Lecture 2 Taylor series

Lecture 2 Taylor series

If all one wants is the formula for Taylor series of f(x) about x = a, one can easily derive such a formula by assuming f(x) = C0 +C1 (x a) + C2 (x a)2 + C3 (x a)3 + +Cn (x a)n+ (*) where the coefficients can be determined by substituting x = a on the both sides and subsequent differentiation as f ( n ) (a) + ( x a ) n + ... (**) n! where n!=1x2x3xx n. Determination of the coefficients: 1. Submitting x=a into (*) leads to f(a) = C0+0+0+0++0+ => C0=f(a). 2. Differentiating (*) once yields f(x)= C1 + 2C2 (x a) + 3C3 (x a)2 + +nCn (x a)n-1+ Submitting x=a into this expression generates C1= f(a). 3. Differentiating (**) twice leads to f"(x)= 2C2+3x2xC3 (x a) + +n(n-1)Cn (x a)n-2+ Submitting x=a into this expression yields C2= f"(a)/2. 4. Continuing the differentiation of (*) and substitution of x=a into the resulting equation leads to Cn= f(n)(a)/n! Example: Expand f(x) = exp (1/x2) about x = 0. One is tempted to use the Taylor's series formula, i.e. f(x) = f(0) + f(0) x + f"(0) x2/2! + f"(0)x3/3! + . However, it turns out that all the coefficients are zero as shown in class, i.e. f(0) = f(0) = f"(0) = 0 so Taylor's series for e1/x2 is

This leads us to investigate under what condition Taylor's series is valid.

Lecture 2 Taylor series

Consider f(n)(x)

Lecture 2 Taylor series

Note: The above process involving equations (1) through (8) actually proves that a function has a Taylor series which has a form of equation (**).

Taylor's series examples

Examples
1. Expand ln (1 + x) about x=0.

2. Expand arctan x about x=0.

3. Expand ln x about x = 2. Two approaches: (i) Directly use the equation (**). (ii) use the existing Taylors series as shown below.

x2 ) can be visualized as 2 x2 In (1+y), where y= . Then the 2 result in Example 1 can be used.
In(1+

Lecture 2 Taylor series

4. Expand (1 + x)n about x=0.

Taylor's series for multivariable functions

Lecture 2 Taylor series

Examples
Taylor's series of the functions in the examples can be obtained easily using the existing Taylors series (note that if such existing Taylors series could not be found, then just use equation (10) to find the corresponding Taylors series):

Consider cos ((x-)+(y/2)) as cos(z), where z=((x-)+(y- /2). Then the expansion of cos(z) about z=0 can be used.

Lecture 2 Taylor series