IOPAIE

i , i = i4+ = i = , = 0, 1, 2, 3.
, 4.

i,
, , , . 4 4+1
4+2 4+3 i 0, 1, 2, 3.

i.

2+2 ,
2+2 = 2 (i)2 = ( i)(+i).

,
. z x+yi, .

,
i ,
(x+yi)2010 + (y xi)2010 .

z1 z1,
x2+x+ = 0 < 0, . z1 z2,
2Re(z1) = 2Re(z2) = z1 = z2 = .

(1826-1866)
,

.
, ,
, .
.

. ,

!

.


, .
() ,

.

,
.

= 0 = 0 = 0
2 +1 = 2 +1 =
2 = 2 = =

z = x+yi z.

= =

1 2 3

+ 2 + 3 + ... +
=
=
= ... = = 1
1 2 3

1 + 2 + 3 + ... +

IOPAIE
KAMPIE KPAMEP
(1704-1752)

. z
z , z z xx, z
z yy, z, z, z, z, ,
z = z = z = z .

, ,
zz = z2.

z, z z , z = x+yi
.

( ) ,
,
. zz = z2 . z w z w z+w . z = 1 z = .

z = x+yi z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) z z = 2y = 2Im(z)i,

zw+ zw = 2Re(zw), , zw+ zw = zw+ = 2Re(zw).

z ,
, . m(z) = 0 . z = z . z2 = z2,
z ,
, . Re(z) = 0 . z = z . z2 = z2.

E ,
.

E , M. , ,

,
M, . O K

, 18 . 20
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N, , -M-K, B, A , E, ( B) . H
. H K . O E

, .
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, ,


...

x
,

90o :

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=1
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E ( 0, ) E ( 0, )
2
: y =

x y = x

( 0, )

z1 z2, , z z1 = , z, , z z1+z z2 = 2, z1
z2 < 2, z, ,
2, z z1 z z2 = 2, z1 z2 >
2, z, ,
2, z z1 = z z2 .

( 0, 0 )

( 0, )

IOPAIE

z, z = x+yi .
z
,
, .. ,
(0, 0)

. .. ,
.

(x) = z .

(z1), (z2) (z3) ,

, z3 z1 = z1 z2 = z3 z2.

, |(z)| = |g(z)| |(z)| = |g(z)| |(z)|2 =

|g(z)|2 (z)
= g(z)

.

z3, z.

,
z i .

, ,

y = x+, x2+y2 = 2 = 0.

( ), .

, :
z1 z22 + z1 + z22 = 2z12 + 2z22.

(1596-1650)
,
. ,
, (1629), .
,
, (


),
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.
.

.
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,
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.

IOPAIE

. ,
,
.

11, , (x1) = (x2) x1 = x2

, x1 x2 (x1)
(x2) (
).

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x, y . 11
,
. 11 . 11,
.

(1652-1719)
,

.

,
1685
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1690
(Traite
dalgebre ).
,
Rolle.
18 , Michel Rolle
,

.

, (x) = y
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-1() = 0 -1 11,
.

, (x) = y x (
11).
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-1, y x x -1(x).

M ( x, y ) C , y 2 = 2px
p, x
p
, 0
2
x =

p
2

( 0, 0 )

p
2

p
, 0
2

,
y = x.
x=

p
2

IOPAIE
g g
, g g.
g xg
g(x). -1((x)) = x
(-1(x)) = x x,
x(), -1((x)) = (-1(x)) =
x, .

(g)(x) g(x) g(x) = y x,

(y), (g)(x) (x), (x) x g(x) , g(x).
, g g
, , g
g .

XEPMAN
MINKOKI
(1864-1909)
,

. B, K
( K), Z
. T 1883 M
A E
.
,
H O
. ,

. O M
A .

= ( , , , 0 )


=
=
=


=
=

, g, (g), (g1) x

g1(x) g(g1(x)) = x ,
, g.

(x)+x(
(

)+

) = ,

(y) = (

)+

= y, x =

+ +
=
,

(x) = ,

( ,

+ +
= = = = =

+ +

(x).

