to pass. C/Lake Mariout Buhayrat Mariyyut (also spelled Maryut or Mariut) is a salt lake, or rather brackish, with an area of about 250 km in northern Egypt. It is separated from the Mediterranean Sea by the narrow isthmus on which the city of Alexandria was built. The lake shore is home to fisheries and saltworks. Some of the marshy areas around the lake have been reclaimed for new building as the city grows. The name derives from Mareotis, the name of the lake in ancient times. D/Lake Bardawil is a large, very saline lake in Egypt on the north coast of the Sinai Peninsula. The lagoon is shallow (reaching a depth of about 3 metres) and is separated from the Mediterranean Sea by a narrow sandbar. It has Ramsar Convention protected wetlands. Lake Bardawil is about 90 kilometers (56 mi) long, and 22 kilometers (14 mi) wide (at its widest). It covers an area of about 700 km2 (270 m2). KS0806_Group1 8 2011

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Bardawil is the Arabic version of Baldwin, the name of five Crusader Kings of Jerusalem. The lake lies in an area which, in the Crusader period, was disputed territory between the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and Egypt, and as early as Herodotus was considered to mark the boundary between Syria and Egypt. Its marshy edges were Herodotus's Serbonian Bog. E/Lake Moeris is an ancient lake in the northwest of the Faiyum Oasis, 80 km (50 mi) southwest of Cairo, Egypt. It persists in modern times as a smaller lake called Birket Qarun. The lake's surface is 140 ft (43 m) below sea-level, and covers about 78 square miles (200 km2). Lake Moeris was freshwater in prehistory, but is today a saltwater lake. It is a source for tilapia and other fish from the local area. Its area is estimated to vary between 490 mi (1,270 km) and 656 mi (1,700 km). Moeritherium was found in this area. F/Wadi El Rayan: Is a unique natural Egyptian Protectorate in Faiyum Governorate, under the supervision of The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). The valley of Wadi El-Rayan stretches on an area of 1759 km2. About 65 km southwest of Faiyum city and 80 km west of the Nile River. The reserve is composed of: A 50.90 km2-Upper lake, 62.00 km2-Lower lake, Waterfalls between the two lakes. In addition to springs, of which three are sulphur springs at the southern side of the lower lake, with extensive mobile sand dunes. Wadi El Rayan Waterfalls considered to be the largest waterfalls in Egypt. Jabal Manqueer Al-Rayan at the south and southeast of the springs where marine fossils and archeological remains are found. Also, Jabal Madwera near the lower lake, which is known for its extensive dune formations. G/Toshka Lakes is the name given to recently formed endorheic lakes in the Sahara Desert of Egypt. H/The Great Bitter Lake is a salt water lake between the north and south part of the Suez Canal. It is adjoined by the Small Bitter Lake .Before the Canal was built, their site was occupied by dry salt valleys.Together, the Bitter Lakes now have a surface area of about 250 km. To the north, the canal also runs through Lake Manzala and Lake Timsah. As the canal has no locks, sea water flows freely into the lake from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. In general, north of the lakes the current reverses seasonally, being north-going in winter and south-going in summer. South of the lakes, the current is tidal, reversing with the tides in the Red Sea. Fish can migrate, generally in a northerly direction, through the canal and lakes in what is known as a Lessepsian migration. By this means some Red Sea species have come to colonize the eastern Mediterranean. I/Wadi El Natrun is a valley located in Beheira Governorate, Egypt, including a town with the same name. The name refers to the presence of eight different lakes in the region that produce natron salt. The modern chemical symbol for sodium, Na, is an abbreviation of that element's new Latin name natrium, which was derived from natron. In Christian literature, the region is also referred to as the Nitrian Desert. In ancient times, natron was mined here for use in Egyptian burial rites. It is believed that the Holy family visited Wadi El Natrun during their flight into Egypt. f.Delta The Nile Delta is the delta formed in Northern Egypt (Lower Egypt) where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's largest river deltasfrom Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the east, it covers some 240 km of Mediterranean coastline KS0806_Group1 9 2011

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and is a rich agricultural region. From north to south the delta is approximately 160 km in length. The Delta begins slightly down-river from Cairo. From north to south the delta is approximately 160 km in length. From west to east it covers some 240 km of coastline. The delta is sometimes divided into West and East sections, with the Nile dividing into two main distributaries, the Damietta and the Rosetta, flowing into the Mediterranean at port cities with the same name. In the past, the delta had several distributaries, but these have been lost due to flood control, silting and changing relief. One such defunct distributary is Wadi Tumilat. The Suez Canal runs to the east of the delta, entering the coastal Lake Manzala in the north-east of the delta. To the north-west are three other coastal lakes or lagoons: Lake Burullus, Lake Idku and Lake Maryut The Nile is considered to be an "arcuate" delta (arc-shaped), as it resembles a triangle or lotus flower when seen from above. The outer edges of the delta are eroding, and some coastal lagoons have seen increasing salinity levels as their connection to the Mediterranean Sea increases. Since the delta no longer receives an annual supply of nutrients and sediments from upstream due to the construction of the Aswan High Dam, the soils of the floodplains have become poorer, and large amounts of fertilizers are now used. Topsoil in the delta can be as much as 70 feet (21 m) in depth. This also occurs in Ethiopia. g.Sea The Red Sea (alternatively Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal). The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion. The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has a surface area of roughly 438,000 km (169,100 mi). It is about 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point, 355 km (220.6 mi) wide. It has a maximum depth of 2211 m (7254 ft) in the central median trench, and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 ft). However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life and corals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world's northernmost tropical sea. 4.Climate characteristics The Egyptian summer is hot and dry in most of the country, and humid in the Delta and along the Mediterranean Coast. In recent years the humidity has spread to Cairo, and the city swelters in August! Winter is mild with some rain, but usually it is bright, sunny days with cold nights. The climate of Egypt is characterized by a hot season from May to October and a cool season from October to May. Extreme temperatures during both seasons are moderated by the prevailing northern winds. 10 KS0806_Group1

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In the coastal region average annual temperatures range from a maximum of 37 C (99 F) to a minimum of 14 C (57 F). Wide variations of temperature occur in the deserts, ranging from a maximum of 46 C (114 F), during daylight hours, to a minimum of 6 C (42 F) after sunset. During the winter season desert temperatures often drop to 0 C (32 F). The most humid area is along the Mediterranean coast, where the average annual rainfall is about 200mm. Precipitation decreases rapidly to the south; Cairo receives on average only about 29mm of rain each year, and in many desert locations it may rain only once in several years! There are 5 days called Khamsin between March and April, when sandstorms can occur sporadically, blowing in different places according to the wind direction. Winter (between October and May) weather is colder than most people anticipate, and cold winds blow over the desert at sunrise and sunset. Even when it is warm outside, it can be surprisingly cold inside the massive stone Temples. In winter, showers can fall everywhere, so bring a few items of light but warm clothing, so that you can cope with the cold early mornings and the occasional, and unseasonable, cold snap. IV.HUMAN/CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 1.Population (& ethnic group) Population of Egypt, according to a survey conducted in July 2007, is estimated to be around 80,335,036. The estimated rate of growth of population in Egypt is 1.721%. Egypt is considered to be one of the populous countries in Africa. The sex ratio of Egypt population is 1.017 males per female. The total area occupied by Africa is 1,001,450 sq km. The Egypt population is mainly dense in and around the Nile basin. The fertile river plains have always attracted people to settle down in this region. Thus the population of Egypt comprises immigrants as well as the local inhabitants. People of Egypt comprise different ethnic groups. The nationality of the people of the country is Egyptian. They comprise of 98% of the total population. Bedouin, Nubian and Beja cover only 1% among the population.and Greeks also form part of the population. Rest of the 1% of population is comprised of the Europeans mainly of French and Italian origin. Armenians and Greeks also form part of the population. 2.Religion The majority religion is Islam, of which the Sunnis are the largest sect. The 1971 constitution declares Islam to be the state religion. According to official estimates, 90% of the population are Muslim and 8% to 10% are Christian, with the Coptic Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. Other denominations represented include Armenian Apostolic, Greek and Syrian Orthodox, Catholics (including Armenian, Chaldean, Greek, Melkite, Roman, and Syrian), and a variety of evangelical Protestant denominations. The Baha'i faith is also represented. The Jewish community is extremely small. 3.Language Egyptian is the oldest known indigenous language of Egypt and a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. Written records of the Egyptian language have been dated from about 3400 BC, making it one of the oldest recorded languages known. Egyptian was spoken until the late 17th century AD in the form of Coptic. The national language of modern-day Egypt is Egyptian Arabic, which gradually replaced Coptic as the language of daily life in the centuries after the Muslim conquest of Egypt. Coptic is still used as the liturgical language of the Coptic Church. It has a handful of fluent speakers today. The official language is Arabic, but English is widely spoken in commerce and government 4.History Egypt enjoys a deep-rooted civilization which began when the ancient Egyptians established on the bank of the River Nile the first central state. Throughout centuries, the Egyptians interacted with 11 KS0806_Group1 2011

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other civilizations and peoples. Yet, Egypt kept its cultural peculiarity which historians divide into Pharaonic Era which lasted for 3000 years, Greek Era which also lasted for 3000 years, Roman Era which interacted with Coptic Era after Christianity entered Egypt, and finally the Islamic Conquest of Egypt and the Ottoman Rule till the Modern Era launched by Mohamed Ali Pasha, the founder of modern Egypt. Egypt in the Pharaonic Era The Pharaonic Era dates back to 3000 years B.C. till Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 323 B.C. During the Pharaonic Era, Egypt witnessed many aspects of progress and renaissance in all fields. Historians divide the Pharaonic Era into three successive divisions: Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Modern Kingdom. The Pharaonic Era is thus divided into three dynasties as follows: Ancient Age (Dynasties I & II)

In 3200 B.C. Menes managed to unify north and south of Egypt and he established the first ruling dynasty. To secure the unity of Egypt, Menes established the city of Memphis near Delta. Old Kingdom (Dynasties from III to VI) During the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed stability, security and peace, a matter that achieved its economic, cultural and artistic progress in this time. The kings of the Old Kingdom ruled till 2800 B.C. after the throne of Egypt moved to Manf by Zoser, whose pyramid is the oldest known one at Saqqara. The Egyptian civilization flourished in this period, a matter represented in the building of the Giza Pyramids: Khufu (Cheops), Khafre (Chephren) and Menkaura (Mycerinus). The First Middle Age (Dynasties from VII to X) This age began in 2200 B.C. when Menthotpe II (Mentuhotep) managed to reunify the country. The Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI& XII) After Menthotpe II, the Prince of Thebes, managed to reunify the country and founded a strong government, Egypt flourished economically. In 2000 B.C. Amenemhet I played a great role in the renaissance of the Middle Kingdom. The kings and queens of Dynasty XII acquired fame all over the world in the fields of policy, war, culture civilization and religion such as Ahmos, hero of liberation, Amenhotep I who laid down fair standards for wages and incentives, Tuhutmos I, the warrior who expanded the Egyptian borders north and south, and spread out education everywhere, Tuhutmos III who possessed a unique military genius, Tuhutmos IV, the diplomat who was the first to record international agreements. This is in addition to Akhenaton who was the first to call for the oneness of the Creator and Tut Ankh Amun, who gained fame in the modern time. The most famous queens KS0806_Group1 12 2011

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of this time were Ahmos Nefertari, wife of Ahmos I, Tee, mother of Akhenaton, Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton and Hatchepsut who ruled Egypt for 20 years. The Second Middle Age (Dynasties XIII, XVII) In 1725 B.C. the Hyksos attacked Egypt and occupied the Egyptian lands. Yet, the princes of Thebes, led by Ahmos I, managed to expel them out of Egypt. The Modern Kingdom (Dynasties XVIII, XX)

After Ahmos expelled the Hyksos, he worked on establishing a well-equipped army. Ramsis II, one of the most famous kings of the Modern Kingdom, signed the first peace treaty in history with the Hittites. The Late Age (Dynasties XXI to XXX) From Dynasty XXI till Dynasty XVIII, the Assyrians and the Persians occupied Egypt, till the rule of the Pharaohs ended during the reign of Dynasty XXX when Alexander the Great conqured Egypt. Egypt in the Greek Era Having beaten the Persians in Asia, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in the year 332 BC and expelled them out of Egypt. Then, he crowned himself as a king in the Pharaonic style and founded a new capital for Egypt named after him as Alexandria. Then, he made pilgrimage to Amuns Temple in Siwa Oasis, which was world renowned at that time. Egypt under the Ptolemies (323 BC-30 BC After Alexanders death, Egypt was ruled by his general, Ptolemy who founded the Ptolemic Dynasty that reigned from 323 BC to 30 BC. The Ptolemic rule remained strong only during the reign of the early kings. However, due to the weakness of the ensuing kings and the continuous revolts by the Egyptians, the Ptolemic Dynasty degenerated. Rome soon stepped in, putting an end to the Ptolemic rule during the reign of Cleopatra in 30 BC. Coptic Era Christianity entered Egypt in the half of the first century A.D. When Saint Mark entered Alexandria in 65 A.D., the first Coptic Church was established in Egypt. At the end of the third century A.D., the Roman emperor Diocletian suppressed the Copts and many of them fell martyrs, hence the period was called Era of Martyrs. The year in which Diocletian assumed power (284 A.D.) was taken by the Copts as the beginning of the Coptic calendar. The Coptic architecture flourished in this period where the churches, established in the fifth century A.D. were a model of the Coptic art and architecture. As the ancient Egyptians knew music, the Copts composed melodies similar to that of the ancient Egyptians and up till now melodies in the Coptic Church still have their Pharaonic names as Singari and Itribini. KS0806_Group1 13 2011

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Modern Era By virtue of all his up-to-date all encompassing reforms, Muhammad Ali is truly considered the founder of Modern Egypt. He encouraged and sponsored men of learning, scientists and artists. He built a powerful army as well as a military academy. A ship building industry was started in Boulaq, Cairo together with a shipyard in Alexandria. He specially attended to the administration of government affairs. During the first half of the 19th Century, a fullscale economic revival was in full swing. Special attention was given to agriculture and irrigation, where barrages, dams and canals were built. In industry, Muhammad Ali adopted a policy of dispensing with foreign-made products, and creating national factories and plants to meet the needs of the army and the public. In trade, he sought to provide security for internal trade routes and create a foreign trade fleet. During his reign, trade flourished. At the same time, Muhammad Ali was enthusiastically interested in spreading education to cater government manpower needs. Schools of various levels and specialties were built and educational missions were sent to Europe to transfer modern sciences to Egypt. After his death, Muhammad Alis successors tried their best to follow his suit by attempting to catch up with European civilization. During the reign of Khedive Ismail, Egypt witnessed an awakening administrative reform, while agriculture, industry, construction and architecture prospered. Most notable of his achievements was the establishment of the Opera House, railroads and the Suez Canal which was opened to international navigation in 1869. Thus, the 19th Century was one of enlightenment, rediscovery of the Egyptian power system and development of human wealth. By the end of the century, Egypt witnessed many revolts against the foreign intervention. The nationalist movement grew stronger and several popular revolts took place. However, the Orabi Revolution (1882 AD) ended up with Egypt being occupied and declared a protectorate by Britain in 1914. Accordingly, Egypt officially broke off from Ottoman suzerainty. Thus, Egypt entered the 20th Century, suffering under the yoke of British colonialist rule that plundered its resources. Popular resistance and national movements soon escalated under the nationalist leaders: Mostafa Kamel, Muhammad Fareed and Saad Zaghloul, leading the 1919 Revolution calling for independence. The British occupation of Egypt came to an end and the country was declared as an independent state in 1922. The first Egyptian Constitution was issued in 1923. Later, there ensued a period of economic revival led by the great nationalist economist Talaat Harb, leading to the establishment of an industrial, productive and services base in all sectors of the economy. The July 23, 1952 Revolution Under the leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser, the July 1952 Revolution brought about a host of achievements including the enactment of the first agrarian reform law and the first 5-year plan for socio-economic development in the history of Egypt (1960). Industry and production were developed. The Aswan High Dam was completed (1960-1970). Outstanding achievements were also made in the fields of education, health, agriculture and construction. In the field of foreign policy, Egypt adopted a policy of positive neutrality and encouraging national liberation movements. Cognizant since its inception of Egypts leading role in the Arab world, its growing military power and untiring defense of the Palestinian case in world forums, Israel launched a treacherous assault on June 5, 1967 against Egypt, Syria and Jordan, ending up with Israeli occupation of Sinai, the Golan Heights and the West Bank of Jordan. The Egyptian army managed successfully to stand the test of the Israeli troops in a war of attrition. In the meantime, the leader of the July Revolution, 14 KS0806_Group1 2011

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Gamal Abdel Nasser, died in September 28, 1970. President Anwar El-Sadat proceeded with the policy of mobilizing all state resources for the liberation of the occupied land. On October 6, 1973, both Egyptian and Syrian armies simultaneously launched a battle for liberating Arab lands from Israeli occupation. A few hours after the start of the war, the Egyptian army victoriously crossed to the east bank of the Suez Canal where the Egyptian banner was raised high. In the October War, Egyptian forces scored an outstanding victory. This prompted President Anwar EL-Sadat to contemplate a radical settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the establishment of just and lasting peace in the Middle East. There followed the peace treaty with Israel (Camp David Accord) in March 26, 1979, with the participation of USA. This treaty was preceded by President Sadats visit to Israel in 1977. On April 25, 1982, Israel withdrew its forces from the Sinai Peninsula and later from the frontier strip of Taba pursuant to arbitration by the International Court of Justice. Following President Sadats death in 1981, President Muhammad Hosni Mubarak assumed office. Since then, he has sought to bring about internal stability, improve and firmly establish democratic practice, the rule of law and help realize social peace and national unity. Mubaraks main concern centers on achieving comprehensive development. 5.Clothing Egypt had a range of traditional costumes. The farmers (fellahin) basically wear gallibayas. In the cities the upper classes adopted the clothes of their conquerors - Ottoman Turks from 1500s, and later European from 1798. To the south the Nubians have their own distinctive costume and across the desert the Bedouin also have a separate style of clothing. Egypt - Women

Fruitseller (c1980) Peasant women would wear a gallebaya outdoors but in the city gallibaya tended to be worn only indoors. For public wear a woman would wear a wide woman's dress called a tob sebleh. Wide trousers were worn as underclothing (tshalvar or shintijan) gathered below knee and falling to ankles. The woman's kaftan was called a yelek. This was lined, with the neck open to breast and buttoned or laced along side seams for shaping. It had high side slit over trousers. Girded with shawl. Women would wear a shirt under the yelek, and a djubbeh or binnish over it. In Alexandria and Cairo, women would also wear the melaya luf - a large rectangular wrap worn for modesty, warmth, and used to carry things.

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City women often worn a bur`a - a long rectangular face veil either of white cotton or open weave and a headscarf (sometimes over a skullcap - taqiyah). Another headcovering was the mandil (headscarf) sometimes decorated with pom poms. Among the fellahin a bag like hattah was sometimes worn. Egypt - Men

Cairo market (1970) The basic traditional Egyptian garment for men is a long shirt (gallibaya). Tilke also distinguishes one with a looser fit under the arms (eri) and very wide version of the gallibaya called a kamis which was worn by fellahin. While working fellahin would hitch up the skirt of the gallebaya and wrap it around their thighs. Trousers (sserual) were sometimes worn under the gallebaya. Over the gallebaya a kaftan (often striped) was worn. A kaftan is a full length garment like a coat with long wide sleeves open in front and often bound by a fabric belt (hizan). Over the kaftan was a binish - a cloth overcoat with wide sleeves - often slit below usually dark grey and unlined. Alternatively, a djubbeh which had was more complex cut than the binish could be worn especially by Turks during the Ottoman occupation. The `ulama also wore a jubbah over stripped kaftan. The jubbah was a long, wide sleeved gown which reached to feet and was buttoned half way down.

Tarbushes, shishas (1926) However, from the 1800s European dress replaced traditional dress among the Ottoman court and this was taken up by members of the elite. Therefore, senior civil servants and members of the ruling intelligentsia could be seen in Egypt in European style clothing. However European headwear was not adopted. Instead Sultan Mahmud Khan II decreed that checheya heargear would be worn. In Egypt this was called "tarboosh". Later Mohammed Ali was to incorporate the tarboosh as part of the military uniform. This was abolished as headwear after the 1952 revolution. For further information on the layers worn see Male Headewear What was not worn by Egyptians was the Arab kufeya and `igal - except possibly among some Bedouin. KS0806_Group1 16 2011

Tourism Geography Nubia

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Nubia straddles the south of Egypt and the North of the Sudan. After the building of the Aswan dam many Nubians were relocated in Aswan. Nubians belong to five main tribes - two of which (Kanuz and Fadija) are in Egypt. The Kanuz people are the northernmost. The Kanuz women wear dresses formed by horizontal lengths of fabric each of which is longer than the one above giving a dress with almost a flounce at the bottom. For special occasions - such as weddings a semi-transparent layer is added over the dress. Fadija women wear a wrapped garment a little like a sari. Men wear trousers, shirts, vests and turbans. 6.Typical/traditional food and drinks Egyptian cuisine combines many of the best traditions of Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cooking. There are both large hotel restaurants and smaller specialist ones throughout the main towns. If you prefer international cuisine, head to the larger hotels in Cairo and its environs, boasting kitchens serving top-quality dishes. In the centre of Cairo, there are several cheap fast food cafes selling traditional food in simply surroundings. Although Egypt is a Muslim country, alcohol is available in cafe-style bars, hotels and many restaurants in larger towns, cities and resorts. Specialities: Foul (bean dishes). -is an Egyptian dish of cooked and mashed fava beans served with olive oil, chopped parsley, onion, garlic, and lemon juice. A staple meal in Egypt, it is popular in the cuisines of the Levant, Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and Saudi Arabia.

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Dolmades (Stuffed vine leaves.) - is a family of stuffed vegetable dishes in the Greek, Meditterranean, cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire and surrounding regions such as Russia, Middle East and the Caucasus and Central and South Asia. Perhaps the best-known is the grape-leaf dolma. Common vegetables to stuff include onion, zucchini, eggplant, tomato and pepper. The stuffing may or may not include meat. Meat dolma are generally served warm, often with sauce; meatless ones are generally served cold, though meatless dolma are eaten both ways in Iran. Both are often eaten with yogurt.

temayya (falafel)

- is a deep fried ball or patty made from ground chickpeas and/or fava beans. Falafel is usually served in a pita, which acts as a pocket, or wrapped in a flatbread known as lafa. The falafel balls are topped with salads, pickled vegetables, hot sauce, and drizzled with tahini-based sauces. Falafel balls may also be eaten alone as a snack or served as part of a meze. Kebabs. is a traditional Egyptian recipe for a classic kebab of chicken breast meat marinated in yoghurt flavoured with curry powder, mustard powder, turmeric and cardamom that's threaded onto skewers with onion and tomatoes and barbecued. The full recipe is presented here and I hope you enjoy this classic Egyptian version of: Egyptian Kebabs (Kabob Egyptienne). african stew african stew

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koshari (rice, lentil, pasta and tomato dish).

Koshari One of Egypts most popular national dishes, is a delicious mix of rice, lentils, various pastas, topped with spicy red-hot tomato sauce and sprinkled with fried onions. Koshari can also be found spelled as kushary, koushari, koushary, or koshary. However you spell it, it is one of Egypts most popular vegetarian dishes. Regional drinks: Kahwa (thick, strong coffee).

Shay bil na'na' (mint tea). KS0806_Group1 19 2011

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Mint Tea atay bi na'na' is made by steeping green tea with fresh spearmint leaves and is particularly popular. Karkaday (clear, bright red drink made from hibiscus flowers). -Karkaday could be considered the national beverage of Egypt. In this country everybody drinks a lot of hibiscus tea, it is drunk by young and old, it is believed that such amount of tea does the person healthy without any medicines.

Aswanli (dark beer made in Aswan). Zibib (alcoholic aniseed-flavoured drink).

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Zibib is an Egyptian aniseed flavoured drink. Contrary to arak, which is made of pomace, zibib is made of raisins. The aroma is not as strong as arak, and it contains less alcohol (35% in zibib, and 53% in arak), but the quality is rather good compared to the other Egyptian spirits I tried. Nevertheless it is a few steps below proper arak. Last summer in Yemen, I became very fluent in Arabic after some of these drinks with a fellow student. Still it does not get more than 6/10. Drinking age: 21 7. Famous people a/ Alfed Farag He was born in Zagazig, Egypt, in 1929 and died in London, United Kingdom, in 2005. He was an Egyptian novelist and one of the most relevant Egyptian playwrights of the post 1952 Revolution period; he played an important role in the renaissance of theatre in the sixties and in the introduction of theatre in the Egyptian provinces through the Mass culture project. He wrote more than fifty playwrights the first was Fall of pharaoh in 1957- and several short stories and novels such as The story of the lost time in 1977 and The days and nights of Sindbad in 1988. Some of his works were translated into English and German. In 1973, he was banned from writing for national media and his plays were suspended, which led him to exile in Algeria and then London, until the late eighties. He received several honors and awards such as the First Incentive Award; the National Award for Playwriting in 1965; the Science and Arts Medal of the First Order in 1967; the Egyptian State Merit Award in 1993; and the Jerusalem Award by the General Union for the Arab Writers in 2002, which was very meaningful since he was the first Egyptian to receive such a prize. He was buried in Alexandria. b/ Cleopatra VII Be it known that we, the greatest, are miss thought. Queen Cleopatra of Egypt is the most well known of all the ancient Egyptian queens. Her story is one of epic proportions. She was the last Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, a brilliant and powerful woman. She was renowned for her political dealings with ancient Rome and made a liaison with Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. After Caesar's assassination, she aligned with Mark Antony, the KS0806_Group1 21 2011

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father of her children. The history of Cleopatra is one that has been the subject of novels and movies and is filled with deception, intrigue and romance. Mysterious and intrigant, Cleopatra is considered one of the most prominent and powerful figures in history. c/Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great was one of the most successful military commanders of all time and is presumed undefeated in battle. Known also as Alexander III of Macedon, the military genius was an inspiration for later conquerors such as Hannibal the Carthaginian, the Romans Pompey. d/Ahmed Zewail Ahmed Hassan Zewail was born in Damanhour, Egypt, in 1946 and he became an American citizen in 1982. He is an Egyptian-American scientist and professor whose research on the dynamics of chemical reactions on real time leaded to the birth of a new branch of chemistry, the femtochemistry, which is the study of chemical reactions across femtoseconds. For his research and discovering he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1999, becoming the third Egyptian to win a Nobel Prize. He has also received the Grand Collar of the Nile in 1999, which is Egypts highest state honor, as well as several awards such as the Wolf Prize in Chemistry in 1993, the Tolman Medal in 1997 and the Robert A. Welch Award in 1997. He is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and he has received important recognitions from different universities such as the PhD Honoris Causa from Lund University, the Honorary Doctorate in Science from Cambridge University, the PhD Honoris Causa from Complutense University of Madrid and an honorary PhD in arts and sciences from the University of Jordan. Currently, he is the Linus Pauling Chair Professor Chemistry and Professor of Physics at the California Institute of Technology, and he will participate in the Presidential Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) of President Barack Obama. 8. Arts , architecture & music a/ Arts The art of the Egyptians reflects every aspect of their lives. Depicted in tomb and temple drawings are scenes of everyday living, models of people and animals, glass figures and containers, and jewelry made from gold and semi-precious stones. The wall and pillar drawings are perhaps the best known. In these drawings, it can be seen that people are going about the everyday business of baking, fishing, boating, marketing, and meeting together in family groups. Such drawings were also used to help the deceased to live forever by giving them all of the instructions they would need as they met the gods on their way to eternal life. The good deeds were recorded and the art that surrounded their mummified body was to help their KS0806_Group1 22 2011

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spiritual self in solving the problems related to life after death. Pictures of food, clothing, servants, and slaves could be used by the deceased just as the real things were used by the person when living. A variety of perspectives is often combined in Egyptian art; however, the side view is the most often seen. The artists used bright colors of blue and red, orange and white to develop pictures that tell of the life of the deceased individual. The artist would first sketch a design on a piece of pottery, and if the design was satisfactory, it would be sketched on the wall with charcoal. Colors could then be used to fill in the completed picture. Paints were made from naturally occurring minerals and artificially prepared mineral substances. Paint brushes were sticks with fibrous wood with frayed ends. Walls were covered with mud plaster, then with lime plaster. By the time of Ramses II, artists were able to shade colors to achieve a layered effect. Wall paintings were then protected by a thin layer of varnish (the composition of which is still not known). Sculptors were important artists in Egypt. Statues were made of kings, queens, scribes, animals, and gods and goddesses. Frequently, human and godlike attributes and symbols were combined. The work of the artist was seen in other media as well. Alabaster, a white and translucent stone, was often used for making vessels and containers. Pottery was made of ceramics and clay. Pottery glazed with minerals was used to make beads, amulets, pendants, and other jewelry. A vivid blue glaze was very popular during the reign of Ramses II. Craftsmen made glass for inlayed designs and for some containers. Workers were able to make articles out of lead, gold, silver, and copper. Such metals were used to make pins, tweezers, razors, axes, knives, spears, sculptures, and jewelry. The stability of the government during the reign of Ramses II allowed the skills of the artist and architect to flourish. Egyptian mummies & Mummification process A mummy, in terms of Ancient Egypt, is body that has been well preserved for thousands of years. The process was long and tedious; however, essential for an Egyptian as it meant an existence in the Afterlife. The embalmers went to great lengths to ensure their mummies were carefully anointed, wrapped, and packagedthen they were carried to their tombs and laid to rest. Mummification process After the death of an Egyptian, the embalmers where called by family members and the body was taken to the ibu (the tent of purification). The ibu, which was located on the west bank of the Nile, is where the body would begin its process of mummification. The first thing done was to wash the body and anoint it with sacred oils. Once cleansed, the body was then taken to the wabet (palace of embalming). There, it is believed according to Herodotus, a large incision was made on the left side of the abdomen. This incision was used for removing vital organs such as the intestines, liver, lungs and stomach. Often times the kidneys were ignored because it was thought they had little importance. Once removed, the organs were wrapped and placed in canopic jars. Along with the organs, mainly during the late Middle Kingdom or early New Kingdom, the brain was removed. To do this a large hole was punched through the ethmoid bone located just above the nostrils. A hook shaped tool was inserted into this hole and used to liquefy the brain then drained through the nose. Anything left behind was removed with drugs according to Herodotus. After the body had been cleansed and the organs removed it was then ready for the next stepthe dehydration process. This process remains a controversial subject due to Herodotuss choice of words describing it. He used the word pickle which led many Egyptologists to believe the body was submerged in a solution of natron salt. The other method, which was tested and proved more logical, called for large amounts of natron salt to be packed around the body dry. Though well never know until a document is unearthed, we can only speculate between the two methods. After the drying process the body is then washed and all traces of natron are removed. The cadaver is then taken to per nefer (the house of beauty) where it is stuffed and shaped back to its normal size. Many perfumes and oils were rubbed on the body and the open wounds sealed with wax. Over the hot wax, a metal plate decorated with symbols of protection sealed the incision wounds. After the anointing was completed and the wounds sealed, molten resin was added to cover the body. Both 23 KS0806_Group1 2011

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men and women would be colored with ochre. The men would be colored red and the women yellow. The wrapping process lasted fifteen to thirteen days. Family members of the deceased would donate cloth to embalmers and in many cases, special fine cloth with spells written upon them were used. Most of the time, sheets of linen were used as the main wrapping material. This process was done until the body was protected from head to foot in linen. During the wrapping process many amulets were added between layers to ensure a safe passage and protection. The body was then covered with a death mask made of papyrus or linen and reinforced with plaster. Royal mummies, such as Tutankhamuns, were made of gold and held precious and semiprecious stones that were inlaid. The mummy was then placed into its coffins and eventually its tomb. BURIAL OF THE MUMMY When the pharaoh died a great amount of effort was placed into the funeral. In fact, many pharaohs spent a great deal of their life trying to prepare for this occasion. For example, Khufu, a pharaoh from the Old Kingdom, spent nearly 20 years constructing the pyramid to protect his mummified body. So much effort went into these funerary occasions to ensure the prosperity of the pharaohs afterlife. If the body of the pharaoh became damaged or unrecognizable by its Ka, the energy that creates life, the pharaoh would lose his chance of an eternal existence. For this reason alone so much effort was placed into ensuring the body was protected and the burial was nothing less than grand--especially for those who were wealthy or privileged. Most elaborate burials were done for the pharaohs. They hand the finances to ensure the event was impressive and dramatic. Others who were less fortunate were not able to produce such lavish ceremonies. Instead, most middle class and poor citizens of Egypt had standard funerary customs. Most of their financial efforts were placed into the mummification process. The funeral began by leaving the embalming home to the gravesite. This journey was carried out by loved ones, priests, and paid mourners. Several oxen and one high ranking priest would lead the way. Attached to the oxen, a bier carried the mummified body, followed by carts which carried the belongings of the pharaoh. A high ranking priest would lead the way while reciting prayers or chanting hymns. The arrival to the tomb entrance was often crowded with servants who stocked the pharaohs belongings inside the tomb. These belongings included furniture, jewelry, and statues. Objects that were essential where also placed inside the tomb to rest such as the canopic jars, clay bottles that contained the pharaohs organs, and funerary figurines. These figurines were used as magical substitute servants should the pharaoh need any labor in the afterlife. OPENING OF THE MOUTH CEREMONY The Opening of the Mouth Ceremony is the act of restoring the mummys senses. This act was done at the entrance of the tomb by the eldest son, known as a lay priest, to allow the mummy to accept sacrificial offerings. If there were no heirs to perform the rite, a sem priest would perform the act. This was famously noted in the wall painting of Tutankhamuns tomb. Because the young pharaoh did not have an heir to his throne, his vizier Aye performed the rite ensuring his claim as the next ruler. Prayers and spells were also performed by lector priests from funerary texts to help the mummy transition to the afterlife with ease. These rituals could last for days and as many as 75 rites were performed. A high ranking mummy, such as a pharaoh, had the ceremony performed on all pictures and statues that resembled him. These rites helped to ensure the mummy, and any statues in the image of him, could become transporters of his Ka should his body become damaged. The tools used to perform the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony were pretty standard for all rituals. These tools consisted of the pesheshkaf (indented blade), an adze (flat pick shaped tool), a serpent headed blade, and various amulets. Along with these tools, the right leg of an ox would have been butchered for the occasion. THE FINAL STAGES OF THE BURIAL PROCESS After the rites had been given to the mummy, a lector priest recited chants outside the tomb. At this time the final offerings were placed inside the tomb and it was swept out. Outside the tomb 24 KS0806_Group1 2011

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mourners ate oxen and bread while the priests made their way back across the Nile. Once all the celebrations were completed the tomb was then sealed. Cemetery workers applied stone, rubble, and a plaster door stamped with a royal seal. Although the tomb was sealed shut, it was important that the Egyptian family add offerings to the tomb for as long as they could finance it. This was done in hopes that the loved one would not go through a second death in the afterlife. Literature

Sample of a Book of the Dead of the scribe Nebqed, c. 1300 BC. Ancient Egyptian literature dates back to the Old Kingdom, in the third millennium BC. Religious literature is best known for its hymns to and its mortuary texts. The oldest extant Egyptian literature are the Pyramid Texts: the mythology and rituals carved around the tombs of rulers. The later, secular literature of ancient Egypt includes the 'wisdom texts', forms of philosophical instruction. The Instruction of Ptahhotep, for example, is a collation of moral proverbs by an Egyptian administrator. The authors of the literature of the Old and Middle Kingdoms (through to the middle of the second millennium BC) seem to have been drawn from an elite administrative class, and were celebrated and revered into the New Kingdom (to the end of the second millennium). In time, the Pyramid Texts became Coffin Texts (perhaps after the end of the Old Kingdom), and finally the mortuary literature produced its masterpiece, the Book of the Dead, during the New Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom was the golden age of Egyptian literature. Some notable texts include the Tale of Neferty, the Instructions of Amenemhat I, the Tale of Sinuhe, the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor and the Story of the Eloquent Peasant. Instructions became a popular literary genre of the New Kingdom, taking the form of advice on proper behavior. The Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any are well-known examples from this period. During the Greco-Roman period (332 BC AD 639), Egyptian literature was translated into other languages, and Greco-Roman literature fused with native art into a new style of writing. From this period comes the Rosetta Stone, which became the key to unlocking the mysteries of Egyptian writing to modern scholarship. The great city of Alexandria boasted its famous Library of almost half a million handwritten books during the third century BC. Alexandria's centre of learning also produced the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, the Septuagint. During the first few centuries of the Christian era, Egypt was the ultimate source of a great deal of ascetic literature in the Coptic language. Egyptian monasteries translated many Greek and Syriac works, which are now only extant in Coptic. Under Islam, Egypt continued to be a great source of literary endeavour, now in the Arabic language. In 970, al-Azhar University was founded in Cairo, which to this day remains the most important centre of Sunni Islamic learning. In 12th century Egypt, the Jewish Talmudic scholar Maimonides produced his most important work. In contemporary times, Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic-language literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Many Egyptian books and films are available throughout the Middle East. Other prominent Egyptian writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist works and activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is said to be the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented most significantly by Bayram el-Tunsi, Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi. 25 KS0806_Group1 2011

Tourism Geography Visual art Egyptian art in antiquity

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The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Early Egyptian art is characterized by absence of linear perspective, which results in a seemingly flat space. These artists tended to create images based on what they knew, and not as much on what they see. Objects in these artworks generally do not decrease in size as they increase in distance and there is little shading to indicate depth. Sometimes, distance is indicated through the use of tiered space, where more distant objects are drawn higher above the nearby objects, but in the same scale and with no overlapping of forms. People and objects are almost always drawn in profile. Also, you may notice the people in Egyptian art are never facing forward. Archaeologists are not yet sure of why, but they are leaning torwards the fact that artists status was low in the hierarchy so they could never be in front of a higher authority figure, and never be faced towards them.

Antiquity and modernity stand side-by-side in Egypt's chief Mediterranean seaport of Alexandria Early Egyptian artists did have a system for maintaining dimensions within artwork. They used a grid system that allowed them to create a smaller version of the artwork, and then scale up the design based upon proportional representation in a larger grid. b/ Architecture The great architectural achievements of the past are built of stone. Stone quarries supplied the large blocks of granite, limestone, and sandstone that were used for building temples and tombs. Architects planned carefully as building was done without mortar, so the stones had to fit precisely together. Only pillars were used to sustain short stone supports. At the temple of Karnak, a ramp of adobe brick can be seen leading to the top of the temple wall. Such ramps were used to allow workmen to carry stones to the top of structure and allow artists to decorate the tops of walls and pillars. Pillars were built in the same way. As height was added, the ground was raised. When the top of the pillar was completed, the artists would decorate from the top down, removing ramp sand as they went along. As soon as a pharaoh was named, construction on his tomb was begun. Tomb building continued throughout his life and stopped only on the day on which he died. As a result, some tombs are very large and finely decorated, while other tombs, like that of King Tutankhamun, are small because he ruled as a pharaoh for such a short time. The architecture was based upon perpendicular structures and inclined planes since there was no structural assistance except the strength and balance of the structure itself. For this reason, the square and the plumb-line were very important tools. EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt.

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There are 138 pyramids discovered in Egypt as of 2008. Most were built as tombs for the country's Pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed 2630 BCE2611 BCE) which was built during the third dynasty. This pyramid and its surrounding complex were designed by the architect Imhotep, and are generally considered to be the world's oldest monumental structures constructed of dressed masonry The estimate of the number of workers it took to build the pyramids have a wide range from a few thousand, twenty thousand, and up to 100,000. The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built. The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence. Historical development

<=The Mastaba of Faraoun, at Saqqara. By the time of the early dynastic period of Egyptian history, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas. The second historically documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser. Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other creating an edifice composed of a number of "steps" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Step Pyramid of Djoser which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Such was the importance of Imhotep's achievement that he was deified by later Egyptians.[9] The most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of absolutist pharaonic rule. It was during this time that the most famous pyramids, those near Giza, were built. Over time, as authority became less centralized, the ability and willingness to harness the resources required for construction on a massive scale decreased, and later pyramids were smaller, less well-built and often hastily constructed. Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-building occurred in what is present-day Sudan, after much of Egypt came under the rule of the Kings of Napata. While Napatan rule was brief and ceased in 661 BC, the Egyptian influence made an indelible impression, and during the later Sudanese Kingdom of Meroe (approximately in the period between 300 BC 300 AD) this flowered into a full-blown pyramid-building revival, which saw more than two hundred indigenous, but Egyptian-inspired royal pyramid-tombs constructed in the vicinity of the kingdom's capital cities.

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Al-Aziz Uthman, son of the great Saladin who crushed the Crusaders, tried to demolish the Great pyramids of Giza, but had to give up because the task was too big. However, he did succeed in damaging Menkaure's pyramid Pyramid symbolism The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance. Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining. While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One theory is that they were designed as a type of "resurrection machine."[11] The Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts that extends from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods. All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which as the site of the setting sun was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology. Number and location of pyramids In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first modern list of pyramids, in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. As of November 2008, 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified. The location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the "Headless Pyramid", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands subsequent to Lepsius' survey. It was only found again during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008. Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all they may appear as little more than mounds of rubble. As a consequence archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures. The most recent pyramid to be discovered is that of Queen Sesheshet, mother of 6th Dynasty Pharaoh Teti, located at Saqqara. The discovery was announced by Zahi Hawass, Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, on 11 November 2008. All of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid of Zawyet el-Amwat (or Zawyet el-Mayitin), are sited on the west bank of the Nile, and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below. Abu Rawash

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The largely destroyed Pyramid of Djedefre Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one) the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt. Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying which began in Roman times has left little apart from about 15 courses of stone superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation. Giza

<=Map of Giza pyramid complex.

<=Giza pyramid complex seen from above Giza is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the "Great Pyramid" and the "Pyramid of Cheops"); the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren); the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids"; and the Great Sphinx.

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Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. The Giza Necropolis has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity, and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence. Zawyet el-Aryan This site, halfway between Giza and Abu Sir, is the location for two unfinished Old Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is believed to be the Pharaoh Nebka, while the southern structure is attributed to the Third Dynasty Pharaoh Khaba, also known as Hudjefa, successor to Sekhemkhet. Khaba's four-year tenure as pharaoh more than likely explains the similar premature truncation of his step pyramid. Today it is approximately twenty meters high; had it been completed it is likely to have exceeded 40. Abu Sir

The Pyramid of Sahure at Abu Sir, viewed from the pyramid's causeway. There are a total of fourteen pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abu Sir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty perhaps signaling a decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors, and are built of low-quality local limestone. The three major pyramids are those of Niuserre (which is also the most intact), Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure. The site is also home to the incomplete Pyramid of Neferefre. All of the major pyramids at Abu Sir were built as step pyramids, although the largest of them the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai is believed to have originally been built as a step pyramid some 70 metres high and then later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry. Saqqara

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The Step Pyramid of Djoser Major pyramids located here include the Step Pyramid of Djoser generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of finished stone the Pyramid of Merykare, the Pyramid of Userkaf and the Pyramid of Teti. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in Egypt. This pyramid was also the subject of one of the earliest known restoration attempts, conducted by a son of Ramesses II. Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djoser's successor Sekhemkhet, known as the Buried Pyramid. Archaeologists believe that had this pyramid been completed it would have been larger than Djoser's. South of the main pyramid field at Saqqara is a second collection of later, smaller pyramids, including those of Pepi I, Isesi, Merenre, Ibi and Pepi II. Most of these are in a poor state of preservation. The Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Shepseskaf either did not share an interest in, or have the capacity to undertake pyramid construction like his predecessors. His tomb, which is also sited at south Saqqara was instead built as an unusually large mastaba and offering temple complex. It is commonly known as the Mastaba of Faraoun. A previously unknown pyramid was discovered at north Saqqara in late 2008. It is believed to be the tomb of Teti's mother, it currently stands approx 5m high, although the original height was closer to 14m. The opening of the tomb is scheduled for early December 2008. Dahshur

Snofru's Red Pyramid This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base, and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles. The southern Pyramid of Snofru, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid, is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be a "true" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing. As a true smooth-sided structure, the Bent Pyramid was only a partial success albeit a unique, visually imposing one; it is also the only major Egyptian pyramid to retain a significant proportion of its original smooth outer limestone casing intact. As such it serves as the best contemporary example of how the ancient Egyptians intended their pyramids to look. Several kilometeres to the north of the Bent Pyramid is the last and most successful of the three pyramids constructed during the reign of Snofru; the Red Pyramid is the world's first successfully completed smooth-sided pyramid. The structure is also the third largest pyramid in Egypt after the pyramids of Khufu and Khafre at Giza. KS0806_Group1 31 2011

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Also at Dahshur is the pyramid known as the Black Pyramid of Amenemhet III, as well as a number of small, mostly ruined subsidiary pyramids. Mazghuna Located to the south of Dahshur, this area was used in the First Intermediate Period by several kings who constructed their pyramids out of mudbrick. Lisht

The pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht. Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht those of Amenemhat I and his son, Senusret I. The latter is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller subsidiary pyramids. One of these subsidiary pyramids is known to be that of Amenemhat's cousin, Khaba II.[16] The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of Fayyum, midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo, is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city of Itjtawy (the precise location of which remains unknown), which served as the capital of Egypt during the 12th Dynasty. Meidum

The pyramid at Meidum. The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu, and is believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor, Huni. However, that attribution is uncertain, as no record of Huni's name has been found at the site. It was constructed as a step pyramid, and then later converted into the first "true" smooth-sided pyramid when the steps were filled in, and an outer casing added. The pyramid suffered several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times; medieval Arab writers described it as having 7 steps although today only the three uppermost of these remain, giving the structure its odd, tower-like appearance. The hill on which the pyramid is situated is not a natural landscape feature it is the small mountain of debris created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way. Hawara KS0806_Group1 32 2011

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The Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Hawarra Amenemhet III was the last powerful ruler of the 12th Dynasty, and the pyramid he built at Hawarra, near Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called "Black Pyramid" built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawarra pyramid that is believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place. el-Lahun

The Pyramid of Senusret II. The pyramid's natural limestone core is clearly visible as the yellow stratum at its base. The pyramid of Senusret II at el-Lahun is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it by ingeniously using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill. El-Kurru Piye, the first ruler of the Egyptian 25th dynasty, built a pyramid at El-Kurru. He was the first Egyptian pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid in centuries.