() ,
i. y, (x) = y x, x.
ii. 1, 2, ,
.
() = (1)(2) () (1), (2), ,()
1,
2, ,.
iii. ,
(x) = , , x0 , (x0) = .
-10

-5

y = f (x)

y=f (x)
-5

y = f (x)
-10

, .

10

IOPAIE

,
( x).

0,

x0, +
,
x0, .

, x0 , x0, x0 ,
x0, .

0, g
=

de lHospital.

,
g, g .

KNTANTINO
KAPAEOPH
(1873-1950)
A

50 20
.
B E
A
A A,
,
M, .

(A, M, ) (B, B, A,
M), (M).



. X
,
,
,

,
.

de lHospital

. -

, 1, -

0.

(x) =
(x+),
+ , ,
0( ) .

( + )

= 2 + 2 + 2

( )

= 2 + 2 2

( + + )

= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2

( + )

= 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 2 2

( + )
( )

= 3 + 3 2 + 32 + 3

= 3 3 2 + 32 3

2 2 = ( )( + )
3 3 = ( ) ( 2 + + 2 )
3 + 3 = ( + ) ( 2 + 2 )
3 + 3 + 3 3 =

2
2
2
( + + ) ( + + )
1
2
2
2
( + + ) ( ) + ( ) + ( )
2

IOPAIE

0 1 ,
0

g, egln , .

, g (x)
(x) .

(x) ,

x0 (x)
,
x0. x
.

, (x) (x), g(x)

, (x),
(x)
.

g(x) (x) x0

T ...

M
P N .
E
. O

(
), ,
, . T -
-
x y

z - x, y, z
-
2.
,
, N,
. A E

.

g(x) = + ,
(x) = + . -

.
x
x
,

x 1, x 1 x x x.
x = 0.

IEP NTE
EPMA
(1601-1665)

1
:

= 1 + ( 1)
= 1 + 2 + ... + =
=

x0 x0,
x0, .

21 + ( 1)
2

1 +

1
:

= 1 1

,
.

= 1 + 2 + ... + = 1

1
1

IOPAIE

g [, ], x0(,
) (x0) = g(x0). h(x) =
(x) g(x) [, ]
h()h() < 0, . Bolzano.

(, ), . g(x)
, g(x) = 0. . Bolzano g,
. [, ], g(x) 0, . Bolzano (, )
g(x) = 0. ,

g(x) > 0
g(x) < 0 , g/.

ZAN E PONT
NT AAMEP
(1717-1783)

,
, , , . T
Encyclopedie
(E), . A

, (1743) .

.

, ...

. Bolzano ,
, , , .
()() > 0, , .

2 + 2 = 1
=

= 1

( + ) = +
( ) =
( + ) =
( ) = +

. = (, ) [, ]
.

. .
,
[, ] [m, ] m . , [, ] , m, m (x)
[, ] () =

( + ) =

+
1

( ) =

1 +

( + ) =

1
+

( ) =

+ 1

2 = 2

2 = 2 2 =
= 2 2 1 = 1 2 2
2 =

1 2
2

2 =

1 + 2
2

IOPAIE

, = [,
], () = [(), ()],
= [, ],
() = [(), ()], = (, ),
() = [ (x),
(x)],

= (, ), () =
[ (x),
(x)]. [, ) (, ]

. [, ] ,
,
() .

(x1) < 0, (x2) >

0, (x3) < 0, . Bolzano [x1, x2], [x2, x3].

, (, ), , , x1, x2(,
) x1< x2 (x1)(x2) < 0, . Bolzano, , [x1, x2], x0(x1, x2), (x0) = 0,

.

XEPMAN BA
(1885-1955)



.
, 1930
1933, ,
. H 1913 Z. M
A
. T ,
, P.
, ,
.

IOPAIE

y y = (x)
/ x0,
y x x0 (x0).
y t, t
/ .

x0,
,
= (x0) (x) =

(x0), .

y = x+
(x0, y0), y0 = (x0) (x0) = .

g
(x0, y0), y0 = (x0) = g(x0)
(x0) = g(x0).