<= Pharaoh Piye's pyramid at El-Kurru Nuri Taharqa, a legitimate ruler and Pharaoh of Egypt, built his pyramid at Nuri. It was the largest in the area (North Sudan).

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<=Egyptian Pharaoh Taharqa's pyramid at Nuri Construction dates The following table lays out the chronology of the construction of most of the major pyramids mentioned here. Each pyramid is identified through the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its location. Pyramid / Pharaoh Djoser Sneferu Sneferu Sneferu Khufu Djedefre Khafre Menkaure Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Nyuserre Ini Amenemhat I Senusret I Senusret II Amenemhat III Piye Taharqa C/ EGYPTIAN TEMPLES Reign c. 26302612 BC c. 26122589 BC c. 26122589 BC c. 26122589 BC c. 25892566 BC c. 25662558 BC c. 25582532 BC c. 25322504 BC c. 24872477 BC c. 24772467 BC c. 24162392 BC c. 19911962 BC c. 19711926 BC c. 18971878 BC c. 18601814 BC c. 721 BC c. 664 BC Field Saqqara Dashur Dashur Meidum Giza Abu Rawash Giza Giza Abu Sir Abu Sir Abu Sir Lisht Lisht el-Lahun Hawara El-Kurru Nuri

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Temple of Karnak The temple of Karnak was known as Ipet-isut (Most select of places) by the ancient Egyptians. It is a city of temples built over 2000 years and dedicated to the Theben triad of Amun, Mut and Khonsu. This derelict place is still capable of overshadowing many of the wonders of the modern world and in its day must have been awe inspiring. For the largely uneducated ancient Egyptian population this could only have been the place of the gods. It is the mother of all religious buildings, the largest ever made and a place of pilgrimage for nearly 4,000 years. Although todays pilgrims are mainly tourists. It covers about 200 acres 1.5km by 0.8km The area of the sacred enclosure of Amon alone is 61 acres and would hold ten average European cathedrals.The great temple at the heart of Karnak is so big, St Peter's, Milan and Notre Dame Cathedrals could be lost within its walls. The Hypostyle hall at 54,000 square feet with its 134 columns is still the largest room of any religious building in the world. In addition to the main sanctuary there are several smaller temples and a vast sacred lake.

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Karnak is the home of the god Amun who was an insignificant local god until the 12th dynasty when Thebes became the capital of Egypt. He was represented in his original state as a goose and later as a ram, at the height of his power he was shown as a human with a head dress of feathers all that remained of the goose. In ancent times wars were not fought between countries but were considered as contests between gods. One deity subduing and replacing another, the victorious god and its people growing in strength. This is how Amon, with the help of Thutmose III and various other New Kingdom kings, rose to become the first supreme god of the known world and was hailed as God of gods. Little is know of him, unlike most other gods he has no legends or miracles to impress his worshippers and seems to be closer to an abstract idea of a godhead. His followers came from all the strata of society and he was known to some as 'Vizier of the poor.' All Egyptian temples had a sacred lake, Karnak's is the largest. It was used during festivals when images of the gods would sail across it on golden barges. Karnak was also the home of a flock of geese dedicated to Amun. The Eastern Gateway which once lead to a huge temple built by Akhenaten (the heretic king). In an attempt to obliterate his memory, Akenaten's enemies destroyed this shrine after his death. The Temple of Luxor

The modern town of Luxor is the site of the famous city of Thebes, (Waset in ancient Egyptian) the city of a hundred gates. It was the capital of Egypt from the 12th dynasty (1991 BC) and reached its zenith during the New Kingdom. It was from here that Thutmose III planned his campaigns, Akenaten first contemplated the nature of god and Rameses II set out his ambitious building program. Only Memphis could compare in size and wealth, but Memphis was pillaged of its masonry to build new cities and little remains. Although the mud brick palaces of Thebes have disappeared the stone built temples have survived. The temple of Luxor is close to the Nile and parallel with the riverbank. King Amenhotep III who reigned 1390-53 BC built this beautiful temple and dedicated it to Amon-Re, king of the gods, his consort Mut, and their son Khons. This temple has been in almost continuos use as a place of worship right up to the present day. It was completed by Tutankhamun and Horemheb and added to by Ramses II. Towards the rear is a granite shrine dedicated to Alexander the Great. During the Christian era the temple's hypostyle hall was converted into a Christian church, and the remains of another Coptic church can be seen to 36 KS0806_Group1 2011

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the west. Then for thousands of years, the temple was buried beneath the streets and houses of the town of Luxor. Eventually the mosque of Sufi Shaykh Yusuf Abu al-Hajjaj was built over it. This mosque was preserved when the temple was uncovered and forms an integral part of the site today. Temple of Dendara in Egypt House of Hathor The Temple of Dendara was known as the 'Castle of the Sistrum' or 'Pr Hathor' - House of Hathor. Hathor was the goddess of love, joy and beauty. With the exception of its supporting pillars, which had capitals sculpted in the image of Hathor and were defaced by the Christians, the walls, rooms and roof are complete and extraordinarily well preserved. The stone steps of the spiral staircase are time worn but still used to ascend to the roof, where there is a small chapel decorated with Hathorheaded columns - the Christians seemed to have missed these. What really grabbed my artistic attention among all this magnificence was a small detail. The place sings with the music of birds. Hundreds of them roost in small cracks and hollows in the walls seeming to contemplate their carved likeness in the hieroglyphic reliefs. There is one other thing that stirs the imagination, the building bares the name of the famous Cleopatra and her son, whose father was Julius Caesar. It is possible that these celebrated, personalities climbed the same stairs and contemplated, on high, the same landscape which stretches for miles below. Temple of Isis at Philae Philae in Greek or Pilak in ancient Egyptian, meaning 'the end,' defined the southern most limit of Egypt. It was begun by Ptolemy II and completed by the Roman Emperors. The Temple was dedicated to the goddess Isis, the wife of Osiris and mother of Horus. These three characters dominate ancient Egyptian culture and their story possesses all the drama of a Shakespearian tragedy. The god Osiris is murdered and dismembered by his brother Seth. Isis searches for the fragments, collects them together and with her magic powers brings Osiris back to life. They then conceive the god Horus. Osiris becomes god of the under world and judge of the dead - who must answer to him for their deeds on Earth. Meanwhile Isis gives birth to Horus and protects the young god. Later when Horus is grown he avenges his father by defeating Seth in combat. It is a very important figure in the ancient world. She is associated with funeral rites but as the enchantress who resurrected Osiris and gave birth to Horus she is also the giver of life, a healer and protector of kings. She was known as 'Mother of God' and was represented with a throne on her head. During the Roman period her cult spread throughout Greece and the Roman Empire. There was even a temple dedicated to her in London. The temple at Philae was nearly lost under water when the high Aswan dam was built in the 1960s. Fortunately the temple was rescued by a joint operation between the Egyptian government and UNESCO. In an engineering feat to rival the ancients the whole island was surrounded with a dam and the inside pumped dry. Then every stone block of the temple complex was labelled and removed later to be assembled, like a giant jigsaw puzzle, on the higher ground of Agilka island. The whole project took ten years and has saved one of Egypt's most beautiful temples from certain destruction. Madinat Habu - The temple of Rameses III In ancient times Madinat Habu was known as Djanet and according to ancient belief was the place were Amun first appeared. Both Hatshepsut and Tuthmosis III built a temple dedicated to Amun here and Later Rameses III constructed his larger memorial temple on the site. D

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uring his time Djanet became the administrative centre of Western Thebes. The whole temple complex was surrounded by a massive fortified enclosure wall, with an unusual gateway at the eastern entrance, known as the pavilion gate. This structure, a copy of a Syrian migdol fortresses is something you would no expect to see in Egypt. Rameses III, a military man probably saw the virtue in such a structure. It is likely Rameses resided here from time to time because a royal palace was attached at the south of the open forecourt of this temple, while priests' dwellings and administrative buildings lay on either side of the temple. Originally a canal with a harbour outside the entrance, connected the temple to the Nile. But this was obliterated by the desert long ago. In later times, because of its strong fortifications, it was the place of refuge during the civil war between the High Priest of Amun at Karnak and the viceroy of Kush. In the period of the Twenty Fifth and Twenty Sixth Dynasties (700 BC) the wives of Amon were worshipped in the Chapels called the Divine Adoratrices of Amun. During the Greek and Roman periods the site was expanded and between the 1st and 9th centuries AD a Coptic city was built and the temple was used as a Christen church. The exterior walls are carved with religious scenes and portrayals of Rameses III's wars against the Libyans and the Sea Peoples. The first pylon depicts the king smiting his enemies and also has a list of conquered lands. The interior walls also have a wealth of well preserved bas-reliefs some of which still retain their original paint work. The Graeco Roman Temple at Kom Ombo The temple at Kom Ombo is about 30 miles (48 km) north of Aswan and was built during the Graeco-Roman period (332 BC AD 395). There was an earlier structure from the 18th dynasty but little remains. The temple is unique because it is in fact a double temple, dedicated to Sobek the crocodile god, and Horus the falcon-headed god. The layout combines two temples in one with each side having its own gateways and chapels. Sobek is associated with the wicked god Seth, the enemy of Horus. In the Horus myth the allies of Seth made their escape by changing themselves into crocodiles. Sobeks chief sanctuary was at Kom Ombo, where there were once huge numbers of crocodiles. Until recent times the Egyptian Nile was infested with these ferocious animals, who would lay on the riverbank and devour animals and humans alike. So it is not surprising that the local inhabitants went in fear. They believed that as a totem animal, and object of worship, it would not attack them. Captive crocodiles were kept within the temple and many mummified crocodiles have been found in cemeteries, some of which can be seen in the temple sanctuary today. c/ Music KS0806_Group1 38 2011

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Music has been a part of Egyptian culture probably since its beginning. Tomb and temple paintings show a variety of musical instruments in both sacred and secular environments, and many of the dead were buried with instruments. This leads to the thought that music formed an integral part of not only Egyptian rituals, but also daily life and recreation. Sadly, no written pieces of music have survived, and no system of notation is known to have been developed by the ancient Egyptians. It would seem that music in ancient Egypt was, like so many of the arts at that time, passed down from one person to another in a form of "aural" tradition. Various universities and institutions are working to extrapolate what ancient Egyptian music might have sounded like based on present-day and known historical forms using recreations of instruments. Instruments known to have existed in ancient Egypt are roughly the same ones as have been created by nearly all civilizations. Lyres, harps, flutes, pipes, horns (not "true" horns as we know them, but instruments similar to the didgeridoo of the Australian Aborigines, the dragon-horn of Tibet, and the shofar of the Hebrew people), and of course, drums, cymbals, and other percussion. As the ages passed, new instruments were added in as they were developed or introduced from other peoples. Given Egypt's importance in the ancient world, one can easily assume that at one time or another, every kind of instrument ever created has been played in within its borders. The Arab musical tradition as it is known today developed between the AD 7th and 13th Centuries in the courts of Islam. The first great renaissance of Arab music occurred in Syria and the surrounding regions during the Umayyad Dynasty (AD 7th-8th Century). At that time Baghdad, in what is now Iraq, was a central city for musicians and performers, partly due to its ruler, the legendary Haroun al-Raschid. Arabic music, insofar as can be inferred reliably, traces its ancestry in part to the music of the 3rd Century Persians and the early Byzantine Empire (AD 4th-6th Century). These traditions in turn can trace themselves back in part to the works of the Greeks, themselves great lovers of poetry and song. But both are traced back to the ancient Semitic traditions which may have their origins in the music of the ancient Egyptians. The 10th Century music theorist Al-Farabi translated the major works of the ancient Greeks on music into Arabic: Aristotle's Problems, Themistius' commentaries on the Problems, Ptolemy's Harmonics, and the Elements of Music by Euclid. This increased the effect of the Greeks on Arabic music, but also gave a foundation upon which to build a concrete theory of Arabic music, which Al-Farabi did. Like Euclid before him, Al-Farabi was a mathematician and physicist, and so was able to examine musical structure from the scientific standpoint. But what was more, he was a musician and was perhaps better equipped mentally to study music as an art form and not cold mathematics. He focused not only on the science of sound but also the aesthetics and the enjoyment of music, a subject which the Greeks apparently had ignored. Modern popular and folk traditions Lute and double pipe players from a painting found in the Theban tomb of Nebamun, a nobleman of the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom, c. 1350 BC Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of luminaries such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who were all patronized by Khedive Ismail, and who influenced the later work of Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab, Abdel Halim Hafez, Zakariyya Ahmad and other Egyptian music giants. Egyptian music began its recorded history in the 1910s, around the time composers such as Sayed Darwish were incorporating western musical forms into their work. Some of the Middle East's biggest musical stars have been Egyptian. Abdel Halim Hafez and Umm Kulthum were especally popular. Most of these stars, including Umm Kulthum, were part of the classical Egyptian and Arabic music tradition. Some, like Abd el-Halim Hafez, were associated with the Egyptian nationalist movement in 1952. 39 KS0806_Group1 2011

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The egyptians even used their own teeth as instruments they would make tapping noises and would use special plucks to make interesting noises with their teeth. The 20th century has seen Cairo become associated with a roots revival. Musicians from across Egypt are keeping folk traditions alive, such as those of rural Egyptians (fellahin), the Nubians, and the Arab and Berber Bedouins. Mixtures of folk and pop have also risen from the Cairo hit factory. Sawahli (coastal) music is a type of popular music from the northern coast, and is based around the simsimaya, an indigenous stringed instrument. Well-known singers include Abdo'l Iskandrani and Aid el-Gannirni. Coptic Coptic music is the liturgical music of the Coptic Church. It consists mainly of chanted hymns in rhythm with instruments such as cymbals (hand and large size) and the triangle. It has preserved the same features of the ancient Egyptian music. Only a handful of its melodies are identified and labeled as Syrian (called Shamy) or Byzantine (called Roumy). Saidi (Upper Egyptian) Egyptian musicians from Upper Egypt play a form of folk music called saidi (Upper Egyptian). Metqal Qenawi's Les Musiciens du Nil are the most popular saidi group, and were chosen by the government to represent Egyptian folk music abroad. Other performers include Shoukoukou, Ahmad Ismail, Omar Gharzawi, Sohar Magdy and Ahmed Mougahid. Nubian Nubians are native to the south of Egypt and northern Sudan, though many live in Cairo and other cities. Nubian folk music can still be heard, but migration and intercultural contact with Egyptian and other musical genres have produced new innovations. Ali Hassan Kuban's efforts had made him a regular on the world music scene, while Mohamed Mounir's social criticism and sophisticated pop have made him a star among Nubians, Egyptians, and other people worldwide. Ahmed Mounib, Mohamed Mounir's mentor, was by far the most notable Nubian singer to hit the Egyptian music scene, singing in both Egyptian Arabic his native Nobiin. Hamza El Din is another popular Nubian artist, well-known on the world music scene and has collaborared with the Kronos Quartet. Western classical music Western classical music was introduced to Egypt, and, beginning in the 19th century, instruments such as the piano and violin were gradually adopted by Egyptians. Opera also became increasingly popular during this period, and Giuseppe Verdi's Egyptian-themed Aida was premiered in Cairo on December 24, 1871. By the early 20th century, the first generation of Egyptian composers, including Yusef Greiss, Abu Bakr Khairat, and Hasan Rashid, began writing for Western instruments. The second generation of Egyptian composers included notable artists such as Gamal Abdelrahim. Representative composers of the third generation are Ahmed El-Saedi and Rageh Daoud. In the early 21st century, even fourth generation composers such as Mohamed Abdelwahab Abdelfattah (of the Cairo Conservatory) have gained international attention. Revival of ancient Egyptian music In the early 21st century, interest in the music of the pharaonic period began to grow, inspired by the research of such foreign-born musicologists as Hans Hickmann. By the early 21st century, 40 KS0806_Group1 2011

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Egyptian musicians and musicologists led by the musicology professor Khairy El-Malt at Helwan University in Cairo had begun to reconstruct musical instruments of Ancient Egypt, a project that is ongoing. 9/ Sports Football is the most popular Sport in Egypt. Egyptian Soccer clubs especially El Ahly and El Zamalek are known throughout the Middle East and Africa and enjoy the reputation of long-time champions of the sport regionally. They enjoy popularity even among non-Egyptians. The Egyptian national football team won the African Cup of Nations seven times setting a new record in Africa (years: 57, 59, 86, 98, 06, 08, '10). Although it's the first African country who joined FIFA, it hasn't made it to the World Cup except only two times in 1934 and 1990. In the World Military Cup, Egypt won the title 5 times, and was the runner-up another 2 times. Other popular sports in Egypt are basketball, handball, squash and tennis. The Egyptian Squash team is always known for its fierce competition in worldwide championships since the 1930s till today. Handball has become another growingly popular sport among Egyptians as well. Since the early 1990s, the Egyptian Handball Team has become a growing international force in the sport, winning regional and continental tournaments as well as reaching up to fourth place internationally in 2001. The Junior Handball team reached the first rank in 1993 under the lead of Captain Gamal Shams, and it hosted the tournament in 2010 setting a record in the audience number specially the match between Egypt and Denmark in the semifinals, the stadium was completely full. In older times (1930s and 40s), Egypt was a power house in Weight lifting, Boxing and Wrestling with several Olympic and world championship medals. Local sports clubs receive financial support from the local governments, and many sporting clubs are financially and administratively supported by the government. V.TOURISTS ATTRACTION AND DESTINATIONS Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The sector employs about 12 percent of Egypt's workforce. 1/ Destination/ Attractions Abu Simbel Archaeological Site Abu Simble are two huge rock temples in south Egypt about 290 km south west of Aswan. This is an archeological site and now registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. They are also called the Nubian Monuments. The history of these temples takes us back to the 13th century when they were carved out of a mountain side. The entire monument was relocated in 1960 on an artificial hill. The reason the monuments were shifted because they were gradually drowning in the Lake Nasser. This lake was a huge artificial reservoir that was made by the river Nile and Aswan Dam. The Abu Simbel attracts a lot of tourists every year as it is the top most visited spot in Egypt. KS0806_Group1 41 2011

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The temple almost took 2o years to complete. The temple is a dedication to three different gods, namely the Ra-horakhty, Ptah and Rameses. The Abu Simble is considered one of the most beautiful and the sacred temple in the entire Egypt. Each and every statue in the temple is throne and is wearing double crown of both the Upper and the Lower Egypt. The statue that you can see toward the left once got damaged due to earthquake. The entire temple is marked as a courtyard and enclosed on the north and south side by walls. The Abu Simbel is known for its beauty, mystery and architectural knowledge. Most of the visitors who are on the expedition to explore Egypt come to visit the Temple. Citadel of Saladin Imagine a breathtaking overview of the ancient city of Cairo with a well-preserved Egyptian background. The Citadel of Saladin (aka Citadel of Cairo), will bring you an exhilarating memory of the regal residence and military camp of 11th century Egypt. Charging it to its location, the citadel is a perfect tourist spot. It is placed on top of a hill to see all the angles of the cities of Cairo and Fustat. The Ayyubid lieutenant of Egyptian ruler Saladin erected the place on its present location to see incoming enemies and attack them even before they reach Cairo. The place has several thick walls, watchtowers, and gates which makes the cities difficult to attack. After almost a millennium, the Citadel of Saladin is now bigger thanks to six major reconstructions. It now includes Muhammad Ali Pasha (aka Mosque of Mohamed Ali) built circa 1828 1848. The mosque was built in memory of Muhammad Alis son, Tusun Pasha and also to signify eradication of the memories of the area of the Mamluk dynastys rule. The latest reconstruction effort was under the influence of Muhammad Ali. During his reign, Muhammad Ali Pasha mosque and other buildings carried Ottoman architecture and large domes to further establish his leadership. The second mosque, Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalaun Mosque, is filled with high marble dado and has granite columns. The free-standing 63 by 57 rectangle mosque is the main prayer room of Cairo sultans in the 13th century. The 3rd mosque is the Mosque of Suleyman Pasha, built in the 16th century and is the first building carrying the Ottoman architecture. Another notable structure in the Citadel is the Qasr al-Gawhara (Al Gawhara Palace) which holds various painting artifacts. It is a National Museum of both Military and Police departments of Cairo, Egypt. City of the Dead (Cairo) City of the Dead (Cairo) is a place that has a strange practice: the residents live with the dead. The four-mile area occupied by piles of tombs and mausoleums also holds a thriving community of live people. Known as El Arafa or the cemetery by its residents, City of the Dead is an example of KS0806_Group1 42 2011

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cemetery-cum-city dwelling place. For the modern mind-set, this practice might seem bizarre. For some of its inhabitants, this is their own way of being close with their ancestors. For others, they live here because other places offer harsh accommodation rates. Most of the residents earn their living by being tomb keepers. This place will give you a taste of Egypts urban poor living. Approximately 5 million Egyptians live in the City of the Dead (Cairo) with scattered population in its five main cemeteries namely, Bab el Nasr Cemetery, Northern Cemetery, Southern Cemetery, el Wazir Cemetery and Cemetery of the Great. It is not a surprise that above almost every tomb lives at least one family. The city is great for anthropological research since the separation of mostly urban poor population from the rest of the Cairos residents brings lessons on the different lifestyles. An empty tomb may serve as a familys sleeping room. A grave marker is good as table for food or desk for belongings. The mausoleum serves as shelter from rain and sun. The people hung wires from gravestone to gravestone and use them to dry the clothes. Every tourist will consider the immersion on this place as life changing especially in the Northern Cemetery. As you walk through the city/cemetery, you will bask in silence as if you have entered another dimension of enchantment. It is also recommended that you view the rooms holding the coffins of the dead from all generations. Colossi of Memnon When it comes to the task of reflecting the magnificence of the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep III, Colossi of Memnon does just that. Known to the locals as es-Salamat or el-Colossat, the site holds 2 colossal stone figures of the Pharaoh. The statues were erected in 1350 BC in the Theban necropolis along the Nile River near the city of Luxor. Both figures are in a seated pose with hands on knees and a straight gaze eastwards. One of the figures aptly called the Northern statue has a smaller figure on the side resembling the Pharaohs mother Mutemwia. The Southern statue has smaller figures of Tiy, Pharaohs wife and one of his daughters. On the sides of the sculpture are depictions of Nile gods representing Upper and Lower Egypt. The Colossi of Memnon is carved out of quartzite sandstone from el Gabal el-Ahmar. The two statues towers a height of 75 ft (23 m) and was originally built by Pharaoh Amenhotep III to act as guards to a Theban temple when he was considered as a living god on earth. The sculptures are heavily damaged due to weathering and human meddling albeit they are still worth the tourists visit. Modern travelers name the figures Tammy and Shammy (slang Arabic words for right and left, respectively). There is a running legend with the sculptures claiming that long ago, a moaning sound can be heard when the suns rays hit them in an early morning. The moan was thought to be the sound of King Amenhotep III calling his mother. The sound is said to have disappeared when the Romans attempted to repair the pieces. Aside from the huge statues, the site also has remaining artifacts. There are 2 headless lion bodied sphinxes and a crocodile tailed sphinx. With the efforts to preserve the remaining artifacts, may the pieces be available to tourists of the future generations. 43

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Tourism Geography Colossus of Rameses II

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Perhaps one of the most well preserved statues of a Pharaoh is the Colossus of Rameses II. A 33.8 ft (10 m) statue made out of limestone was found by the Italian Giovanni Caviglia in 1820. It is presumed that the huge statue was an unfinished work of a skilled artist for Rameses II since the Pharaoh had a fondness of making sculptures of himself more than any other Egyptian royalty. This sculpture is just one of the structures he hed erected along the entire stretch of Nile. The tall structure is now housed in a mini museum in Memphis. The statue is cut at its knees but it is still magnificent to view with its original colors faintly intact. The marble surface is observed to have a finely finished cut, which can be only be accomplished through the hands of a skilled artist. A look at the statue will make you conclude of how the Egyptian art pictures the anatomical features of Egyptian kings. The shoulders are always broad and the muscle and bone structures tend to be exaggerated. The markings found at the shoulders and chest of the statue are inscriptions of the Pharaohs name as a sign of the statues ownership. Also noticeable are epithets with message of commendation for the king to the Egyptian gods. Tall statues like this one are made to stand as guards to important places. In this instance, Colossus of Rameses II is one of a pair that was presumed to stand at Ptah monumental temple. Aside from the tall statue, the open-air museum features other artifacts like the sculpture of Bes, god of Childhood and fertility, and other ancient statues. Colossus of Rameses II was once offered by Muhammad Ali to the British Museum. However, the museum declined because shipping the whole figure to London is expensive and extremely difficult. Egyptian Antiquities Museum in Cairo The Egyptian Museum is called the symbol of faith for the Egyptians. The actual name for the museum is called The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities and it is located in Cairo, Egypt. The stories of Egypt are spread across seven thousand years. It is considered to be a treasure for the country of Egypt. The design of the grand museum was a consequence of an international competition. This competition was held by the UNESCO. The architecture of the museum is very complex. It offers its visitors a worthwhile time. The museum provides enchanting cultural, pleasurable and educational time. The museum will help Egypt become a heart of the history and be a part of the Egyptology. The aim of the museum is to take hold of the diversity of the heritage that Egypt holds. The museum KS0806_Group1 44 2011

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creates a great experience for the tourists by helping them connect the history to the present. It has one of the best antiquities artifacts collections. This is one place that would always help you discover new things. The ground floor gives a vivid history of Ancient Egypt. There are good security checks while entering the building. Every time a new object is displayed as the best object of the month. It also has very imperative items that belong to the Egypt and are more than five thousand years old. There are some other masterpieces that belong to the fiftieth century and hence should not be missed. It also has some Old Kingdoms small statues that have families and shows people working. If you move clockwise, it takes you to an area that would take you to the future. In the far end of the museum, one can find material from the heretic pharaoh, also known as Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV). Tourists who have genuine interests in knowing the Egypt culture must not miss this site. Muhammad Ali Mosque Built from 1830 to 1848 by the commission of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Muhammad Ali Mosque is the largest Ottoman mosque to be built in the early 19th century. The mosque is in the Citadel of Cairo, Egypt. With its twin minarets, animated silhouette and recognizable design, it is the most visible mosque in Cairo. When Mohammad Ali Pasha assumed power in the early 19th century, he had the mosque built in memory of Tusun Pasha, the eldest son of Mohammad Ali Pasha, who died in 1816. He also had all Mamluk buildings in the Citadel demolished and had the complex completely rebuilt. Greek architect Jacob Bushnaq of Istanbul designed the Mohammad Ali Mosque. The Mohammad Ali Mosque was designed to fit the Turkish ideals, a reproduction of the best mosques found in Istanbul. Set on the foot of the Mugattam Hills, the mosque dominates the whole Citadel, and it is the most visible monument on the Cairo skyline. The Mohammad Ali Mosque is eminently Turkish in style, echoing its Ottoman origins. The use of slim minarets, cascading domes, spacious interiors, large chandeliers, walls decorated with Thuluth inscriptions and beautiful hanging globe lamps are all reflecting the mosques found in Istanbul. On the inside, the rooms reflect some French Rococo as well as Art Nouveau influences, with heavily ornamentation of lines of green, red and gold. All in all, the mosque is as colorful as a Faberg egg, and the exteriors are just exceptional. Interestingly, the mosque is made of some unusual choice of materials: alabaster and metal. To get to the mosque, you can take the bus from Tahrir Square (nos. 82, 83 or 609) and from Ataba Square, nos. 50, 55 or 401. The mosque is open all days of the week from 8 AM to 5 PM.

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Tourism Geography Esna Temple

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Lovers of Egyptian mythology will enjoy this ancient shrine located near the Nile River. The Esna Temple or Temple of Khnum is a sacred shrine at Esna, Egypt dedicated to several gods primarily to Khnum (god of creation and the Nile River) but also to Heka (god of magic), Horus (god of victory) and Neith (god of war). Esna Temple is built in Ancient Latapolis, about 485 mi south of Cairo. The roof of the building holds an interesting representation of ancient Egyptian astronomy. It supported by 6 sturdy columns decorated with floral patterns of which still holds faint original color. Hieroglyphs are all over the place from the roof to the walls. You can see representations of Egyptian kings giving cryptographic praise to Khnum. There is a statue of goddess Menhyt in the courtyard. The oldest part of the building, hypostyle hall has doors that are used as entrance and exits of Egyptian priests. The artifacts and hieroglyphs of the temple are not results of one-time constructions. Tuthmosis III erected the building during the 18th dynasty but Romans and Greeks also incorporated their art influence on the site later resulting to mixed art forms all over the structure. The site is drowned in its own debris because of old age and natural weathering which adds to its ancient beauty. The interesting view in this temple is complimented by the Nile River where cruise boats can park. The place is accessible to the nearest market which is great for your shopping of local cuisine and goodies. The Egyptian authorities are constantly renovating the Esna Temple to make sure that it will stand for the future generations to admire. After all, Egypt will not be as magical tourist spot if it were not for its well-preserved artifacts. Hatshepsut Temple The temple of Hatshepsut or Deir el Bahri has served as a trace of the major events that happened during the Hatshepsuts reign. The Hatshepsut temple was built just next to the Mortuary Temple. The temple got damaged big time due to the rock sliding. It however was resorted during the year 1998. Hatshepsut in English means the Foremost of noble ladies. The Hatshepsut is said to be the fifth ancient Egyptian ruler of the 18th century dynasty in Egypt. The Hatshepsut is considered to be one of the most popular and successful rulers and has a tenure longer than any other women in the entire Egyptian dynasty. Data tell us that the Hatshepsut was the only daughter of Thutmosis I. She was a Pharaoh in other words the strongest lady ruler in Egypt and that was the reason she was pictured in her mortuary temple and other monuments. It is said that the Hatshepsut ruled the place and the kingdom for twenty two years, and when she died she was buried in the Valley of Kings under the supervision of Thutmosis III. Once her rule was over, her successors defaced all the temples and monuments and very specifically removed her name and replaced it with their own. People say that it is still a mystery, if 46 KS0806_Group1 2011

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Thutmosis III out of personal rage and anger ordered to deface her name and figure. However, archeological evidence tells us that her face was defaced almost after 20 years of her death. So it is quite a possibility that some ruler amongst the successor had a long time grudge with the Hatshepsut. Ibn Tulun Mosque Ibn Tulun Mosque holds the record of the oldest and largest mosque in Cairo City with its original form intact. It is holds the title of 3rd largest mosque with overall area of 26, 318 square meters. This structure is a representative of the Islamic belief still preserved in Egypt today. The mosque is constructed in a local hill named Gebel Yashkur (Hill of Thanksgiving) with local claims that Noahs Ark rested here after the great flood instead of Mount Ararat mentioned in the Bible. The architecture of the building is inspired by Samarran art usually connected with Abbassid production. Its original structure has an ablution fountain for washing between the inner and outer walls. It was destroyed by fire in 986 AD but restored by later management. The mosque is enclosed with walls about 19 meters thick surmounted with unique crenellation. The top of the Tulun walls feature repetitive Abassid patterns. It has a minaret that serves as an original landmark of Cairo because of its unique structure made of brick. Inside the mosque is the prayer hall with wooden roof with accents that were added during the Mamluk period. The whole place is full of Islamic influences with arcades that have Quran inscriptions running approximately 2 km. Adding to the Noahs ark claim, the temple declare that the wall frieze planks were actual parts of the said vessel. The window grills in the place is filled with meticulous carvings of Stucco patterns. The start of the building construction was in 876 AD under the commission of Ahmad ibn Tulun. The Islamic structure was finished in 879 AD over al-Qatai (Tulunic Capital of Egypt) during Islamic Egypt under Abbasid dynasty. The glory of Tulunid reign in the place lasted only for about 26 years and somehow affected the once-warm affection on the faade. Philae Island Philae is an island in the Nile River with rich vegetation, lovely flowers and magnificent temples. Because of its beauty and abundance, it was rightfully once called the pearl of Egypt. Philae derived its name from the Egyptian Pi-lak, which the Greeks later changed to Philai, while the Arabs called it Bilak. Indeed, the island was once regarded as one of the most romantic and most beautiful places in Egypt. Yet, due to constant floods of the Nile River, the island lost much of its attraction. The island was in great danger of being submerged due to the floods since the construction of the Aswan High Dam. The flooding situation is so bad that temples are only accessible in the island during late summer and fall. For the KS0806_Group1 47 2011

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rest of the year, the temples are mostly under water. The more important monuments of the island were transported and rebuilt in the adjacent island of Agilkia, which are more highly elevated. Now, the grey discoloration of the walls and columns are merely a faint reminder of the vibrant colors and detailed ornamentation they once had. Once you arrive at the island, pillars and papyrus capitals, and a pylon with a collection of reliefs of Ptolemy XII smiting his enemies will welcome you. Beyond the gateway, you will find the Mammisi Birth House and the Temple of Isis, where in the middle a golden statue of Isis once stood; and the interiors heavily decorated with images of the goddess. Further on, you will find the Kiosk of Trajan, Philaes most prominent monument. The magnificent temples of Philae are open during summers from 7 AM to 5 PM, and in winter from 7 AM to 4 PM. You can reach the island by boat, where they drop the visitors at the Hall of Nectanebo. Ras Mohammad National Park Ras Mohammed National Park is stunning in all sense: a dramatic arid peninsula located at the southernmost tip of the Sinai Peninsula, with vibrant coral reefs you will never expect to find. Located 30 kilometers south of Sharm El Sheikh, it is Egypts first and best-kept national park. The area got its name because the cliff is said to have some semblance of the features of the great Prophet Mohammed, who was said to have visited the peninsula in the 7th century. Ras Mohammed National Park is one of the reasons why visitors visit the Sinai Peninsulait is an excellent place for diving and snorkeling. Underwater, you will find broad and terraced coral reefs, brilliant sea fans, and a wide array of fish. They have more than one thousand marine species. The best dive spot in Ras Mohammed National Park is the Shark & Yolanda Reef, where you can see almost every marine species in the Red Sea. Watch out for the rare scorpion fish, which can only be seen in this area, and also the wreck of Yolanda. Divers are also enthralled by the beauty of Anemone city, a so-called bustling underwater metropolis with highways & byways of hard and soft corals. Prolific residents here are the anemone fish, along with other different species you can see in anemones harbor and reefs. Diving in Ras Mohammad is mainly through a boat on a day trip, which you can book through the resort that you will be staying at. Try the Sharm El Sheikh Resorts if you are interested in diving. The warmest waters are in the months of June to August, while the coolest waters are January to February.

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Tourism Geography Sahara Desert: Hottest Desert in the World

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The Sahara Desert is the largest and the hottest desert in the world. It is spread over more than 9,000,000 Square Km (3,630,000 sq miles). It covers the most of North Africa and is as big as the United States. The desert starts at the Red sea, across the Mediterranean, and over to the Atlantic Ocean. It is spread over 12 African nations, Egypt, Chad, Algeria, Eritrea, Libya, Morocco, Niger, Mauritania, Mali, Sudan, Western Sahara, and Tunisia.The history of the Sahara Desert goes back thousands of years. The sand dunes of the desert are big that they reach heights of 600 feet. Life in the Sahara Desert is very difficult due to its climate. It receives less than 3 inches of rain every year. It may rain twice in one week, to an extreme of no rainfall over the next three years. Oasis are scattered throughout this desert, however, because of its size, its not easy to trace. The Sahara Desert is the hottest place in the world with the temperature reaching up to 57.7 degree Celsius (135.8 degree F). Scientists have said that the desert expands and shrinks. Currently, it has been recorded that the Sahara is growing southward by 48 km every year. The typical fauna that can be seen in the desert are domestic camels and goats. As far as the wild life is concerned, it is a common sight to see a scorpion, monitor lizard, sand vipers, wild dogs, ostriches, cheetah, and many more. The only types of birds that can be visible are African Silver bills and black throated fire finch. Sinai Peninsula The Sinai Peninsula is located on the easternmost part of Egypt, right between the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, which are both forks of the Red Sea. Western and northern shores are practically isolated, but the eastern coasts are bustling with several tourist attractions as well as Bedouin settlements. The Sinai Peninsula is home to Mt. Sinai, a famous Biblical location mentioned in the Book of Exodus. This is where Moses fled, after being exiled for the death of an Egyptian. Forty years later, this is the same setting where God is believed to have handed down his ten commandments to Moses. Mt. Sinai is a popular place of pilgrimage for followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam because of its religious significance. The Sinai Peninsula also offers the tourists and visitors access to the ancient monasteries, stunning canyons and hot deserts. At the foot of St. Sinai is the Greek Orthodox Monastery of St. Catherine, one of the oldest monasteries in the world. It is overwhelming to see that after all these centuries, the icons, manuscripts and objects inside are still perfectly intact. Visitors should see St. Catherines main church, the old refectory, and the chapel of the burning bush, the library, and the Fatimid mosque. The Colored Canyon is among the most unique and beautiful features in the Egyptian desert. Millions of years ago, the Colored Canyon was once an ancient ocean, which eventually receded KS0806_Group1 49 2011

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into a now-waterless area. What remains of the ocean are only the beautiful sandstone and limestone in the Colored Canyon, in multitudes of colors, shades and hues. If you are into hiking, this is the place for you. The Sinai Peninsula has so many hiking trails, which you can easily arrange at the Bedouin Camp in Katerina Village. You can hire a Bedouin guide and a camel to help carry your things to your destination. To escape from the extreme desert heat, the Red Sea offers one of the best diving and snorkeling spots in the world. Suez Canal: Important Waterways The Suez Canal is the most important and known waterways that is situated in Egypt. It was opened in the year 1869 and its purpose was to allow transportation of water between Europe and Asia. All this is done without plotting a course around Africa, the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The total length of the canal is 193 kilometers (120 miles). The canal is 24 meters (79 ft) deep at maximum depth. The width of the canal is 205 meters (673 ft). It has 3 lanes with four passing places like great Bitter Lake, Mediterranean, and Gulf of Suez on the Red Sea. The owner of the Suez Canal is Suez Canal Authority (SCA) of Arab Republic of Egypt. The Suez Canal is considered to be very important oil transit chokepoints from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. The Suez Canal is also responsible for almost 8% of shipping traffic, with more than 50 ships taking a voyage through the canal daily. During the year 1967, the canal was closed because of the Six Day War. The canal has become a source of fighting as it serves as a buffer zone for Israel. The canal was reopened in the year 1975 and since then, it has been widened two times. From the tourist perspective, one must aim at traveling around the Cape Agulhas. This route is supported for ships that are too large and huge in size. This is also the safest route, as piracy in Somalia is increasing day by day. Step Pyramid of Djoser (Zoser) The Step Pyramid of Djoser (Zoser) is the earliest stone pyramid in Egypt, thus became an important milestone in Ancient Egyptian Architecture that laid the basis for future and more advanced pyramids in Egypt. The Step Pyramid was already an attraction for many centuries. Evidence has shown that travelers and pilgrims have come to see the pyramid from as early as the Middle Kingdom Period (2040 to 1640 BC). The Step Pyramid of Zoser was built approximately 2649 to 2575 BC, during the 3rd Dynasty and under the rule of the pharaoh Zoser (or Djoser). The building was under the leadership of the pharaohs architect Imhotep. Because of Imhoteps immense influence and contribution over Ancient Egyptian architecture, he was later deified and became god of the architects and doctors. Special permission from the Antiquities Inspectorate is needed to access the pyramids interiors. The original entrance in the north side was blocked; instead visitors access the interiors through a newer tunnel in the south side. Travelers must walk a 28-meter passageway to access the pharaohs burial chamber, which was heavily plundered by thieves during antiquity. On the northern face, there is a small room called the Serdab. You cannot go inside the room, although the sloping wall is drilled into two large holes so you can take a good peak of the statue of Zoser inside. The Ancient Egyptians worshipped and made offerings to their deified pharaoh through these two holes. Imhotep certainly created revolutionary architectural designs for the pharaoh Zoser. Previous pharaohs were buried in rectangular mastabas, whereas Imhotep was able to design a pyramid by stacking six mastabas on top of the other, one mastaba smaller than the previous one. This KS0806_Group1 50 2011

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innovative design would later evolve into the smooth-sided triangular pyramids in Giza and other pyramids in Egypt. The Pyramids of Giza Egypt has more than 100 pyramids that are spread all over the country. These pyramid structures are made up of sandstone brick. The pyramids were built for the rulers of Egypt. The first pyramid that was built in Egypt was the Pyramid of Djoser during the third dynasty. The 3 best Egyptian pyramids are the Pyramids of Giza. These pyramids were built on the outskirts of Cairo. The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is said to be the largest Egyptian pyramid ever made in the history. This pyramid figure is one of the seven wonders of the worlds. The Pyramid of Kufu is also known as the Great Pyramid. The Pyramids at Giza are three in number. Three big ones are called the great pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) , the pyramid of Khafre (Khafra) and the pyramid of Menkaure. The pyramid of Menkaure further has 3 smaller pyramids that are subsidiary to this main pyramid and are called the queens pyramids. The pyramids at Giza attract maximum tourist attention every year. Out of all the three pyramids at Giza, only the pyramid of Khafre retains some parts of the originally polished limestone casing near its pinnacle. To the naked eyes and laymen, the pyramid of Khafre would always look tall, but the fact is that the pyramid of Khufu is the tallest of all. There are a lot of theories regarding the construction of the pyramids and a new research shows that the pyramids were made by building blocks made out of limestone concrete. Sphinx The Sphinx is a mythological animal shaped figure which is portrayed as a recumbent lion that has a human head. The sphinx got its name and origin from in sculpture form, from the old kingdom of Egypt, which the old Greeks used to apply their names when compared to the female monster, which again was a Greek mythological figure. The old and ancient sphinx image pictures as a sitting lioness that has a human head. Only occasionally the lion has a head of the falcon or hawk. This tradition was originally started by the Egyptians, but later was taken over by many other cultures. Then it was a very common site to see a picture of the lion body with the head of any other animal other than the lion. It is very interesting to know that the main purpose of the sphinx was to guard the temple doors. And such sculptures could be very easily found in the royal tombs as well as religious temples. In fact the first sphinx depicted Hetepheres II of the 4th dynasty and lasted from 2723 to 2563 BC. As per records the largest and the most known sphinx can be seen the great Sphinx of Giza, which is located at the Giza plateau on the bank of river Nile. Researchers till date have not been able to find out the exact construction date. However, the head of the sphinx is said to be that of the greatest and the strongest ruler called the Hatshepsut.

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Tourism Geography Valley of the Kings

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Valley of the Kings is a magnificent valley in Egypt located west of the Nile River. The valley contains many tombs of the new kingdom and it is divided into two: the west and the east valley. The east valley is more famous and attracts more visitors to it as it has most of the tombs in the new kingdom. Because of the symmetry and the beauty that the tomb holds, visitors find it extremely difficult to make a choice of entering the tomb. Since they are so many in number, yet having there own uniqueness that it becomes almost impossible to cover all of them. One of the special tomb is called the Tutankhamen(KV62), which needs a different ticket to enter.

All the tombs are not open all the time. Some are only used for special occasions and some of them are closed for restoration by the government. These tombs have undergone many changes in the past 500 years of use. Another tomb called Tuthmose III is in the East valley and is one of the ancient one that has its own history. It is made in an oval shape and has some stick figures all over it. It has a metal staircase that takes you down to the tomb which is worth a look. Horemheb, Ramesses VIs is yet another tomb that is worth spending time in. Recently, the KV5 tomb is given a lot of attention and again is located in the east valley. Almost 120 rooms have been discovered, however, they are not open for common visitors and the public. Valley of the Queens The valley of queens is a special place in the Egypt where the wives of the Egypt rulers were buried during the ancient times. The Valleys of Queens in Arabic is called the Wadi el melikat. The older name of this place was Ta-set- Neferu which meant the place of the children of the Egypt ruler in English. During the 18th, 19th and the 20th century many young princess and prince were also buried in this place. The Egyptian rulers however were buried in the valley of Kings. Every notable family member was buried in his or her respective tombs that further were maintained by the mortuary priests. These priests would every day prayer and perform rituals for the deceased identity. The valley of Queens is very close to the Valley of the Kings. This land was especially chosen for this purpose as it is very barren, isolated and away from the main town. The 18th dynasty kings did not choose to be buried in pyramids, however wanted to be KS0806_Group1 52 2011

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placed in rock cut tombs. The valley together holds more than 70 tombs and many of them look stylish and decorative. The valley of queens as well as the valley of kings is a must to visit place if you are in the town of Luxor. Every single tomb speaks a story of its own, engulfing many mysteries in it. The entire air about the place is different. A lot of visitors have said once you visit the valley, it seems you have formed connection with the other world. 2./Cultural aspects a/ Story of Caesar & Cleopatra Cleopatra is by far one of the most ever famous queens of all times in ancient Egypt. Her story of love and death is very famous and she ruled Egypt and made it quite powerful at the time. Cleopatra was born in 69 B.C. in Alexandria. She was the third daughter in line to her father Ptolemy XII; she later had another sister and two younger brothers. Her younger brother Ptolemy XIII later reigned with her. Cleopatras story is one of the most famous ever. Not only because of her great love, but because she was deeply in love of Egypt and she is classified by historians to be the last Pharoah of Egypt. Cleopatra came to the throne after death of her two elder sisters and after death of her father whom was much hated by the Egyptian and had fled to Rome several years before. During the two centuries that preceded Ptolemy XII death, the Ptolemies were allied with the Romans. The Ptolemies' strength was failing and the Roman Empire was rising. During the later rule of the Ptolemies, the Romans gained more and more control over Egypt. Tributes had to be paid to the Romans to keep them away from Egypt. She came to reign in 51B.C.and was of 17 years of age. She was the only Ptolemic Pharoah to speak the Egyptian language. She also took on the Egyptian religion. She was very intelligent and was a shrewd politician with an extraordinary charisma. However, she was not beautiful and had a much masculine features. She was very will-powered; her struggle began after being exiled to Syria with her sister by her brother, husband and Co-regent Ptolemy XIII. When Cleopatra became co-regent, her world was crumbling down around her. Cyprus, Syria and other capitals were gone. There was anarchy abroad and famine at home. Between 51 and 49 BC, Egypt was suffering from bad harvests and famine because of a drought which stopped the much needed Nile flooding. Regardless, she started an army from the Arab tribes which were east of Pelusium. During this time, she and her sister Arsinoe moved to Syria. They .returned by way of Ascalon which may have been Cleopatra's temporary base In the meantime, Pompey had been defeated at Pharsalus in August of 48 BC. He headed for Alexandria hoping to find refuge with Ptolemy XIII, of whom Pompey was a senate-appointed guardian. Pompey did not realize how much his reputation had been destroyed by Pharsalus until it was too late. She started to go to war with her brother. This occurred after the death of Pompey, who had sought refuge from Caesar to Egypt but was stabbed to death once he came ashore to Alexandria by Ptolemys advisors. Caesar who was on Pompeys tail, arrived in Alexandria 4 days later. There he acclaimed to be the ruler of Egypt bringing with him thirty-two hundred legionaries and eight hundred cavalry. He also 53 KS0806_Group1 2011

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brought twelve other soldiers who bore the insignia of the Roman government who carried a bundle of rods with an ax with a blade that projected out. This was considered a badge of authority that gave a clear hint of his intentions. There were riots that followed in Alexandria. Ptolemy XIII was gone to Pelusium and Caesar placed himself in the royal palace and started giving out orders to make Ptolemy XIII return again. Cleopatras cleverness led her to invite herself at Caesars palace. Wrapped up in a carpet she was delivered to him and as the carpet was unwrapped she appeared to him. Being rather seductive, she lured Ceasar before Ptolemy,s arrival who upon seeing that they were in love, Screamed out Betrayal to all the Alexandrians. The Alexandrian War was started when Pothinus called for Ptolemy XIII's soldiers in November and surrounded Caesar in Alexandria with twenty thousand men. During the war, parts of the Alexandrian Library and some of the warehouses were burned. However, Caesar did manage to capture the Pharos lighthouse, which kept his control of the harbor. Cleopatra's sister, Arsinoe, escaped from the palace and ran to Achillas. She was proclaimed the queen by the Macedonian .mob and the army During the fighting, Caesar executed Pothinus and Achillas was murdered by Ganymede. Ptolemy .XIII drowned in the Nile while he was trying to flee Alexandria surrendered to Caesar, who captured Arsinoe and restored Cleopatra on the throne. Egyptian law did not allow a queen to rule without a king, so Cleopatra married another brother, Ptolemy XIV, but she was in love with Caesar. Caesar and Cleopatra spent the next several months traveling along the Nile, where Caesar saw how the Egyptian people worshipped Cleopatra. It was at that time that Cleopatra became pregnant with Caesars son. She later gave birth to a son, Ptolemy XV, called Caesarion or "Little Caesar." Caesar returned to Rome in 46 BCE with Cleopatra and their newborn son, Caesarion. Caesar had only one other child. Caesar was very popular with the Roman people. They named him dictator. A dictator is a ruler with complete power. Cleopatra was less popular with the Romans. She had called herself the "new Isis." Many Romans were unhappy that Caesar was planning to marry a foreigner. On March 15, 44 BC a crowd of conspirators surrounded Caesar at a Senate meeting and stabbed him to death. Knowing that she too was in danger, Cleopatra quickly left Rome. Later her brother died and Cleopatra made her four-year-old son rule as the new king. She found Egypt suffering from plagues and famine. The Nile canals had been neglected during her absence which caused the harvests to be bad and the inundations low. The bad harvests continued from 43 until 41 BC. Rome was in turmoil after Caesar's murder. Several armies competed for control. The two greatest were those of Mark Antony and Octavian. Octavian was the adopted son of Julius Caesar, but Mark Antony was believed to have led a larger army. When Antony asked Cleopatra to meet with him, Cleopatra decided that she had another opportunity to return to power both in Egypt, and in Rome. Another episode of Cleopatras story of love is revealed in her story with Mark Anthony. Their story began when mark Antony asked Cleopatra to come to see him in turkey. She knew that he could be easily dazzled by her glamour and her marvelously- tailored seductive arrival. KS0806_Group1 54 2011

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He became immediately in love, an affair that led to the birth of his twins, Cleopatra Selene and Alexander Helios. Four years later, mark antonym came back to Cleopatra. In 37 BC, while on his way to invade Parthia, Antony returned to Cleopatras arms. He now stayed in Alexandria which was his home. Cleopatra then gave birth to another son; Ptolemy Philadelphus Mark Anthony gave her much land which was very essential to Egypt. He gave her Cyprus, the Cilician coast, Phoenicia, CoeleSyria, Judea and Arabia. This allowed Egypt to be able to build ships from the lumber from Cilician coast. Egypt then built a large fleet. Antony had planned a campaign against the Parthians. He obviously needed Cleopatra's support for this and in 36 BC, he was defeated. He became more indebted to her than ever. Much of the later coming tragedy was now being plotted in Rome. Mark antonyms wife, Octavia was too much frustrated and angry by the very bad treatment of mark to her. Octavian, decided that Mark Anthony was going too far especially after starting to give his illegitimate children royal titles. Ptolemy XV (Caesarion) was made the co-ruler with his mother and was called the King of Kings. Cleopatra was called the Queen of Kings, which was a higher position than that of Caesarion's. Alexander Helios, which meant the sun, was named Great King of the Seleucid Empire when it was at its highest. Cleopatra Selene, which meant the moon, was called Queen of Cyrenaica and Crete. Cleopatra and Antony's son, Ptolemy Philadelphos was named King of Syria and Asia Minor at the age of two. Cleopatra had dreams of becoming the Empress of the world. In 32 to 31 BC, Antony finally divorced Octavia. This forced the Western part of the world to recognize his relationship with Cleopatra. He had already put her name and face on a Roman coin, the silver denarii. The denarii was widely circulated throughout the Mediterranean. By doing this, Antony's relationship with the Roman allegiance was ended and Octavian decided to publish Antony's will. Octavian then formally declared war against Cleopatra. Octavian's navy severely defeated Antony in Actium, which is in Greece, on September 2, 31 BC. Octavian's admiral, Agrippa, planned and carried out the defeat. In less than a year, Antony halfheartedly defended Alexandria against the advancing army of Octavian. After the defeat, Antony committed suicide by falling on his own sword in 30 BC. CLEOPATRAS death is one of the most famous ever. After arranging Antonys funeral, she and her children were taken prisoners but were treated in a good way. Cleopatra afraid of being humiliated decided to take her life. She would not live this way, so she had an asp, which was an Egyptian cobra, brought to her hidden in a basket of figs. She arranged a big delicious meal and asked for figs. When the guards entered to see Cleopatra she was already dead. They found the 39-year old queen dead on her golden bed, with her maid Iras dying at her feet. Her other maid, Charmion, was weakly adjusting Cleopatra's crown, and she too fell over dead. Two pricks were found on Cleopatra's arm, and it was believed that she had allowed herself to be bitten by an asp (a kind of poisonous snake). As she had wished, she was buried beside Antony. She died on August 12, 30 BC at the age of 39. The Egyptian religion declared that death by snakebite would secure immortality. With this, she achieved her dying wish, to not be forgotten. The only other ruler to cast a shadow on the fascination with Cleopatra was Alexander who was another Macedonian. After Cleopatra's death, Caesarion was strangled and the other children of Cleopatra were raised by Antony's wife, Octavia. Her death was the mark of the end of the Egyptian Monarchs. The Roman Emperors came into to rule in Egypt. The Ptolemies were Macedonian in decent, but ruled as Egyptians, as Pharaohs. 55 KS0806_Group1 2011

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Cleopatra was the last pharaoh; after her death Egypt became a Roman province. Because Caesarion was Julius Caesar's son and might pose a threat to Octavian's power, Octavian had the boy strangled by his tutor. Cleopatra's other children were sent to Rome to be raised by Octavia. Cleopatra Selene married King Juba II of Mauretania and had two children, Ptolemy and Drusilla. No one knows what happened to Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus. Cleopatra was quite remarkable, she had great brilliance and her devotion to her country was utmost. She was a quick-witted woman who was fluent in nine languages, however, Latin was not one of them. She was a mathematician and a very good businesswoman she fought for her country. She had a charismatic personality, was a born leader and an ambitious monarch who deserved better than suicide. b/ Egyptian belly dance Belly dance or Bellydance is a "Western"-coined name for a traditional "Middle Eastern" dance, especially raqs sharqi. It is sometimes also called Middle Eastern dance or Arabic dance in the West, or by the Greco-Turkish term iftetelli Belly dance or Bellydance is a "Western"-coined name for a traditional "Middle Eastern" dance, especially raqs sharqi . It is sometimes also called Middle Eastern dance or Arabic dance in the West, or by the Greco-Turkish term iftetelli. Since the 1950s, it has been illegal in Egypt for belly dancers to perform publicly with their midriff uncovered or to display excessive skin. It is therefore becoming more common to wear a long, figure-hugging lycra one-piece gown with strategically placed cut-outs filled in with sheer, fleshcolored fabric. If a separate bra and skirt are worn, a belt is rarely used and any embellishment is embroidered directly on the tight, sleek lycra skirt. A sheer body stocking must be worn to cover the midsection. Egyptian dancers traditionally dance in bare feet, but these days often wear shoes and even high heels. In Egypt, three main forms of the traditional dance are associated with belly dance which are called by different terms. Broadly, these are folk dance, classical dance, and cabaret dance. The terms often used are: Sha'abi, Baladi/Beledi, and Sharqi. Baladi is a folk style of dance from the Arab tribes who settled in Upper Egypt. However the term has come to have distinct usage in reference to the folk dance which continues to be performed by the working classes of urbanised Egypt. Dance which more rigorously tries to uphold folk traditions from the countryside or from specific tribes will often be referred to as Ghawahzee. The Ghawahzee dancers have also been known to be at the heart of the conflict in Egypt over the propriety of publicly performed dance. The well-reputed Mazin sisters are widely held to be the last authentic performers of Ghawahzee dance. Khayreyya Mazin is curerntly the last of these dancers still teaching and performing as of 2009. Sharqi is based on the baladi style but was further developed by Samia Gamal, Tahiya Karioka, Naima Akef, and other dancers who rose to fame during the golden years of the Egyptian film industry. This has come to be considered the classical style of dance in Egypt. These dancers were famous not only for their role in Egyptian films, but also for their performances at the "Opera Casino" opened in 1925 by Badia Masabni. This venue was a popular place for influential musicians and choreographers from both the US and Europe who became involved in the performances and careers of the dancers, so many of the developments of the Golden Age which were pioneered here can be considered new developments in the dance. Later dancers who based their styles partially on the dances of these artists are Sohair Zaki, Fifi Abdou, and Nagwa Fouad. All rose to fame between 1960 and 1980, and are still popular today. Some of these later dancers KS0806_Group1 56 2011

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were the first to choreograph and perform dances using a full 'orchestra' and stage set-up, which had a huge influence upon what is considered the 'classical' style. Though the basic movements of Raqs Sharqi are unchanged, the dance form continues to evolve. Although Western dancers view Egypt as the Holy Grail of belly dance, belly dancers in Egypt are not well regarded. Egyptians do not consider it a respectable profession, and most belly dancers performing for tourists in Egypt today are foreigners. Dancers are not allowed to perform certain movements or do any floor work.State television in Egypt no longer broadcasts belly dancing. A plan to establish a state institute to train belly dancers in Egypt came under heavy fire as it "seriously challenges the Egyptian society's traditions and glaringly violates the constitution," said Farid Esmail, a member of parliament. c/ Egyptian Festivals Sham al-Naseem Both Muslims and Christians in Egypt welcome the first day of Spring with a festive picnic called Sham al-Naseem, which means the smell of spring. On the twenty-first of March, the people gather for outdoor picnics. Midamis (kidney beans) and fasiyah (dried fish) are the traditional food of the day. Some people boat on the River Nile, and enjoy their picnics there. Everyone greets each other kindly, saying "al Salamu Alaycum", which means "Peace be with you." Moulid an-Nabi The Prophet Mohammed's birthday is celebrated at Moulid an-Nabi. This festival includes parades in the city streets and lights, feasts, drummers and special sweets. Traditional foods include Halawet el-Moulid (a sweet), Hummus, and Aroussa al Moulid (candy doll) for the children. It is held during the 3rd month of the Islamic calendar each year, and is a happy occasion shared with friends and family. Ramadan More than 90% of the Egyptian population is Muslim and Ramadan is a very important festival in the Islamic calendar. It is celebrated during the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, to honour the time when the Quran was revealed to the prophet Mohammed. Followers of the Islamic faith fast for the entire month, and there is no eating, drinking, or smoking from sunrise until sunset. Certain exceptions are made for small children (those under the age of 10), pregnant and nursing women, and the elderly. Those who do not fast, do so discreetly. In this Ramadan- month of fasting , many Egyptians will make a special table for the poor or passerby,usually in a tent in the street,called Maedat Al Rahman which translates literally as Table of God,the Gracious and Merciful In Egypt, working hours are often reduced during Ramadan to allow for more prayer and reflection. The fast is broken each night with the meal referred to as Iftar. Iftar is often taken with friends and family and the mood is festive. Traditional music and entertainment is enjoyed throughout the night, and many stay awake until dawn. Mosques and streets are lit up with beautiful colours each evening and it is a joyous time throughout the nation. The end of Ramadan and the end of the fasting is marked with a festival called Eid-al-Fitr and is celebrated with large feasts. Because the Islamic calendar differs from the Western calendar, Ramadan and Eid-al-Fitr are not fluctuating dates on the Western calendar (moving up by about 11 days each year, as the Islamic calendar is based on the lunar calendar and the Western [or Gregorian] calendar is based on the solar calendar). Egyptian Christmas KS0806_Group1 57 2011

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While most of the Egyptian population is Muslim, there is a small but significant community of Christians belonging to the Coptic Orthodox Church. For the Coptic Christians of Egypt, Christmas is celebrated on January 7th each year. The Christmas season marks a time of fasting and vegetarianism for the community, and no meat or milk is taken from November 25th to the night of January 6th. Churches and Christian homes are festooned with lights, Christmas trees and manger scenes in the week leading up to Christmas, and on Christmas Eve, the 6th of January, celebrations in churches are held and the bells of the churches ring out. The Pope of the Orthodox Church begins prayers at the big Cathedral in Cairo at 11 p.m., and this service is broadcasted on Egyptian television. Christmas Day marks the end of fasting and picnics on the Nile are common places for celebrations. Children are given El 'aidia, the feast gift, to buy toys or sweets such as ice cream or sugar cane juice.

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INDIA

I. BASIC INFORMATION OF THE COUNTRY National symbols Flag Tricolour Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital Anthem Jana Gana Mana Song Vande Mataram Calendar Saka Game Hockey Flower Lotus Fruit Mango Tree Banyan Bird Indian Peafowl Land animal Royal Bengal Tiger Aquatic River Dolphin animal River Ganges 1. Area India, officially the Republic of India is a country in South Asia with 28 states and 7 union territories. It is the seventhlargest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, theArabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the northeast; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia. 2. UTC (UTC+05:30)

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3. Flag There are three colors in India flag. All the color is equal horizontal bars. The deep saffron colors shows courage and sacrifice. The saffron color is a symbol of Hinduism. The white color symbolize for peace, unity and truth. The green color shows the culture and fertility. In the middle of Indian flag you can see Chakra, which has twenty four spooks. The meaning of Chakra is unlimited motion which has no stop. The Chakra has 24 spokes, representing the 24 hours in a day. It means Indian people crazy about goal.

The Indian Flag's Color combined with three color, saffron, white and green and each color tells own meaning, which represents the India. The flag is combination of renunciation of disinterestedness, truth and our relation to the soul. The Indian flag color represent the unity and democracy of the country, where people have right to take its own decision. 4. Political System India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law". Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states. The government abides by constitutional checks and balances. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950, states in its preamble that India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states, has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes. 5. Monetary unit:

Indian Rupee(INR)

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Tourism Geography II. LOCATION

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1. Geographical location The geography of India describes the physical features of India, a country in South Asia that lies entirely on the Indian Plate in the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. The country lies to the north of the equator between 8 4' and 37 6' north latitude and 68 7' and 97 25' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of 3,287,263 square kilometers (1,269,219 sq mi). India measures 3,214 km (1,997 mi) from north to south and 2,993 km (1,860 mi) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 mi) and a coastline of 7,517 km (4,671 mi) India is bounded to the southwest by the Arabian Sea, to the southeast by the Bay of Bengal, and to the south by the Indian Ocean. Kanyakumari is the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The southernmost point in India is Indira Point, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Maldives, Sri Lanka and Indonesia are island nations to the south of India. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and the narrow channel of Palk Strait. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles (13.8 mi; 22.2 km) measured from the appropriate baseline. The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country's political boundaries with China, Bhutan, and Nepal lie. Its western border with Pakistanlies in the Punjab Plain and the Thar Desert. In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. The BangladeshIndia borderis defined by the Khasi hills and Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Ganges is the longest river originating in India. The Ganges, Indus and Rivers form the IndoGangetic Plain. The Ganges-Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. On India's western frontier is the Thar Desert. Kangchenjunga, on the border between Nepal and the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at 8,598 m (28,209 ft). Climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, toalpine in the upper reaches of the Himalayas. 2. Names of important precincts/ provinces Delhi Maharashtra West Bengal Tamil Nadu KS0806_Group1 61 2011

Tourism Geography 3. Capitals and capital cities States Delhi Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand(Uttaranchal) West Bengal Union Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli KS0806_Group1 Capital Cities New Delhi Hyderabad Itanagar Dispur Patna Raipur Panaji Gandhinagar Chandigarh Shimla Jammu (Winter capital) Ranchi Bangalore Thiruvananthapuram Bhopal Mumbai Imphal Shillong Aizawl Kohima Bhubaneswar Chandigarh Jaipur Gangtok Chennai Agartala Lucknow Dehradun Kolkata Headquarters Port Blair Chandigarh Silvassa 62

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Tourism Geography Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Pondicherry III. GEOGRAPHY PATTERNS 1. Landforms A. Islands Daman Kavaratti Pondicherry

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India has two island chains gifted by the sea. The Andaman & Nicobar group in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea. Each forming India's own union territory and pride. The Indian Ocean, third largest of Earth's four oceans, narrows toward the north and is divided by the Indian peninsula into the Bay of Bengal on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west. It has 7,600 km (4,700 mi) of coastline, including both the island territories. ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS The Islands are gaining reputation with its whitest sandy beaches, crystal clear turquoise lagoons, and spectacular underwater gardens, hundreds of breathtaking dive sites, natural atolls, marine flora and fauna. The exquisite sea surrounding makes the Islands an excellent scope of scuba diving, adventure tourism, water sports, tours and cruises. Floating in splendid isolation, cast of the Indian mainland is the archipelago of 572 emerald islands, islets and rocks known as Andaman & Nicobar Islands. This Union Territory is stretched over an area of more than 700 Km. from north to south with 36 inhabited islands. Once a hill range extending from Burma (Myanmar) to Indonesia, these undulating islands are covered with dense forests and endless variety of exotic flowers and birds. The topography of the islands is hilly and abounds in evergreen forests. The sandy beaches on the edge of meandering coastline are fringed with coconut-palms that sway to the rhythm of the sea. The sea around the islands offers excellent scope for water sports. The rare flora and fauna, underwater marine life and corals, with crystal clear water and mangrove-lined creeks, offer a dream-view of the rare gifts of nature. The clean and wide roads, free of filth as well as unpolluted fresh air attract any nature-lover, who seeks absolute peace and tranquility in the lap of Mother Nature. Adventure tourism like trekking, island camping, snorkeling, scuba diving etc., are the real attractions. A visit to these islands is a memorable lifetime experience. Mythological, the name Andaman was presumed to be derived from Hanuman, who was known to the Malays as Handuman. Since Prehistoric times, these islands were the home of aboriginal tribes. The tribes of, the Andaman group of islands are the Great Andamanese, Onges, Jarawas, and Sentinatese, all of Negrito origin, while the tribes of Nicobars are the Nicobarese and Shompens, both of Mongoloid stock. The first settlement by the British took place in 1789, which was later abandoned in 1796. The second settlement was basically a penal settlement, taken up in 1858, after the First War of Independence, followed by the settlement of convicts, Moplas, some criminal 63 KS0806_Group1 2011

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tribes from Central and United Provinces, refugees from erstwhile East Pakistan, Burma and Sri Lanka as well as ex-servicemen. In these islands people of all faiths - Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs etc., and of all languages like Hindi, Bengali, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi, Nicobari etc., live together in complete peace and harmony. Inter-religion and inter-regional marriages are common. This amazing racial and cultural mix is correctly described as Mini-India. Forests are the green extend over gold of the islands. The reserved and protected forests extend over 86% area of the territory and the forest cover is more than 92 %. About 50 % of the forests have been set aside as Tribal Reserves, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, which are inviolate. Luxuriant mangroves, perhaps the richest in the world, occupy nearly 5 % of the territory. More than 150 plant and animals species are endemic in nature. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park is rich in corals, varieties of colored fishes, sea turtles etc., besides other marine life. It is a birds paradise - more than 271 varieties of birds inhabit the idyllic landscape, out of which 39 are endemic. Megapode, Swiftlet, Hornbill and Nicobar Pigeon are some of the specialties of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS Lakshadweep also known as the Laccadive Islands is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea, 200 to 440 km off the coast of the South West Indian state of Kerala. The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India. The total land area is 11 sq mi or 32 km. Ten of the islands are inhabited. Lakshadweep is the northern part of the erstwhile Lakshadweepa. The islands are the northernmost among the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands, which are actually the tops of a vast undersea mountain range, in the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. The land area is 32 km2; the lagoon area is about 4200 km2, the territorial waters area is 20,000 km2and the economic zone area is 400,000 km2. Lakshadweep is an archipelago of twelve atolls, three reefs and five submerged banks, with a total of about thirty-nine islands and islets. The reefs are in fact also atolls, although mostly submerged, with only small unvegetated sand cays above the high water mark. The submerged banks are sunken atolls. Almost all the atolls have a northeast-southwest orientation with the islands lying on the eastern rim, and a mostly submerged reef on the western rim, enclosing a lagoon. It has 10 inhabited islands, 17 uninhabited islands, attached islets, 4 newly formed islets and 5 submerged reefs. The main islands are Kavaratti (where the capital city, Kavaratti, is located), Agatti, Minicoy, and Amini. The total population of the territory was 60,595 according to the 2001 census. Agatti has an airport where there are direct flights from Kochi, Kerala or Ernakulam (Cochin). Tourists need a permit to visit the islands; foreign nationals are not permitted to visit certain islands. Consumption of alcohol is not permitted in the islands except on Bangaram Island. The advent of Islam dates back to the 7th century. St. Ubaidulla of Mecca dreamt that prophet Mohammed wanted him to go to Jeddah, take a ship from there and go to distant places. While he was sailing near these small islands, a storm wrecked his ship. Floating on a plank he was swept ashore on the island of Amini. Ubaidulla started propagating Islam in the islands. KS0806_Group1 64 2011

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Still 93% of the inhabitants of Lakshadweep are Muslims. People are mostly engaged in fishing and coconut cultivation. The islands are virtually crime-free Due to its isolation and scenic appeal, Lakshadweep is emerging as a major tourist attraction for Indians. This brings in significant revenue, which is likely to increase. Since such a small region cannot support industries, the government is actively promoting tourism as a means of income. Water sports activities such as scuba diving, wind surfing, snorkeling, surfing, kayaking, canoeing, water skiing, yachting and night-voyage into sea are adventurous as well as quite popular among tourists. Hundreds of varieties of living corals, dolphins, sea turtles, sea urchins, seabirds, seaweeds, sea cucumbers, starfish, cowry, clams, eels, swordfish, octopus and innumerable types of lagoon triggerfish, etc. are a real delightful treat to the eyes of a naturalist. Tourists flock these islands throughout the year except during the South-west monsoon months when sea is extremely rough. B. Peninsula South India South India is a peninsula in the shape of a vast inverted triangle, bounded on the west by the Arabian Sea, on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the north by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The Narmada flows westwards in the depression between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The Satpura ranges define the northern spur of the Deccan plateau. The Western Ghats, along the western coast, mark another boundary of the plateau. The narrow strip of verdant land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is the Konkan region. The Western Ghats continue south, forming the Malenadu (Canara) region along the Karnataka coast, and terminate at the Nilgiri mountains, an inward (easterly) extension of the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris run in a crescent approximately along the borders of Tamil Nadu with northern Kerala and Karnataka, encompassing the Palakkad and Wayanad hills, and the Satyamangalam ranges, and extending on to the relatively low-lying hills of the Eastern Ghats, on the western portion of the Tamil Nadu - Andhra Pradesh border. The Tirupati and Annamalai hills form part of this range. The low lying coral islands of Lakshadweep are off the south-western coast of India. Sri Lanka lies off the south-eastern coast, separated from India by the Palk Strait and the chain of low sandbars and islands known as Rama's Bridge. The Andaman and Nicobar islands lie far off the eastern coast of India, near the Tenasserim coast of Burma. The southernmost tip of mainland India is at Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) on the Indian Ocean. The Deccan plateau is the vast elevated region bound by the C-shape defined by all these mountain ranges. No major elevations border the plateau to the east, and it slopes gently from the Western Ghats to the eastern coast. The plateau is watered by the east flowing Godavari and Krishna rivers. The other major rivers of the Deccan plateau are the Pennar and the Tungabhadra, a major tributary of the Krishna. Vaigai and Thamirabarani River are major rivers which emerge from the southern part of the Western Ghats, flow eastward and empty into the Bay of Bengal. The three major river deltas of South India, the Kaveri, the Godavari and the Krishna, are located along the Bay of Bengal. These major rivers provided irrigation to much of the land which provided food grain to Southern India. In particular the coastal delta regions traditionally constituted the rice bowls of South India.

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The region has a very tropical climate with the monsoons playing a major part. The South - West Monsoon accounts for most of the rainfall in the region and much of it falls from about June to October. The south-west monsoon starts from Kerala during June and moves up towards the northern parts of India.Tamil Nadu and southeast Andhra Pradesh receive rains from the North East Monsoon from about November to February. Much of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka have a distinct dry season from about October - May when there is not much rainfall. This region also experiences cooler nights from October to March while the days are pleasantly warm. In the northern parts of the region temperatures can fall below 10 degrees Celsius on occasions at night during this time. Days are very hot from March to June when temps can go over 40 degrees. The southern coastal region has an average minimum temperature of 20 degrees and maximum of 35 degrees.

Kathiawar Kathiawar Peninsula, also called Saurashtra Peninsula, peninsula in southwestern Gujarat state, westcentral India. It is bounded by the Little Rann (marsh) of Kachchh (Kutch) to the north, the Gulf of Khambhat to the east, the Arabian Sea to the southwest, and the Gulf of Kachchh to the northwest. From the northeast an ancient sandstone formation extends into the peninsula, which has an area of 23,000 square miles (60,000 square km). Most of the sandstone, however, is masked by lavas. The coastal regions are flanked west and east by clays and lime stones and south by alluvium and miliolite, a winddeposited sand concretion known as Porbandar stone and widely used for building material. The area flanking the Gulf of Khambhat is largely alluvial. Much of the peninsula is less than 600 feet (180 metres) above sea level, but the Girnar Hills and the isolated Gir Range reach top elevations of 3,665 feet (1,117 metres) and 2,110 feet (643 metres), respectively. The natural vegetation of the dry, hot region is mainly thorn forest, but mangrove stands are common in low-lying areas near the sea. Gir National Park in the south contains the last wild Indian lions, and other wildlife abounds. Agriculture is the chief occupation on the peninsula; the principal crops raised include wheat, millet, peanuts (groundnuts), and cotton. Bhavnagar is the principal port and city. The settlement of Kathiawar dates to the 3rd millennium bce. Archaeological remains of the Harappan civilization (named for Harappa village in Pakistan) occur at Lothal and Prabhasa Patan (Patan Somnath). In the 3rd century bce the peninsula came under Mauryan influence, but it was later dominated by the Shakas. In the early centuries ce it was ruled by the Kshatrapa dynasties, and, on the decline of the Gupta empire, Kathiawar was seized by the Valabhis in the 5th century ce. It suffered from early Muslim attacks, culminating in the campaigns of Mamd of Ghazna and the sack of Somnath in 1024. The area later passed under Mughal rule, and British paramountcy was recognized by the many small princely states after 1820. C. Cape Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari) is at the southernmost tip of India and its where three seas meet: the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. Pilgrims come here to bathe in the sacred waters 66 KS0806_Group1 2011

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and to worship the goddess Devi Kanya, an incarnation of Shiva's wife, who conquered demons and secured freedom for the world. Cape Comorin is one of the smallest districts in the state having an area of 1584 sq.kms. of which 1541-3 sq.kms are rural and 42.7 sq.kms are urban. The district lies between 77 degree 05* and 77 degree 36* of the Northern latitude. The district is bounded by Tirunelveli district in the north and north-east, by Kerala state in the north-west and confluence of Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean in the west and south. The coastline extends over 58 kms, and is almost regular except for some points and land projecting in to the sea at Kanyakumari. Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari) is a place from where one can see spectacular sunrises and also colorful sunsets! On balmy evenings, one can watch the sun set while full moon is rising in another part of the sky. Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari) district came in to existence in the year 1956 as a result of reorganization of states on the basis of vernacular and added in the map of Tamil nadu. It was known as the granary of Travancore due to its vast stratches of Paddy fields, rich forests and abundant mineral sands. This district has a pleasant climate and has the advantage of both the South-West as well as NorthEast monsoons. The city has many a charming spot, best being the Cape-comer in, the place of meeting of Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. The meeting point of the ocean is the where "Continent ends in a swan-song of broken rocks and mingling oceans". It was a faith that Kanyakumari district has been named after the Goddess Kanyakumari Amman, who is a well known diety of this district and over throughout the country. The legend is that the Goddess Parvathi is one of her incarnation as 'Devi Kanya' did penance on one of the rocks of this land's end to obtain the hand of Lord Siva. On a little rocky island just off the coast is the memorial to that great Indian philosopher - Swami Vivekananda. He is supposed to have sat here in deep meditation in 1892. On the island one can also see the Shri Pada Parai - the footprints of the virgin goddess. The Gandhi Memorial at Kanniya Kumari is located at the place where his ashes were kept before immersion. It is so designed that on 2nd October, his birthday, the sun's rays fall directly on the spot. D. Panhandle The Seven Sister States comprise the northeastern region of India, an area that is geographically separated from the Indian 'mainland'. It is surrounded by Bhutan and Tibet to the north, Myanmar on the east and Bangladesh in the south and west. This geographic separation has translated into a cultural uniqueness that is more akin to Chinese and southeast Asian traditions than Indian culture. The Seven Sister States also called "Paradise Unexplored" is a name given to the contiguous states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagalandand Tripura in northeastern India. These states cover an area of about 250,000 sq. km. or about 7 percent of India's total area. They had a population of 38.6 million in 2000, about 3.8 percent of India's total. Although there is great ethnic and religious diversity within the seven states, they also have similarities in political, social and economic contexts. KS0806_Group1 67 2011

Tourism Geography E. Reef LOCATION OF CORAL REEFS IN INDIA

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There are four major coral reef areas in India: Gulf of Mannar Andaman and Nicobar Islands Lakshadweep Islands and Gulf of Kutch There is also scattered coral growth on submerged banks along the east and West coasts of the mainland. TYPES OF CORAL REEFS FOUND IN INDIA The total coral reef area in India is 5,790 km2, distributed between 4 major regions: Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Reef structure and species diversity depends on the region and the environmental conditions. Lakshadweep is an archipelago of 12 atolls surrounded by deep water, on the northern end of the Laccadive-Chagos ridge. In the Gulf of Kutch, there are shallow patchy reefs growing on sandstone platforms that surround 34 islands. The reefs experience high salinity, frequent emersion, high temperature fluctuations and heavy sedimentation. In the Gulf of Mannar, coral reefs are found mainly around 21 islands between Rameshwaram and Tuticorin. Two former islands are now submerged, probably due to coral mining and erosion. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 530 islands with extensive fringing reefs which are in good condition. Corals are also found near Gaveshani Bank about 100 km offshore from Mangalore, and several areas along the eastern and western coast of mainland India, e.g. the Malvan Coral Reef Sanctuary near Mumbai. ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS GEOMORPHOLOGY Geographic Location of Andaman Islands: 10 30' - 14 N 92 - 93 E Geographic Location of Nicobar Islands: 6 30' - 9 30' N 93 - 94 E

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There are about 321 islands in the Andaman and Nicobar group, with a total land area of 8293 sq. km. Nicobars are affected by cyclones. Reef type: Fringing type Corals found: Acropora, Porites, Pocillopora, Montipora, Heliopora, Tubipora and Favia. THREATS Sedimentation appears to be the major cause for the decline of most coral reefs. Mud deposits have been found on the reef area at few places near Port Blair, Navy Bay, Flat Bay, Reef Island, etc. Sedimentation has triggered off infestation of the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci which has the potential to destroy whole reefs in a short time. Overcollection for construction or for sale as curios and ornamental and edible shellfish is proving to be a bane for the corals. Corals particularly the branching types are prone to breakage, especially in the areas open to tourist or fisher folks and others. Destructive fishing methods like blast fishing and cyanide fishing is observed. There is increase in the rate of coral bleaching which is fatal for the reefs. Human expansion and development poses serious threats to the coral reefs. Due to development there is increase in pollution leading to coral bleaching, degradation and ultimately death of the corals. Some sources of pollution in Andaman and Nicobar islands are: + Dumping of saw dust from plywood industries, though not directly on the reefs. + Implementation of new agricultural practices using pesticides, chemical fertilizers which run off from the field and results in sedimentation. + Waste disposal and oil spills from the vessels. LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS GEOMORPHOLOGY Geographic location of Lakshadweep islands: 19-12 N 72-74 E The Lakshadweep group of 12 atolls, 3 reefs, 5 submerged banks and 36 islands form the Lakshadweep archipelago. Reeftype: Atolls Corals found: Acropora species, Porites species, Diploastrea, Heliopora, Goniastrea retiformis and Lobophylliacorymbosa. THREATS The major threats to the reefs and biodiversity in Lakshadweep Islands are natural process like sea erosion, siltation and predation by star fish like Acanthaster planci which causes white band disease in the coral reefs. The anthropogenic (human induced) disturbances pose serious threats to the coral reefs like construction and development along the coasts, removal of natural vegetation, sea grasses, etc. Sewage pollution affects the coral reefs deeply. Destructive fishing methods use of mechanized fishing boats and launches damage the ecosystem by disturbing the sea grasses supporting the coral reefs. Dredging for cargo transport leads to destruction of many coral reefs. Exploitation of live baits aggravates further reef destruction and devastation of fauna. Due to sedimentation and pollution coral bleaching is observed. Coral mining continues to be the major threat to coral reefs. GULF OF KUTCH KS0806_Group1 69 2011

Tourism Geography GEOMORPHOLOGY Geographic Location of Gulf of Kutch:

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22 15' - 23 40' N 20' - 70 40' E

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Gulf of Kutch is the northernmost reefs of India. There are about 42 islands on the southern flank of the Gulf. Reeftype: Fringing reefs. Corals found: All corals of massive form. Branching corals like like Acropora, Pocillopora, Stylophora and Seritopora are totally absent. THREATS Some of the threats to the coral reefs in Gulf of Kutch are pollution caused by oil spills, industrial discharge, over collection of fauna, shell collection, mangrove damage and over fishing is damaging the ecosystem. Coral reefs are damaged by the sand that is being dredged for the cement industry. The areas of the Gulf of Kutch are heavily silted with deposits brought in by the tides and winds. Mining of massive corals and sand mining also caused severe damage to the reefs. GULF OF MANNAR GEOMORPHOLOGY Geographic location of Gulf of Mannar: 8 48' N, 78 9' E (Tuticorin) 9 14' N, 79 14' E (Rameshwaram) Reef type: Fringing reefs THREATS In many areas of Gulf of Mannar modern fishing techniques and destructive fishing practices such as dynamite fishing are used. The seaweeds are harvested by fishermen for agar industry. Commercial shell collection is another human activity which causes coral reef degradation to some extent. Coral mining activity has caused extensivedegradation of reefs, coastal erosion and sedimentation. Another cause for the damage of coral reefs is poor land use practices, such as agricultural activities, changing land use practices and destruction of natural forest and island vegetation, deforestation etc, which increases land derived sediment flowing onto coral reef. This encourages rapid algal growth, which chokes coral polyps and cut off the supply of light and oxygenDischarge of sewage is responsible also for the loss of coral reefs in large quantities. Dredging and other harbour related activities like anchoring and ship grounding have increased sedimentation in the coastal waters and caused the degradation of coral reefs Industrial development and their waste discharge into coastal water affect the coral reefs. The effluents are harmful to the coral reefs and the environment. Some coral reefs off Tuticorin in the Gulf of Mannar are reported to have disappeared completely due to coral mining. CORAL RESERVES IN INDIA: o Gulf of Mannar biosphere reserve o Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park o Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Andaman and Nicobar Lakshadweep KS0806_Group1 70 2011

Tourism Geography 2. Mountains

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o RaniJansi Marine National Park in Richies Archipelago, South Andaman Islands India has some of the highest and lofty mountain ranges in the world. These mountain ranges offer some of the most spectacular landscapes and habitats in the world. The varied altitudes and ranges presents varied floras from tropical and sub tropical forests of the Himalayan foothills, the temperate types of the higher lands, to the high altitude deserts of Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The western and eastern sectors of the majestic Himalayan Mountains have contrasting variances in vegetation and wildlife. With diverse habitats, animals and birds stock in the Himalayan wilds is diverse too. Explore the wilderness in remote mountain ranges of India and know more about the wilds in the mountains of India. THE HIMALAYAS Some of the highest mountains in the world are located in northern India. These are part of the Himalaya Mountains. Being the worlds highest mountain chain, the Himalayas is characterized by its great height, complex geologic structure, snowcapped peaks, large valley glaciers, deep river gorges, and rich vegetation. They were given the name Himalaya which means home of snow, because snow never melts on their high peaks. The Himalayas form the planets highest mountain region, containing 9 of the 10 highest peaks in the world. Among these peaks are the worlds highest mountain, Mount Everest (8848 m), which is on the Nepal-Tibet border; the second highest peak, K2 or Mount Godwin Austen (8,611 m), located on the border between China and Jammu and Kashmir, the third highest peak, Kanchanjunga (8,598 m) on the Nepal-India border. The Himalayas can be classified in a variety of ways. From south to north, the mountains can be grouped into four parallel, longitudinal mountain belts Shivaliks (Outer Himalayas or Sub-Himalayas) Himachal ( Lower Himalayas) Himadri ( Higher Himalayas) Trans-Himalayas (Tibetan Himalayas) From west to east the Himalayas are divided broadly into three mountainous regions the Western Himalayas, the Central Himalayas and the Eastern Himalayas. Major Himalayan Hill Stations include Gulmarg, Sonamarg, Dharamsala, Ladakh, Simla, Nainital, Kullu, Manali, Dalhousie, Mussoorie, Rishikesh, Amarnath, Gangtok, Kailas Mansarovar, Vaishno Devi, Patni Top etc. The Himalayas is the worlds highest mountain range comprising all top ten of the worlds highest peaks. In fact, the Himalayas include 14 peaks more than 8,000 meters high and some 200 more than 6000 meters. THE EASTERN GHAT The Eastern Ghats is an irregular range of mountains, which include four major rivers The Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and Holy Kaveri. Its range starts from West Bengal to Tamil Nadu. The Nilgiri hills The Blue Mountains in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats. This area has the largest population of Indian elephant. These discontinuous mountain ranges run parallel to the Bay of Bengal. The Shevaroy hill is the highest peak in the Easter Ghat.

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THE SAHYADRI The range starts near the border of Gujarat and ending at Kanyakumari. About sixty percent of the Western Ghats are located in the state of Karnataka. This area is one of the worlds ten Hottest biodiversity hotpots. The Arabian Sea area is known as Konkan area, one of the best tourist attractions in India. Pune is the largest city within this mountain range in Maharashtra. The Western Ghats mountain ranges make up an impressive fortress all along Kerala. There are a number of beautiful hill stations and wildlife sanctuaries in Kerala. Anai Mudi in the Anaimalai Hills in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. THE ARAVALLI The Aravali Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan to Haryana. The Aravalli Range is the eroded stub of a range of ancient folded mountains. Aravalli Range is one of the most popular mountain ranges in India also known as Mewat Hills. Aravalli Range is famous for mineral resources and surrounded by dense forests with rich in flora and fauna. The highest peak in this range is Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu. THE SATPURA The Satpura Range is a mountain range that stretches through the states in the central part of India. It extends across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Satpura Range is triangular in shape with its apex at Ratnapuri other two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Sacred Narmada River. The Narmada and the Tapti are the only major rivers that flow into the Arabian Sea. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range; The Satpura Range was formerly heavily forested. These forests provide habitat for some of Indias remaining large mammals, including The Royal Bengal Tiger, gaur, bear and blackbuck. The highest peak of Satpura is Dhupgarh THE VINDHYA The Vindhya Range is one of seven chief holy mountain ranges in India. The Vindhya geographically separates the Northern India from the Southern India as it runs across the central India. Vindhya Range is a very old mountain range in central India. It extends in east-west direction from Varanasi through Madhya Pradesh to Gujrat. Vindhya KS0806_Group1 72 2011

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Range is parallel to Satpura Ranges. The southern slopes of the range are drained by the Holy Narmada River. THE PURVANCHAL The Purvanchal Range is the extension of the Great Himalaya range in north-east region of India. It is parallel to Karakoram and ladakh range. Three hill ranges that come under the Purvanchal ranges are the Patkai, the GaroKhasiJaintia and Lushai Hills. It is the most densely forested area and full of flora and fauna in India. These hill regions also are known for highest rainfall. Cherrapunji and Mawsynram are well famous for highest annual rainfall. NANDA DEVI Nanda Devi is in a National Park Sanctuary, a World Heritage UNESCO Site of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humankind. The name means Bliss-Giving Goddess. The peak is regarded as the patron-goddess of the Uttarakhand Himalaya. Nanda Devi imposes on her votaries an admission test as yet beyond their skill and endurance Hugh Ruttledge, 1930s Nanda Devi in the highest peak in the Indian Garhwal Himalaya and is the highest mountain wholly in India. The mountain has two summits, the main summit at 7816m (25,643ft) and Nanda Devi East at 7434m (24,389ft). The mountain itself in surrounded by a number of peaks the lowest being 5,180 m (16,990 ft), thus making it an extremely difficult mountain to access. This circle of peaks forms what is known as the Nanda Devi Sanctuary. The other point of entry to this summit is through the Rishi Ganga Gorge, of which, way back in the 1930s, Hugh Ruttledge, who had attempted the peak 3 times but failed each time, said that gaining entry to the Nanda Devi Sanctuary alone was more difficult than reaching the North Pole. Fifty years of arduous exploration in search of a passage into the Sanctuary was finally achieved through the Rishi Gorge in 1934 by Eric Shipton and H.W.Tilman, with three Sherpa companions, Angtharkay, Pasang, and Kusang. The mountain was finally summitted in 1936 by a BritishAmerican expedition; it became the highest peak climbed by man until the 1950 ascent of Annapurna, 8,091 metres (26,545 ft). Higher non-summit elevations had, however, already been reached by the British on Mount Everest in the 1920s, but the summitting of Nanda Devi also involved steeper and more sustained terrain than had previously been attempted at such a high altitude. S.Ridge is a challenging climb rating Alpine Difficile, with exposed rock, snow and mixed terrain, and limited camp-sites. Above 6,100m there are few, if any, fixed ropes. Sherpa Tenzing, of Everest fame, described the ascent of Nanda Devi East as the toughest he ever did including Everest. However, you will be relieved to hear that there is some excellent climbing on the upper ridge! You will need about a month to tackle this challenging mountain. 73 KS0806_Group1 2011

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3. Bodies of water A. Gulf, Bay, Strait Gulf of Mannar The Gulf of Mannar is a large shallow bay that is an arm of the Laccadive Seain the Indian Ocean. It lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri Lanka with widths between 160 and 200 km (100 to 125 mi). A chain of low islands and reefs known as Adam's Bridge, also called Ramsethu, separates the Gulf of Mannar from the Palk Strait, which lies to the north between India and Sri Lanka. The Tambaraparani River of south India and Aruvi Aru of Sri Lanka drain into the Gulf. In 1986, a group of 21 islets (Small Islands) lying off the Tamil Nadu coast between Thoothukudi and Dhanushkodiwere declared Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. The park and its 10 km buffer zone were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1989. The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 10,500 km of ocean, islands and the adjoining coastline. The islets and coastal buffer zone includes beaches, estuaries, and tropical dry broadleaf forests, while the marine environments include seaweed communities, sea grass communities, coral reefs, salt marshes and mangroveforests. Gulf of Khambhat The Gulf of Khambhat (formerly known as the Gulf of Cambay) is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of Gujarat. It is about 80 miles in length, and divides the Kathiawar peninsula to the west from the eastern part of Gujarat state on the east. The Narmada and Tapti rivers empty into the Gulf. The Gulf is shallow and abounds in shoals and sandbanks including the Mal Bank at the river mouths and theMalacca Banks at the gulf's entrance to the Arabian Sea. The Gulf is known for its extreme tides, which vary greatly in height and run into it with amazing speed. At low tide the bottom is left nearly dry for some distance below the town of Khambhat. The Alang Ship Recycling Yard takes advantage of the extreme high tides of the gulf. Large ships are beached during the twice-monthly highest tides, and are dismantled when the tide recedes. The Gulf of Khambhat has been an important centre of trade since ancient times; its ports connect central India to the maritime trade routes of the Indian Ocean. Bharuch (Broach), Surat, Khambhat, Bhavnagar, and Daman are historically important seaports. Bharuch has been important since ancient times; Khambhat was the gulf's chief port in the Middle Ages, but after the silting of its harbor, Surat rose to prominence as the most important harbor of the Mughal empire. In 2000, India's science and technology minister Murli Manohar Joshi announced that evidence of an ancient civilisation exists in the form of a large complex of man-made structures underwater in the Gulf of Khambhat. India's archaeological community rejected the claims as baseless and politically motivated. 74 KS0806_Group1 2011

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Gulf of Kutch The Gulf of Kutch is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of Gujarat, and renowned for extreme daily tides. The maximum depth of Gulf of Kutch is 401 feet (122 m). It is about 99 miles in length, and divides Kutch and the Kathiawar peninsula regions of Gujarat. The Rukmavati River empties into the Arabian Sea nearby. Bay of Bengal Location South Asia Ocean type Primary sources bay Indian Ocean

Basin India, Bangladesh, Myanmar countries (Burma), Thailand, Indonesia, Sri Lanka Max length Max width Surface area 2,090 km; c.1,300 mi 1,610 km; 1,000 mi 2,172,000 km

Average 2,600 m ; 8,500 feet depth Max depth 4,694 m ; 15,400 feet

The Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. It resembles a triangle in shape, and is bordered mostly by the Eastern Coast of India, southern coast of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to the west and Burma (Myanmar) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (part of India) to the east. The Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 km. A number of large rivers the Padma (a distributaries of the Ganges), Meghna (a distributaries of the Brahmaputra), Jamuna (a branch of the Brahmaputra), Ayeyarwady, Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and Kaveri flow into the Bay of Bengal. Among the important ports are Cuddalore, Ennore, Chennai, Karaikal, Pondicherry, Tuticorin, Kakinada, Machilipatnam, Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Kolkata, Mongla, Chittagong and Yangon. The Bay of Bengal is a salt water sea and is a part of the Indian Ocean. It is also the largest bay in the world by area. Weather conditions are often brutal in the Bay of Bengal as the area is ravished by heavy monsoon rains, both summer and winter. Destructive cyclones are common in the spring and fall months, bringing intense winds and severe flooding. Peacock Bay Peacock Bay is a part of Khadakwasla dam's lake. This bay is owned of national defence academy, Pune. The name peacock bay is given due to the Peacocks found in this area. Other animals found in this area are Deer, lion tailed Monkey and Civet. This lake covers area of about 501 sq. kms. and the depth varies from 40 to 120 feet. This bay KS0806_Group1 75 2011

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hosts various competitions like annual national inland championship, open lake swimming competition, etc. This lake is a venue for water sports in Pune. This bay is just 12 km away from Pune and is situated on Mutha River. Mahim Bay Mahim Bay is a large bay, part of the Arabian Sea in Mumbai India. The southern end is Worli, northern end is Bandra Reclaimation and Mahim is in the centre. The bay was named after the islands of Mahim and Salsettewere merged in the early 19th century. The Mithi River drains into Mahim Creek which drains into the Bay, and forms the border between the cityand its suburbs. During the colonial era, the Portuguese built a watch tower called Castella de Aguada on the northern side. Later, the British built the Worli Fort to the south and Mahim Fort near the creek to defend the seven islands of Bombay against attacks by the Portuguese and the Marathas. The bay holds a small indigenous fishing population known as the Kolis. A large scale infrastructural project, the Bandra-Worli Sea Link, aims to link the two ends of the bay by a flyover bridge to reduce commuting time between the suburbs and the city. During the monsoon season the sea waves hit against the walls and sometimes also enters the small byelanes. The bay is highly polluted due to the drainage of the polluted Mithi River into it. Mahim bay shifts according to the tide; during high tide, water rushes to the Bandra side and during low tide, the Worli side is full of water. Recently tar deposits have been found in the bay. The bay is highly unsafe for swimming or Ganpathi immersion. The flooding situation is growing worse. Approximately the sea floods the area once a week. It reaches up to the walls of Bombay Scottish School. The school authorities are advised to shut their sea facing gates to ensure safety of the children. The most frightening situation occurred after the start of the Bandra-Worli Sea Link project. The waves entered the small bye lanes with great velocity. The Cafe Coffee Day and the Barista outlets were nearly touched by the rising waves. The citizens living on the sea facing side of the Veer Savarkar Marg have been warned repeatedly of building check walls to prevent loss of lives and destruction of any movable or immovable property. The students of Bombay Scottish School are also repeatedly told not to go on the beach for safety reasons. The environmentalists in that area have said that the bay has come ahead nearly by 100 metres . This bay is a cause of concern for the local bodies. It is predicted that the waves will nearly submerge Shivaji Park if their arrival to the shore is so fast. The land at the bay has sunk by 2 mm due to the rampant erosion due to the ferocious sea. This will play a deciding role in the safety of the Bandra-Worli Sea Link only time can tell. Palk Strait The Palk Strait is a strait that lies between the Tamil Nadu state of India and the island nation of Sri Lanka. It connects the Palk Bay to the northeast (and thence the Bay of Bengal) with the Gulf of Mannar to the south. The strait is 40 to 85 miles (64 to 140 km) wide. Several rivers flow into it, including theVaigai River of Tamil Nadu. The strait is named after Robert Palk, who was a governor of Madras Presidency (1755-1763) during the British Raj period. It is studded at its southern end with a chain of low islands and reef shoalsthat are collectively called Adam's Bridge (or the original name Rama's Bridge). This chain extends between Dhanushkodi on Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu 76

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andTalaimannar in Mannar in Sri Lanka. The island of Rameswaram is linked to the Indian mainland by the Pamban Bridge. The shallow waters and reefs of the strait make it difficult for large ships to pass through, although fishing boats and small craft carrying coastal trade have navigated the strait for centuries. Large ships must travel around Sri Lanka. Construction of a shipping canal through the strait was first proposed to the British government of India in 1860, and a number of commissions have studied the proposal up to the present day. The most recent study of theSethusamudram Shipping Canal Project, as it is now called, was anenvironmental impact assessment and a technical feasibility studycommissioned by the Tamil Nadu government in 2004. Like the English Channel, the Palk Strait has been taken up as a challenge by many long-distance swimmers. The Indian epic poem Ramayana, written thousands of years ago in Sanskritand an important Hindu text, recounts how Rama, with the help of an army ofvanaras, built a bridge of stones across the sea to Lanka to rescue his wifeSita from the Asura king Ravana. The Ram Karmabhoomi movement, encouraged by a NASA satellite photograph which they say proves that remnants of this bridge still exist, was formed to prevent the shipping canal from being built. The name Adam's Bridge is a later play than Rama's bridge and derives from the story that South India or Sri Lanka was the site of the biblical earthlyparadise, and that Adam's Bridge was created when Adam was expelled from paradise. B. Rivers The rivers of India play an important role in the lives of the Indian people. The river systems provide irrigation, potable water, cheap transportation, electricity, and the livelihoods for a large number of people all over the country. This easily explains why nearly all the major cities of India are located by the banks of rivers. The rivers also have an important role in Hindu mythology and are considered holy by all Hindus in the country. Seven major rivers along with their numerous tributaries make up the river system of India. Most of the rivers pour their waters into the Bay of Bengal; however, some of the rivers whose courses take them through the western part of the country and towards the east of the state of Himachal Pradesh empty into the Arabian Sea. Parts of Ladakh, northern parts of the Aravalli range and the arid parts of the Desert have inland drainage. Dr.Francis Buchanan surveyed the courses of the rivers of India along with their tributaries and branches in 1810-11 AD and presented a minute account of it. The shifting of the courses and bed over the centuries is very remarkable. Many of the channels mentioned in that survey have now become dead, dried or even extinct. Brahmaputra River FACTS & FIGURES Source: Lake Mansarovar Length: 1,800 miles Coverage: Tibet, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, and Bangladesh Important cities: Guwahati, Dibrugarh, and Tezpur in India. ALONG THE RIVER KS0806_Group1 77 2011

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Brahmaputra runs for about 800 miles in Tibet where it is called the Tsangpo. It bends to the south as it enters India and runs as RiverSiang for a while. The Siang falls to the plains at Pasighat in the easternmost state of Arunachal Pradesh. Pasighat is a place worth visiting. Something amazing about the Siang here is that it changes its color every half an hour. The banks on either side of the Siang are covered with lush green vegetation. As the rivers Dibang and Lohit join the Siang, it acquires the name of Brahmaputra and flows into Assam. Brahmaputra is to Assam what the Ganges is to the northern part of India and Kaveri is to the south.Coming down from a place called Sadiya, south of Arunachal Pradesh, the Brahmaputra passes through Dibrugarh, Neamati, Tezpur, Guwahati, and finally joins Padma, the easternmost strain of the Ganges. This combined stream then flows into Bangladesh where it joins river Meghna, one of the most important estuaries of the Ganges. The Brahmaputra valley is closely associated with lores from the great Indian epic Mahabharata and with Shaivite traditions (worship of Lord Shiva, the destroyer in the Hindu pantheon). Every few yards there is a ruin or a site that brings mythological associations with it. One site, which is considered very holy, is the Kamakhya temple, about 2 km from the banks of the Brahmaputra, near Guwahati. It is believed that if one does not go up the steps leading to this temple of feminine power, Shakti, or the consort of Shiva, he will be made to cross the Brahmaputra seven times. That was quite a threat, for the Brahmaputra is not a quiet river that lets you pass easily. In fact, there are stretches that are so dangerous that locals believe a monster lives in those patches. Every year that monster takes a toll on the human life as boats capsize or floods swallow the neighboring areas. Ganga River FACTS & FIGURES Source: Gangotri glacier Length: 2,525 km Tributaries: Alakananda, Chandrabhaga, Mandakini, Yamuna, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Sone Important Cities: Haridwar, Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Calcutta. The Ganga, especially, is the river of India, beloved of her people, around which are intertwined her memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of India's age-long culture and civilization, ever changing, ever flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga. -Jawaharlal Nehru First Prime Minister of India GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION High up in the Garhwal Himalayas lies the Gangotri glacier, bearing ice believed to be 400 years old. The mighty Ganga (also Ganges) emerges from beneath this glacier, at a height of 3,959 m above sea level. Here she is known as the Bhagirathi, after the legendary prince Bhagirath who is accredited with bringing her down from heaven to earth. Bursting forth at Gaumukh, out of a huge cavern shaped like the mouth of a cow, snow laden and hung with giant icicles, the Bhagirathi goes rushing, sparkling, foaming around chunks of ice that are constantly breaking off from the glacier above. Eighteen kilometers downstream stands Gangotri, which was the source of the river until the glacier melted and retreated to its present position above Gaumukh. From here, onwards the river passes through the whole of north Indian plain covering the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Bangladesh. FAIRS AND FESTIVALS The journey of the Ganga is a journey through the most of fairs and festivals of north India, be it Kumbh Mela or Makar Sankranti or Magh Mela or the bathing festivals on the eclipses, all find their glory on the sacred banks of this river. Indus River FACTS & FIGURES Source: Lake Mansarovar Length: 2,900 miles Coverage: Tibet, Ladakh, Zanskar Valley, and Pakistan Tributaries: Zanskar, Sutlej, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, and Chenab ALONG THE RIVER KS0806_Group1 78 2011

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Rising in southwestern Tibet, at an altitude of 16,000 feet, Indus enters the Indian Territory near Leh in Ladakh. The river has totaldrainage area of about 4,050,000 square miles, of which 1,075,000 square miles lie in the Himalayan mountains and foothills. After flowing eleven miles beyond Leh, Indus is joined on the left by its first tributary, the Zanskar, which helps green the Zanskar Valley. Many interesting mountain trails beckon the mountaineering enthusiasts to the Zanskar Valley. The Indus then flows past Batalik. When it enters the plains, its famous five tributaries-Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej-that give Punjab its name as the "land of five rivers," join it. Buddhist monasteries and other heritage sites are the principal tourist attractions of Central Ladakh and Zanskar. These sites, most within reach of Leh, may be visited by a bus or taxi. Many of the region's major gompas (Buddhist monasteries) are open throughout the day and a caretaker Lama is available to show visitors around. Some of the less visited establishments have special opening hours, as in the case of Namgyal Tsemo, Shey Palace, and the Stok Palace Museum. Hall of Fame, near Leh, is a tribute to our valiant soldiers. About 30 km from Leh, there is a Sikh gurdwara that is maintained by the Indian Army. Both the places are worth visiting. SINDHU DARSHAN The "Sindhu Darshan" or Sindhu festival held in the month of June aims at projecting the Indus as a symbol of India's unity and communal harmony. Whilst promoting tourism to this area, this festival is also a symbolic salute to the brave soldiers of India who have been fighting not only with the enemies in the human form but also in the form of nature. Kaveri River FACTS & FIGURES Source Talakaveri in Karnataka Length: 765 km Coverage: Karnataka and Tamilnadu Tributaries: Bhavani and Noyil Important cities: Coorg, Mysore, and Srirangapatnam ALONG THE RIVER Coorg is the first recipient of Kaveri's benevolence and does her proud with verdant vegetation. It is the land of sandalwood and cedar where betel vines cling endearingly to the trees. Swaying with a grace typical of the area, areca palms and cardamom plants add spiceto the exhilarating atmosphere. The jungles abound in wildlife. The vistas of the hills and dales of Coorg and the breathtaking views are a treat for nature lovers. As Kaveri turns west beyond Kushalnagar, the first important shrine is that of Ramnathpura. Rama after killing Ravana is said to have worshipped the Eswara Linga here. A majestically flowing river and lush paddy fields offer a colorful canvas.The entire area is very picturesque with high wooded hills and deep gorges alternating with the plains of the river and her tributaries. Extremely attractive idols of Sri Kodandarama and his consorts adorn the temple at Chunchanakatte. Kaveri now heads eastwards and deposits all the water in the Krishnarajsagar reservoir built very close to Mysore. The reservoir sports the world famous Brindavan Gardens. The dancing fountains and the myriad colored lights turn this well laid out garden into a veritable dreamland in the evening. En route to Srirangapatnam is the Ranganathittu bird sanctuary. White crane, night heron, darter, spotted pigeons and other birds of varied plumes and colors flock to this place and often take a joy ride on the backs of the crocodiles lazing in the sun. Srirangapatnam, which is at a distance of about 15 km from Mysore, was the capital of Tipu Sultan. Standing amidst the minarets and the royal palace is the temple of Sri Ranganatha or Vishnu. Tipu made generous contributions in the form of gold jewelry and silver ritual vessels to the temple. About 40 km from Mysore lays Somnathpura on the banks of the river and is noted for its Lakshmikeshava temple, a splendid specimen of Hoysala style of sculpture and architecture. Constructed in AD 1268 by Soma, an officer in the court of Hoysala Mummadi Narasimha, this temple must be one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. It has superbly sculpted walls and intricate ceilings, and no two friezes are alike. The flowing contours of majestic elephants, soldiers and galloping horses, as also the use of space to highlight the dramatic effect, infuse a remarkable realism into stone. Talakad is another well-known pilgrimage center sanctified by Kaveri. Kaveri is described as changing the direction of her flow in four ways, and in each of these vantage points stand temples dedicated to Shiva. These are the Panchlingeshwara temples nestling in huge mounds of sand. Having distributed her largesse in the form of mineral deposits and water over a vast tract of land, Kaveri next turns into a 79 KS0806_Group1 2011

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gigantic waterfall at Sivanasamudram whose hydroelectric potential has been tapped. The deafening roar with which she cascades down at Gaganchukki and Barachukki silences the spectators into a mute awe. She then touches the southern border of Bangalore district and makes her entry into Tamil Nadu through an extremely narrow passage aptly called Meke Datu, or goat's leap. Her tributaries Kanva and Arkavathi swell her ranks here. As in the case of Karnataka, Kaveri has bestowed immense agricultural prosperity to Tiruchi and Tanjore districts of Tamil Nadu. As the last lap of her marathon journey, she links her lot with the Bay of Bengal at Kaveripupattinam exactly one year after her emergence at Bagamandala and lends credence to the Hindu theory of rebirth by starting her journey all over again on Tula Sankramana, bringing in her tide a new hope, a renewed faith. Narmada River FACTS & FIGURES Source Mahadeo hills in Madhya Pradesh. Length 1,312 km Coverage Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat Important cities Jabalpur ALONG THE RIVER Narmadakund in Amarkantak has an ambience that makes a pilgrim spot out of this small place. Amarkantak is a plateau from which hangs a tale Young Narmada falls in love with the male river Son and asks Juhilla (a tributary of the Son) to convey her message of love. Juhilla entices Son herself. The disgust and anguish of the lovely Narmada compels her to jump off the western cliffs of Amarkantak. A mere six kilometers from her genesis, the Narmada hurtles down 150 feet at Kapildhara, a gorgeous waterfall. Named after the saint Kapil, this fall is soon followed by Dudhadhara. All along the river, one will be always close to teak jungles. Apart from teaks, India's best hardwoodforests are found in the Narmada river basin and they are much older than the ones in the Himalayas. Moving along, one reaches the marble rock country Bheraghat near Jabalpur . Bheraghat, about 24 km away from Jabalpur , is a cluster of great, white limestone cliffs standing out 30 m above the waters of the Narmada. They are an awesome sight, particularly by night when white, silvery moonshine bathes the gorge. The views at Dhuandhar, where the river is more like a screen of mist, and Haathi-ka-Paon are mesmeric. There is the Chausath Yogini (sixty-four yoginis) temple above the lower end of the gorge. The attendants of Durga are represented here. Although the images have been damaged, they still retain their pristine beauty. The city of Jabalpur is the second largest in Madhya Pradesh after Bhopal. The metropolis itself stands in a rock basin about 10 km away from the Narmada. Named after a saint called Jabali who lived here, Jabalpur is famous for its marble rocks. Down the Narmada, it is a myriad landscape-thickly forested mountain slopes, rocky regions with picturesque rapids, falls and whirlpools and cultivated lands with rich black cotton soil. The great river runs through rift valleys, which are part of perhaps the oldest geological formations of India. Believed to have originated from the body of Shiva, the river is also known as Jata Shankari. The worship of Shiva is common in these areas, and each stone or pebble found in the bed of the Narmada is believed to be a Shivalinga. Places along the banksOmkareshwar, Maheshwar, and Mahadeo-are all named after Shiva. Omkareshwar has several old and new temples. There is an island on the river that is supposed to have one of India's twelve great Shivalingas. Maheshwar is on the northern banks of the river. Cenotaphs in memory of the Holkars beautify the landscape at Maheshwar. There are a number of temples too, and a fort. One also gets a chance to see the delicate, gorgeous Maheshwari saris being hand-woven. Comfortable in warm and cold weather, dressy and yet light, these saris have a dedicated, select following among Indian women. Places like Maheshwar and Omkareshwar are just examples of the large number of religious centers that dot the banks of the Narmada as it weaves its 1,000-kilometer journey through the state of Madhya Pradesh. To this Narmada, home to so many, religion to more and beautiful river to all, there are many odes. The best ode would be a sojourn for a real experience that can last a lifetime. Saraswati River FACTS & FIGURES Source Har-ki-Dun glacier (near Yamunotri) KS0806_Group1 80 2011

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Length 1,600 km THE MOTHER OF ALL RIVERS The Saraswati River is believed to have drained the north and northwest region of India in ancient times, supporting over 16000 settlements. Although the river does not have a physical existence today, there are numerous references to it in the ancient Indian literature of the Vedic and postVedic period. Rig Veda, the most ancient of the four Vedas, describes Saraswati as a mighty river with many individually recognized tributaries. The sacred book calls Saraswati as the seventh river of the Sindhu-Saraswati river system, hence the name Saptsindhu for the region bounded by rivers Saraswati in the east and Sindhu (also Indus) in the west. Rig Veda hymns also describe life and times of the people residing in the Saraswati river valley. The awe and reverence the river inspired during the Vedic period is best summed by the three-word tribute to the river in the Rig VedaAmbitam, the best of the mothers; Naditam, the best of the rivers; and Devitam, the best of the goddesses. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION River Saraswati originated from the Har-ki-Dun glacier in West Garhwal, Bandarpunch massif in the Himalayas, along with the river Yamuna. The two rivers flowed parallel for some distance and later joined, proceeding south as the Vedic Saraswati. The seasonal rivers and rivulets, including Ghaggar, joined Saraswati as it followed the course of the present river through Punjab and Haryana. River Sutlej, the Vedic Shatadru, joined the river Saraswati as a tributary at Shatrana, approximately 25 km south of Patiala. Saraswati then followed the course of Ghaggar through Rajasthan and Hakra in Bhawalpur before emptying into the Rann of Kutch via Nara in Sindh province, running parallel to the Indus River. It has been established that the river Saraswati, carrying the waters of three perennial and numerous seasonal rivers, was a mighty river in the Vedic times and rightly deserved the Rig Veda title of Naditam-the greatest of the rivers. Yamuna River FACTS & FIGURES Source: Yamunotri Length: 1,370 km Coverage: Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Delhi Tributaries: Chambal and Betwa Important cities: Delhi, Agra, and Allahabad ALONG THE RIVER A bath in this river is said to be one hundred times more purifying than a bath in the Ganges.The reason is that even though the Ganges was once touched by the feet of Lord Vishnu, it was the Yamuna where Lord Krishna Himself played and swam with His cowherd friends. He also sported in its waters with the beautiful gopis of Brajbhoomi. Yamunotri, which is north of Haridwar in the Himalayan Mountains, is the source of the Yamuna. It is about 234 km north of Haridwar. Technically the source of the Yamuna is Saptarishi Kund, a glacial lake. To get there one has to climb from Yamunotri 12 km right up the mountain. From Yamunotri the Yamuna flows south until it reachesDelhi. It then flows to Braj Mandala through Vrindavan and Mathura. From there, it goes through Agra and eventually merges with the Ganges and the underground Saraswati at Prayag (Allahabad). C. Waterfalls, springs The foothills of different mountain ranges in India are abode to many waterfalls. Embellishing the charm of its natural beauty, waterfalls in the diverse locations in the country is its precious natural possession. Whether it is East, West, North or South, every region of the country is hoarded by severe natural landscapes having few or many of waterfalls. Waterfalls in India always held a great charm among the tourists from all around the world. The lure of these waterfalls is irresistible. The following is a list of waterfalls in India by height. Rank Waterfall Height Location 1 Kunchikal Falls 455metres Shimoga district, Karnataka 81

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Tourism Geography (1,493ft) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Barehipani Falls Thoseghar Falls Langshiang Falls Nohkalikai Falls Nohsngithiang Falls Dudhsagar Falls Kynrem Falls Meenmutty Falls Thalaiyar Falls Barkana Falls Jog Falls Khandadhar Falls Vantawng Falls Kune Falls Soochipara Falls Magod Falls Hebbe Falls Duduma Falls Joranda Falls Palani Falls Lodh Falls Bishop Falls Chachai Falls 399 metres Mayurbhanj district, Orissa (1,309 ft) 350 m (1,150 ft) Satara_District, Maharashtra Hills Hills Hills district,

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2 tiered waterfalls plunge type single drop waterfalls,

337 metres West Khasi (1,106 ft) Meghalaya 335 metres East Khasi (1,099 ft) Meghalaya 315 metres East Khasi (1,033 ft) Meghalaya 310 metres Goa (1,020 ft) 305 metres East Khasi (1,001 ft) Meghalaya

district, plunge type single drop

waterfalls,

district, segmented type waterfalls, single drop 4 tiered waterfalls

Hills

district,

3 tiered waterfalls 3 tiered waterfalls horsetail type single drop tiered waterfalls segmented waterfalls with single drop Horse tail type falls with single drop 2 tiered waterfalls 3 tiered waterfalls 3 tiered waterfalls 2 tiered waterfalls 2 tiered waterfalls horsetail type waterfalls with single drop plunge type waterfalls with single drop waterfalls,

300 metres Wayanad district, Kerala (980 ft) 297 metres Dindigul district, Tamilnadu (974 ft) 259 metres Shimoga district, Karnataka (850 ft) 253 metres Shimoga district, Karnataka (830 ft) 244 metres Sundargarh district, Orissa (801 ft) 229 metres Serchhip district, Mizoram (751 ft) 200 metres Lonavla, Maharashtra (660 ft) 200 metres Wayanad district, Kerala (660 ft) 198 metres Uttara Kannada (650 ft) Karnataka 168 metres Chikkamagaluru (551 ft) Karnataka 157 metres Koraput district, Orissa (515 ft) 157 metres Mayurbhanj district, Orissa (515 ft) 150 metres Kullu (490 ft) Pradesh district, Himachal district, district,

143 metres Latehar district, Jharkhand (469 ft) 135 metres Shillong, Meghalaya (443 ft) 130 metres Rewa (430 ft) Pradesh 82 district, Madhya

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Tourism Geography 25 26 27 28 29 30 30 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 40 42 Keoti Falls Kalhatti Falls Beadon Falls Keppa Falls Koosalli Falls Pandavgad Falls Rajat Prapat Bundla Falls 130 metres Rewa (430 ft) Pradesh

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122 metres Chikkamagaluru (400 ft) district, Karnataka 120 metres Shillong, Meghalaya (390 ft) 116 metres Uttara (381 ft) district, Karnataka 116 metres Udupi, Karnataka (381 ft) 107 metres Thane, Maharashtra (351 ft) 107 metres Hoshangabad district, Madhya horsetail type waterfall with (351 ft) Pradesh single drop 100 metres Kangra (330 ft) Pradesh district, Himachal segmented type with single drop Kannada fan type waterfall with single drop 6 tiered waterfall

Shivanasamudra 98 metres Mysore, Karnataka Falls (322 ft) Lower Falls Ghaghri 98 metres Latehar district, Jharkhand (322 ft) 98 metres Ranchi district, Jharkhand (322 ft) 98 metres Shillong, Meghalaya (322 ft) 91 metres Panna (299 ft) Pradesh district, Madhya

Hundru Falls Sweet Falls Gatha Falls Kiliyur Falls Kedumari Falls Muthyala Maduvu Falls Palaruvi Falls Teerathgarh Falls

segmented type with single drop horsetail type with single drop

91 metres Yercaud, Tamilnadu (299 ft) 91 metres Udupi district, Karnataka (299 ft) 91 metres Bangalore, Karnataka (299 ft) 91 metres Kollam district, Kerala (299 ft)

fan type waterfall with single drop horsetail type waterfall with single drop

horsetail type waterfall with single drop

91 metres Bastar district, Chhattishgarh Block type with single drop (299 ft)

India has more than 350 hot water springs, and the most famous springs are located in Manikaran near Kullu, Vashisht near Manaliland the sulphur rich springs of Yeshi, and the Yumthang in Sikkim. Famous Hot Springs Hot Springs at Manikaran The springs are associated with Lord Shiva and his wife, Goddess Parvati. It is believed that while bathing once in the pond, goddess Parvati lost her ear rings. When she informed Shiva about it, he was enraged. He looked down at the water with anger making it boil. A number of ear rings came out of the water, though since then, it has been boiling continuously. The temperature is so high that those not quiet 83 KS0806_Group1 2011

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used to it find difficult to even stand nearby for a long period. Moreover, the hot water is also used to cook food. The nearby gurudwara, which serves the accommodation purpose of the visiting tourists, also makes use of the water of the spring to prepare food Moreover, the water is also supposed to have medicinal values capable of curing diseases like rheumatism and muscular pains. The Hot Springs are located at Manikaran in the Kullu district and spread over an area of 1.3 km. Hot Springs at Vashisht This one is also located in the district of Kullu at Vashisht. The spring comes out from the granitic gnessies which are abundantly found in this part of Himalayas. The village, which is very small, finds mention in the tourists map because of this spring. The spring water, with temperature ranging from 110F to 123F, also has curative powers. Numerous people take a dip in its water on daily basis. Infact, there is also a separate tank for women. Hot Springs at Tattapani Located in the Mandi district around 51 km from Shimla, this is a natural sulphur spring. Its curative powers are helpful in warding off various nagging ailments. The level of water in the spring keeps on increasing and decreasing depending upon the water level of the Satluj River.

Hot Springs at Kasol This spring is at a distance of around 32 km from Bhuntar which is where the Kullu airport is located. The spring is quiet close to the spring of Manikaran, however, the temperature of water here is much lower. Hot Springs at Sikkim Sikkim has many hot springs known for their therapeutic value. High in Sulphur content, the waters are believed to have great medicinal properties with the average temperature of the water in these hot springs close to 50c. There is some well known hot springs in North Sikkim. The Yumthang Hot Spring is located some distance away from Yumthang village. To reach the hot spring one has to walk a few hundred yards from the road and across a pedestrian bridge on the River Lachung. For the convenience of bathers, there is a hut with two pools which contains hot spring water. Hot water rich in sulphuretted hydrogen gas from a spring just behind the hut and is diverted to the pools. D. Lakes India has a large number of beautiful lakes and great rivers spread all over the country from Kashmir to Kerala and from Rajasthan to Assam. Lakes in India can be divided as man made as well as natural, further natural lake again divided as freshwater lake and brackish water lakes. Indira Sagar reservoir the big lake is the biggest reservoir in India and the Sambhar Salt Lake is KS0806_Group1 84 2011

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Indias largest inland salt lake. Most of the lakes in India are fresh water lakes, Dal Lake in Kashmir and Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala are the example of freshwater lakes. These water bodies on the land surface are one of the most beautiful tourist attractions in India. The Cholamu Lake is counted as one of most beautiful lakes in the world. The Lonar Crater the worlds oldest and largest crater in India is located in state of Maharashtras District Buldhana. There are so may beautiful lakes which are famous for bird watching such as Kolleru Lake, Pulicat Lake and Nal Sarovar Lake. The Kanwar Taal or Kabar Taal Lake at Bihar is Asia largest Fresh Water Lake, Oxbow lake an oxbow lake is a U-shaped body of water. Most Popular Lakes of India: Wular Lake: Wular Lake is one of the largest fresh water lakes in Asia and the largest in India, is located in Jammu and Kashmir. It is measures 24 kms across and surrounded by towering mountains, the green water of the Wular Lake is an important natural habitat for fish, a rich population of birds and wildlife. Thousands of people living on its shores and elsewhere in the Kashmir valley depend on Wular Lake for fishing to earn their livelihood. The Kashmir valley has few more beautiful lakes like Nagin Lake and most popular Dal Lake. Loktak Lake: Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India, located in Manipur. It is also called the only floating lake in the world due to the floating phumdis. This ancient lake plays an important role in the economy of Manipur. It serves as a source of water for hydro power generation, irrigation drinking water supply and wildlife. The Keibul Lamjao National Park, which is the last natural refuge of the endangered sangai now found only in manipur. Damdama Lake: Damdama Lake is one of the biggest natural lakes in Haryana. It is a weekend getaway destination around Delhi. Located near the Aravalli Hills, it is the best place for Boating, Rock Climbing, Bungee jumping and Treking. Sohna Hills a short drive from Damdama Lake, at top the Aravalli hills. There is another famous lake in Haryana called Sohna Lake. Sohna Lake is situated amidst the Aravalli hills in green city Chandigarh. It is one of the most renowned tourist attractions in Gurgaon. Dal Lake: The Kashmir valley is blessed with exotic natural beauty of landscape and water bodies, out of them one of the best is Dal Lake. Dal Lake is one of the most beautiful lakes of India and is the second largest in the J&K valley. This is one of the most famous lakes in India and an icon of the Kashmir tourism industry. Apart from the natural beauty, Dal Lake attractions are the floating gardens, colorful shikaras and houseboats. The east of Dal Lake was the residence of goddess Maa KS0806_Group1 85 2011

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Durga. The Dal lake is situated in the beautiful city of Srinaga,Some of the most famous mosques are also located in Srinagar city to visit. Pichola Lake: Lake Pichola is an artificial fresh water lake situated in Udaipur city in Rajasthan. Udaipur is a beautiful city, set amidst the Aravalli Ranges of Rajasthan, India. Known for its picturesque lakes, Udaipur also called the city of lakes. The Lake Pichola, Udai Sagar Lake, Fateh Sagar Lake, Rajsamand Lake and Jaisamand Lake are the five prominent lakes of Udaipur. One of the most famous lakes is Pushkar Lake, which is one of the major tourist attractions in the Royal State Rajasthan.

Gurudongmar Lake: Gurudongmar Lake is one of the highest lakes in the world. This fresh-water lake is located northeast of the Kangchenjunga range in Sikkim. Sikkim is considered to have the most beautiful natural lakes in the world some of them are sacred by locals and therefore are places of worship as well as tourism. There are a series of beautiful lakes in Sikkim,the Gurudongmar Lake is the biggest and most beautiful lake among them. Other lakes are Tsomgo Lake also known as the frozen lake and Khecheopalri Lake also known as the wishing lake. Chilka Lake: Chilka Lake is the brackish water lake and is the largest coastal lake in India. The Chilka Lake in situated in Orissa and is Asias largest inland salt-water lagoon. Brackish water is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. Chilika Lake, popularly known as Chilka, is the queen of natural scenery in the tribal state Orissa, also known as the Swiss-lake in the continent. Attraction of Chilika Lake is fishing boats, migratory birds and an entertaining baba. The beautiful chilka lake is paradise for the migratory birds. Vembanad Lake: Vembanad Lake is Indias longest lake and is the largest lakes in the beautiful state land of God, Kerala. The Vembanad Lake is the largest brackish lagoon in Kerala.The houseboats and snake race are the major attraction on Vembanad Lake. Vallam Kali,The Snake Boat Race held every year in august is a major attraction of Vembanad Lake. There are so many lakes in the state one of them is Sasthamkotta lake, Sasthamkotta known as the queen of lakes is the largest and biggest freshwater lake in Kerala. Bhimtal Lake: The pride of Bhimtal is a beautiful lake which offers magnificent vistas for tourists. The lake is larger than Nainital lake,The island at the center of the lake. Uttaranchal is famous for its valley of flowers, green meadows and spectacular lakes. One of the best natural freshwater bodies is Nainital Lake, situated amidst the township surrounded by the KS0806_Group1 86 2011

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mountains. Naini Lake is one of the most famous lakes of Uttarakhand and most visited attraction in India.

Upper lake: Upper lake is the largest artificial lake in Asia, situated in City of Lakes called Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Upper lake locally known as Bada Talab is the oldest man-made lake in India and one of the major sources of drinkable water for the city. City of lakes, Bhopal has 17 lakes another lake is known as chota talab. These lake are an important destination for canoeing and other water activities. The Takia Island in Upper Lake and marine drive are the major attraction of lakes. Bhopal is also considered as one of the green city in India. E. Ocean, Sea Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula (or, more generally, by southern and western Asia); on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, by Antarctica). The ocean is named after the geographic location of India. As one component of the interconnected global ocean, the Indian Ocean is delineated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20 east meridian running south from Cape Agulhas, and from the Pacific by the meridian of 14655' east. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30 north in the Persian Gulf. The Indian Ocean has asymmetric ocean circulation. This ocean is nearly 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 square kilometres (28,350,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 cubic kilometres (70,086,000 mi3).[8] Small islands dot the continental rims. Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar, the world's fourth largest island; Reunion Island; Comoros; Seychelles; Maldives; Mauritius; and Sri Lanka. The archipelago of Indonesia borders the ocean on the east. Arabian Sea The Arabian is a region of the Indian Ocean bounded on the east by India, on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, on the south, approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui in northeastern Somalia and Kanyakumari in India. Some of the ancient names of this body of water include Sindhu Sagar (meaning "Sea of Sindh" in Sanskrit) and Erythraean Sea. The Arabian Sea's surface area is about 3,862,000 km2 (1,491,130 sq mi).[2] The maximum width of the Arabian Sea is approximately 2,400 km (1,490 mi), and its maximum depth is 4,652 metres (15,262 ft), in the Arabian Basin approximately at the same latitude as the southernmost tip of India. The largest river flowing into the Arabian Sea is the Indus River; others include the Netravathi,Sharavathi, Narmada, Tapti, Mahi, and the numerous rivers of Kerala. The Arabian Sea coast of central India is known as the Konkan Coast, and that of southern India is known as the Malabar Coast. The Arabian Sea has two important branches the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with theRed Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb; and the Gulf of Oman to the northwest, connecting with thePersian Gulf. There are also the gulfs of Cambay and Kutch on the Indian coast. 87 KS0806_Group1 2011

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The largest islands in the Arabian Sea are Socotra (off the Horn of Africa) and Masirah (off the Omani coast) as well as theLakshadweep archipelago off the Indian coast. The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Somalia Djibouti, Yemen, Oman, Iran, Pakistan,India and the Maldives. There are several large cities on the Arabian Sea coast including Aden, Muscat,Karachi, Surat, Mumbai, Mangalore, Kozhikode, Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram.

Laccadive Sea The Laccadive Sea or Lakshadweep s part of India (including its Lakshadweep islands), the Maldives, and Sri Lanka. It is located to the west of Kerala. This warm sea has a stable water temperature through the year and is rich in marine life, with Gulf of Mannaralone hosting about 3,600 species. Water temperature is rather constant through the year, averaging 2628 in summer and 25 in winter. Salinity is 34 (parts per thousand) in the center and northern part and up to 35.5 in the south. The coasts are sandy but the deeper parts are covered in silt. There are numerous coral reefs in the sea, such as the Lakshadweep islands which are made up of atolls and contain 105 coral species. 4. Climate characteristics India has 'Tropical Monsoon' type of climate. The word monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word 'Mausim' which means seasonal reversal of the winds during the course of the year. Climate of India 1. The whole of India has a tropical monsoonal climate, since the greater part of the country lies within the trophies, and the climate is influenced by the monsoons. 2. The position of the mountain ranges and direction of the rain-bearing winds are the two main factors that determine the climate of India 3. Alternating seasons is the chief characteristic of India's Climate. India, being a vast country does not fit into any one zone. Situated roughly between 8 N and 37 N Latitude, it occupies a large area of South Asia. It can be divided mainly into four climatic zones namely Alpine, Subtropical, Tropical and Arid

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Alpine Zone: This climate zone can be experienced in the high altitudes of Himalayas. In this region there are high climatic fluctuations due to steep altitude variations. Different types of climatic zones can be seen in this region. If on the foothills occur subtropical climate there is Alpine Tundra Zone to greet you on the higher altitudes. Sub Tropical: This zone is prevalent in most of the northern part of India. It can be called as the typical Indian climate. Summers are hot and wet while in winter temperature may drop down to freezing point in higher ranges. Rainfall is common in summer season whereas winters are cold and dry. Tropical: It can be divided into two sub types viz, Tropical Wet Monsoon and Tropical Dry. The characteristics of Tropical Wet Monsoon include average temperature, which normally does not fall below 18 degree C, accompanied by average to high rainfall. In Tropical Dry type rainfall is not so common. Arid: High temperature and low rainfall are marked features of this climatic zone. It is prevalent in western part of the country and includes large part of Rajasthan. The temperature in this zone may shoot up to as high as 50 degree C in summer.

Cycle of season Though divided into different climatic zones, India seems to be unified by primarily four seasonsWinter, Summer, Advancing Monsoon and Retreating Monsoon. Winter: December to February is the wintertime in almost all of India. At this time of the year, days are cold with average temperature of10-15 C, but it can drop down to below 0 C in some higher ranges of northern India. Normally winters are dry in northern India. In Southern part, the temperature difference is not so marked due to moderating effect of Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Summer: March, April, May and June are the summer months in India. It is a time period when rays of the sun fall vertically on Indian subcontinent. The average temperature is around 32 c but in western region the maximum temperature can be far above the average. Hot wind, known, as 'Loo' is the marked feature of summers in northern India. Advancing Monsoon: It is the time period when India gets major part of its share of rain. Months of June, July, August and September form the core of Advancing Monsoon in almost all parts of country. The 89 KS0806_Group1 2011

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monsoon approaches with moisture laden winds; this sudden approach is marked with violent thunderstorms and lightening, known as 'break' of the monsoon. Retreating Monsoon: This season starts, when monsoon after drenching all of India, begins to retreat. With the month of September, rainfall began to decrease and as we approach November, the monsoon is completely gone from major part of India, except for Tamil Nadu and some other southern states, which also receive rain from Western Disturbance. In recent times, this cycle of season has been disturbed due to uncontrolled industrialization and other developmental activities resulting in drastic changes in climate. This has lead to climatic disasters such as Drought, Landslides Floods and Global Warming. The unchecked cutting down of trees indirectly leads to landslide and drought. Annual Floods have become part of life in many regions of India. It results in large-scale loss of life and property. The phenomenon of Global Warming is mainly the result of air pollution. The polluting industries and vehicles running endlessly on the roads emit hazardous gases such as Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Methane etc. These gases produce 'Green House' effect, which leads to Global Warming. It may lead to very serious climatic changes. The increase in average temperature of earth is will result in melting down of the polar ice and glaciers, which in turn will lead to increased ocean level. This rising ocean level may submerge many of today's existing islands and coastal cities. IV. HUMAN / CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 1. Population (& ethnic groups) a. Population India's Population 2011 Current Population of India in 2011 Total Male Population in India Total Female Population in India Sex Ratio Age structure 0 to 25 years India's Population in 2001 Population of India in 1947 50% of India's current population 1.02 billion 350 million Currently, there are about 51 births in India in a minute. 1,210,193,422 (1.21 billion) 623,700,000 (623.7 million) 586,500,000 (586.5 million) 940 females per 1,000 males

With 1,210,000,000 (1.21 billion) people, India is currently the world's second largest country. India crossed the one billion mark in the year 2000; one year after the world's population crossed the six billion thresholds. Demographers expect India's population to surpass the population of China, currently the most populous country in the world, by 2030. At that time, India is expected to have a population of more than 1.53 billion while China's population is forecast to be at its peak of 1.46 billion (and will begin to drop in subsequent years). India is currently home to about 1.21 billion people, representing a full 17% of the earths population. India's 2011 census showed that the country's population had grown by 181 million people in the prior decade. KS0806_Group1 90 2011

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When India gained independence from the United Kingdom sixty years ago, the country's population was a mere 350 million. Since 1947, the population of India has more than tripled. In 1950, India's total fertility rate was approximately 6 (children per woman). Nonetheless, since 1952 India has worked to control its population growth. In 1983, the goal of the countrys National Health Policy was to have a replacement value total fertility rate of 2.1 by the year 2000. That did not occur. In 2000, the country established a new National Population Policy to stem the growth of the countrys population. One of the primary goals of the policy was to reduce the total fertility rate to 2.1 by 2010. One of the steps along the path toward the goal in 2010 was a total fertility rate of 2.6 by 2002. As the total fertility rate in India remains at the high number of 2.8, that goal was not achieved so it is highly unlikely that the total fertility rate will be 2.1 by 2010. Thus, Indias population will continue to grow at a rapid rate. The U.S. Census Bureau does predict a near-replacement total fertility rate of 2.2 to be achieved in India in the year 2050. India's high population growth results in increasingly impoverished and sub-standard conditions for growing segments of the Indian population. As of 2007, India ranked 126th on the United Nations' Human Development Index, which takes into account social, health, and educational conditions in a country. Population projections for India anticipate that the country's population will reach 1.5 to 1.8 billion by 2050. While only the Population Reference Bureau has published projections out to 2100, they expect India's population at the close of the twenty-first century to reach 1.853 to 2.181 billion. Thus, India is expected to become the first and only county on the planet that will ever reach a population of more than 2 billion (recall that China's population is likely to drop after reaching a peak of about 1.46 billion in 2030 and the U.S. isn't ever likely to see a billion). Although India has created several impressive goals to reduce its population growth rates, the India and the rest of the world has a long way to go to achieve meaningful population controls in this country with a growth rate of 1.6%, representing a doubling time of under 44 years. b. Ethnic groups India is a fascinating country where people of many different communities and religions live together in unity. Indian Population is polygenetic and is an amazing amalgamation of various races and cultures. It is impossible to find out the exact origin of Indian People. The species known as Ramapithecus was found in the Siwalik foothills of north western Himalayas. The species believed to be the first in the line of hominids (Human Family) lived some 14 million years ago. Researchers have found that a species resembling the Austrapithecus lived in India some 2 million years ago. Even this discovery leaves an evolutionary gap of as much as 12 million years since Ramapithecus. There are many diverse ethnic groups among the people of India. The 6 main ethnic groups are as follows. 1. Negrito 2. Proto - Australoids or Austrics 3. Mongoloids 4. Mediterranean or Dravidian 5. Western Brachycephals 6. Nordic Aryans Negroids The Negritos or the Brachycephalic (broad headed) from Africa were the earliest people to have come to India. They have survived in their original habitat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese and the Great Andamanese are some of the examples. Some hill tribes 91 KS0806_Group1 2011

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like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans and Kurumbas are found in some patches in Southern part of mainland India. Pro-Australoids or Austrics These groups were the next to come to India after the Negritos. They are people with wavy hair lavishly distributed all over their brown bodies, long headed with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, noses with low and broad roots, thick jaws, large palates and teeth and small chins. The Austrics of India represent a race of medium height, dark complexion with long heads and rather flat noses but otherwise of regular features. Miscegenation with the earlier Negroids may be the reason for the dark or black pigmentation of the skin and flat noses. The Austrics laid the foundation of Indian civilization. They cultivated rice and vegetables and made sugar from sugarcane. Now these people are found in some parts of India, Myanmar and the islands of South East Asia. Their languages have survived in the Central and Eastern India. Mongoloids These people are found in the North eastern part of India in the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Tripura. They are also found in Northern parts of West Bengal, Sikkim, and Ladakh. Generally they are people with yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high cheekbones, sparse hair and medium height. Dravidians These are the people of South India. They have been believed to come before the Aryans. They have different sub-groups like the Paleo-Mediterranean, the true Mediterranean, and the Oriental Mediterranean. They appear to be people of the same stock as the peoples of Asia Minor and Crete and pre- Hellenic Aegean's of Greece. They are reputed to have built up the city civilization of the Indus valley, whose remains have been found at Mohenjo- daro and Harappa and other Indus cities. Western Bracycephals These include the Alpinoids, Dinarics and Armenoids. The Parsis and Kodavas also fall in this category. They are the broad headed people living mainly on the western side of the country such as the Ganga Valley and the delta, parts of Kashmir, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Nordics or the Indo-Aryans This group was the last one to immigrate to India. They came to India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B.C. They are now mainly found in the northern and central part of India. 2. Religion With the origins of Hinduism and Buddhism in India, religion is considered to be extremely important. Of the two religions, Hinduism is infinitely more popular, with an incredible 82 percent of the population practicing it. Within this majority, there are significant differences in the belief systems and caste divisions. Although there is division in some areas of Hinduism, there are many areas in common. They will all go to the pilgrimage sites, coming from all over India and will- if they go to a Brahman priest for birth, marriage and/or death rituals- hear the same Sanskrit verses from hundreds of years ago. In the shadow of Hindu dominance, there are a few followers of other beliefs such as Christianity, Sikh and Buddhism.

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In India, religion is a way of life. It is an integral part of the entire Indian tradition. For the majority of Indians, religion permeates every aspect of life, from common-place daily chores to education and politics. Secular India is home to Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and other innumerable religious traditions. Hinduism is the dominant faith, practiced by over 80% of the population. Besides Hindus, Muslims are the most prominent religious group and are an integral part of Indian society. In fact India has the second largest population of Muslims in the world after Indonesia. Common practices have crept into most religious faiths in India and many of the festivals that mark each year with music, dance and feasting are shared by all communities. Each has its own pilgrimage sites, heroes, legends and even culinary specialties, mingling in a unique diversity that is the very pulse of society

Hinduism
The underlying tenets of Hinduism cannot be easily defined. There is no unique philosophy that forms the basis of the faith of the majority of India's population. Hinduism is perhaps the only religious tradition that is so diversified in its theoretical premises and practical expressions as to be called a "museum of religions". This religion cannot be traced to a specific founder nor does it have a "holy book" as a basic scriptural guide. The Rig Veda, Upanishads and the Bhagwad Gita can all be described as the sacred text of the Hindus. Unlike most other religions, Hinduism does not advocate the worship of one particular deity. One may worship Shiva or Vishnu or Rama or Krishna or some other gods and goddesses or one may believe in the 'Supreme Spirit' or the 'Indestructible Soul' within each individual and still be called a good Hindu. This gives an indication of the kind of contrasts this religion is marked by. At one end of the scale, it is an exploration of the 'Ultimate Reality'; at the other end there are cults that worship spirits, trees and animals. There are festivals and ceremonies associated not only with gods and goddesses but also with the sun, moon, planets, rivers, oceans, trees and animals. Some of the popular Hindu festivals are Deepawali, Holi, Dussehra, Ganesh Chaturthi, Pongal, Janamasthmi and Shiva Ratri. These innumerable festive occasions lend Hinduism its amazing popular appeal and make the Indian tradition rich and colorful.

Hindu Mythology and the Living Gods

Heroes of epics like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are immortalized and are stil alive in the day-to-day existence of the common people. The gods of Hinduism are at once super-human and human and there is distinct feeling of warmth and familiarity towards them. Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, represents qualities such as honor, courage and valor and is held up as a model of manliness. His wife Sita is the prototypal Indian wife who is carried off by Ravana, the king of Lanka, while Rama and Sita are on exile. Sita's eventual rescue by Rama, his brother Lakshmana, and Rama's faithful monkey-general Hanuman are all woven into this engrossing tale. Stories from this epic have been passed down orally from one

generation to the next. Religious fairs, festivals and rituals have kept these legends alive, and there is never an occasion that does not offer an opportunity to retell the old stories. The stirring verses of the Mahabharata tell the story of the dynastic struggle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, who were close cousins. Lord Krishna plays a very important role in this Great Epic. He is a friend, philosopher and guide to Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, and he helps Arjuna overcome his hesitation to kill his close relatives in the battlefield. The wise philosophy of Krishna and his teachings have been embodied in the Bhagwad Gita. Although the popular image of Krishna is that of a god who steals butter as a child, and who, as a youth, plays the flute and entices cows and cowherd girls alike; in his mature years he is depicted as the wise philosopher with a more serious side to his nature. There are numerous gods and goddesses worshipped by Hindus all over India. Among these, the most fundamental to Hinduism, is the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - creator, preserver and destroyer respectively. Brahma has four heads corresponding to the four directions of the compass. He is the creator of life and the entire universe. Vishnu is the preserver who guides the cycle of birth and rebirth. He is also supposed to have taken many incarnations to save the world from evil forces. Both Rama and Krishna are believed to have been incarnations of Vishnu. Shiva, usually seen with a coiled cobra around his neck, destroys all evil and also has many incarnations, not all of which are terrifying. The invisible deities are represented by a complexity of images and idols symbolizing divine powers. Many of these idols are housed within ornate temples of unparalleled beauty and grandeur. The Hindu gods are very much alive and live in temples, snow-capped peaks, in rivers and oceans and in the very hearts and minds of the Hindus.

Buddhism
Buddhism originated as an offshoot of Hinduism in India, but eventually it became popular all over Asia. The personality and teachings of Gautam Buddha, the founder of this faith, have illumined the lives of millions of people in Japan, China and Southeast Asia. There are strong lines of similarity between Buddhism and the basic teachings of Hinduism. Buddhism is based on the principle or the law of impermanence. According to this, everything is subject to change, although some things may last longer than others. The other basic principle of Buddhism is the law of causation, according to which nothing occurs due to pure chance. Besides natural forces, it is the karma which leads to the occurrence of all events. The popular notions of the indestructible soul and the cycle of rebirth emerge from these two basic philosophies. Buddha advocated the Middle Path, in which he offered a balanced, harmonious way of life, steering between two extremes of self-indulgence and total abstinence. Buddhism rests upon four Noble Truths: (i) suffering is universal, (ii) it is caused by desire and yearning (iii) suffering can be prevented and overcome, and (iv) Eradication of desires can lead to removal of suffering. To prevent suffering one has to conquer craving and desire and this conquest leads to the attainment of nirvana or complete enlightenment. 3. Language The languages of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the IndoEuropean languagesIndo-Aryan (spoken by 72% of Indians) and the Dravidian languages(spoken by 25% of Indians). Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates.

The principal official language of the Republic of India is Standard Hindi, while English is the secondary official language. The constitution of India states that "The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script." Neither the Constitution of India nor Indian law specifies a national language, a position supported by a High Court ruling. However, languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian constitution are sometimes referred to, without legal standing, as the national languages of India. Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred; the 1961 census recognized 1,652 (SIL Ethnologue lists 415). According to Census of India of 2001, 30 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000. Three millennia of language contact have led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English. Languages of India Official Standard Hindi written in the Devangar script (the Indian language(s) Constitution recognizes English as a subsidiary official language) Regional language(s) Assamese Bengali Bodo Chhattisgarhi Dogri Garo Gujarati Sta ndard Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Khasi Kokborok Konkani Maithili M alayalam Manipuri Marathi Mizo Nepali Oriya Punjabi Sanskr it Santali Sindhi Tamil Telugu Urdu

4. History India's history and culture is ancient and dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India. The history of India is one punctuated by constant integration with migrating peoples and with the diverse cultures that surround India. Placed in the center of Asia, history in India is a crossroads of cultures from China to Europe, and the most significant Asian connection with the cultures of Africa. India's history is more than just a set of unique developments in a definable process; it is, in many ways, a microcosm of human history itself, a diversity of cultures all impinging on a great people and being reforged into new, syncretic forms. a. Ancient India (3000 BC-985 AD) The Indus Valley Civilization existed in between 3000-1500 BC while the earlier Kot Diji cultures, of the pre-Indus period, existed in the period of approximately 3300-2800 BC. Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-Daro were the greatest achievements of the Indus valley civilization. These cities are well known for their impressive, organized and regular layout. Then came Aryans who composed these evocative hymns to nature and celebrated life exuberantly referred to them as Aryas usually anglicised as Aryan meaning 'noble'. The 6th Century B.C. was the period of Magadh Kingdom. Chandragupta Maurya ousted the oppressive ruler of Magadh to find his own dynasty that existed from 322 - 298 B.C. The most famous Maurya King Ashoka the Great ruled from 273 - 232 B.C over a large kingdom stretching from Kashmir and Peshawar in the North and Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East. He after witnessing the carnage at the battle field of Kalinga (269 B.C.) in Orissa dedicated himself to Dharmma (righteousness). In the subsequent centuries, after the Ashoka Empire disintegrated, India suffered a series of invasions, and often fell under the spell of foreign rulers - Indo Bactrians, the Sakas and others. After the next 400 years of instability the Guptas established their kingdom.

Kalidas, the famous Sanskrit poet and dramatist, author of Abhijnana Shankuntalam, Kumarsambhavam and Meghadutam is believed to have adorned the Gupta court. Also the great mathematicians like Aryabhatta and astronomers like Varahmihir lived during this period. The dazzling wall paintings of the Ajanta caves too are traced back to this era. Cholas, Pandayas and Pallavas ruled over the southern part of India during the medieval period of India history. Cholas ruled the territory of Deccan (today the districts of Thanjavur and Tiruchirapally) while the Pandyas reined around present day Tirunelvelli and Madurai. Pallavas of Kanchi rose to prominence in the 4th Century A.D. and ruled unchallenged for about four hundred years. The Nayanar and Alvar saint poets belong to this period. The gemlike shore temples at Mahabalipuram date to this period. The Cholas overthrew the Pallavas were in the 9th Century and regained political primacy in south India. The 15th Century saw the decline of the Pandyas. b. Medieval India (1026-1756) The Rajput period was an era of chivalry and feudalism. The Rajputs weakened each other by constant fighting. This allowed the foreigners (Turks) to embark on victorious campaigns using duplicity and deceit wherever military strength failed against Rajputs. Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, the Tomar ruler of Delhi, at the battle of Tarain in 1192 and left the Indian territories in the charge of his deputy, Qutubudin (reign - 1206 - 1210), who had started life as a slave. Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis followed and this period is known as the Sultanate. When the power of the Sultans declined, the outlying provinces once again became important and the process of Hindu Islamic synthesis continued almost without any interruption. Babur (reign - 1526-30), the founder of the Mughal Empire in India, was the descendant of Timur as well as Changez Khan. Ousted by his cousins, he came to India and defeated Ibrahim, the last Lodi Sultan in 1526 at the First Battle of Panipat. There was a brief interruption to Mughal rule when Babur's son Humayun (reign - 1530-40) was ousted from Delhi, by Sher Shah, an Afghan chieftain. Sher Shah (reign - 1540-55) assumed power in the imperial capital for a short while. He is remembered as the builder of the Grand Trunk road that spanned the distance from Peshawar to Patna and also one who introduced major reforms in the revenue system, gratefully retained by the Mughals. It was Babur's grandson Akbar (reign - 1556-1605), who consolidated political power and extended his empire over practically the whole of north India and parts of the south. Jahangir (reign - 160527) who succeeded Akbar was a pleasure loving man of refined taste. Shah Jahan (1628-58) his son, ascended the throne next. Shah Jahan's fame rests on the majestic buildings he has left behind the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid. Aurangzeb (reign - 1658-1707) was the last Mughal ruler. In western India, Shivaji (1637-80) had forged the Marathas into an efficient military machine and given them a sense of national identity. They adopted guerrilla tactics to maul the Mughals and put a severe drain on their economic resources. The contenders for political supremacy in the 17th and 18th Centuries included besides the Marathas, the Sikhs in Punjab and Hyder Ali (reign - 1721 - 1782) in Mysore. Tipu Sultan (reign 1782 - 1799) - Hyder Ali's son and successor allied himself with the French against the British and strove to introduce the latest technical knowledge from Europe. c. Modern India (1757-1947)

Vasco da Gama when landed at Calicut, sailing via the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, marked the beginning of the European era in Indian history. The Portuguese by the 16th Century had already established their colony in Goa. In the next century, India was visited by a large number of European travellers - Italians, Englishmen, Frenchmen and Dutchmen. They were drawn to India for different reasons. Some were traders, others adventurers, and quite a few fired by the missionary zeal to find converts to Christianity. Eventually England, France, the Netherlands and Denmark, floated East India Companies. During the late 16th and the 17th Centuries, these companies competed with each other fiercely. By the last quarter of the 18th Century the English had vanquished all others and established themselves as the dominant power in India. The British administered India for a period of about two centuries and brought about revolutionary changes in the social, political and the economic life of the country. Once the British had consolidated their power, commercial exploitation of the natural resources and native labour became ruthless. By the middle of the 19th Century arrogant exploitation of the people had tried the patience of the Indians to the limit. The six decades between the end of the "mutinous" war of 1857 - 59 and the conclusion of First World War saw both the peak of British imperial power in India and the birth of nationalist agitation against it. With increasing intrusion of aliens in their lives, a group of middle class Indians formed the Indian National Congress (1885) - a society of English educated affluent professionals to seek reforms from the British. The anticolonial struggle became truly a mass movement with the arrival of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869 - 1948) in 1915 who had suffered great humiliation in South Africa due to the policy of racial discrimination and later committed to rid his motherland of the ills of foreign rule. Successive campaigns had the effect of driving the British out of India in 1947, but with independence came the independence of the country into Pakistan. 5. Clothing Traditional Indian clothing has come into prominence once again. Well, if you notice the trends in fashion industry, you'll realize that modern fashion has aped the styling and designing of the bygone eras, the period of royalty, when Maharajas and Ranis used to spend extravagantly on their clothing. Whatever the royals chose to go in for was reminiscent of splendor and luxury. The creative fashion designers of today are in a lookout for ethnic designs that take us close to our cultural roots and remind us of the glorious past. In this section, we will provide you with information on the different kinds of traditional clothing in India, so read on Indian Ethnic Wear Dhoti Dhoti kurta is the traditional Indian clothing of men. Unlike other dresses, it is an unstitched piece of cloth usually 5 yards long that is tied around the waist and legs. The knot is tied at the waist. Dhoti is known by different names at different places such as Laacha in Punjabi, dhuti in Bangla. Kurta Kurta is a term used to refer to a long loose shirt, the length of which falls below or may be just above the knees of the wearer. In the olden times, it was primarily worn by men, but today, it has become a unisex dress that both men and women can wear. Indian Salwar Kameez Salwar kameez is the traditional Indian clothing for women. Due to its high popularity in the region of Punjab, shalwar kameez is commonly referred to as Punjabi suit. The fashion of Shalwar

Kameez in India is not new. Since the past many few centuries, women have been wearing this wonderful attire. Indian Sari Sari is one of the most wonderful dresses worn by Indian women. Infact, when one thinks of a typical Indian woman, the first thing that strikes the mind is a woman clad in sari, who is wearing the solah shringar including bindi, chudi, kajal etc. Sherwani for Men Sherwani is a long coat resembling achkan in styling. It is buttoned upto the collar and lengthwise it is usually below the knee. It adds to the charm and grace of men, especially the taller ones. Indian men spend lavishly on buying the sherwani suit for the special occasion of their wedding. Turban In India, one can spot many men wearing turban. Well, turban is tied not for the sake of fashion, but because it has a lot of significance in the lives of Indians. The hair turban is a headdress that basically consists of a long piece of unstitched cloth, which is wrapped around the head. Indian Tattoo Indian Mehndi or Tattoo is the most famous design since it is a big dot or figure in the middle of the palm, with finger tips colored completely. It also includes Arabic Tattoo whereby this style tends to be less detailed and intricate. It is still very beautiful. Instead of having fill-ins it is just colored in boldly. Arab designs do not necessarily cover your hands or feet all the way. Many popular Arabic designs are vines and leaves with beautiful flowers. This makes it an excellent and perfect candidate, if you want to have a bail going down your arm or leg. 6. Typical/ Traditional food and drinks a. Food The traditional food of India has been widely appreciated for its fabulous use of herbs and spices. Indian cuisine is known for its large assortment of dishes. The cooking style varies from region to region. India is quite famous for its diverse multi cuisine available in a large number of restaurants and hotel resorts, which is reminiscent of unity in diversity. The staple food in India includes wheat, rice and pulses with chana (Bengal Gram) being the most important one. A typical Indian meal combines salty, sweet, creamy, spicy, hot and pungent flavors. The basic menu usually comprises starch, a meat or fish main dish, vegetables, and chutney. Traditionally, Indian flatbread or basmati rice complements the other dishes to highlight a balanced spectrum of flavors. Many regional specialties are enjoyed throughout India, and worldwide. Bengali Food Bengali cuisine is appreciated for its fabulous use of panchphoron, a term used to refer to the five essential spices, namely mustard, fenugreek seed, cumin seed, aniseed, and black cumin seed. The specialty of Bengali food lies in the perfect blend of sweet and spicy flavors. Gujarati Food The traditional Gujarati food is primarily vegetarian and has a high nutritional value. The typical Gujarati thali consists of varied kinds of lip smacking dishes. Gujarati cuisine has so much to offer and each dish has an absolutely different cooking style. Kashmiri Food Kashmiri food that we have today in the restaurants has evolved over the years. Highly influenced by the traditional food of the Kashmiri pundits, it has now taken some of the features of the cooking style adopted in Central Asia, Persia and Afghanistan. Mughlai Cuisine

Mughlai cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines, whose origin can be traced back to the times of Mughal Empire. Mughlai cuisine consists of the dishes that were prepared in the kitchens of the royal Mughal Emperors. Indian cuisine is predominantly influenced by the cooking style practiced during the Mughal era. Punjabi Food The cuisine of Punjab has an enormous variety of mouth-watering vegetarian as well as non vegetarian dishes. The spice content ranges from minimal to pleasant to high. Punjabi food is usually relished by people of all communities. In Punjab, home cooking differs from the restaurant cooking style. Rajasthani Food The cuisine of Rajasthan is primarily vegetarian and offers a fabulous variety of mouthwatering dishes. The spice content is quite high in comparison to other Indian cuisines, but the food is absolutely scrumptious. Rajasthanis use ghee for cooking most of the dishes. Rajasthani food is well known for its spicy curries and delicious sweets. South Indian Cuisine The cuisine of South India is known for its light, low calorie appetizing dishes. The traditional food of South India is mainly rice based. The cuisine is famous for its wonderful mixing of rice and lentils to prepare yummy lip smacking dosas, vadas, idlis and uttapams. b. Drinks Tea is a staple beverage throughout India; the finest varieties are grown in Darjeeling and Assam. It is generally prepared as masala chai, wherein the tea leaves are boiled in a mix of water, spices such as cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger, and large quantities of milk to create a thick, sweet, milky concoction. Different varieties and flavors of tea are prepared to suit different tastes all over the country. Another popular beverage, coffee, is largely served in South India. One of the finest varieties of Coffea arabicais grown around Mysore, Karnataka, and is marketed under the trade name "Mysore Nuggets". Indian filter coffee, or kafee, is also especially popular in South India. Lassi is a popular and traditional yogurt-based drink of India. It is made by blending yogurt with water or milk and Indian spices. Salted lassi is more common in villages of Punjab & Indian Porbandar, Gujarat. It is prepared by blending yogurt with water and adding salt and other spices to taste. The resulting beverage is known as salted lassi.

7. Famous people India has been made by the contributions of several people who have made their inputs in various ages. India has been enlightened by the presence of these people since its birth. All of them, contributing in various spheres of life have been of great importance to the Indian Society. These Indian personalities have not just influenced the people of India, but have also left an indeliblie mark on the world book. Famous personalities of India like Mahtama Gandhi have given people the weapon of non violence, which even after decades of his death has upheld its relevance. Rabindranth Tagore, the great poet has contributed a lot to the Indian literature while artists like Satyajit Rai, Amitabh Bachan, Pandit Ravi Shankar and Lata Mangeshkar have shaped up the entertainment and music world. Then, there are industrialists who just cannot be left out while talking about great Indian personalities. These include Ratan Tata, Dhirubhai Ambani and Azim Premji.

One of the first Emperors of India who is also The Queen in whose memory Taj Mahal was the Architect of Modern India made by Shah Jahan and who ruled in the hearts

Shah Jahan

of her people Mumtaz Mahal

The Emperor with the famous Nine Jewels of his Court was the bravest Emperor of Modern India Akbar

The Father of the Nation, who got India its Independence Mahatma Gandhi

The first Prime Minister of India and the The youngest Prime Minister of India, who gave architect of Five Year Plans, he is also known as India its computers and Information Technology Chacha Nehru Rajiv Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru

Former Miss World and Bollywood Actress Aishwarya Rai

The angry young man and the father of Bollywood, his charms as an actor are incomparable Amitabh Bachan

The Founder, Ceo and Director of Infosys, is The uncompromising King of Indian Music, he main force behind today Indian Policies of RBI is still one of the revered ones Narayan Murthy Kishore Kumar

CEO of Airtel, the second largest player of mobiles in India Sunil Mittal

The Little Master of India is still the backbone of Indian Cricket Team. Sachin Tendulkar

This Iron Lady and Prime Minister of India had The kind mother of all who was awarded Noble even the Enemies bowing before her. Peace Prize for her works of Humanity Indira Gandhi Mother Teresa

The founder of Wipro and a master entrepreneur, his is an icon of many Azim Premji

A humble man and a bread earner of millions of Indians, he is the one who got mobiles for a common man Dhirubhai Ambani

The Bloodline of Tata, Ratan Tata is the Son of Indian Automobiles. Ratan Tata

Father of Indian Cinema, he has produced the best Indian Movies Satyajit Rai

Also known as Bhagwan Rajnish, this man made a number of controversies which still exist Osho - Rajnish

This Noble Laureate is also one of the Great Poets of India Rabindra Nath Tagore

The Little Man of India is respected not only by The Sitar Mastero Of India, is one of the main Indian Cricket, but all over the world Gurus of Indian Classical Music Sunil Gavasakar Pandit Ravi Shankar

The best architect of battles, a great King and a This Unparallel Queen of Indian Music, sang for preacher of Buddhism, he was the best Indian the Indian Soldiers too History Lata Mangeshkar Emperor Ashoka

The Man who changed America or the Saint of India was the strongest man India has Swami Vivekanand 8. Arts & architecture a. Arts Indian subcontinent has always been the reservoir of talent, be it in the field of art, science, literature, or any other field. However, special emphasis should be given to the famous Indian art and its various forms. The art work of this country, be it paintings or sculptures or even traditional arts like Rangoli, has always gathered appreciation from people residing in almost all the parts of the world. In this section, we will acquaint you with popular Indian art works. Indian Painters Indian subcontinent is famous for being the home country of a large number of exceptionally brilliant artists, including painters, writers, singers, etc. The art of painting in India dates back to the ancient times, as is evident from the cave paintings of Ajanta and Ellora. Many painters of India have received global recognition also and their paintings have fetched millions of dollars in international auctions. From the paintings revolving around religious topics to the abstract ones, Indian painters have covered almost each and every arena. Indian Paintings The tradition of painting has been carried on in the Indian subcontinent since the ancient times. Standing as a testimony to this fact are the exquisite murals of Ajanta and Ellora, Buddhist palm leaf manuscripts, Mughal and Kangra schools of miniature Indian paintings, etc. Infact, records have been found that indicate the usage of paintings for decorating the doorways, guest rooms, etc. Some traditional Indian paintings, like those of Ajanta, Bagh and Sittanvasal, depict a love for nature and its forces. Rangoli Rangoli, one of the most beautiful and most pleasing art forms of India, is comprised of two words, 'rang' meaning 'color' and 'aavalli' meaning colored creepers' or 'row of colors'. Rangoli basically comprises of the art of making designs or patterns on the walls or the floor of the house, using finely ground white powder along with different colors. Numerous households in the Indian subcontinent make use of Rangoli designs for decorating the courtyard of their house. b. Architecture One of the most enduring achievements of Indian civilization is undoubtedly its architecture. Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of socio-economic and geographical conditions. Different types of Indian architectural styles include a mass of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to India. As a result of vast diversities, a vast range of architectural specimens have evolved, retaining a certain amount of continuity across history Indian architecture, belonging to different periods of history, bears the stamp of respective periods. Though the cities of Indus Valley provide substantial evidence of extensive town planning, the beginnings of Indian architecture can be traced back to the advent of Buddhism in India. It was in this period that a large number of magnificent buildings came up. Some of the highlights of Buddhist art and architecture are the Great Stupa at Sanchi and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta With the establishment of Hindu kingdoms in South India, the south Indian school of architecture began to flourish. The most notable achievements of the Pallava rulers were the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram and the temples of Kanchipuram. The Chola, Hoyasala and Vijayanagar rulers also did remarkable job in the field of architecture. The temples at Thanjavur, Belur and Halebid bear testimony to the architectural excellence of the South Indian rulers

In north India, there developed a new a different style of architecture. This was called as the Nagara style architecture. In central India, the Chandela rulers built a magnificent temple complex at Khajuraho. With the coming of the Muslim rulers, there developed a new architectural style in India- the Indo-Islamic architecture. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. The architecture of the medieval period can be divided into two main categories. They are the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture. It was followed by a new style of architecture that developed as a result of colonization of India. This style of architecture came to be called as Indo-Saracenic. The Indo-Saracenic architecture combined the features of Hindu, Islamic and western elements. The colonial architecture exhibited itself through institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as post offices, railway stations, rest houses and government buildings. Colonial Architecture Like all other aspects, colonization of Indian also had an impact on architecture style. With colonization, a new chapter in Indian architecture began. The Dutch, Portuguese and the French made their presence felt through their buildings but it was the English who had a lasting impact on architecture. Indo Islamic Architecture The medieval period saw great developments in the field of architecture. With the coming of Muslims to India, many new features came to be introduced in buildings. The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this period can be called the Indo-Islamic Architecture or the Indian Architecture influenced by Islamic Art. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu Ancient Architecture Indian architecture is as old as the history of the civilization. The earliest remains of recognizable building activity in the India dates back to the Indus Valley cities. Among India's ancient architectural remains, the most characteristic are the temples, Chaityas, Viharas, Stupas and other religious structures. Cave Architecture The cave architecture in India is believed to have begun in the third century BC. These caves were used by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and residence. Initially the caves were excavated in the western India. Some examples of this type of cave structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists. Rock Cut The Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art specimen. Most of the rock-cut structures were related to various religious communities. In the beginning, remarkable Buddhist and Jain monuments were produced in areas such as Bihar in the east and Maharashtra in the west. Temple Architecture In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions. The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types. This classification is based on different architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples. 9. Music, dance and film The music of India includes multiple varieties of folk, popular, pop, and classical music. India's classical music tradition, including Carnatic and Hindustani music, has a history spanning millennia and, developed over several eras, remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment. India is made up of several dozen ethnic, speaking their own languages and dialects. Alongside distinctly sub continental forms there are major influences from Persian, Arabic and British music. Indian genres like filmy and bhangra have become popular throughout the United Kingdom, South and East Asia a. Music

Indian Music 1. Classical music Music of 1.1 Hindustani music India 1.2 Carnatic music Hindustani) B Classical (Carnatic 2. Light classicalGhazal Qawwali Sufi Fol hajan music Genres music 3. Folk k Filmy Pop Rock (Bangla) Hi 3.1 Hop of Assam p Bihu Trance 3.2 Bhangra Filmfare 3.3 DandiyaAwards Punjabi Music Awards 3.4 Ganasangeet Awards Sangeet Natak Akademi Award 3.5 Uttarakhandi Music Dover music festival 3.6 Lavani Lane Festivals 3.7 Rabindra Sangeet Thyagaraja Aradhana Cleveland Thyagaraja 3.8 Rajasthan Aradhana 4. Popular music Record Music Magazine Media Sruti The 4.1 Film music National 4.2 Interaction with non-Indian music "Jana Gana Mana" anthem 4.3 Indi-pop music National 4.4 Rock & metal music "Vande music 4.5 DanceMataram" song 4.6 Indian Hip Hop 5. Western classical music

b. Dance

India is a land of diversities. Various climatic conditions have made India a diverse country. In all spheres of Indian life diversities are clearly visible. These diversities have made the Indian culture a unique one. Like all other aspects of life, the dance forms of India are also varied and different. There are many types of dance forms in India, from those which are deeply religious in content to those which are performed on small occasions. The Indian dances are broadly divided into Classical dances and folk dances. The Classical dances of India are usually spiritual in content. Though the folk dances of India are also spiritual and religious in content but the main force behind the folk dances of India is the celebratory mood. Dances are a form of coherent expression of human feelings. Like the Indian culture, Indian classical dances are equally diverse in nature. There are numerous classical dance forms in India and innumerable folk dances. Each dance form can be traced to different parts of the country. Each form represents the culture and ethos of a particular region or a group of people The most popular classical dance styles of India are Bharatnatyam of Tamil Nadu, Kathakali and Mohiniattam of Kerala, Odissi of Orissa, Kathak of Uttar Pradesh, Kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh and Manipuri of Manipur. Indian Classical Dances India has thousands of year old tradition of fine arts and classical and folk music and dances. Some of the world-famous dance forms that originated and evolved in India are Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam and Odissi. All these dance forms use basically the same 'mudras' or signs of hand as a common language of expression and were originally performed in the temples to entertain various Gods and Goddesses. Indian Classical Dancers Indian classical dance has a distinct character that reflects the great cultural and traditional endeavor. The forms of Indian dance have transcended beyond the fences and socio-cultural hindrances. Exponents of the Indian classical dance believe that it has the caliber of creating a new and disciplined lifestyle. The Indian Classical Dance is often regarded as the form of worship and meditation. The performers of Indian Classical Dance, despite of the background and forms, have played a crucial role in presenting India to the forefront of the World stage. Indian Folk Dances India is a land of varied cultures and traditions. Diversities in all spheres make the Indian culture quite unique. Indian folk and tribal dances are product of different socio-economic set up and traditions. Indian folk and tribal dances are simple and are performed to express joy. In India we have festivals and celebrations virtually every day. This has added to the richness of Indian culture. Since every festival is accompanied by celebration, folk dances have become an integral part of our social milieu.

c. Film Bollywood is the informal term popularly used for the Hindi-language film industry based in Mumbai(formerly known as Bombay), Maharashtra, India. The term is often incorrectly used to refer to the whole of Indian cinema; it is only a part of the total Indian film industry, which includes other production centers producing films in regional languages. Bollywood is the largest film producer in India and one of the largest centers of film production in the world. Bollywood is formally referred to as Hindi cinema. There has been a growing presence of Indian English in dialogue and songs as well. It is common to see films that feature dialogue with English words (also known as Hinglish), phrases, or even whole sentences. The name "Bollywood" is derived from Bombay (the former name for Mumbai) and Hollywood, the center of the American film industry. However, unlike Hollywood, Bollywood does not exist as a physical place. Though some deplore the name, arguing that it makes the industry look like a poor cousin to Hollywood, it has its own entry in the Oxford English Dictionary. The term "Bollywood" has origins in the 1970s, when India overtook America as the world's largest film producer. Credit for the term has been claimed by several different people, including the lyricist, filmmaker and scholar Amit Khanna, and the journalist Bevinda Collaco. The naming scheme for "Bollywood" was inspired by "Tollywood", the name that was used to refer to the cinema of West Bengal. Dating back to 1932, "Tollywood" was the earliest Hollywoodinspired name, referring to the Bengali film industry based in Tollygunge, whose name is reminiscent of "Hollywood" and was the center of the cinema of India at the time. Genre conventions Bollywood films are mostly musicals, and are expected to contain catchy music in the form of song-and-dance numbers woven into the script. A film's success often depends on the quality of such musical numbers. Indeed, a film's music is often released before the movie itself and helps increase the audience. Indian audiences expect full value for their money, with a good entertainer generally referred to as paisa vasool, (literally, "money's worth").Songs and dances, love triangles, comedy and daredevil thrills are all mixed up in a three-hour-long extravaganza with an intermission. Such movies are called masala films, after the Hindi word for a spice mixture. Like masalas, these movies are a mixture of many things such as action, comedy, romance and so on. Most films have heroes who are able to fight off villains all by themselves.

Melodrama and romance are common ingredients to Bollywood films.

Bollywood continues to play a major role in fashion in India. Indeed some studies into fashion in India have revealed that some people are unaware that the changing nature of fashion in Bollywood films which are presented to them are often influenced by globalisation and many consider the clothes worn by Bollywood actors as authentically Indian. Bollywood song and dance Bollywood film music is called filmi music (from Hindi, meaning "of films"). Songs from Bollywood movies are generally pre-recorded by professional playback singers, with the actors then lip synching the words to the song on-screen, often while dancing. While most actors, especially today, are excellent dancers, few are also singers. One notable exception was Kishore Kumar, who starred in several major films in the 1950s while also having a stellar career as a playback singer. K. L. Saigal, Suraiyya, and Noor Jehan were also known as both singers and actors. Playback singers are prominently featured in the opening credits and have their own fans who will go to an otherwise lackluster movie just to hear their favourites. Going by the quality as well as the quantity of the songs they rendered, most notable singers of Bollywood are Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Geeta Dutt, Shamshad Begum and Alka Yagnik among female playback singers; and K. L. Saigal, Talat Mahmood, Mukesh, Mohammed Rafi, Manna Dey,Hemant Kumar, Kishore Kumar, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan and Sonu Nigam among male playback singers. Mohammed Rafi is often considered arguably the finest of the singers that have lent their voice to Bollywood songs, followed by Lata Mangeshkar, who, through the course of a career spanning over six decades, has recorded thousands of songs for Indian movies. The composers of film music, known as music directors, are also well-known. Their songs can make or break a film and usually do. Remixing of film songs with modern beats and rhythms is a common occurrence today, and producers may even release remixed versions of some of their films' songs along with the films' regular soundtrack albums. The dancing in Bollywood films, especially older ones, is primarily modeled on Indian dance: classical dance styles, dances of historic northern Indian courtesans (tawaif), or folk dances. In modern films, Indian dance elements often blend with Western dance styles (as seen on MTV or in Broadway musicals), though it is usual to see Western pop and pure classical dance numbers side by side in the same film. The hero or heroine will often perform with a troupe of supporting dancers. Many song-and-dance routines in Indian films feature unrealistically instantaneous shifts of location or changes of costume between verses of a song. If the hero and heroine dance and sing a duet, it is often staged in beautiful natural surroundings or architecturally grand settings. This staging is referred to as a "picturisation". Songs typically comment on the action taking place in the movie, in several ways. Sometimes, a song is worked into the plot, so that a character has a reason to sing. Other times, a song is an externalisation of a character's thoughts, or presages an event that has not occurred yet in the plot of

the movie. In this case, the event is often two characters falling in love. The songs are also often referred to as a "dream sequence", and anything can happen that would not normally happen in the real world. 10. Sports Sports in India include cricket, chess, badminton, field hockey, tennis, football and golf. Field Hockey is the official national sport in India, and the country has eight Olympic gold medals in field hockey, though cricket is the most popular. Other popular sports include football, tennis, volleyball, and badminton. After the 1982 Asian Games hosted in New Delhi, the capital city now has modern sports facilities, and similar facilities are also being developed in other parts of the country. Besides sports and games included in the international sporting agenda, there are many which have developed indigenously. Throughout the country a wide variety of sports are played. India is home to several traditional sports which originated in the country and continue to remain fairly popular. These include kabbadi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. The British rule brought many popular sports in India including football, rugby union, cricket, golf, tennis, squash, hockey, boxing, snooker, and billiards. India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 Asian Games and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987 Cricket World Cup and 1996 Cricket World Cup, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the 2010 Hockey World Cup, the 2010 Commonwealth Games, and the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon and the Indian Masters. India is also scheduled to host the first Indian Grand Prix in 2011. India is also home to cricket's Indian Premier League, launched in 2008, and its fourth season of Indian Premier League has begun on 8 April 2011. Field hockey

Hockey India Logonewone

Field hockey is the official national sport in India. Hockey India, formed on 20 May 2009, is the new apex body of the country which has the sole mandate to govern and conduct all activities for both men's and women's hockey in India. Until the mid 20th century, India dominated international Hockey, winning 8 Olympic gold medals, the World Cup in 1975 and was runners-up in the 1975 World Cup. The Indian player Dhyan Chand, the most famous Indian hockey player, was described as a 'wizard' by the European press. However, India's recent performance have been below par and India is currently ranked 9th in the world. Cricket Cricket is the most popular sport in India; it is played by many people in open spaces throughout the country though it is not the nation's official national sport. The India national cricket team won the 1983 Cricket World Cup, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and the 2011 Cricket World Cup, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka.

Domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophyand the Challenger Series. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, aTwenty20 competition. Cricket: the sport religion of India In the context of today, it can be said that Cricket has become synonymous with the identity of being an Indian sports enthusiast. Such is the charisma of the game in the nation V. TOURISTS ATTRACTIONS AND DESTINATIONS 1. Places and buildings a. Golden Triangle India's Golden Triangle is a tourist circuit which includes: Delhi, Agra (including the Taj Mahal), and Jaipur. These trips usually last 7 or 8 days and do the trip as a circuit starting and ending in Delhi. Flights and hotels are often included in the price, and it is normally possible to do the trip by coach or private journey through most tour operators. Although the Golden Triangle is now a well travelled route it is rightly so, hosting many of India's great cultural gems, and providing a good spectrum of the country's different landscapes. The Golden Triangle is so called because of the triangular shape formed by the locations of New Delhi, Agra and Rajasthan on a map, but is occasionally expanded to include the wider geographical area of North India, most frequented by tourists. Most tourist fly from Delhi, travel south to the site of the Taj Mahal at Agra,, then West to the desert landscapes of Rajasthan, including the city of Jaipur. These three cities are very famous and that is a basic and most famous route for a tourist to visit in India.

Delhi
Delhi, the national capital of India as well as the modern face of developing India is one of the most visited travel destinations in the world. This is the political and cultural hub of India where diverse sects of linguistic communities live. Delhi is sought by the tourists not only because of its heritage monuments but because of its cultural diversity, chic lifestyle, and many more. Even it is the gateway to several destinations of India. .The rise and fall of many dynasties had been inscribed in the history of Delhi. Dating back to the Maurya period the history of Delhi stretches to the modern India. The monuments were mostly built by the Delhi Sultanate and Mughals. The mythological history of Delhi is related with the creation of Indraprashtra by the Pandavas which is a wasteland and has been converted into a heaven. The names of the royal citadels established by several dynasties in Delhi are Indraprashtra, Lal Kot, Siri, Jahanpanah, Quila Rai Pithora, Tughlakabad, Firozabad, Dinpanah, Delhi Sher Shahi or Shahjahanabad. The foundation of New Delhi by the British ushered a new era in Delhi which now becomes the main backbone of political life of India. The Purana Quila is a living testimony to rise and fall of several empires. Quick Facts Capital - New Delhi. Area: 491 sq km. Language: Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, and English is equally in the use. Touring Months: Oct, Nov, Feb and March. Summer days are hot and winter is chilly. Delhi Red Fort Delhi Red Fort, one of the masterpieces of Mughal architecture is located in the Old Delhi region, erstwhile the part of the walled city Shahjahanabad. Built of red sandstone, Red Fort was the hub of the Mughal capital when it was shifted from Agra to Delhi in 1638. Built at a whooping cost of Rs 100 lakhs, this imposing building in Redstone has its walls that vary in height from 18m on river on Yamuna side to 33m on the city side. There are various palaces inside the Fort. The three century Mughal rule came to an end at the Red Fort and it is from here that the first prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru declared India as a

nation free from the clutch of the British. Delhi Red Fort is categorized into seven important parts such as the Diwan-e-Am, public audience hall, Diwan-e-Khas, hall of private audience, The Hammam, royal bath in Turkish style, Zenana, palace of the royal ladies, Khas Mahal, a three domed mosque, Hayat Bakhsh Bagh, a garden and Naubat Khana or Drum House, an arena for the royal musicians. Today, Red Fort is one of the major attractions of Delhi tour attracting thousands of visitors every year. Each year, the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation on 15 August, the day India achieved independence from the British cluster every evening a light-and-sound-show recreates the magic of Mughal history. Quick facts Location: Old Delhi (present day Delhi) Year of Construction: 1638- 1648 Built By: Shah Jahan Significance: UNESCO World Heritage Site/ Powerful symbol of India's sovereignty Construction System: Red Sand stone (Persian, European and Indian art) Tourist Information Timings: Open on all days except Monday, from sunrise to sunset (10 a.m - 4 p.m) Best time to visit: October till March How to reach: One can take the metro to Chandni Chowk and then walk/take cycle rickshaw Humayuns Tomb Humayuns Tomb, the first garden tomb of India is an octagonal tomb supervised by Humayun's wife Hamida Banu Begum in memory of Humayun. According to the legends, it is believed that the design of the Taj was inspired from this tomb's and in pure architectural sense; this great structure is much more superior and magnificent than the stunning Taj Mahal in Agra. But, the only thing this complex lacks is the showy marble. It is believed that the Empress spent one and a half million rupees on it which shows and proves that every penny spent was worth it. The complex took around 9 years for completion and was a dazzling landmark in the evolution of Islamic architecture in India. Designed by the Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyath, the Humayun's Tomb clearly exhibits the influence of Persian art. The double domes of the Tomb are made out of white marble, while rest of the structure is made up of red sandstone, with white and black marble and yellow sandstone detailing. The enclosure is entered through two superior doublestoried gateways, one on the west and the other on the south. Besides, Humayun cenotaphs several eminent Mughal personalities are buried here like Hamida Begum (Humayuns wife), Dara Shikoh (son of Shah Jahan), Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar, Rafi UlDarjat, Rafi Ud-Daulat and Alamgir II. At present, Humayuns Tomb is one of the prominent Delhi attractions. Even US President Barrack Obama visited this site on his tour to Delhi in November 2010. Quick facts Location: Nizamuddin East, Delhi Year of Construction: 1562 Built By: Hamida Banu Begum (Humayun's wife) Spread Over: 12000 sq. mt. Significance: UNESCO World Heritage Site (1993) Construction System: Persian architecture, red & white marble Tourist Information Timings: Open on all days from sunrise to sunset Best time to visit: Late afternoon How to reach: Local buses, Auto rickshaw/ taxis

The India Gate New Delhi

The largest war memorial arch of the country, India Gate Delhi is the most prominent landmark of the national capital city of India. Situated in the heart of the capital city, this war memorial was designed by the founder of New Delhi, Sir Edward Lutyens to honor the unknown soldiers of the British Indian Army who lost their lives while fighting for the British Indian Empire. The memoirs of the Indian soldiers who lost their lives in the World War I and Third Anglo-Afghan War are inscribed on the walls of the India Gate India Gate is an arch memorial for the martyrs, Amar jawan jyoti (burning since 1971) a neverceasing flame that burns day and night under the humungous arch to pay homage to the soldiers who sacrificed their lives during the Indo-Pakistan War of December 1971. This arch shape gate was made out of Bharatpur stone. Being, situated in the heart of Delhi is, perhaps the most easily accessible Delhis tourist attraction. It is visited by local people and tourists in large number. The best time to visit this extraordinary creation is during the sunset, when the structure is floodlit and the atmosphere becomes pleasant. Large numbers of crowd hang out eating ice-creams, Bhel puri. Visitors can enjoy boating in the water bodies alongside the green lawns. Fountains placed nearby are also illuminated with multi colored lights to add further glory to the ambience. Quick facts Location: Rajpath, New Delhi Year of Construction: 1921 Built By: Sir Edwin Lutyens Spread Over: 42-metre tall/ 306000m in area/ 625m diameter Significance: All India War Memorial Construction System: Red sand stone and granite Tourist Information Timings: All days 7.00 a.m - 9.30 p.m Best time to visit: October to April (during Republic Celebration) How to reach: Nearest Metro station is Central Secretariat Lakshmi Narayan Mandir Located in the Connaught Place area, the central part of Delhi Lakshmi Narayan temple (Birla Mandir) it is the first of the temples built across the country by the industrial Birla Family. A large number of idols are housed inside the temple yet the main deity of the temple is Goddess Lakshmi alongside Vishnu (Universal creator). Built in 1938, the famous Birla Mandir in Delhi patronized by the Father of the Nation Mahatma Gandhi on condition that people of all caste including untouchables would not be restricted. Consequently a plaque at the gate reiterates that people of all caste and classes are welcome. To this day, it continues to be one of the most popular Delhi attractions. The entire structure is embellished with carvings depicting the scenes from Hindu mythology. Artificial landscape and cascading waterfalls enhance the beauty of the temple. One of the major attractions of Delhi, the Temple attracts thousands of devotees during the Hindu festivals of Janmashtami and Diwali which is celebrated here with much goodwill and cheer. Quick facts Location: Mandir Marg (west of the Connaught Place) Year of Construction: 1622 Built By: Baldeo Das Birla Spread Over: 0.52 acres (2,100 m2) Significance: First temple built by Birla family of industrialists (Inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi)

Construction System: Kota stone Tourist Information Timings: 7 to 12 (Morning) & 2 to 9 (Evening) Best time to visit: Janamashtami & Deepawali How to reach: Nearest Delhi Metro station is R.K.Ashram Marg (2 km away) Qutub Minar The world's tallest brick minaret, Qutub Minars construction was started first by the first emperor of Delhi as well as the founder of the slave dynasty Qutub-ud-din Aibak, and later the construction was completed by Shamasud-Din Iltumish, son-in-law of Aibak. Nestling in the southern quarters of lush Delhi, the f 72.5 meters stately tower is one of the supreme example of Indo-Islamic Afgan style of architecture. There are total 378 steps to the top of the tower The minaret is made of fluted red and buff sandstone exquisitely done with intricate carvings and verses from the Holy Qur`an. Apart from the main minaret, the Qutub complex houses a madrasa, an ancient iron pillar, a mosque, and various other tombs. However, the most curious that dominates the entire complex is undoubtedly, the world's foremost metallurgical Iron Pillar, situated in the voluminous courtyard of the mosque. The construction of Qutab Minar in Delhi is recognized as a hereditary raison dtre by the Slave Dynasty ruler Qutab-ud-din Aibak. One of the architectural wonder of Delhi, a tour to Qutub Minar is much favored leisure pad for Delhites. According to the traditional belief, if you encircle the Iron pillar with your hands while standing with your back to it, your wish will be granted. Quick facts Location: Mehrauli, New Delhi Year of Construction: 1193 A.D. Built By: Started by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak but completed by his Son-in-law Iltutmish Spread over: 72.5 metres High Significance: World's tallest brick minaret, UNESCO World Heritage Site Construction System: Red and buff sandstone Tourist Information Timings: All days from dusk to dawn Best time to visit: October to March How to reach: Nearest Metro Station is Qutub Minar station / you can also take local buses, Auto rickshaws, Taxis Rajghat Gandhi Memorial The memorial of the Father of Nation, Raj Ghat is the resting place of Mahatma Gandhi Mahatma Gandhi was cremated here on 31st January 1948 a day after he was assassinated on 30th January 1948 by Nathuram Godse. Rajghat is a simple square platform with a black memorial stone with "the last utterance of Gandhi "Hey Ram" inscribed on his cenotaph in golden letters. Situated on the west bank of the River Yamuna, Rajghat is surrounded by a wooded area and various exotic shrubs that give the area a tranquil ambience. There are two Gandhi museums in the premises namelyGandhi Memorial Museum and Gandhi Smriti Museum within the premises. Today, Rajghat is visited by high profile foreign dignitaries to pay their respects to Gandhi by laying flowers on the platform. For respect, tourists are required to remove their footwear before approaching. Each year prayer sessions are held by Politicians and citizens at the Raj Ghat on Gandhi's birth and death anniversaries to pay homage to the greatest Indian nationalist leader. Even US President Barack Obama visited this site when on his official visit to India in November 2010. Perhaps the most impressive attraction of Delhi is the Rajghat is a stunning tribute to the Father of Nation Mahatma Gandhi.

Quick facts Location: Banks of the river Yamuna, New Delhi (Mahatma Gandhi Road) Built By: Vanu G. Bhuta (Designed) Significance: Cenotaph of Mahatma Gandhi Construction System: Black marble Tourist Information Timings: Open all days Best time to visit: November-February How to reach: Nearest Metro Station is Kashmiri Gate, local buses, auto rickshaws & Taxis The Presidents House(Rashtrapati Bhavan) Lord Lutyen, the founder of New Delhi designed the new government centre, Rashtrapati Bhawan (Presidential House). This colossal building was designed by Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker on Raisina Hill in between 1921 and 1929. Earlier it was the residence of the Viceroy, but currently it is the residence of the President of India, Prathiba Patil. Combining Mughal and Western architectural, it is one of the finest masterpieces ofcolonial architecture in New Delhi. Though the whole structure is magnificently designed but the striking feature is the huge copper dome, which stands out from the rest of the building, due to its height. The building has 340 decorated rooms, spread over area of 18580 sq meters, a floor area of 2,00,000 square feet; 700 million bricks and 3 million cubic feet of stone was used to built the Viceregal Lodge or Delhis Rashtrapati Bhawan as it is known now. One of the greatest monuments of Delhi, a delightful journey to Rashtrapati Bhawan during Delhi tour is a must see for all those who want a rendezvous with the great British Empire. Quick facts Location: West end of Parliament Street, New Delhi Built By: Lutyens & Herbert Baker Spread over: 18580 sq meters Significance: Official residence of the President of India Construction System: Red sandstone, with only minimal usage of steel. Tourist Information Timings: You have to take special permission to visit Best time to visit: During February when Mughal Gardens are open for public How to reach: Nearest Metro Station is Central Secretariat; you can also take an auto rickshaw or Taxis Lotus Temple The grand "Lotus Temple" is termed by many as the Taj of modern India. Its distinctive lotus shaped marvel in marble is surrounded by a landscaped garden and is a symbol of peace. It is a very recent architectural marvel of the Bahai faith. It was completed in 1986. It is made of marble, cement, dolomite and sand. It reaches a height of more than 40m. One can see 27 giant white petals of marble in a lotus shape, springing from nine pools and walkways indicative of the nine unifying spiritual paths of the Bahai's faith. The Bahai's lay great emphasis on prayer and meditation. They believe that these are important instruments for the progress of the human soul, both in this world and the next. The Bahai's pray to one God, the Creator of the Universe. The act of praying is described as 'Conversation with God' and meditation is perceived as the 'Key for opening the doors of

mysteries'. In that state, man withdraws himself from all outside objects and immerses himself in the ocean of spiritual life. In the Bahai's Holy Writings there are prayers for all occasions and can be offered individually or collectively. A great importance is given to prayers as is revealed in all the scriptures. The Bahai's Writings specify that the mere act of praying is not sufficient, instead the inspiration drawn from one's prayers must be translated into action and that promotes the well being of humanity.

Agra
Taj Mahal, the jewel of Mughal architecture wins international fame and only due to this Mughal monument that Agra city tour becomes a dream to millions of people in all over the world. Agra is easily reachable from the capital city of India, Delhi and it is about 204 kms away from the National City. Agra is sought after by millions of tourists as Taj is considered as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The rich cultural legacy of Agra is also an attraction to the cultural tourists. Be it the marble crafts, stone carvings, the hereditary craftwork of the city are a topic of study for the cultural researchers. Agra also got a rich tradition of Mughlai cuisine. Tourists while visiting this city of India get surprise to see the magnificent buildings, the art and crafts and the culinary tradition. King Sikander Lodi founded the Agra city and it became a popular centre after the Mughals made it their capital. After the rule of Babar, Akbar ascended the throne and he built the majestic Agra Fort which was later completed by Shah Jahan. After the Mughal rule, Agra has faced administrative erosion in the hands of the Jats and Marathas and then it was forcibly taken by the British. Agra Tour covers the sightseeing of the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, Tomb of Emperor Akbar, It-madUd-Daulas Tomb and Fatehpur Sikri located on the outskirts of the city. The Mughal heritage still tells the glory of a bygone era and it can be felt when one virtually tours the Taj Mahal and Agra Fort. Taj Festival now draws millions of tourists; it is a great cultural extravaganza celebrated in the month of February. This festival of Indian music and dance is a special attraction of Taj Mahal tour. Luxury tourists while touring Agra can stay at the luxury heritage hotels; some of them echo the rich tradition and cultural heritage of Mughal era. Agra also boasts of budget accommodations and the budget tourists can stay at the budget hotels of the city. Agra Quick Facts Area: 62sq.km Altitude: 169 mtrs, above sea level Season: September to March Summer: Light cottons Winter: Woolens Language: Hindi, English & Urdu Festivals: Taj Mahotsav (18-27 Feb) Sheetla Fair, Kalish Fair (Aug-Sep), Bateshwar Fair (Nov), Urs (Fair) (Nov.) Best Time to Visit Agra: September to March Taj Mahal Tajmahal: The True Story Taj Mahal, one of the Seven Wonders of the World is a fascination to millions of tourists. This grand monument of Love is one of the most extravagant monuments in the world. Taj Mahal Tour is sought after by the tourists not only for its white marble

architecture but also for its glory related to love and immortal bond between the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and his wife Mumtaj Mahal. Tourists try to examine the emotion, passion, and pain behind this remarkable monument. It seems wonderful and amazing at first sight; the ambience of Taj Mahal enchants a traveler. When one enters the gate he or she becomes impatient to wait for a moment to view this great Monument of Love. Taj Mahal-a mausoleum for Mumtaj Mahal Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan made this monument in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaj Mahal when she died in child birth in 1630. So Taj is a symbol of eternal love. Due to the brilliant architecture this monument is recognized in all over the world as one of the wonders of the world. Shah Jahan was a great patron of art and culture and he had an artistic mind. Though the credit for building goes to the architect yet we cannot deny the creativity of the Emperor who thought of building it. Construction of Taj Mahal The name of the architect who is said to be believed the mastermind behind the construction of Taj Mahal is Muhammad Isa Khan, who hailed from Shiraz, Iran. Also it is accepted that there was 37 creative people in the core advisory group. The construction of Taj was started in 1632. Thousands of artisans and laborers were employed in the construction. The workers devoted their days and nights for building of this giant monument on the bank of the River Yamuna. It took almost 21 years to complete the construction of this great monument. The body of Mumtaj Mahal was kept inside the tomb after one year of the construction. Architecture The entire building of Taj Mahal is of the Islamic architecture; there are fusions of other architecture styles in this monument. There are four minarets. Taj is made out of white marble. There are intricate carvings on the walls. There are mosques on both side of Taj. The inner chamber of Taj houses photographs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaj Mahal. Amazing View of Taj Tourists can explore the beauty of Taj at any time of the day, yet sunrise and sunset are the best time to explore the majestic beauty of Taj. At the sunrise time the color of Taj changes with the changing hues of the Sun. Lots of tourists like to explore the moonlit view of Taj during the moonlit nights. We at Go Heritage India Journeys offer Taj Mahal moonlit night tour also. Quick Facts Location: On the bank of river Yamuna in Agra Year of Construction: 1632-1653 Built By: Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Spread Over: 42 acres Significance: One of the Seven Wonders of the World, UNESCO World Heritage Site Construction System: White marble with pietra dura inlays Tourist Information Timings: 6:00 am to 7:30 pm (Friday closed) Admission Fee: Rs. 20 for Indians & Rs. 110 for Foreigners\ Best time to visit: October to March or during Taj Festival (Taj Mahotsav) How to reach: By train (Shatabdi, Rajdhani, and Taj Express)/ there are regular flights to Agra. Plan your Agra trip during the festive season of Taj Mahotsav, when the beauty of the Taj Mahal is even more captivating in the pulsating medieval art & culture. Agra Fort The Agra Fort won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2004 The Agra Fort always played the decisive role in the history of India and is a UNESCO World Heritage site located on the bank of river Yamuna in Agra, India. The end of luminous Lodi dynasty and the sparkling renaissance era of Mughals a remarkable epoch of Indian history started from the enamoring Agra Fort. The stunning fort was also the place of battle during the Indian

rebellion of 1857, which caused the end of the British East India Company's rule in India, and led to a century of direct rule of India by Britain The greatest ruling clan of India, the Mughal Emperors from Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb dwelt here, and the nation was controlled from here. It comprised the largest state treasury and mint The Fort of historic importance was built by Mughal Emperor Akbar specifically for military preparedness and his grandson Shah Jahan later renovated the monument of white marble with inlaid works of gold and semi precious stones to use as his Palace and courtyard. The inside of the fort houses the palaces of the kings and queens, bath tub of the kings, Bazaar, Durbar hall, etc. The illustrious among these monuments are Moti Maszid pearl mosque built for use by members of royal court; Sheesh Mahal built with glass mosaic decorations and the extraordinary Jehangiri Mahal built by emperor Akbar for his son Jehangir. At the end of his life, Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son, Aurangzeb, in the fort. It is rumored that Shah Jahan died inMusamman Burj, a tower with a marble balcony with a view of the Taj Mahal. Agra tour is a fascinating traverse of Persian and Hindu architectural elegance of dazzling Mughal era. Quick Facts Location: On the bank of river Yamuna in Agra Year of Construction: 1565 1573 AD Built By: Mughal Emperor Akbar Renovated By: Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Significance: UNESCO Heritage site & residence of Mughals Construction System: White Marble, gold and semi precious stones Tourist Information Timings: 6:00 AM to 5:30 PM Entry fee: INR 20 for Indian nationals & INR 520 for foreign national Best time to visit: November to February Fatehpur Sikri Fatehpur Sikri a city of historical significance is consigned in the district of Agra in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India was declared a UNESCO world heritage site in 1986. The ancient city renowned as Fatehabad was constructed by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1570 in laurels of Sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chisti, who predicted the birth of his son who was named Prince Salim after him. The first planned city of Mughal rule was also the first experiment of Mughal architecturewith fusion of Indian, Persian and Islamic architectural elegance which served as the Mughal Empires capital bastion from 1571 to 1585. The architectural blend is a rich synthesis of Hindu and Jain craftsmanship bejeweled amidst hand in hand with Islamic elemental grace. The important buildings in this city are Buland Darwaza, Jama Maszid, Tomb of Salim Chisti, Ibadat Khana, Panch Mahal and Birbals house. The ghost city is an awe struck element of Agra tour located at a distance of 39 kms from Agra and is well connected with Agra as well as neighboring hub with road, Agra Cantt. Railway terminus and nearest airport from the city is Agra Airport. Quick Facts Location: Fatehpur Sikri located at a distance of 39 kms from Agra Year of Construction: 1570 AD Built By: Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great Significance: UNESCO Heritage site & Mughal capital from 1571 to 1585 Construction System: Indian, Persian and Islamic Architectural panache Tourist Information

Timings: 6:00AM to 7:30 PM Entry fee: INR 50 for Indian nationals & INR 485 for foreign nationals Best time to visit: October to March Itmadh-Ud-Daulah Tomb Itmad-ud-Daulahs Tomb illustrious as jewel box of Mughal epoch is a Mughal mausoleum located on the left bank of river Yamuna in the city of Agra in India. The tomb was built in 1622 - 1628 and was commissioned by Nur Jahan, the wife of Jehangir, for her father Mirza Ghiyas Beg, distinguished as the pillar of the Mughal state. The tomb often described as Baby Taj is elegantly inlaid with white marble and pietra dura design marked the second phase of Mughal structural wonder. This spectacular tomb is a cluster of graceful main building, numerous outbuildings and charming gardens. The walls are decorated with white marble encrusted with semi-precious stone decorations of cornelian, jasper, lapis lazuli, onyx, and topaz formed into images of cypress trees and wine bottles, or more elaborate decorations like cut fruit or vases containing bouquets are breathtaking artistic creation of Mughal era. Agra tour gives a rare opportunity to unlock Mughal culture in the midst of effervescent market orb and delicious cuisines. Quick Facts Location: On the left bank of Yamuna in Agra Year of Construction: 1622 1628 AD Built By: Empress Nur Jahan, the wife of Mughal Emperor Jehangir Significance: Baby Taj a primordial version of Taj Mahal in Agra Construction System: White Marble encrusted with semi precious stones Tourist Information Timings: 6:00 AM to 7: 30 PM Entry fee: INR 10 for Indian tourist & INR 110 for foreign tourist Best time to visit: November to March Jama Masjid The Jama Masjid (also known as Jami Masjid) is another major attraction in Agra. It was commissioned by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in 1648 dedicated to his favorite daughter, Jahanara Begum. The whole of Jama Masjid of Agra has a very simple architecture built with red sandstone with little white marble decoration, geometric designs and blue color paint wall and ceilings. Yet, the monument manages to uphold its austerity. There is huge courtyard for prayers large enough to accommodate 10,000 men and is flanked by the Jammat Khana hall and the Zenana Rauza (the tomb of the women of the royal household) on either side.A grand gateway Buland Darwaza which stands 40 meters high that leads to the mosque was constructed to commemorate Akbar's triumph in the Kandesh military campaign. Quick Facts Location: Hing ki Mandi, Mantola, Agra, Uttar Pradesh Year of Construction: 1648 Built By: Shah Jahan Significance: Largest Mosque in India Construction System: Red sandstone with little white marble decoration Tourist Information Timings: Open all days Best time to visit: October till March How to reach: Agra airport (7kms), buses from Agra Fort and Idgah bus stand or local buses, taxis etc.

 Tomb of Akbar the Great - Sikandra Sikandra or Tomb of Akbar the Great located near to Agra city on the Agra-Delhi road is one of the masterpieces of Mughal architecture. Commissioned by Akbar himself, the Tomb of Sikandra is a perfect example of religious tolerance and secular views. This can be seen in the architectural design of the tomb which consists of perfect example of the merger of five different styles of Hindu, Christian, Islamic, Buddhist and Jain designs. However, due to Akbars death, it could not be complete and later it was Jehangir (Akbar son) who completed his mausoleum popularly known as Sikandra after Sikandra Lodi (last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate). Jehangir made a number of changes in the original structure, keeping the evolution of Mughal art & architecture. Now Sikandra houses the Tomb of Emperor Akbar which was completed by Akbars son Jehangir. The fourth storey of the building is built of white marble while the first three storeys are built of red sandstone. One can also see the Baradi palace in the gardens supervised by Sikander Lodhi. Located at Sikandra on the suburbs of Agra, this mausoleum owned by Akbar is now one of the most important attractions in Agra along with other attraction within the city. Quick Facts Location: Sikandra (outskirts of Agra) on the Mathura road (NH2), 8 km Year of Construction: 1542 1605 Built By: Akbar and later completed by Jehangir (Akbar son) Spread Over: 690 m square Significance: Blend of Hindu, Christian, Islamic, Buddhist and Jain designs Construction System: Red sandstone, enriched with features in white marble. Tourist Information Timings: Open on all Week Days Best time to visit: winters How to reach: Road services/ cabs/ taxis

Jaipur
One of the three royal cities of India, Jaipur is located in the Indian state of Rajasthan which keeps alive the royal legacy of the Rajputs royalty. Every house of the Jaipur is made of pink sandstones and so Jaipur is known as the pink city of India. The Rajput forts and palaces are the major attractions for the tourists on a Jaipur tour yet this city is the hub of the diverse cultural life of Rajasthan. In the nook and corner of the city one will see the vibrant lifestyle and the jovial spirit of the local people. The history of Jaipur is related with saga of the Rajput Prince and princess and the Mughals. Akbar the Mughal Emperor married a Hindu lady, Jodha Bai and maintained friendly relationships with the Rajput kings. King Sawai Jai Singh II, a ruler of Kachawas Rajputs shifted his capital from Amer to Jaipur in 1727. The city of Jaipur is named after Maharaja Jai Singh II. Emperor Muhi ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb accorded the title Sawai to the maharajas of Jaipur. The flamboyancy and bravery of Jaipur kings are known worldwide; mostly it has become more popular after the publication of the autobiography of Maharani Gayatri Devi.

The planning of the city was designed by an architect Vidhyadhar Bhattacharya. A protective wall surrounds the city with seven gates. Jaipur is now one of the most planned cities in India and gives a romantic and royal view at first sight. Travelers from all over the world visit Jaipur city as it houses the forts and palaces. Rajasthani culture can be felt truly while visiting this city of Rajasthan. Jaipur is also an exotic destination for cuisine, shopping and polo fun. Touring Jaipur one can also visit the nearby idyllic villages of Rajasthan to explore the colorful village life. Jaipur Quick Facts Area: Jaipur City (Municipal limits 64.75 sq.km. Pink City 9.8 sq. km.) Altitude: 431 meters Climate: Max. Min. Summer: 45.0 C 25.8 C Winter: 22.0 C 8.3 C Best Season: September-March Summer: light tropical Winter: Light woolen Languages: English, Hindi, Rajasthani Albert Hall Museum Witching pink city of Jaipur is an exquisite domicile of prosperous cultural and outstanding historical heritage. So its not beyond belief to witness some of the finest museums of the world in Jaipur consigned deliberately to preserve and treasure the awe struck collection of antiques it holds. The oldest museum of Rajasthan, Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur has been designed by Sir Swinton Jacob in 1876, to welcome King Edward VII on his visit to India. Enamoring palatially furnished building stationed at Ram Niwas Garden in Jaipur is a historic date unlocked during the full of beans Jaipur tour. This enchanting royal hall adorned with regal treasure was opened as a public museum in the year 1887 is also renowned in contemporary India as Government Central Museum. Enrapturing structural wonder of this museum is a one of it kind architectural elegant fusion of Indo-Saracenic design sprinkle in its pillars, courtyards and arches that give it a very conventional yet graceful look.The main collections of the museum include carpets, textile, wood and metal crafts. Star attraction of the museum are paintings of the various schools of Rajasthan like Kishangarh painting, flora & fauna, arms & weapons, toys, dolls and even Egyptian mummy which belongs to Ptolemaic Epoch.This museum is also an affluent reserve of artifacts like ivory, stone, metal sculptures and colorful crystal works etc. Unfold a ravishing surveillance of the majestic hall museum with friends and families to behold the imperial aura of the bygone era and have a pleasant vacation amidst Rajput hospitality. Quick Facts Location: Ram Niwas Garden in Jaipur Year of Construction: 1876 AD Built By: Madho Singh II Significance: Oldest Museum of Rajasthan Construction System: Indo-Saracenic architecture Architect: Sir Swinton Jacob Tourist Information Timings: 9:30AM to 4:30 PM (except Tuesday) Entry fee: INR 10 for Indian citizens and INR 50 for foreign travelers

Best time to visit: September to March Amber Fort Spectacular picturesque landscape in the midst of an azure Maotha Lake borders the unconquered Amber Fort which was the stunning primordial bastion of the excelling Kachhawa kinship group of Amber, before the capital was repositioned to present day Jaipur. Architectural Design of Amber Fort, Jaipur The hypnotically beautiful fort festooned with red sand stone and white marble is overlooking the sapphire lake surrounded with astonishing natural innovation. The outside of the fort is a stately and furrowed defensive structure is complete contrast to its mesmeric interior bejeweled with ostentatious Hindu and Muslim (Mughal) elegance and ornamentation. Sparkling walls of the interior of the fort are appareled with murals, frescoes, and paintings describing versatile panorama from daily life. The other sections are covered with intricate carvings, mosaic, and minute mirror work which are breathtaking experience for all visiting guests. Temples & Myths Shila Devi Temple (Kali Temple): - Magnificent temple of goddess Kali is famous for its enormous silver lions. The legend unfolds that Goddess Kali appeared in the dream of Maharaja to order him to recover her statue from the sea bed and place it in a reserve temple. Thus Maharaja recovered the statue from the bed of sea and created the temple. Idol of Lord Ganesha: - It is believed that the image of Lord Ganesha at the entrance of the temple gate is sculpted from a single piece of Coral. Major Tourist Attractions Sound & Light Show: - The fort comes alive with this elite Sound and Light Show. The Amber Fort looks like a paradise on earth illuminated with laser lights and the dramatic commentary describing the history of the fort along with the folk tales associated with it. The musical extravaganza highlighting the local legends, folklore and folk music symbolizes the vivid colors of Rajasthan. Elephant Safari: - Delightful excursion can be more adventurous with elephant safari up to the fort from the base of the hill on elephants enjoying a rare pleasure of royalty in the midst of the skyline of Jaipur, Maotha Lake, and the original city walls. Sheesh Mahal (Hall of Mirrors): - The most marvelous fragment of the fort could be lit at night by a single candle because of all the tiny, intricate mirrors and out of ordinary crystal work is a praiseworthy artistic creation. Quick Facts Location: Amber, 11 km from Jaipur Year of Construction: In 1592 AD the initial section of the citadel was completed it took 2 centuries to complete the Amber Fort Built By: Raja Man Singh, Mirza Raja Jai Singh and Sawai Jai Singh Significance: Ancient undisputed Rajput Qilla Construction System: Hindu & Muslim elegance of frescoes & mosaic Tourist Information Timings: 9:00 AM to 4:30 PM Entry fee: INR 10 for Indian nationals & INR 50 for foreign nationals Best time to visit: October to March Hawa Mahal An enrapturing attraction of Jaipur is the Palace of the Breeze designed in the form of crown of Krishna, the Hindu God and is cosmos famed as Hawa Mahal. The enchanting pyramid facets of this brilliant Rajput structural wonder is an outstanding beehive of 953 small windows called jharokhas which are elegantly beautified with intricate lattice work of artistic miracle of incomparable Kachwaha clan Rajput era.

Ravishing 5 storeys pyralid shaped Palace rises to a height of 50 feet and is deliberately positioned on the main thoroughfare in the heart of Jaipurs business centre to grant royal gentlewomen to discover casual life in the street below without being seen, since they had to observe strict "purdah" (face cover) as well as it was the real intention of lattice work of the windows. This historical wonderful monument of imperial aura was a summer sanctuary for royal families during the suffocating summer season, since the remarkably projected window sash brought home the bacon of cool breeze. The spectacular fortresses built in red as well as pink sand stone is festooned with illumination windows that has inscribed sandstone grills, finials and domes. The internal ambiance of the Mahal has been described as having rooms of different colored marbles, projected by inlaid panels or gilding; while fountains adorn the centre of the courtyard. Charming Hawa Mahal an enamoring beauty dramatized from Mughal architectural style is a superlative fanciful architectural specimen of Royal Rajputs. The splendiferous bastion is a delight to witness early in the morning as with the rising sun the Mahal is drenched in a golden and pink luminosity which is an astonishing sight to treasure forever. Quick Facts Location: - Next to the entrance of City Palace in northern Jaipur Year of Construction: - 1799 Built By: -Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh Significance: - Palace of Winds, Zenana (women's chambers) Construction System: - Jharokhas designed elegantly with lattice work Architect: - Lal Chand Usta Tourist Information Timings: 9 A.M. to 4 P.M. (early in the morning is the best time to visit) Entry fee: INR 10 for Indian travelers and INR 30 for foreigners vacationers. Best time to visit: October to March Jaigarh Fort Cosmos most spectacular fort of Jaigarh was used as a depository of gold and jewelry of royal families and was renowned as victory fort used aggressively to defend Amber from invaders. Modern Indian History declares that the compartments below the water tank used to store royal treasure were reopened during the emergency declared by Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1975-1977 for intact storage of national wealth. Marvelous Jaigarh fort impressively placed at the top of the hill in the midst of the stark Aravalli Hills gradually evaporating into the desert daze can keep one enwrapped for hours and was well connected to the Amber Fort consigned at the bottom of the hill. The creations most perfect garrison was a midpoint of artillery outputs for the Rajputs and it is base to the world's largest cannon on wheels, the Jaivana. Astounding human effort can be experienced from watching the 5 km long canal entering the mysterious Rajput bastion to bring in water from the high hills and store in the fort for the armymen of erstwhile era.. Quick Facts Location: Amber, 15 km from Jaipur Year of Construction: 1720 AD Built By: Raja Sawai Jai Singh Significance: Rajput armory & victory fort to check invaders Construction System: Red and Pink sand stone

Tourist Information Timings: 9:00 AM to 4:30 PM Entry Fee: INR 10 for Indian travelers & INR 20 for foreign travelers Best time to visit: October to March Jantar Mantar Man is always attracted to the unknown since time immemorial and the mysterious Universe is a focal point of fascination for all humans dwelling on this mother planet. Captivating Jantar Mantar is incredibly the largest stone Astronomical Observatory of the world and has been incised in the world heritage list as an expression of cosmological procreations of astronomical skills. Enrapturing Jantar Mantar is not a name by chance but is define illustriously as an exceptional calculation instrument derived from Jantar means an instrument and Mantar literary states a formula in this context calculation so the name is rationally apt for the world heritage site. One of the Stunning Observatory of bygone era is bejeweled with fourteen major geometric devices which are sophisticated yet traditional methods of evaluating time, anticipating eclipses, computing the movements of planets and chasing after stars as the earth revolves around the sun. The year 1948 was a year of acclamation for the highly accurate observatory as it was enrolled as a shinning national monument of India. Dramatically emblazoned from local stone and marble, each instrument carries an astronomical scale used till date by local astronomers to forecast the weather for farmers. Elephantine sundial famed as Samrat Yantra is standing 27 meters tall and is not surprisingly the worlds largest sundial. The beyond belief Observation tower was thoroughly renovated in the year 1901 and provides a unique experience of rehearsing through an imaginative yet geometric path of combined astronomical system of rules impregnated to probe the heavens. Quick Facts Location: Sireh Deohi Bazzar in Jaipur Year of Construction: 1727 to 1734 Built By: Maharaja Jai Singh II Significance: World Heritage Site, National Monument, World Largest Astronomical Observatory Construction System: Local stones and Marble Architect Renovation: Major Arthur ffolliott Garrett Tourist Information Timings: 9 AM to 5 PM (except Mondays) Entry fee: INR 24 for Indian and INR 54 for foreigners (including camera) Best time to visit: October to March Nahargarh Fort Awe inspiring Nahargarh fort is intentionally positioned on the edge of the Aravalli Hills looking across the striking pink city of Jaipur provides a breathtaking picturesque to behold forever. The stronghold of Nahargarh fortress was a tiara of defence preparedness and undoubtedly complimented Amber fort and Jaigarh fort to complete the defence ring of the Kachhawa Rajput clan. Captivating bastion also served as the power packed protection nucleus to the Europeans who took refuge from the havoc created by mutineers during the Sepoy revolt of 1857.

Nahargarh literary means a splendid domicile of tigers and is also creations famed as Tiger Fort. Incredible places have always been the birth point of beyond belief myths as well as legends and fort of Nahargarh seems like a queen in terms of legends connected to its procreation. Legends say that it was named after Prince Nahar whose spirit haunted the place and obstructed construction of the fort and kept a condition that construction will only resume if the fort is christianed after his name. The focal point of Aravalli was also the hunting residence of the Maharajas and were well planned and decorated with delicate frescos. There are nine charming apartments built for the nine Queens the Maharaja had and all the rooms are well connected with planned corridors elegantly designed. Quick Facts Location: Aravalli Hills, in Jaipur Year of Construction: Built in 1734 and extended in 1868 Built By: Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II Significance: Prince Nahars spirit haunted the fort Construction System: Delicate frescos Tourist Information Timings: 10:00 AM to 4:30 PM Entry fee: INR 10 for Indian tourist & INR 50 for foreign tourist Best time to visit: October to March The City Palace Enamoring domiciliate of the royal family sparkling as City Palace is one of the most majestic palaces in Rajasthan. The architectonics wonder of the spectacular palace is a coalition of Rajput orthodox architecture magic and incomparable elegance of Mughal architecture. Charismatic City Palace coordination compound blankets a huge area, which is divided into a series of gardens, courtyards as well as buildings, is strategically consigned in the heart of Jaipur and was the seat of the Maharaja of Jaipur, the head of the Kachhawa Rajput clan. The history of the city palace is closely linked with the history of Jaipur city as a rapid increase in population and acute shortage of water obligated the Royal kin to shift its capital from Amber to Jaipur and construct a regal accommodation retreat hub in the heart of the conurbation. Captivating embodiment of Rajput glory honored as City Palace is stylishly constructed as well as exceptionally fractioned in to Chandra Mahal, Mubarak Mahal, Mubarak Mahal, Maharani's Palace, Shri Govind Dev Temple and the City Palace Museum Chandra Mahal: Chandra Mahal or Chandra Niwas is the most proud hostess to the descendants of the former ruler of Jaipur and is a seven storeyed royal abode. The peacock door of the Palace looks impressive and amazing. The Palace is an extraordinary amalgamation of unique paintings, mirror work on walls, floral decorations, set amidst well laid out gardens and a decorative lake in the panorama Mubarak Mahal: Mubarak Mahal in a literary context means an, Auspicious Palace which is magnificently designed in Islamic, Rajput and European architectural styles in the late 19th century as reception centre. Maharani's Palace: An implausible as well as richly decorated chamber of unequaled frescoes preserved using jewel dust of semiprecious stones was originally the residence of the royal queens. Diwan-I-Khas: The marvelous white marble floored auditorium was a private audience hall and the focal point of royal meetings. Diwan-I-Aam: Enthralling manor hall painted in red and gold still looks vivacious and was a public hall. Govind Dev Ji temple: It is a sacred temple dedicated to the Hindu God Lord Krishna and exhibits spellbinding European chandeliers and paintings of Indian art.

The City Palace Museum: City Palace houses a museum which has the rare collections of the Rajasthani aesthetic costumes and armory of the Rajputs and the Mughals. The sword collections of the museum are one of the superb collections; the jewels studded swords are kept in the museum. In a sentence City Palace of Jaipur is a becharming citadel of valiant Rajputs dazzling with its marble columns and arches ornamented with floral motifs of gold and stones. Quick Facts Location: In the heart of Jaipur Year of Construction: 1729-1732 AD Built By: Sawai Jai Singh II Significance: Royal elegance of Rajput architecture Construction System: Red and Pink sand stone Architect: Vidyadar Bhattacharya and Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob Tourist Information Timings: 10 A.M to 5 P.M Entry fee: INR 35 for Indian citizens and INR 150 for foreign citizens Best time to visit: October to March b. Holy City of Varanasi Varanasi is one of the holiest cities and targets of pilgrimage for Hindus. As the place where Siddhrtha Gautama gave his first sermon to his disciples, Varanasi is the city where Buddhism was founded. It is the birthplace of Suparshvanath, Shreyansanath, and Parshva, who are respectively the seventh, eleventh, and twentythird Jain Tirthankars and as such Varanasi is a holy city for Jains. Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 and had an encounter which with other events forms the basis for the story of the founding of Sikhism. The city has a sizeable native Muslim population; it hosts the Roman Catholic Diocese of Varanasi, and has a significant Jewish expatriate community. Varanasi is home to numerous tribal faiths which are not easily classified and many denominations of the religions which are present. Annie Besant worked in Benares to promote theosophy and founded the Central Hindu College which later became a foundation for the creation of Benaras Hindu University as a secular university. As a place of pilgrimage for many faiths Varanasi continually hosts an unusually rich diversity of religious practitioners and teachers who are not resident in the city. Hinduism in Varanasi Varanasi is a holy city in Hinduism, being one of the most sacred pilgrimage places for Hindus of alldenominations and is one of seven most holy places for Hindus in India. A Ketra is a sacred ground, a field of active power, a place where Moksha, final release can be obtained. The Garuda Purana enumerates seven cities as giver of Moksha, They are Ayodhya, Mathura, My, Ksi,Kch, Avantik and Dvrvat. It has the holy shrine of Kashi Vishwanath (a manifestation of Lord Shiva), and also one of the twelve revered Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva. Hindus believe that bathing in the Ganges remits sins and that dying in Kashi ensures release of a person's soul from the cycle of its transmigrations. Hindus regard Kashi as one of the Shakti Peethas, and that Vishalakshi Temple stands on the spot where Goddess Sati's earrings fell. Hindus of the Shakti sect make a pilgrimage to the city because they regard the river Ganges itself as the Goddess Shakti. Adi Shankara wrote his commentaries on Hinduism here, leading to the great Hindu revival.Vaishnavism and Shaivism have always co-existed in Varanasi harmoniously Ramlila

The Ramlila is a cycle of plays which recounts the epic story of Lord Rama, as told in Rmacaritamnasa, the version of the Ramayana penned by Tulsidas. The plays sponsored by the Maharaja, are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days. On the last day the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama vanquishes the demon king Ravana. Maharaja Udit Narayan Singh started this tradition of staging theRamleela at Ramnagar in mid-nineteenth century. Ghats Varanasi has nearly 100 ghats. Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control. Marathas, Shindes (Scindias), Holkars, Bhonsles, and Peshwes (Peshwas) stand out as patrons of present-day Varanasi. Most of the ghats are bathing ghats, while others are used as cremation sites. Many ghats are associated with legends or mythologies while many ghats are privately owned. The former Kashi Naresh owns Shivala or Kali ghat. Temples Varanasi is a city of temples. Tilbhandeshwar temple is also one of the oldest temples in Varanasi. It is situated near Bengali Tola Inter College Pande Haweli. Islam in Varanasi Construction of the Mosque of Aurangzeb nears the bank of the Ganges River at Varanasi. Islam came to Benares in 12th century during the rule of Delhi Sultanate; and established during the Mughal Period. The Muslims form a substantial part of the city's population, particularly in the old city where they form about one third of the population. Weaving in Varanasi of the famous Baranasi saris is a Muslim domain. Many of city's Muslims belong to the weaver caste called "Ansari" ("helper" in Arabic) Buddhism in Varanasi Sarnath is a place of Buddhist pilgrimage. The site where Buddha gave his first sermon and thereby founded Buddhism is marked by Dhamek Stupa. Buddhist traditions worldwide have each built their country's architectural style of Buddhist temple here. Varanasi is one of the holiest places in Buddhism too, being one of the four pilgrimage sites said to have been designated by Gautama Buddha himself (the others being Kushinagar, Bodh Gaya, andLumbini). In the residential neighbourhood of Varanasi lies Sarnath, the site of the deer park where Gautama Buddha is said to have given his first sermon about the basic principles of Buddhism. TheDhamek Stupa is one of the few pre-Ashokan stupas still standing, though only its foundation remains. Also remaining is the Chaukhandi Stupa commemorating the spot where Buddha met his first disciples (in the 5th century or earlier, BC). An octagonal tower was built later there. Jainism in Varanasi Varanasi is a pilgrimage site for Jains along with Hindus and Buddhists. It is believed to be the birthplace of Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankar. Islamic culture has also had an influence on Varanasi. Shree Parshvanath Digambar Jain Tirth Kshetra (Digambar Jain Temple) is situated in Bhelupur, Varanasi. This temple is of great religious importance to Jain Religion. Parshvanath or Parshvanatha occasionally spelled Parshvanath or Parswanath) was the twenty-third Tirthankara (fordmaker) in Jainism. fl. ca. in the 9th century BCE, traditionally (877 777 BCE. He is the earliest Jain leader generally accepted as a historical figure. He was a nobleman belonging to the Kshatriya caste. He lived in Varanasi in India around 800 BCE and is the most popular object of Jain devotion. c. Mumbai Hanging Gardens Mumbai General Information Location: Malabar Hills, Mumbai Attractions: Hedges crafted in shapes of animals Specialty: Animal shaped hedges along the slopes of verdant Malabar Hills

Hanging Gardens also known as Ferozeshah Mehta Gardens are the perfectly manicured terraced gardens on the slopes of the Malabar Hill, just opposite the Kamala Nehru Park. Providing a calming view of Sunset over the Arabian Sea, the Hanging Gardens have been carved into the shapes of animals. The park, which was laid out in 1881 over Bombays main reservoir, owes its name to the renowned barrister Pherozshah Mehta. With gaping vibrancy of natural beauty there is a modern expanse of the city down hills. You have a panoramic view of sweeping Chowpatty Beach and scintillating Marine Drive from the Ferozeshah Mehta Ggarden that has no less than an awe-inspiring expression from the onlookers.Ferozeshah Mehta Gardens serves as a picturesque retreat for the people of Mumbai. Suspended over Malabar Hills, the garden presents a picturesque vista of the dazzling city. It is actually a terraced garden that sprawls on the slope of the hill. Perhaps this is the reason of its being named as the Hanging Gardens. The garden is located on the western side of the hills, opposite the renowned Kamala Nehru Park. Perched at the top of Malabar Hill, on its western side, just opposite the Kamala Nehru Park, these terraced gardens, also known as Ferozeshah Mehta Gardens, provide lovely sunset views over the Arabian Sea. The park was laid out in the early 1880s over Bombays main reservoir, some say to cover the water from the potentially contaminating activity of the nearby Towers of Silence. How to Reach Hanging Gardens Mumbai: One can easily reach Hanging Gardens by boarding buses or trains, or by hiring autos or taxis from the city. Board a local or hire a taxi/auto or bus very near to charni road station (west) is this famous walkeshwar area at Malabar hill location, Just 15 minutes from station in Taxi. Some attractive places near Kamla Nehru Park are jain temple, banganga and Girgaon Chowpatty. Chowpatty Beach Chowpatty beach is in the heart of Mumbai. Chowpatty has rich historical links to the freedom movement. Several important meetings were organized here during the freedom struggle. At present, this is where images of Ganesha are immersed after the ten days of Ganesh Chaturthi. Though the beaches remain empty throughout the day, it is a hub of activity in the evenings. On this beach the most famous are the kiosks. These stalls sell all kinds ofchatt, tikki and the famous bhelpuri of Chowpatty. On the beach it is a small colony of the original inhabitants of Mumbai, The Koli fishermen who can be seen drying their catch or mending their nets. Statues of Lokmanya Tilak and Sardar Patel, two of the most outstanding Maharashtrian freedom fighters, stand on the beach. The famous beach of Chowpatty is the only beach that adorns central part of Mumbai. Situated at the end of Marine drive, at the foot of Malabar, this vast expanse of sand and sea is the hub of human activity. The beach is sought after by political, religious and other social groups to perform functions. The beach is equally popular with youth and those who are seeking fun and relaxation irrespective of their age. During the day, the place gives a deserted look. There is not much action to catch during daytime. During daytime it is flocked by idle groups who come to have a sleep under its stunted trees. But as the sun starts backward journey, the place starts getting filled with people from all walks of life. It virtually turns into a fair ground in the evening. In the evening one can see kids screaming on Ferris wheels or taking pony rides, wayside astrologers making a quick buck, monkey shows, self -styled gymnast demonstrating amazing yogic postures etc. The place gets lined with kiosks selling ice-cream and Bhelpuri-signature dish of Mumbai. The sight of selling meals on wheels makes one remember scenes from Hindi movies, which have depicted these scenes beautifully. 2. Cultural aspects a. Fairs and Festivals in New Delhi The Festivals of Delhi are the most important aspect of Delhi Culture. The Festivals of Delhi represents the art and culture of

the multi ethnic people residing in the city. Since it is a melting pot of different versatile religions and cultures, Delhi celebrates almost all the festivals that are celebrated in other parts of the country. From the Diwali of the Hindus to the Eid of the Muslims to the Christmas of the Christians to the Guru Nank Jayanti of the Sikhs, each and every festival is celebrated with same zeal and zest. Some of the major festivities celebrated in Delhi are: Republic Day Celebrated every year on 26th January, the Republic Day signifies the enactment of the Indian Constitution. The Republic Day is celebrated in full enthusiasm in the Capital city of New Delhi; a grand Parade takes place passing by Raisina Hill near the Rashtrapati Bhavan, along the Rajpath, past India Gate and on to the historic Red Fort. Independence Day The Independence Day of India an important day in Indian History is celebrated each year on 15th of August to commemorate its independence from its 150 years of British rule and its birth as a sovereign nation in 1947. The main event takes place in New Delhi, where the Prime Minister of India hosts the national flag and later delivers the a speech from ramparts of the Red Fort. Holi Celebrated in the Hindu month of Phalguna, Holi is a religious festival celebrated by Hindus on the full moon day. The Festivals of Colors, the festivities of Holi involves smearing each other with gulal (colors) and throwing colored water on each other. Janamashtami Krishnashtami_Janamashtami is celebrated on a large scale among the Hindus celebrating the birth of Krishna, an avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu. Rasa Lila & Dahi Handi is the special feature of the festival which is associated with the life of Lord Krishna. Dussehra Also known as Vijayadasham is celebrated on the 10th day of the Hindu month of Ashvin. On this Lord Rama killed the great Demon Ravan. It also symbolizes triumph of warrior Goddess Durga over the buffalo demon, Mahishasura. Thus, it is a celebration of good over evil. Eid ul-Fitr Celebrated by Muslims of all over the world, the Festival of Eid is celebrated to mark the end of the holy month of Ramadan (an Islamic holy month of fasting). Christmas Like the west, the Christmas in Delhi is celebrated with much the same enthusiasm & gaiety by the Christians. Generally observed in the Month of December 25th, it is celebrated to commemorate the birth anniversary of Jesus Christ (the founder of Christianity). b. Fairs and Festival in Agar Taj Mahotsav Taj Mahotsav is a mega event celebrated every year at Shilpgram in Agra, India near Taj Mahal. The spectacular annual 10 day festival celebrated in the spring fall of February from 18th to 27th February arouses the remembering of old Mughal era and Nawabi vogue predominant in Uttar Pradesh in 18th and 19th centures. The Taj Mahotsav is an enchanting fiesta of arts & crafts, cultures, initiatives and theme which undoubtedly gives a rare opportunity to dig deep in to the cultural richness of Mughal epoch. Arts & Crafts The fest gives around 400 creative artisans from different parts of India to display their exquisite works of art on wood/stone carvings from Tamil Nadu, Bamboo/cane work from North East India, Paper mash work from South India and Kashmir, the marble and zardozi work from Agra, wood carving from Saharanpur, brass wares from Moradabad, hand made carpets from Bhadohi, Pottery from Khurja, Chikan work from Lucknow, silk & zari work from Banaras, shawls & carpets from Kashmir/Gujarat and hand printing from Farrukhabad and Kantha stitch from West Bengal etc. Cultures

The festival commences with grand road procession with decorated elephants and camels, drum beaters, folk artists and master craftsmen making it a grand affair. One can experience majestic and magnetic performances of various folk and classical artists from every walk of life like Bundelkhand 'Nautanki' (Drama), 'Sapera' dance of Rajasthan, Lavani of Maharashtra., Kathakali of Kerala and other folk dance. Initiatives The AIDS Control Society of Uttar Pradesh State has realized the grandness of the event and use different folk dances to campaign about AIDS awareness. Theme Every year Taj Mahotsav is celebrated with great pomp and show based on a mass awareness theme depicting world peace, oneness, love and harmonious co existence. Theme for 2010 Mahotsav was Ek Utsav Prem Ka literary means A festival of love. Quick Facts Location: Shilpgram in Agra Significance: Festival of Mughal culture spreading message of world peace and unity Time of Celebration: February 18th to February 27th Tourist Information Date of commencement & end: February 18th to February 27th Entry fee: For Indian citizens INR 20 for adult, INR 10 for children between 12 to 5 years, for children below 5 years free entry and foreign nationals are allowed free entry to the fest c. Fair and Festivals in Jaipur Vibrant festivals and vivacious fairs add sparkling colors to life. Royal Jaipur is no different when it comes to celebration of festivals and celebrates every festival with fondness. The pink city of royalty and grandiose gets in to lively effervescent shades while observing numerous festivals celebrated with equal vigor across the country.But the Rajput city of glory celebrates some interestingly unusual festivals and fairs in their own signature styles. The unique celebrated festivals & fairs of Jaipur which are also star attractions of Jaipur tour are Gangaur festival, Literature festival, Kite festival, Teej festival, Shitla Mata fair, Chaksu fair and Elephant festival. Gangaur festival This festival is especially celebrated by the women folk and is acclaimed throughout the state of Rajasthan in the month of March. The women folk worship lord Shiva as well as goddess Parvati for well being of there husband and pray for eternal marital bliss. Literature festival Jaipur is a majestic host to literature festival which invites aspiring as well as famed writers from across the subcontinent for an affluent literary celebration. Kite festival On the auspicious day of Makar Sankranti on 14th January the kite festival is celebrated by flying kites by people from all age group and enjoying the pleasant winter with friends and family. Teej festival It is the most popular festival celebrated across the country but its real charm can be found only in Rajasthan. The festival is celebrated to welcome the monsoon as a relief from the scorching heat of blazing Indian summer. Shitla Mata fair A large fair is held in and around the temple devoted to the goddess in Amber, Jaipur to appease the goddess of war whose anger can be the dreadful nemesis of smallpox unless pacified by her followers. Chaksu fair One of the most colorful fairs in the Rajasthani fair calendar is visited by many hundred thousand peoples from across the rural village of regal Rajasthan in almost all forms of transport - laden into tractor trolleys and jeeps arrive with full of enthusiasm for a great get together. Elephant festival The elephant festival celebrated on the eve of Holi in the month of March the fest is marked with a beautiful procession of bedecked elephants, camels, horses and folk dancers. The chief features of

the carnival are Elephant Polo, Elephant Dance, Elephant race; the tug-of-war between Elephant and 19 men and women offers a delightful show to beloved. Quick Facts Location: Celebrated in Jaipur and throughout Rajasthan Significance: Out of Ordinary festivals & fairs no where else to witness Tourist Information Best time to visit: October to March.

NEPAL
IBASIC INFORMATION OF THE COUNTRY 1AREA Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked sovereign state located in South Asia. It is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India. With an area of 147,181 square kilometers (56,827 square miles), Nepal is the world's 93rd largest country by land mass.

2UTC UTC/GMT +5.45

Flag of Nepal

3FLAG The national flag of Nepal is the world's only national flag that is non-quadrilateral in shape. The flag is a simplified combination of two single pennons. The blue border symbolizes the peace and harmony that has been prevalent in the country since the age of Gautama Buddha, who was born in Nepal. Its crimson red is the color of the rhododendron, the country's national flower and it indicates the brave spirits of the Nepalese people. The two triangles symbolize the Himalaya Mountains and represent the two major religions, Hinduism and Buddhism. The Use National flag depiction of celestial bodies represents permanence, the hope that Nepal will last as long as the sun and the moon. The moon Proportion 5:4 symbolizes that the Nepalese are soothing and December 16, 1962 calm, while the sun symbolizes fierce resolve. Adopted The moon also symbolizes the shades and the Design Combination of two red pennons cool weather of the Himalayas, whereas the with a blue border, defaced with a sun symbolizes the heat and the high sun-and-crescent and a sun temperature at the lower part of Nepal. Another interpretation: The flag's shape symbolizes a Nepalese pagoda. Putting a mirror at the side of the flag closest to the flagpole will generate an image of a pagoda. 4POLITICAL SYSTEM Government: Federal Democratic Republic Until 1990, Nepal was a monarchy under the tyranny of the executive power of the king. Faced with the People's movement against autocratic monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, has agreed to several measures broad political reform by creating a parliamentary monarchy with the king as head of country and a prime minister as head of government. Legislative system in Nepal consists of a style bicameral Congress and a National Council. House of People's 205 members are directly elected. The National Council has 60 members, ten appointed by the king, three people targeted by the House vote and the remaining fifteen elected by a council of village leaders and township election. Legislatures have five-year term, but the king may be dissolved before term. All Nepalese citizens aged 18 or more are entitled to vote. Legislative branch of the King and the Council of Ministers (cabinet). Leaders of the coalition or majority party seats in the election were appointed as Prime Minister. The cabinet is appointed by the king's prime minister suggested. The government now generally unstable; no government exists than two years since 1991, or dissolved due to internal instability or dissolution of the royal family. Movement in April 2006 seemed to bring about change for the country. Despotic king was forced to relinquish power. House disbanded before working again. House of Representatives formed a government and succeeded in dialogue with Maoist rebels. An interim constitution was declared and an interim House of Representatives was formed with the Maoist members. Number of seats in the House was increased to 330. Peace process in Nepal was incredible step forward in April 2007, when the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) joined the interim government of Nepal. On May 28, 2008 established a federal multiparty representative democratic republic. The first President of Nepal, Ram Baran Yadav, was sworn in on July 23, 2008. 5MONETARY UNIT The rupee is the official currency of Nepal. The present rupee has the code NPR and is normally abbreviated with the sign . It is subdivided into 100 paisa.

Denominations: Coins: 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 paisa, Rs. 1, Rs. 2, Rs. 5, Rs. 10

Banknotes Frequently used: Rs. 5, Rs. 10, Rs. 20, Rs. 25 Rs. 50, Rs. 100, Rs. 500, Rs. 1000 Rarely used: Re. 1, Rs. 2

1NPR = 0.0127 USD; 1NPR = 215.82VN. IILOCATION 1GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION Nepal is of roughly trapezoidal shape, 800 kilometers (497 miles) long and 200 kilometers (124 miles) wide, with an area of 147,181 km2 (56,827 square miles). It lies between latitudes 26 and 31N, and longitudes 80 and 89E. Nepal is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India.

2NAMES OF IMPORTANT PRECINCTS/PROVINCES Nepal is divided into 14 provinces and 75 districts grouped into five development regions. Each province is headed by a permanent chief district officer responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries. The five regions, 14 provinces and 75 districts are:

*Eastern region: - Koshi zone: Bhojpur District (Bhojpur), Dhankuta District (Dhankuta), Morang District (Biratnagar), Sankhuwasabha District (Khandbari), Sunsari District (Inaruwa), Terhathum District (Myanglung). - Mechi zone: Ilam District (Ilam), Jhapa District (Chandragadhi), Panchthar District (Phidim), Taplejung District (Taplejung). - Sagarmatha zone: Khotang District (Diktel), Okhaldhunga District (Okhaldhunga), Saptari District (Rajbiraj), Siraha District (Siraha), Solukhumbu District (Salleri), Udayapur District (Gaighat). *Central region: - Bagmati zone: Bhaktapur District (Bhaktapur), Dhading District (Dhading Besi), Kathmandu District (Kathmandu), Kavrepalanchok District (Dhulikhel), Lalitpur District (Patan), Nuwakot District (Bidur), Rasuwa District (Dhunche), Sindhupalchok District (Chautara). - Janakpur zone: Dhanusa District (Janakpur), Dolakha District (Charikot), Mahottari District (Jaleswor), Ramechhap District (Manthali), Sarlahi District (Malangwa), Sindhuli District (Kamalamai). - Narayani zone: Bara District (Kalaiya), Chitwan District (Bharatpur), Makwanpur District (Hetauda), Parsa District (Birganj), Rautahat District (Gaur). *Western region: - Dhawalagiri zone: Baglung District (Kalika), Mustang District (Jomsom), Myagdi District (Beni), Parbat District (Kusma). - Gandaki zone: Gorkha District (Gorkha), Kaski District (Pokhara), Lamjung District (Besisahar), Manang District (Chame), Syangja District (Syangja), Tanahu District (Damauli). - Lumbini zone: Arghakhanchi District (Sandhikharka), Gulmi District (Tamghas), Kapilvastu District (Kapilvastu), Nawalparasi District (Parasi), Palpa District (Tansen), Rupandehi District (Siddharthanagar).

*Mid- Western region: - Bheri zone: Banke District (Nepalgunj), Bardiya District (Gulariya), Dailekh District (Dullu), Jajarkot District (Khalanga), Surkhet District (Birendranagar). - Karnali zone: Dolpa District (Dunai), Humla District (Simikot), Jumla District (Jumla Khalanga), Kalikot District (Manma), Mugu District (Gamgadhi). - Rapti zone: Dang Deukhuri District (Tribuvannagar), Pyuthan District (Pyuthan Khalanga), Rolpa District (Liwang), Rukum District (Musikot), Salyan District (Salyan Khalanga). * Far-Western region: - Mahakali zone: Baitadi District (Baitadi), Dadeldhura District (Dadeldhura), Darchula District (Darchula), Kanchanpur District (Bhim Dutta). - Seti zone: Achham District (Mangalsen), Bajhang District (Chainpur), Bajura District (Martadi), Doti District (Dipayal), Kailali District (Dhangadhi). ( ): the capital city of each district 3- CAPITAL AND CAPITAL CITIES Capital city: Kathmandu

Kathmandu is the capital and, with close to one million inhabitants, the largest metropolitan city of Nepal. The city is located in the northwestern part of Kathmandu Valley. The city covers an area of 50.67 square kilometres (19.56 sq mi). The average elevation is 1,350 metres (4,430 ft) above the sea level. The city is bounded by the Lalitpur in its south, Kirtipur in south-west, Madyapur Thimi Municipality in east and differentVillage Development Committees of Kathmandu in north, west and north-east. The city generally has a pleasant climate with comfortable warm days followed by the cool mornings and nights. Unpredictability of weather is expected as during winter, temperatures during the winter months have dropped to 3 C (37 F). Kathmandu has also been described variously as "Land of Gods" and as "land of the largest congregations of magnificent historical monuments and shrines ever built. In 2006, UNESCO declared these seven groups of monuments as a "World Heritage Site" (WHS). The seven monuments zones cover an area of 188.95 hectares (466.9 acres), with the buffer zone extending to 239.34 hectares (591.4 acres). The Seven Monument Zones, are: Five monuments in Kathmandu Durbar square of Hanuman Dhaka, Hindu temples of Pashupatinath and Changunarayan, the Buddha stupas of Swayambu and Boudhanath; and two monuments outside Kathmandu city limits, in the satellite towns of Patan and Bhktapur Durbar square at Patan, Durbar square at Bhaktapur. III1GEOGRAPHY PATTERNS LANDFORMS

Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: Mountain, Hill and Terai. These ecological belts run east-west and are vertically intersected by Nepal's major, north to south flowing river systems. In Nepal, Terai is differentiated into "Outer" and "Inner" Terai. Outer Terai or Madhes begins at the southern edge of the Siwalik Hills. In ordinary usage the Terai extends to the border with India, even if drier, cleared agricultural land well south of the marshes may be included. The Outer Terai of far western Nepal consists of Kanchanpur, Kailali, Bardiya and Banke districts. These were once called the Naya Muluk and lay on the periphery of the Awadhdyanasty. They were annexed by the British in the Sugauli Treaty after Nepal lost the AngloNepalese War (181416) but were restored in 1860 as reward for Nepal's military aid in theIndian Rebellion of 1857. East of Banke the Nepalese outer terai is interrupted where the international border swings north and follows the edge of the Siwaliks adjacent to Deukhuri Valley. Here the Outer Terai is entirely in Uttar Pradesh's Shravasti and Balrampur districts. East of Deukhuri the international border extends south again and Nepal has three more Outer Terai districts Kapilvastu, Rupandehi and Nawalparasi. In Chitwan district east of Nawalparasi the international border again follows the southernmost Siwaliks, placing the outer terai in Bihar's West Champaran district. Then the international border extends south and the Nepalese Outer Terai is continuous across eleven districts to the country's eastern border. These additional districts are: Parsa, Bara, Rautahat, Sarlahi,Mahottari, Dhanusa, Siraha, Saptari,, Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa . 2MOUNTAINS aThe Mountain region Himalayas is a group of mountainous regions located in South Asia - Pakistan, India, Bhutan, Tibet, and Nepal. It dominates the list of highest mountains in the world! Himalayas includes the highest mountain Mt. Everest of Nepal (8850m / 29035ft). Himalaya of Nepal means, the Himalayan Mountains located in this country. In sanskirt Himalayas means "abode of snow". Himalayas not only includes the snow-capped heavenly mountains but also the surrounding green and scenic valleys which lie in its path and on it's base, which people often forget. You will often hear the word Himal, which is a Nepali word, a short term popularly used for the snow-capped mountains or just for the word Himalaya. Himals are national assets of Nepal. The Must Knows... Nepal has more than 200 mountains over 6000 meter height Himalayas of Nepal is known as the rooftop of the world. Because half of the highest mountains of the Himalayas are located in Nepal. Also the world's highest mountain (Mt. Everest) is also located in Nepal Nepal is known as a Himalayan Country Journey to Himalayas begins from Nepal, as Nepal is the central location of the Himalayas Himalayas are regarded as the most beautiful part of the earth which is often accurately named as the Clouds of The Earth or as The Location Where the Earth Meets the Sky, which is more evident as we see the earth and Himalayas from the space above. Himalayas is the King of Mountains. It has more tallest mountains than any other regions of the planet Over a 1000 mountain expeditions takes places every year in Nepal, each expeditions carrying an average of 30 people, more than 80% of those expeditions are towards the Himalayas

A list of Major Mountains of the Himalayas in Nepal

Name of the Photo(s) Mountain

Location

Feet (ft.)

WorldMeter Wide (m) Mountain Rank

Mount Everest

Nepal

1 The World's Highest 29035 8850 Mountain Everest Links and Facts 28169 8586 3

Kanchanjung a

Nepal

Makalu I

Nepal

27766 8463 5 7 The name 26795 8167 means a white mountain. 26781 8163 8

Dhaulagiri

Nepal

Manaslu 1

Nepal

Annapurna I

Nepal

26545 8091 10

Annapurna II

Nepal

26041 7937 15

Gyachung Kang

Nepal

25910 7897 16

Himalchuli Jongsong Peak Nuptse

Nepal Nepal Nepal

25801 7864 18 24472 7459 38 25726 7841 19

Makalu II Chamlang Chamlang

Nepal Nepal

25120 7657 31 24012 7319 45

Tent Peak Kabru Baruntse Nepal Peak Pyramid Api Kailas (Kailash Parbat) Gauri Shankar Lhotse I Cho Oyu

Tent Peak Kabru Baruntse Nepal Peak Pyramid Api

Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Tibet -

24165 7365 43 24002 7316 46 23688 7220 51 23500 7163 52 23400 7132 58 23399 7132 59 22494 6856 71 22027 6714 80 23440 7145 54 27940 8516 4 26906 8201 6

Ama Dablam Ama Dablam

Gauri Shankar Lhotse I Cho Oyu

Nepal Tibet Nepal Tibet Nepal Tibet

Map showing Major Peaks in Himalaya of Nepal

Fun Facts about Himalayas and Relevant o Himalayas is about 1490 miles (2400 km) in length, averaging about 200 to 250 miles (320 to 400 kms) in width. o How did the Himalayas form? About 50 million years ago, massive earth movements pushed the Indian plate against the Eurasian continental plate which gave rise to the land - The Himalayas o Himalayas continue to grow. Earthquakes are frequent to this region

The Himalayas cover about 0.4% of the Earth's Space. It covers an area of 612,021 square KM of the earth's 153,295,000 square km area which includes both land and sea. o About 6% of the Earth's land is Alpine or Mountainous, about 19% is desert, and 13% is grassland (Source: Compiled from The Earth Organization and National Geographic ) o Height of a mountain is not the length of the mountain. Height is the altitude at the top of the mountain. The tallest mountain in the world has to prove that it is the highest surface of the earth. For example, Mauna Kea mountain of Hawaii is taller than Mt. Everest in length from its base to top, but Everest's top is the highest altitude of the earth and hence becomes the highest mountain on earth! o Himalayas has glaciers up to 43 miles (70 kilometers) long o Himalaya is the source of major rivers of Nepal o It is easier to climb a place in lower altitude no mater how tall it might be in length. The higher you go from the earth's surface, the more oxygen your body will need. Not everyone can climb Mt. Everest, but those who wish to see it upclose can fly or trek to one of the world's highest airport, Lukla which lies at the base of the Everest in Nepal o What could be the difference between any mountain and a mountain of Himalaya? Well, for one thing, A Himalayan Mountain always remains Himalayan - it always looks the same, the snow never melts, and it always remains glorious! o Generally speaking, a land that is usually 2000ft or 600m tall can be called as a mountain. o Himalayas continue to rise 1 cm every year - a growth rate of 10 km in a million years (source : U.S. Geological Survey) o If Global Warming increases, Himalayan glaciers will start shrinking, rivers will evaporate, and Drinking and irrigation water will disappear, affecting Hundreds of millions of people (source : Environmentalists Against War) o Asian Mountains and Lands cover almost one third of the entire earth. About 55% of the Asia is covered by Mountains. The Himalaya Mountain Range is the world's highest mountain range. o About 1 out of 10 people on this planet live in a mountain. o Nearly one third of the Earth's Space is Mountainous o Mountains are the assets of a nation. They bring in tourists to see the place, trekkers to climb it, and farmers to use their hill-side to graze their animals. o The Himalayas lies across west to east 1550 miles or 2500 kilometers in length. It is divided into three zones, Western Himalays, Central Himalayas Eastern Himalayas o Any land that humans have landed has been polluted. Himalays has remained the less visited part of the earth; it makes it the most pure part of the earth after Antarctica. o Many medicinal herbs found at the foot hills of Himalayas are considered to be the purest of all. Tourists activities: Mountainous, hilly, and Terai regions of this country offer unique experience for all types of trekkers. Moreover, there is no other better place to try your daring adventures such as: Mountain Flights (Views), Hot Air Ballooning, Mountain Biking, Bungy Jumps b- The Hill region Situated south of the Mountain Region, the Hill Region (Pahar in Nepali) is mostly between 700 and 4,000 metres (2,297 and 13,123 ft) altitude. This region begins at the Mahabharat Range (Lesser Himalaya) where a fault system called the Main Boundary Thrust creates an escarpment 1,000 to 1,500 metres (3,281 to 4,921 ft) high, to a crest between 1,500 and 2,700 metres (4,921 and 8,858 ft). These steep southern slopes are nearly uninhabited, thus an effective buffer between languages and culture in the Terai and Hill regions. Northern slopes are gentler and moderately well populated. North of this range, Nepali-speaking Hindus and Newar merchants who also speak Newari densely populate valleys suited to rice cultivation as high as 2,000 metres (6,562 ft). The increasingly urbanized Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys fall within this region. Indigenous janajati ethnic groups natively speaking highly localized Tibeto-Burman languages and dialectspopulate hillsides up to about 3,000 metres (9,843 ft). This group includes Magar and Kham Magar west of Pokhara, Gurung south of the Annapurnas, Tamang around the periphery of Kathmandu Valley and Rai and Limbu further east. The Hill region ends dramatically where the main Himalayan Range abruptly rises thousands of meters.
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3- BODIES OF WATER a. Rivers Nepal can be divided into three major river systems from east to west: the Kosi River, the Narayani River (India's Gandak River), and the Karnali River. All ultimately become major tributaries of the Ganges River in northern India. After plunging through deep gorges, these rivers deposit their heavy sediments and debris on the plains, thereby nurturing them and renewing their alluvial soil fertility. Once they reach the Tarai Region, they often overflow their banks onto wide floodplains during the summer monsoon season, periodically shifting their courses. Besides providing fertile alluvial soil, the backbone of the agrarian economy, these rivers present great possibilities for hydroelectric and irrigation development. India managed to exploit this resource by building massive dams on the Kosi and Narayani rivers inside the Nepal border, known, respectively, as the Kosi and Gandak projects. None of these river systems, however, support any significant commercial navigation facility. Rather, the deep gorges formed by the rivers represent immense obstacles to establishing the broad transport and communication networks needed to develop an integrated national economy. As a result, the economy in Nepal has remained fragmented. Because Nepal's rivers have not been harnessed for transportation, most settlements in the Hill and Mountain regions remain isolated from each other. As of 1991, trails remained the primary transportation routes in the hills. The eastern part of the country is drained by the Kosi River, which has seven tributaries. It is locally known as the Sapt Kosi, which means seven Kosi rivers (Tamur, Likhu Khola, Dudh, Sun, Indrawati, Tama, and Arun). The principal tributary is the Arun, which rises about 150 kilometers inside the Tibetan Plateau. The Narayani River drains the central part of Nepal and also has seven major tributaries (Daraudi, Seti, Madi, Kali, Marsyandi, Budhi, and Trisuli). The Kali, which flows between the Dhaulagiri Himal and the Annapurna Himal (Himal is the Nepali variation of the Sanskrit word Himalaya), is the main river of this drainage system. The river system draining the western part of Nepal is the Karnali. Its three immediate tributaries are the Bheri, Seti, and Karnali rivers, the latter being the major one. The Maha Kali, which also is known as the Kali and which flows along the Nepal-India border on the west side, and the Rapti River also are considered tributaries of the Karnali. Map of Rivers

Rafting is a popular sport of Nepal. b. Lakes *Gosaikunda Lake Gosain Kunda is analpine freshwater oligotrophic lake in Nepal's La ngtang National Park, located at an altitude of 4,380 m (14,370 ft) above sea level in the Rasuwa District with a surface of 13.8 ha (34 acres). Together with

associated lakes, the Gosaikunda Lake complex is 1,030 ha (4.0 sq mi) in size and has been designated a Ramsar site in September 2007. The lake melts and sips down to form the Trishuli river and remains frozen for six months in winter October to June. There are 108 lakes in this area, small to medium in size. The challenging Lauribina La pass at an altitude of 4,610 m (15,120 ft) is on its outskirts. *Phewa Lake

Phewa Lake, Phewa Tal or Fewa Lake is a lake of Nepal located in the Pokhara Valley near Pokhara and Sarangkot. It is the second largest lake in Nepal and lying at an altitude of 784 m (2,572 ft) it covers an area of about 4.43 km2 (1.7 sq mi) with an average depth of about 8.6 m (28 ft) with maximum water depth is 22.8 m (75 ft) when measured with an echo-sounder on 5 December 2009. Maximum water capacity of the lake is approximately 46,000,000 cubic metres (37,000 acreft).[1] Annapurna looms in the distance from the lake and the lake is famous for the reflection of Mount Machapuchare on its surface. The holy Varahi mandir is situated on an island in the lake. *Phoksundo Lake Phoksundo Lake, also known as Shey Phoksundo Lake, is an alpine fresh water oligotrophic lake in Nepal's Shey Phoksundo National Park, located at an altitude of 3,611.5 m (11,849 ft) above sea level in the Dolpa District. Phoksundo Lake is 494 ha (1.91 sq mi) in size with a water volume of 409,000,000 m3. On the lake' southern end, the village of Ringmo sits on the 30,00040,000 year old landslide dam that formed the lake. Past the dam, the waters of the lake plunge over a 167 meter tall waterfall. There are more than 20 stupa in the southern belt, and one gompa in the eastern side of the lake, where annual prayers and worship are carried out. *Rara Lake Rara Lake is the biggest lake of Nepal. It lies in Rara Village Development Committee, Mugu District in Western Nepal and falls under the Rara National Park. The lake is also known as Mahendra Daha,the late king of Nepal and lies at an altitude above 3.2 km (2.0 mi) above sea level covering an area of 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi).

*Tilicho Lake Tilicho lake is one of the highest lakes in the world. It is 4,949 m high in the Annapurna range of the Himalayas in Manang district of Nepal. Due to the extremely inhospitable surrounding terrain and the difficulties associated with reaching the area, this lake is rarely visited by outsiders.

4- CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS Nepal has a great deal of variation in climate... and a tropical and subtropical climate exists in the Tarai Region. Outside the Tarai, however, the climate is completely different. The remarkable differences in climatic conditions are primarily related to the enormous range of altitude within such a short north-south distance. The presence of the east-west-trending Himalayan massifs to the north and the monsoonal alteration of wet and dry seasons also greatly contribute to local variations in climate.... five climatic zones in Nepal based on altitude: the tropical and subtropical zone of below 1,200 meters in altitude; the cool, temperate zone of 1,200 to 2,400 meters in altitude; the cold zone of 2,400 to 3,600 meters in altitude; the subarctic climatic zone of 3,600 to 4,400 meters in altitude; and the arctic zone above 4,400 meters in altitude. In terms of natural vegetational regimes or distribution patterns, altitude again plays a significant role. Below 1,200 meters, the dominant form of vegetation consists of tropical and subtropical rain forests. Altitude also affects annual rainfall or precipitation patterns. Up to about 3,000 meters, annual rainfall totals increase as the altitude increases; thereafter, annual totals diminish with increasing altitude and latitude. In addition to this latitudinal differentiation in rainfall, two other patterns can be discerned. First, given the northwestward movement of the moisture-laden summer monsoon (June to September), the amount of annual rainfall generally decreases from east to west.... Second, the horizontal extension of hill and mountain ranges creates a moist condition on southand eastfacing slopes whereas it produces a major rain shadow on the northern sides of the slopes. The aridity increases with altitude and latitude, especially on the northern slopes, and reaches its climax in the inner Himalayan region and on the Tibetan Plateau. Eastern Nepal receives approximately 2,500 millimeters of rain annually, the Kathmandu area about 1,420 millimeters, and western Nepal about 1,000 millimeters. The towering Himalayas play a critical role, blocking the northwesterly advances of moist, tropical air from the Bay of Bengal, and ultimately leading to its conversion to rain in the summer. In the winter, this range prevents the outbursts of cold air from Inner Asia from reaching southern Nepal and northern India, thus ensuring warmer winters in these regions than otherwise would be the case. In addition, there are seasonal variations in the amount of rainfall, depending on the monsoon cycle.... The premonsoon season generally occurs during April and May; it is characterized by the highest temperatures, reaching 30 C during the day in the Tarai Region and other lowlands. The hills and mountains, however, remain cool. The summer monsoon, a strong flow of moist air from the southwest, follows the premonsoon season.... Even though the arrival of the summer monsoon can vary by as much as a month, in Nepal it generally arrives in early June, is preceded by violent lightning and thunderstorms, and lasts through September, when it begins to recede. The plains and lower Himalayas receive more than 70 percent of their annual precipitation during the summer monsoon. The amount of summer monsoon rain generally declines from southeast to northwest as the maritime wedge of air gradually becomes thinner and dryer. Although the success of farming is almost totally dependent on the timely arrival of the summer monsoon, it periodically causes such problems as landslides; subsequent losses of human lives, farmlands, and other properties (not to mention great difficulty in the movement of goods and people); and heavy flooding in the plains. Conversely, when prolonged breaks in the summer monsoon occur, severe drought and famine often result. The postmonsoon

season begins with a slow withdrawal of the monsoon. This retreat leads to an almost complete disappearance of moist air by mid-October, thus ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal.... The postmonsoon season lasts until about December. After the postmonsoon, comes the winter monsoon, a strong northeasterly flow, which is marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. The amount of precipitation resulting from the northeast land trade winds varies considerably but increases markedly with elevation. The secondary winter precipitation in the form of snowfalls in the Himalayas is important for generating a sufficient volume of spring and summer meltwaters, which are critical for irrigation in the lower hills and valleys where agriculture predominates. Winter precipitation is also are indispensable for the success of winter crops, such as wheat, barley, and numerous vegetables. Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Minimum C 2.7 2.2 6.9 8.6 15.6 18.9 19.5 19.2 18.6 13.3 6.0 1.9 Maximum C 17.5 21.6 25.5 30.0 29.7 29.4 28.1 29.5 28.6 28.6 23.7 20.7 Rainfall (mm) 47 11 5 5 146 135 327 206 199 42 0 1

IV-HUMAN/CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 1- POPULATION(& ETHNIC GROUPS) Total population: 35 million, 102 castes and ethnic group. Nepali or Nepalese are descendants of migrants from parts of earlier Greater Nepal, Tibet, India, and parts of Burma and Yunnan, along with native tribal population. Among the earliest inhabitants were the Madheshis of Tarai region and they migrated at hills. Ultimately, Newar of Kathmandu seems in today's form. Mithila history and history of Kapilvastu justify that the older settlers of Nepal were Tarai origin people. Before 3000 years Gawala entered Kathmandu valley and then after lot of Tarai origin people from Tirhut and Gangetic region entered in hilly area. Most of The Brahamin entered in hill area on medieval period due to Muslim invasion in Plain India and Khasa(Chhetri) people were migrated from Kasmir through Karnali region. Most of the Mangoloid people came from Tibet and Mangolia so they were called Mangolia.Indo-Aryan and East Asian looking mixed people live in the hill region. The mountainous region is sparsely populated above 3,000 meters, but in central and western Nepal ethnic Tibetans inhabit even higher semi-arid valleys north of the high Himalaya. Kathmandu Valley, in the middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nation's area but is the most densely populated, with almost 5 percent of the nation's population. Nepal is a multilingual, multireligious and multiethnic society.

2- RELIGION Religion is important in Nepal; the constitution of Nepal describes the country as a "Hindu kingdom", although it does not establish Hinduism as the state religion. Nepal's constitution continues long-standing legal provisions prohibiting discrimination against other religions (but also proselytization). The king was deified as the earthly manifestation of the Hindu god Vishnu. 80.6% of the population as Hindu and 10.7% as Buddhist (although many people labeled Hindu or Buddhist often practice a syncretic blend of Hinduism, Buddhism, or animist traditions). 4.2% of the population is Muslim and 3.6% of the population follows the indigenous Kirant Mundhum religion. Christianity is practiced by less than 0.5% of the population. 3- LANGUAGES Nepal's diverse linguistic heritage evolved from four major language groups: Indo-Aryan, TibetoBurman, Mongolian, and various indigenous language isolates. 92 different living languages are spoken in Nepal. The major languages of Nepal (percent spoken as mother tongue) are Nepali (69%), Maithili (7%), Bhojpuri (5%), Tharu (3%), Tamang (2%), Gurung (1.5%), Newari/Nepal Bhasa (1%), Magar (1%), Awadhi (1%), Rai (1%), Limbu (1%) and Bajjika (1%). The remaining 81 languages are each spoken as mother tongue by less than one percent of the population. 3- HISTORY *Ancient Nepal is first mentioned in the late Vedic text, Atharvaveda Parisista as a place exporting blankets, and in the post-Vedic Atharva Siras Upanisad. In Samudragupta's Allahabad inscription it is mentioned as a bordering country. The 'Skanda Purana' has a separate chapter known as 'Nepal Mahatmya', which "explains in more details about the beauty and power of Nepal. Nepal is also mentioned in Hindu texts such as the Narayana Puja. Around 500 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose in the southern regions of Nepal. From one of these, the Shakya polity, arose a prince named Siddharta Gautama (traditionally dated 563483 BCE), who later renounced his status to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the Buddha ("the enlightened one"). It is believed that the 7th Kirata king, Jitedasti, was on the throne in the Nepal valley at the time. By 250 BCE, the southern regions came under the influence of the Mauryan Empire of northern India, and Nepal later on became a nominal vassal state under the Gupta Empire in the fourth century CE. Beginning in the 3rd century CE, rulers called the Licchavis governed the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding central Nepal.There is a good and quite detailed description of the kingdom of Nepal in the account of the renowned Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk Xuanzang, dating from c. 645 CE.The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late eighth century, probably

due to Tibetan dominance, and was followed by a Newari or Thakuri era, from 879 CE (Nepal Samvat 1), although the extent of their control over the country is uncertain. In the 11th century it seems to have included the Pokhara area. *Medieval In the early 12th century, leaders emerged in far western Nepal whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix malla ("wrestler"). These kings consolidated their power and ruled over the next 200 years, until the kingdom splintered into two dozen petty states. Another Malla dynasty, beginning with Jayasthiti, emerged in the Kathmandu valley in the late 14th century, and much of central Nepal again came under a unified rule. However, in 1482 the realm was divided into three kingdoms: Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur. *Kingdom of Nepal After centuries of petty rivalry between the three kingdoms, in the mid-18th century, Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha King, set out to unify the kingdoms. Seeking arms and aid from India, and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms, he embarked on his mission in 1765. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding territory three years later in 1768. However, an actual battle never took place to conquer the Kathmandu valley; it was taken over by Prithvi Narayan and his troops without any effort, during Indra Jatra, a festival of Newars, when all the valley's citizens were celebrating the festival. This event marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal.In 1788 the Nepalese overran Sikkim and sent a punitive raid into Tibet. Kangra in northern India was also occupied by the Nepalese. In 1809, Ranjit Singh the ruler of the Sikh state in the Punjab, had intervened and drove the Nepalese army east of the Satluj river.At its maximum extent, Greater Nepal extended from the Tista River in the east, to Kangara, across the Sutlej River in the west as well as further south into the Terai plains and north of the Himalayas than at present. A dispute and subsequent war with Tibet over the control of mountain passes forced the Nepalese to retreat and pay heavy reparations to Tibet.Rivalry between Nepal and the British East India Company over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (181516). At first the British underestimated the Nepalese and were soundly defeated until committing more military resources than they had anticipated needing. They were greatly impressed by the valour and competence of their adversaries. Thus began the reputation of "Gurkhas" as fierce and ruthless soldiers. The war ended in the Treaty of Sugauli, under which Nepal ceded recently captured portions of Sikkim and lands in Terai as well as the right to recruit soldiers.Factionalism inside the royal family had led to a period of instability. In 1846 a plot was discovered revealing that the reigning queen had planned to overthrow Jung Bahadur Rana, a fast-rising military leader. This led to the Kot Massacre; armed clashes between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Jung Bahadur Rana emerged victorious and founded the Rana lineage.The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted them during the Indian Sepoy Rebellion in 1857 (and later in both World Wars). Some parts of the Terai Region were given back to Nepal by the British as a friendly gesture, because of her military help to sustain British control in India during the Sepoy Rebellion. In 1923, the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship; in which Nepal's independence was recognized by the UK.Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924. Nevertheless debt bondage even involving debtors' children have been a persistent social problem in the Terai.In the late 1940s, newly emerging prodemocracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, with the invasion of Tibet by China in the 1950s, India sought to counterbalance the perceived military threat from its northern neighbour by taking pre-emptive steps to assert more influence in Nepal. India sponsored both King Tribhuvan (ruled 191155) as Nepal's new ruler in 1951 and a new government, mostly comprising the Nepali Congress Party, thus terminating Rana hegemony in the kingdom.After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, King Mahendra (ruled 195572) scrapped the democratic experiment in 1959, and a "partyless" panchayat system was made to govern Nepal until 1989, when the "Jan Andolan" (People's Movement) forced King Birendra (ruled 19722001) to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty parliament that took seat in May 1991. In 199192, Bhutan expelled roughly 100,000 Bhutanese citizens of Nepali descent, most of whom have been living in seven refugee camps in eastern Nepal ever since. In 1996, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) started a bid to

replace the royal parliamentary system with a people's socialist republic by violent means. This led to the long Nepal Civil War and more than 12,000 deaths. On 1 June 2001, there was a massacre in the royal palace. King Birendra, Queen Aiswarya, and seven other members of the royal family were killed. The perpetrator was Crown Prince Dipendra, who committed suicide (he died 3 days later) shortly thereafter. This outburst was alleged to have been Dipendra's response to his parents' refusal to accept his choice of wife. Nevertheless there are speculation and doubts among Nepalese citizens about who was responsible.Following the carnage, Birendra's brother Gyanendra inherited the throne. On 1 February 2005, Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers to quash the violent Maoist movement, but this initiative was unsuccessful because a stalemate had developed where the Maoists were firmly entrenched in large expanses of countryside yet could not dislodge the military from numerous towns and the largest cities. In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire to negotiate.In response to the 2006 democracy movement King Gyanendra agreed to relinquish sovereign power to the people. On 24 April 2006 the dissolved House of Representatives was reinstated. Using its newly acquired sovereign authority, on 18 May 2006 the House of Representatives unanimously voted to curtail the power of the king and declared Nepal a secular state, ending its time-honoured official status as a Hindu Kingdom. On 28 December 2007, a bill was passed in parliament to amend Article 159 of the constitution replacing "Provisions regarding the King" by "Provisions of the Head of the State" declaring Nepal a federal republic, and thereby abolishing the monarchy.The bill came into force on 28 May 2008. *Republic The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) won the largest number of seats in the Constituent Assembly election held on 10 April 2008, and formed a coalition government which included most of the parties in the CA. Although acts of violence occurred during the pre-electoral period, election observers noted that the elections themselves were markedly peaceful and "well-carried out".The newly elected Assembly met in Kathmandu on 28 May 2008, and, after a polling of 564 constituent Assembly members, 560 voted to form a new government, with the monarchist Rastriya Prajatantra Party, which had four members in the assembly, registering a dissenting note. At that point, it was declared that Nepal had become a secular and inclusive democratic republic, with the government announcing a three-day public holiday from 28 to 30 May. The King was thereafter given 15 days to vacate the Narayanhiti Royal Palace, to re-open it as a public museum.Nonetheless, political tensions and consequent power-sharing battles have continued in Nepal. In May 2009, the Maoist-led government was toppled and another coalition government with all major political parties barring the Maoists was formed. Madhav Kumar Nepal of the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) was made the Prime Minister of the coalition government. 4- CLOTHING Men's Clothing Traditional men's clothing in much of Nepal consists of the daura suruwal or labeda-suruwal. This garment consists of a long tunic or vest over pants. The vest or tunic has five pleats and eight ties, each with religious significance. The pants fit quite loosely through the hips and crotch and are then quite fitted from the knee to ankle. A wool hat, called the topi, completes the traditional outfit. Today, the topi may be worn with Western men's dress, particularly in the cities.

Women's Clothing Women in Nepal wear a sari-like garment called a guniu. The guniu can be woven from cottons or silk fabrics. In Nepal, the sari is commonly draped around the waist and worn with a separate shawl like garment on the upper body. This style of draping is called Haku patasi.

5- TYPICAL/ TRADITIONAL FOOD AND DRINKS Nepalese cuisine refers to the cuisines of Nepal. The cultural and geographic diversity of Nepal provide ample space for a variety of cuisines based on ethnicity, soil and climate. Nevertheless dal-bhattarkari is eaten throughout the country. Dal is a soup made of lentils and spices. It is served over boiled grain, bhat -- usually rice but sometimes another grain -- with vegetable curry, tarkari. Typical condiments are a small amount of extremely spicy chutney or achaar. These can be made from fresh ingredients, or may be a kind of fermented pickle. The variety of these preparations is staggering,

said to number in the thousands. Other accompaniments may be sliced lemon (kagati) or lime (nibua) and fresh chili peppers, khursani. Some typical food in Nepal Nepali snacks - Because of the heavy influence from its neighbors, snack foods are often direct Nepali Interpretations of Indian or Tibetan / Chinese style Treats. However, the exception is traditional Himalayan foods, which are mostly are using Preservation techniques, with the aforementioned salt curing and sun drying being the main ones. Gundruk and Sinki are prime examples use native vegetables for this purpose. They are first picked, then slightly fermented and ph thuc on the season or intended use, sundried to prolong shelf life. Water buffalo in Nepal is the choice for various meat dishes gm snack foods like Momo, or Kachilaa Sukuti (marinated raw minced buffalo meat), m once prepared, can be eaten alone or can be incorporated into various dishes. Other favorites include spiced cucumbers, fried soybeans, samosas and painpuri as well as different Indian classics have made their way into Nepal. Momo - Momos are one of the most popular dishes eaten in Nepal and one of its most widely known outside the country. Even though momos are credited to the Tibetans, which are believed to have originated from the Chinese classic Jiaozi , the Nepali version Remains still unique because-of the addition of Indian Spices produces signature flavor. Due to the relatively low cost of the ingredients for forming the dough as well as the capability to forage, raise and grow food for the filling, the Momo has a nearly self-sustainable food is easily accessible to all classes of people. The first mention of these meat filled snacks goes back to the Song Dynasty in China, where there was talk of them being good for the soul. During this time their popularity grew and recipes were passed from person to person, spreading far beyond what could have imagined. And as most things are passed on in this manner, they tend to take form to there surroundings, resulting in a culinary concept has no guidelines and is open to a fusion of flavors. Wo - This typical food in Nepal created here is made of black lentils that have been first cooked, mashed up and served as a savory cake. The flavor profile can vary from place to place depending on what is added into both the patties themselves and the sauce or chutney is served with very little. The ingredients within t the Wo can range from ginger, fresh egg or ground meat while the chutney can reveal tastes of sweet curries with some herb or fresh citrus. Lentils have been an important food source for humans since early times, with recent discoveries linking evidence of consumption as far back as 13.000 years ago. As we discussed before, the need for nutritious foods in Nepal to fuel the body for long excursions across the land is shown in their style of cuisine. Lentils fit the profile coming in 3rd after soybeans and Hemp for containing the highest level of protein for any plant based food. This as well as the references to them throughout written history explains their popularity why they have been consumed by some of the oldest civilizations in this world. Phulaurah - This dish is traditionally made with buckwheat that is ground into a paste and formed into different size patties and finished by deep-frying. Buckwheat is believed to be native to the western Yunnan province, which was a prized possession in the ancient time. Plus, because of the

short crop cycle, it became a good alternative to common wheat or rice. Despite the name, buckwheat is not related to a wheat or grass, but has developed an attachment to them because of its wheat-like applications. Due to the rustic nature of this dish, it gives us a hint that it could be one of the more classic foods eaten here in Nepal, dating back to some of the first settlers. Nowadays, Phulaurah can take forms with the one necessity being the buckwheat dough. But beyond that, it can be stuffed with minced meat or vegetables and can be served as bite size snacks or larger patties for a more filling meal. Chataamari - Habitually referred to as Nepali pizza or crepe due to its similarity in appearance, it is not to be confused by the title because it's something entirely different. The traditional version is made from rice flour that has been turned into simple dough, formed like disks and then baked in an earth oven similar to a Tandoor. They can be topped with several options but a classis is minced up vegetables and a fresh egg, resulting in a satisfying meal is healthy as well. This is a staple dish from the Newari people who are believed to be the first inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley. With expansion of the empire came a natural development that left behind recipes and techniques that are still used today. Not only are still in use , but even today, Newari cuisine remains one of the more popular forms of native food through out Nepal. Drinks Popular Nepali Drink Suja - This is tea that is salty and made of butter and milk. Raksi - This clear drink is much like tequila and is often used as a mixer. Jaand - This alcoholic beverage is often referred to as "Nepali beer." Jard - This is a beer made from rice. Chay - This tea drink also has milk, spices and ginger.

6- FAMOUS PEOPLE Nepal is the birthplace of many notable individuals who have contributed or had an influence on either their country or on the world.Famous people from Nepalinclude religious icons, literary geniuses, mountaineers and political rulers. Among Nepal's most famous people are theSherpas, collectively renowned for their great mountaineering skills. Another famous group is the Nepalese Ghurkas, excellent warriors. Perhaps the best known Nepali person is Siddhartha Gautama, better known around the world as Buddha. Siddhartha was born some time between 624 BC and 563 BC in Lumbini of Nepal. Buddhism is based on the teachings of Gautama who became known as Buddha meaning the awakened or Enlightened One. Tradition states that at the age of 30 he abandoned a life of opulence and focused many years of his life on self-denial and contemplation. One day, whilst sitting under a tree he gained enlightenment. From then on he became Buddha. For the remainder of his life he taught his beliefs to these disciples along with the goal of reaching Nirvana, the ultimate state of

enlightenment. His beliefs are embodied in his Four Noble Truths. Buddha died at Kushinagara sometime between 544 BC and 483 BC, yet his teachings continue to influence the lives of individuals throughout the world. Tenzing Norgay is the most famous Nepalese Sherpa. Born in 1914, Tenzing Norgay took part in many expeditions of the magnificent Mount Everest. In 1953 he joined Sir John Hunt's expedition of the grand mountain. Norgay and Sir Edmund Hillary were the first people to reach the summit of Mount Everest. Tenzing never took the glory, but rather always pointed to Hillary as the conquerer of Mount Everest. Following this great acchievement Tenzing was designated director of the field training section of the Himalayan Mountaineering Institute located in Darjeeling. He created his own company called Tenzing Norgay Adventures in the year 1978. The company provides visitors the opportunity to trek through the Himalayas. Tenzing Norgay died in 1986 at Darjeeling of India. Other famous people from Nepal along with some brief details about them: Bhanubhakta Achary 1814 to 1868. Nepal's first poet. Bala Krishna Sama born 1903. An influential dramatist. Dipendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev of Nepal 1971 to 2001. Accused of murdering his family and king for 3 days whilst in a coma. Amar Singh Thapa - 19th century. Military leader in Nepal. A national hero. Sir Jung Bahadur Rana 1817 to 1877. Well-known prime minister. Sir Chandra Shamsher Jang Rana 1863 to 1929. Well-known prime minister. King Mahendra Bir Bikram-Shah 1920 to 1972. Brought in a political system without parties. King Birendra Bir Bikram Sha Dev born 1945. Brought in democracy. 7- ART, ARCHITECTURE & MUSIC a- Architecture Nepalese architecture is a unique strain of art and practicality. Situated in between the trade routes between the Southern Indian Nations and the Northern Tibetan and Chinese empires, Nepali architecture reflects influences from both these cultural strongholds. The Architectural Ensemble is a motley assembly of the following general structures. Each type is unique and distinctive in character and utility. However, all are linked in a common techniques and styles: *The Pagoda style This style of architecture refers to multi-roofed structures with wide eavessupported by carved wooden struts. Windows, either latticed or grilled, are usually projecting, while the roof is generally topped off by triangular spires enclosing an inverted bell of stucco or burnished gold. The pagoda style architecture shows the finest specimens of the architecturalgenius of Nepal. The style was later adopted in China and from there spread to other Asian countries. The best example of the pagoda style in the Katmandu Valley is Kasthamandap a wooden pagoda built in the Malla period; this isalso the structure from which the capital city is derived. The nine-storied Basantpur Palace built by King Prithvi Narayan Shahis another outstanding pagoda specimen. The Pashupati , Talejuand Changu Narayan temples are also notable examples.

*The Stupa style The Swayambhu and Baudhanath Shrines are Nepal's first examples of stupa or Chaitya style. This style architecture is purely Buddhist in concept and execution. The outstanding feature of stupas is a hemispherical mound topped by a square base supporting a seried of thirteen circular rings. Narrowing towards the top these are crowned by parasol. The four sides of the square base or the harmika , as it is called, are painted with pairs of mystic "all-seeing eyes." The stupas in Patan, said to have been built by King Ashoka, are considered to be the most ancient stupas of Nepal. The stupa of Swayambhunath

*The Shikhara style The Shikhara style forms yet another architectural design found in Nepal.The superstructure of this style is a tall curvilinear or pyramidal tower whose surface is broken up vertically into five or nine sections. The final section consists of a bell-shaped part at the top. The Krishna temple in Patan, consecrated by Kind Siddhi Narasingh Malla is the finest specimen of the relatively less popular Shikhara style. KRISHNA MANDIR b- Art

The art and culture of Nepal has been strongly influenced by the religious beliefs of the country. The artwork is decorative, delicate and very beautiful. Nepal art is strongly influenced by the culture of the people and the two really go together and are interwoven. The two most typical forms of art are that of paintings and sculptures. Nepal art and culture has changed little over the centuries though western influences are slowly starting to affect some modern artists Painting The earliest examples of Nepalese art in painting form are that of manuscript illustrations found on palm leaves. This tradition goes far back into the past and the earliest known illustrated manuscript is the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita of 1015 AD. Often the wooden covers which were created to protect the manuscript-painted leaves are more lavishly decorated than the actual manuscript. Many examples of this type of art have survived and are well preserved. The influence that religion has on such artwork is evident in the fact that such manuscripts are usually only decorated with figuresof divinities. All the manuscripts are illustrated with images of gods and goddesses, regardless of whether they are Buddhist or Hindu in origin. Oftentimes certain manuscripts along with the relevant imagery would be copied and donated to a monk, priest, monastery or temple. Thus the style of painting remained fairly constant and painting quality was maintained for a long period of time. The quality of paper manuscripts also declined. Due to this, older paintings are now held in higher regard than more modern manuscripts of lower quality.Another form of painting that is evident in Nepal since the ancient times are Thangka Paintings. These were primarily religious in nature and were used as icons in worship. These paintings are known as Paubha in Newari and Thangka in Tibetan, and originated in Nepal. The creation of illuminated wall paintings or religious metal sculptures was in big demand at one stage and this spawned an industry of skilled artisans who catered to the demand by initiating the painting of such icons on cloth which could be rolled up and easily transported. These thangka paintings were widely received with praise and thus made their way into homes and monasteries in the ninth century and are still popular today. A good example of a thangka painting is the Mandala of Vishnu which dates back to 1420 AD. Early thangkas are simple in design and consist of a centrally positioned large deity surrounded by smaller figures of lesser importance. From the 15th century, the Tantric cult started to take hold of the people of the land. Artists started to use brighter colors and there was a tendency towards the portrayal of Shiva and Shakti in various conventional poses. Because of the esoteric nature of Tantrism, a strong emphasis was put on the female element and sexuality during this time. The thangkas produced were said to possess magic forces and a great variety of symbols were incorporated into the artwork. Sculpture Sculpture has enjoyed a long and interesting history in Nepal and many carved artifacts have been found in the Terai region of the country. All early sculptures were religious in nature and the artists themselves also seemed to be extremely devoted to their various deities. While early sculptures were

very simple, but those from the Lichchhavi period were strikingly beautiful. These sculptures were made from stone, copper and bronze and depict round faces and slanted eyes. There is a lot of attention to detail while still presenting the deity in a simplistic way. The use of clothing and ornaments were always kept to a minimum and often the subject wears only a dhoti or sanghatis. The Lichchhavi period (5-8 CE) was the Golden Age of Nepalese sculpture and many excellently excavated and preserved examples can be found. Woodcarving, while not always in ornamental form, also served a decorative purpose in ancient Nepal and thus is viewed as an art form. Windows, doors, temples, roof-struts and numerous artefacts were all carved by hand and can be still seen in the Katmandu valley. Wood is not as long-lasting as stone and so examples do not date back further than the 14th century yet wood carving continues to be a very prominent aspect of Nepalese architecture. Nepalese art work had far reaching effects on other cultures. The first major introduction of local art to other cultures occurred in the 7th century AD when Mahayana Buddhism was introduced in Tibet under the order of the king Angshuvarma. A large number of monasteries were subsequently built and these all needed to be filled with manuscripts and sculptures. Today some of the most outstanding examples of Nepalese art can be found in Tibet. Nepals artistic influences even cross the borders of China when Nepalese artisans were sent to the courts of Chinese emperors to impart their knowledge to local craftsmen and to create artworks. The most exemplary contribution of this nature was made by the innovator and architect Balbahu or Arniko, whos many creations, can still be found to this day. c- Music There are three main types of Nepal Music mainly based around some of the major ethnic groups in Nepal. The three types are Newari Music, Khas Music and Gurung Music. While these genres of music are popular they do not fully represent the type of music listened to. There is a very lively music scene in Nepal especially in the Kathmandu Valley area. All types of music from rap to jazz to classical can be found in Nepal. Newari Music The Newars are well-known for their Newari music. It mainly consists of percussion instruments, some wind instruments and no string instruments. There are traditional tunes commemorating almost all the occasions from the womb to the tomb. All the castes have their musical tunes and bands. Music is cherished by people of all walks of life. There are tunes of certain festivals and seasons and even of certain times of day. The God of artists called Nasadya is found in all the Newar localities. The presence of a Newari musical band in a guthi is considered as a sign of opulence. Khas Music In the Khas society traditionally, castes like Damai, used to play a number of instruments for occasions such as marriage. However, with many villages now having television, radio and even a local FM station, such accounts are declining gradually. The minstrels, gaine, used to play instruments like Sarangi but even the Gaine are declining in number. Gurung Music The gurung have very rich tradition of music and culture. Gurung have established the system of Rodhi which is little similar to mordern discos,where young people meet and share their views in music and dancing. They have own music and dancing history. Some musical dance like Ghatu, Chudka are still in existence.In many gurung villages they are still performing such type of musical dances. These dance are performed either in a solo or in a groups. In few gurung villages one can still find such dances or music.The gurung films are also promoting these musical dances. 8- SPORTS Dandi Biyo is a game usually played in rural Nepal. As often believed, Dandi Biyo is not the national game of Nepal, rather, 'Kabbadi' is. Dandi Biyo is played with a help of a

stick (Dandi) about two feet long and a wooden pin(Biyo) about half feet long. The pin is a small wooden stick with pointed ends. Beside, Nepal is one of the planets most extreme sporting destinations, offering visitors every activity imaginable. With the Himalayas taking up nearly half of the country, trekking and mountain climbing are naturally major attractions. White water rafting and paragliding are also very popular extreme sports in Nepal, while hot air balloon rides and bungee jumping offer slightly tamer adventures. Extreme Sports Nepal has become something of an extreme sports destination over the past few years, offering thrill-seekers as much action as they can handle. Paragliding, parasailing, hang-gliding and even flying a micro-light plane are all available around Kathmandu, Pokhara and the Langtang region. Bungee jumping and mountain biking are also popular sports in Nepal, if you want to partake in something a bit milder. Hot Air Ballooning Floating over the Kathmandu Valley is one of the most memorable activities you can do while visiting Nepal. This safe and exhilarating excursion is very popular around the capital with several companies offering sunrise and day rides. The views over the Himalayas are about as amazing as youll get, especially in October, November and March when the climate is at its finest. River Rafting All that rushing water which pours out of the Himalayas creates some of the most exciting white water rafting in the world. Youll need a permit to tackle one of Nepals rivers, but with such highlights as the Sapt Kosi Rivers gangetic dolphins waiting, its well worth the cost. Boaters are guaranteed superb scenery and an unforgettable time. TrekkingThe amazing diversity of natural terrain makes Nepal arguably the worlds greatest trekking destination. Soaring mountains to the north, terraced hills in the middle and low tropical flatlands in the south mean visitors can choose to trek in any type of environment. Jungle safaris are available in Royal Chitwan National Park, while magnificent alpine walking can be found in the Annapurna Sanctuary. The Nepalese have been using their trails for centuries, so the infrastructure is incredibly extensive and well-developed. Villages with guesthouses pop up every few miles, making it possible to travel light and walk for weeks on end. V- TOURISTS ATTRACTION AND DESTINATIONS 1- PLACES AND BUILDINGS a- Durbar Square

The Durbar Square of Kathmandu is located in the old city and has heritage buildings representing four kingdoms (Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur), built over centuries, the earliest being the Licchavi dynasty. There were further additions and refurbishments during the reign of Mallas (9th century) and then the Ranas. The complex has 50 temples and is distributed in two quadrangles of the Durbar Square. The outer quadrangle has the Kasthamandap, Kumari Ghar and Shiva-Parvati Temple while the inner quadrangle has the Hanuman dhoka and the main palace.

The main attraction of Durbar Square is Hanuman Dhoka Palace Complex. The striking palace was named in honor of the monkey god, Hanuman, and a statue of the unusual deity stands at the main entranceway. The palace is decorated with elaborately-carved wooden windows and panels and houses the King Tribhuwan Memorial museum and the Mahendra Museum. In 1672, during Pratapa Malla's reign, an image of Hanuman was placed in front of the portal to keep away evil spirits and disease. The figure still looks threatening though centuries of anointing with mustard oil and cinnebar (vermilion) have eroded its features.

A statue of Hanuman in Front of Hanuman An entrance gate to Hanuman Dhoka Palace. Dhoka Palace. *Kumari Palace At the southern end of the Durbar Square there is the most curious attraction in Nepal, the Kumari Chowk. You would be able to see a Kumari House, where the Living Goddess of Nepal resides. The living Goddess, Kumari, is a young girl who is chosen from the Shakya community through an ancient and mystical selection process to become the human incarnation of Hindu Goddess, Taleju. Once a year the king has to go to her during the dassain festival to get her blessings. This is the sign that he has still a legitimisation directly from the gods. The House was building in 1757. Passing the two white lions, you enter a beautiful inner courtyard with richly carved windows.If you are lucky, she will come to the window and look at you, but you are not allowed to take a picture.

This is the big balcony-window where the Kumari appears, but on the picture it is someone else. The another attraction you would see is the Manju Deval. This triple story temple is dedicated to the god Shiva and was constructed in 1692.

Manju Deval, Kathmandu Durbar Square

A temple in Kathmandu Durbar Square with lots of pigeons. Pigeons are symbol of peace.

Another interesting religious site to see in Kathmandu Durbar Square is Kasthamandap. According to legend this structure was built using wood from a single tree. Originally a community hall, Kasthamandapa eventually became a temple dedicated to Gorakhnath. The name of capital city is named after this temple. Once a year a huge ceremony is performed in the temple. On that day people gather around the temple, and they stay up all night. The people share the legendaries stories about the temple, and enjoy themselves with different varieties of foods. This temple is one of the major tourist attractions too. Everyone is allowed to visit inside the temple, but people are not allowed to take photographs inside the temple. b- Boundhanath Stupa

Boudhanath is one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Kathmandu, Nepal. It located about 11 km from the center and northeastern of Kathmandu, the stupa's massive mandala makes it one of the largest spherical stupas in Nepal. Bodnath was probably built in the 14th century after the Mughal invasions; various interesting legends are told regarding the reasons for its construction. After the arrival of thousands of Tibetans following the 1959 Chinese invasion, the temple has become one of the most important centers of Tibetan Buddhism. Today it remains an important place of pilgrimage and meditation for Tibetan Buddhists and local Nepalis, as well as a popular tourist site. What to See From above, Bodnath Stupa looks like a giant mandala, or diagram of the Buddhist cosmos. And as in all Tibetan mandalas, four of the Dhyani Buddhas mark the cardinal points, with the fifth, Vairocana, enshrined in the center (in the white hemisphere of the stupa). The five Buddhas also personify the five elements (earth, water, fire, air and ether), which are represented in the stupa's architecture.There are other symbolic numbers here as well: the nine levels of Boudhanath Stupa represent the mythical Mt. Meru, center of the cosmos; and the 13 rings from the base to the pinnacle symbolize the path to enlightenment, or "Bodhi" hence the stupa's name.At the bottom, the stupa is surrounded by an irregular 16-sided wall, with frescoes in the niches. In addition to the Five Dhyani Buddhas, Boudhanath Stupa is closely associated with the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani), whose 108 forms are depicted in sculptures around the base. The mantra of Avalokiteshvara - Om Mani Padme Hum - is carved on the prayer wheels beside the images of Avalokiteshvara around the base of the stupa.The base of the stupa consists of three large platforms, decreasing in size. These platforms symbolize Earth, and here you can look out at the mountains while listening to the chants of the devout doing kora, walking around the stupa praying.Next come two circular plinths supporting the hemisphere of the stupa, symbolizing water. As at Swayabunath, Bodnath is topped with a square tower bearing the omnipresent Buddha eyes on all four sides.Instead of a nose is a question-mark-type symbol that is actually the Nepali character for the number 1, symbolizing unity and the one way to reach enlightenmentthrough the Buddha's teachings.

Above this is the third eye, symbolizing the wisdom of the Buddha.The square tower is topped by a pyramid with 13 steps, representing the ladder to enlightenment. The triangular shape is the abstract form for the element of fire. At the top of the tower is a gilded canopy, the embodiment of air, with above it a gilded spire, symbolic of ether and the Buddha Vairocana. Prayer flags tied to the stupa flutter in the wind, carrying mantras and prayers heavenward.The main entrance to the upper platform of Bodnath Stupa is on the north side. Here Amoghasiddhi, progenitor of the future Buddha, presides. Below Amoghasiddhi is the Buddha Maitreya, the future Buddha.Surrounding Boudhanath Stupa are streets and narrow alleys lined with colorful homes, Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, and street vendors. c- Mt Everest ( The Himalayas )

Everest is part of the Himalaya mountain range along the border of Nepal and Tibet. It located at the Eastern region in sagarmatha zone of Nepal. How tall is Mt. Everest? The official altitude of the world's highest peak is 29,029 feet (8,848m). However, the National Geographic Society has determined the height to be 6 feet taller, 29,035 feet, but the Nepali government has not yet been made this new altitude official. Mount Everest is rising from 3 to 6 millimeters or about 1/3 inch a year. Everest is also moving northeastward about 3 inches a year. Why is it called Everest? In 1841, Sir George Everest, Surveyor General of India from 1830 to 1843, first recorded the location of Everest. It was subsequently named "Peak XV". In 1865, it was renamed Mt. Everest to honor Sir George. Mount Everest is also called Chomolangma, meaning Goddess Mother of Snows in Tibetan and Sagarmatha, meaning "Mother of the Universe" in Nepalese. Mount Everest was dissected by glaciers into a huge pyramid with three faces and three major ridges on the north, south, and west sides of the mountain. Five major glaciers continue to chisel Mount EverestKangshung Glacier on the east; East Rongbuk Glacier on the northeast; Rongbuk Glacier on the north; and Khumbu Glacier on the west and southwest. What is the temperature high on Everest? Mount Everest has an extreme climate. The summit temperature never rises above freezing or 32 F (0 C). Its summit temperatures in January average -33 F (-36 C) and can drop

to -76 F (-60 C). In July, the average summit temperature is -2 F (-19 C). The best time to climb Everest is in early May before the monsoon season. Climbing route Mt. Everest has two main climbing routes, the southeast ridge from Nepal and the northeast ridge from Tibet, as well as many others less frequently climbed routes. Of the two main routes, the southeast ridge is technically easier and is the more frequently used route. It was the route used by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953 and the first recognized of fifteen routes to the top by 1996. This was, however, a route decision dictated more by politics than by design as the Chinese border was closed to the western world in the 1950s after the People's Republic of China invaded Tibet. Southeast ridge The ascent via the southeast ridge begins with a trek to Base Camp at 5,380 m (17,700 ft) on the south side of Everest in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly into Lukla (2,860 m) from Kathmandu and pass through Namche Bazaar. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usually takes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude acclimatization in order to prevent altitude sickness. Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by yaks, dzopkyos (yak-cow hybrids) and human porters to Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier. When Hillary and Tenzing climbed Everest in 1953, they started from Kathmandu Valley, as there were no roads further east at that time.Climbers will spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatizing to the altitude. During that time, Sherpas and some expedition climbers will set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous Khumbu Icefall. Seracs, crevasses and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers will usually begin their ascent well before dawn, when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place. Above the icefall is Camp I at 6,065 metres (19,900 ft).From Camp I, climbers make their way up the Western Cwm to the base of the Lhotse face, where Camp II or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) is established at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral crevasses in the centre, which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right near the base of Nuptse to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The high altitude and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers.From ABC, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixed ropes up to Camp III, located on a small ledge at 7,470 m (24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp IV on the South Col at 7,920 m (26,000 ft). From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: The Geneva Spur and The Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil shaped rib of black rock named by the 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in scrambling over this snow covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of interlayered marble,phyllite, and semischist, which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it. On the South Col, climbers enter the death zone. Climbers typically only have a maximum of two or three days they can endure at this altitude for making summit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp.From Camp IV, climbers will begin their summit push around midnight with hopes of reaching the summit (still another 1,000 metres above) within 10 to 12 hours. Climbers will first reach "The Balcony" at 8,400 m (27,600 ft), a small platform where they can rest and gaze at peaks to the south and east in the early light of dawn. Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with a series of imposing rock steps which usually forces them to the east into waist-deep snow, a serious avalanche hazard. At 8,750 m (28,700 ft), a small table-sized dome

of ice and snow marks the South Summit.From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge southeast ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse", where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb as a misstep to the left would send one 2,400 m (8,000 ft) down the southwest face, while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m (10,000 ft) Kangshung face. At the end of this traverse is an imposing 12 m (40 ft) rock wall called the "Hillary Step" at 8,760 m (28,740 ft).[40]Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step and they did it with primitive ice climbing equipment and ropes. Nowadays, climbers will ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopesthough the exposure on the ridge is extreme, especially while traversing large cornices of snow. With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain in recent years, the Step has frequently become a bottleneck, with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes, leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must traverse a loose and rocky section that has a large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers will typically spend less than half an hour at the summit to allow time to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in, to avoid serious problems with afternoon weather, or because supplemental oxygen tanks run out. Northeast ridge

Mount Everest north face from Rongbukin Tibet The northeast ridge route begins from the north side of Everest in Tibet. When Everest was first climbed? On May 29, 1953, Tenzing Norgay Sherpa of Nepal & Edmund Percival Hillary of New Zealand climbed to the summit of Everest via the Southeast Ridge Route

Lumbini Lumbini is a Buddhist pilgrimage site in the Rupandehi district of Nepal. It is the place where Queen Mayadevi gave birth to Siddhartha Gautama, who as the Buddha Gautama founded the Buddhist tradition. The Buddha lived between roughly 563 and 483 BCE. Lumbini is one of four magnets for pilgrimage that sprang up in places pivotal to the life of the Buddha, the others being at Kushinagar, Bodh Gaya, and Sarnath. Lumbini located in the Western region at Kapilvastu District (Kapilvastu) of Nepal.

The main attraction at Lumbini

*Sacred Garden, which is spread over 8 squarekms and possesses all the treasures of the historic area. Today as part of the global initiative to promote Lumbini, many countries have built or are building temples, monastries or stupas near the Sacred Garden in the International Monastery Zone. Temples or shrines that have finished their construction so far are Myanmar Temple, International Gautami Nuns Temple, China Temple, The Nepal Buddha Temple and the Dharma Swami Maharaja Buddha Vihara.

*The most important temple in Lumbini Nepal is the beautiful Maya Devi Temple dedicated to and named for the mother of the Lord Gautama Buddha. Excavations at the Maya Devi Temple show that it also sits above the foundations of many other temples and stupas (sacred mound like structures said to contain relics of the Buddha). At least one of these is said to be a stupa erected by the great Emperor Ashoka who wandered about the hills in this region three centuries after Buddha's birth. Another of the attractions of this Lumbini temple is the Pillar of Ashoka, which is the primary artifact discovered by the German archeologist Alois Furher in 1895. Before that time, the Lumbini Temple had remained lost to civilization for almost one thousand years. Inside the Maya Devi Temple are other ancient ruins, including sandstone sculptures carved with scenes from the Buddha's birth. Next to this temple is a sacred pool where Maya Devi is said to have bathed before the birth. The newborn Buddha also reputedly had his purification bath in this pool. The pool is fed by the Ol River, and it was on the banks of the river that Furher found what he called a "flawless stone" placed there by Ashoka to mark the exact spot of the birth. The stone is now under the current temple, and a sacred bodhi tree grows next to the pool.

*A famous landmark is the Ashoka Pillar raised by. In 249 BC, when the Indian Emperor Ashoka (The great Emperor who converted into Buddhism) visited Lumbini. He constructed four stupas and a large stone pillar which bears an inscription about the birth of the Buddha.

Ashoka Pillar a large stone pillar which is an inscription about the birth of Buddha *Bodh Gaya Place of enlightment "Bodh Gaya is the place where Gautama Buddha attained unsurpassed, supreme Enlightenment. It is a place which should be visited or seen by a person of devotion and which would cause awareness and apprehension of the nature of impermanence". Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha-to-be, had been dwelling on the banks of the Nairanjana River with five ascetic followers for six years practicing austerities. Realising that austerities could not lead to realisation he abandoned them. His five ascetic companions disgusted at his seeming failure, deserted

him and left for Sarnath. He then moved towards the village of Senani where he was offered rice milk by a Brahmin girl, Sujata. Accepting from a grass-cutter a gift of kusa grass for a mat, the Bodhisattva took a seat under a pipal tree facing east. Here he resolved not to rise again until enlightenment was attained. "Here on this seat my body may shrivel up, my skin, my bones, my flesh may dissolve, but my body will not move from this seat until I have attained Enlightenment, so difficult to obtain in the course of many kalpas". As Gautama sat in deep meditation, Mara, Lord of Illusion, perceiving that his power was about to be broken, rushed to distract him from his purpose. The Bodhisattva touched the earth, calling it to bear witness the countless lifetimes of virtue that had led him to this place of enlightenment. When the earth shook, confirming the truth of Gautama's words, Mara unleashed his army of demons. In the epic battle that ensued, Gautama's wisdom broke through the illusions and the power of his compassion transformed the demons' weapons into flowers and Mara and all his forces fled in disarray. *Glimpse of monasteries in Lumbini built by Buddhist communities from various countries.

Thai monastery

Vietnam monastery

Myanmar monastery

2- CULTURAL ASPECTS a- Kumari Devi Kumari or Kumari Devi is the tradition of worshipping young pre-pubescent girls as manifestations of the divine female energy or devi in Nepali and some Indian languages and is a name of the goddess Durga as a child.In Nepal a Kumari is a girl selected from the Shakya clan of the Nepalese Newari community. The Kumari is revered and worshiped by some of the country's Hindus as well as the Nepali Buddhists, though not the Tibetan Buddhists. While there are several Kumaris throughout Nepal, the best known is the Royal Kumari of Kathmandu, and she lives in the Kumari palace, a palace in the center of the city. The selection process for her is especially rigorous. A Kumari is believed to be the bodily incarnation of the goddess Taleju (the Nepalese name for Durga) until she menstruates, after which it is believed that the goddess vacates her body. Serious illness or major losses of blood from an injury are also causes for her to revert to common status. Whilst the veneration of a living Kumari in Nepal is relatively recent, dating only from the 17th century, the tradition of Kumari-Puja, or virgin worship, has been around for much longer. There is evidence of virgin worship taking place in Nepal in the 6th century. There are several legends telling of how the current tradition of the Kumari began. Most of the legends, however, tell of King Jayaprakash Malla, the last Nepalese king of the Malla Dynasty (12th17th century CE). According to the most popular legend, a red serpent approached the king's chambers late one night as he played tripasa, a dice game, with the goddess Taleju. The goddess came along every night to play the game, with the condition that the king refrain from telling anyone about their meetings.But one night the king's wife followed him to his chamber in order to find out who the king was meeting so often. The king's wife saw Taleju and the goddess was angered. She told the king that, if he wants to see her again or have her protect his country, he'd have to search for her among the Newari (Shakya) community, as she would be incarnated as a little girl among them. Hoping to make amends with his patroness, King Jayaprakash Malla left the palace in search of the young girl who was possessed by Taleju's spirit.Similarly; there is another story about the disappearance of Taleju. Some believe that the goddess visited King Trailokya Malla every night in the human form. Like other legendary stories, the king and the goddess played tripasa (dice) while discussing about the welfare of the country. However, one night king Trailokya Malla made sexual advances towards the goddess Taleju. As a result,the goddess in rage stopped visiting the palace. The king in regret worshipped and pleaded for her return. Finally, the goddess agreed to appear in the body of the virgin girl from the Shakya family.

Even today, a mother's dream of a red serpent is believed to be a portent of the elevation of her daughter to the position of Royal Kumari. And each year, the Nepalese King seeks the blessing of the Royal Kumari at the festival of Indra Jatra. This tradition has changed recently with the country becoming the youngest republic of the world. This year the president of Nepal sought Kumari's blessing instead. The selection process The selection process is conducted by five senior Buddhist Vajracharya priests, the Panch Buddha, the Bada Guruju or Chief Royal Priest, Achajau the priest of Taleju and the royal astrologer. The King and other religious leaders that might know of eligible candidates are also informed that a search is underway.Eligible girls are Buddhists from the Newar Shakya caste (the clan to which the Buddha belonged) of silver and goldsmiths. She must be in excellent health, never have shed blood or been afflicted by any diseases, be without blemish and must not have yet lost any teeth. Girls who pass these basic eligibility requirements are examined for the battis lakshanas, or 'thirty-two perfections' of a goddess. Some of these are poetically listed as such: A neck like a conch shell, a body like a banyan tree, eyelashes like a cow, thighs like a deer, chest like a lion, voice soft and clear as a duck's.In addition to this, her hair and eyes should be very black, she should have dainty hands and feet, small and well-recessed sexual organs and a set of twenty teeth.The girl is also observed for signs of serenity and fearlessness (after all, she is to be the vessel of the fierce goddess Durga) and her horoscope is examined to ensure that it is complementary to the King's. It is important that there not be any conflicts as she must confirm the King's legitimacy each year of her divinity. Her family is also scrutinized to ensure its piety and devotion to the King.Once the priests have chosen a candidate; she must undergo yet more rigorous tests to ensure that she indeed possesses the qualities necessary to be the living vessel of Durga. Her greatest test comes during the Hindu festival of Dashain. On the kalratri, or 'black night' - 108 buffaloes and goats are sacrificed to the goddess Kali. The young candidate is taken into the Taleju temple and released into the courtyard, where the severed heads of the animals are illuminated by candlelight and masked men are dancing about. If the candidate truly possesses the qualities of Taleju, she shows no fear during this experience. As a final test, the living goddess must spend a night alone in a room among the heads of ritually slaughtered goats and buffaloes without showing fear. The fearless candidate has proven that she has the serenity and the fearlessness that typifies the goddess who is to inhabit her. After passing all other tests, the final test is that she must be able to pick out the personal belongings of the previous Kumari from an assortment of things laid out before her. If she is able to do so, there is no remaining doubt that she is the chosen one.Once the Kumari is chosen, she must be purified so that she can be an unblemished vessel for Taleju. She is taken by the priests to undergo a number of secret Tantric rituals to cleanse her body and spirit of her past experiences. Once these rituals are completed, Taleju enters her and she is presented as the new Kumari. She is dressed and made up as a Kumari and then leaves the Taleju temple and walks across the square on a white cloth to the Kumari Palcae that will be her home for the duration of her divinity.

Life of the Royal Kumari Her life takes on an entirely new character. She will leave her palace only on ceremonial occasions. Her family will visit her rarely, and then only in a formal capacity. Her playmates will be drawn from a narrow pool of Newari children from her caste, usually the children of her caretakers. She will always be dressed in red, wear her hair in a topknot and have the agni chakchuu or "fire eye" painted on her forehead as a symbol of her special powers of perception. The Royal Kumari's new life is vastly different from the one to which she has been accustomed in her short life. Whilst her life is now free of material troubles, she has ceremonial duties to carry out. The Kumari's walk across the Durbar Square is the last time her feet will touch the ground until such time as the goddess departs from her body. From now on, when she ventures outside of her palace, she will be carried or transported in her golden palanquin. Her feet, like all of her, are now sacred. Petitioners will touch them, hoping to receive respite from troubles and illnesses. The King himself will kiss them each year when he comes to seek her blessing. She will never wear shoes; if her feet are covered at all, they will be covered with red stockings. The power of the Kumari is perceived to be so strong that even a glimpse of her is believed to bring good fortune. Crowds of people wait below the Kumari's window in the Kumari Chowk, or courtyard, of her palace, hoping that she will pass by the latticed windows on the third floor and glance down at them. Even though her irregular appearances last only a few seconds, the atmosphere in the courtyard is charged with devotion and awe when they do occur. The more fortunate, or better connected, petitioners visit the Kumari in her chambers where she sits upon a gilded lion throne. Many of those visiting her are people suffering from blood or menstrual disorders since the Kumari is believed to have special power over such illnesses. She is also visited by bureaucrats and other government officials. Petitioners customarily bring gifts and food offerings to the Kumari, who receives them in silence. Upon arrival, she offers them her feet to touch or kiss as an act of devotion. During these audiences, the Kumari is closely watched and her actions interpreted as a prediction of the petitioners lives', for example as follows: Crying or loud laughter: Serious illness or death Weeping or rubbing eyes: Imminent death Trembling: Imprisonment Hand clapping: Reason to fear the King Picking at food offerings: Financial losses If the Kumari remains silent and impassive throughout the audience, her devotees leave elated. This is the sign that their wishes have been granted.Many people attend to the Kumari's needs. These people are known as the Kumarimi and are headed by the Chitaidar (patron). Their job is very difficult. They must attend to the Kumari's every need and desire whilst giving her instruction in her ceremonial duties. Whilst they cannot directly order her to do anything, they must guide her through her life. They are responsible for bathing her, dressing her and attending to her makeup as well as preparing her for her visitors and for ceremonial occasions.Traditionally, the Kumari received no education as she was widely considered to be omniscient. However, modernization has

made it necessary for her to have an education once she re-enters mortal life. Kumaris are now allowed to attend public schools, and have a life inside the classroom that is no different from that of other students. While many kumaris, such as the Kumari of Bhaktapur, attend school, others, such as the main kumari in Kathmandu, receive their education through private tutors.Similarly, her limited playmates must learn to respect her. Since her every wish must be granted, they must learn to surrender to her whatever they have that she may want and to defer to her wishes in what games to play or activities to engage in. b- Buddha Gautama Siddhrtha Gautama was a spiritual teacher on the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.In most Buddhist traditions, he is regarded as the Supreme Buddha of our age, "Buddha" meaning "awakened one" or "the enlightened one." The time of his birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE. By tradition, Gautama is said to have been born in the small state of Kapilavastu, in what is now Nepal, and later to have taught primarily throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Koala Gautama, also known as kyamuni, is the primary figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition, and first committed to writing about 400 years later. In Hinduism, he is regarded as one of the ten avatars of God Vishnu. He is also regarded as a god or prophet in other world religions or denominations like Ahmadiyya sect of Islam and the Bah' faith.

Siddhartha Gautama was born about 583 BCE, in or near what is now Nepal. His father, King Suddhodana, was leader of a large clan called the Shakya. His mother, Queen Maya, died shortly after his birth.When Prince Siddhartha was a few days old, a holy man prophesied the Prince would be either a great military conqueror or a great spiritual teacher. King Suddhodana preferred the first outcome and prepared his son accordingly. He raised the boy in great luxury and shielded him from knowledge of religion and human suffering. The Prince reached the age of 29 with little experience of the world outside the walls of his opulent palaces. One day, overcome with curiosity, Prince Siddhartha asked a charioteer to take him on a series of rides through the countryside. On these journeys he was shocked by the sight of an aged man, then a sick man, and then a corpse. The stark realities of old age, disease, and death seized and sickened the Prince.Finally, he saw a wandering ascetic. The charioteer explained that the ascetic was one who had renounced the world and sought release from fear of death and suffering. The Renunciation

For a time the Prince returned to palace life, but he took no pleasure in it. Even the news that his wife Yasodhara had given birth to a son did not please him. The child was called Rahula, which means "fetter". One night he wandered the palace alone. The luxuries that had once pleased him now seemed grotesque. Musicians and dancing girls had fallen asleep and were sprawled about, snoring and sputtering. Prince Siddhartha reflected on the old age, disease, and death that would overtake them all and turn their bodies to dust.He realized then that he could no longer be content living the life of a prince. That very night he left the palace, shaved his head, and changed his prince's clothes for a beggar's robe. Then he began his quest for enlightenment.Siddhartha began by seeking out renowned teachers, who taught him about the many religious philosophies of his day as well as how to meditate. But after he had learned all they had to teach, his doubts and questions remained. So he and five disciples left to find enlightenment by themselves.The six companions attempted to find release from suffering through physical discipline--enduring pain, holding their breath, fasting nearly to starvation. Yet Siddhartha was still unsatisfied. It occurred to him that in renouncing pleasure he had grasped pleasure's opposite--pain and self-mortification. Now Siddhartha considered Middle Way between those two extremes.He remembered an experience from his childhood, when his mind had settled into a state of deep peace. The path of liberation was through discipline of mind. He realized that instead of starvation, he needed nourishment to build up his strength for the effort. But when he accepted a bowl of rice milk from a young girl, his companions assumed he had given up the quest and abandoned him. The Enlightenment of the Buddha Siddhartha sat beneath a sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), known ever after as the Bodhi Tree, and settled into meditation.The work of Siddhartha's mind came to be mythologized as a great battle with Mara, a demon whose name means "destruction' and who represents the passions that snare and delude us. Mara brought vast armies of monsters to attack Siddhartha, who sat still and untouched. Mara's most beautiful daughter tried to seduce Siddhartha, but this effort also failed.Finally, Mara claimed the seat of enlightenment rightfully belonged to him. Mara's spiritual accomplishments were greater than Siddhartha's, the demon said. Mara's monstrous soldiers cried out together, "I am his witness!" Mara challenged Siddhartha--who will speak for you?Then Siddhartha reached out his right hand to touch the earth, and the earth itself roared, "I bear you witness!" Mara disappeared. And as the morning star rose in the sky, Siddhartha Gautama realized enlightenment and became a Buddha. The Teacher At first, the Buddha was reluctant to teach, because what he had realized could not be communicated in words. Only through discipline and clarity of mind would delusions fall away and the Great Reality could be directly experienced. Listeners without that direct experience would be stuck in conceptualizations and would surely misunderstand everything he said. But compassion persuaded him to make the attempt.After his enlightenment, he went to the Deer Park in Isipatana, located in what is now the province of Uttar Pradesh, India. There he found the five companions who had abandoned him, and to them he preached his first sermon. This sermon has been preserved as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and centers on the Four Noble Truths. Instead of teaching doctrines about enlightenment, the Buddha chose to prescribe a path of practice through which people can realize enlightenment for themselves.The Buddha devoted himself to teaching, attracting hundreds of followers. Eventually he became reconciled with his father, King Suddhodana. His wife, the devoted Yasodhara, became a nun and disciple. Rahula, his son, became a novice monk at the age of 7 and spent the rest of his life with his father.