. (x) > 0
x ,
. (x) < 0 x ,
. .
,
.
,
.
.
. .
[, ]
(, ) (x) = 0 , .
(, ) (, ) ,
(, ). .

(1601-1665)

...


.
.

( ), ,
,
.
- -
x y
z - x, y, z -
2.
,

,
,
. .

, = , 0
, > 0
, 0
, =
,
2

, 2 = = 2
,

2 =

x = 0 , x =

x = x =
, =
,

> 0 ,

x x
> 0 ,

x x x

IOPAIE
(, ),
( (x),
(x)). ,

(x),

(x)).

, .

,
i. .
ii. .
iii. .
x0,
x0.

[, ] ,
,

.

(1815-1897)
,
.

.
1854
. .

.
, .

.

.

r .

x2 + y2 = r 2
y
( x, y )

( 0, 0 )

, ( ) 2 .

(, ),
(, ), (, ),
x0(, ) .Fermat
(x0) = 0.
, x = f .
() = 0.
, x =
.

K ( x 0 , y 0 )
r .

( x x0 )

+ ( y y0 ) = r 2
2

y
( x, y )
r

( x0, y0 )

( 0, 0 )

IOPAIE

x0, . Fermat , , x0,
, x0,
x0, (x0) = 0.

, , x . Fermat.

,
,
(x) = 0 (x) = c, x,
, c = ().

,
, c c = 0.

,
i. .
ii. .
x0,
x0

x0. , x0.

(x0, (x0)) - x0,
++

, (x) y,
x y = (x0)(x x0)+ (x0), (x) (x0)(x
x0)+(x0), x
, x = x0.

OZE IOYBI
(1809-1882)
,
19 .
,
,
. 1833 Ecole
Polytechnique

. 1836
,
.
. , .

.


20 . ,

,

. 400 , , .

x 2 + y 2 + Ax + By + = 0
A 2 + B 2 4 A > 0

B
A
K ,
2
2
r =

1
A 2 + B 2 4 A
2

( 0, 0 )
r M ( x1, y1 )

xx1 + yy1 = r 2
y

( x1 , y1 )
r

( 0, 0 )

IOPAIE

+ y = x+, ,
(x+)] = 0

[(x)

[(x) x] = .

,

.

(, ) , , . Bolzano, . Rolle , (g(x)) = (h(x)), 1 1.

() 0, .

C
.

.

( +1) ..
(x) =
2
x +x+ 3 .

( (x) 3 (x) 6
. > 0 , N*.

(x) > 0, .

(1777-1855)
,
,
.

, .
.
(1801) ,
. ,
,
.
. , ( ).


.

.
, ,
,

.

IOPAIE

(x) =

g(x) h(x) = 0,

(1)(2) = , 1, 2, , (1), (2), .
(x) =
1, 2, ,
. ,
= (x) =
C y = .

(x) = 0, ( ) , :
(x),
(x),
(x)
, x
.
, , ( ) ()() < 0 .
Bolzano. ,
() .
[, ]
0. [, ] . , , 0[, ]
, 0, [,
] () = 0.
, 0.
,
. Rolle () ,
.

YKEIH
( 4
3 . .)
,
,

.
, 13 , .
,
7-9.
, 2
, 10 - , .

,
. 5 (
),
. 19
, , , 5
1899 .

.

IOPAIE

(x) = 0, ( ) ,
1, 2 12 = 1 2 = . Bolzano .

(x) = 0, , :
i. .
ii. ,
. Rolle, (x) = 0
1 < 2,
(1) = (2) = 0 . Rolle, [1,
2], (1, 2), () = 0,
(x) = 0 (1, 2)
.
iii. ,
11,
(x) = 0 .
Bolzano , (x) > 0
(x) < 0, , .
, x > 0 , ex > x+1, x < x,
lnx x 1, -.
iv.
0, .
,
, , ... ,
.. (x) = (x 3)3. (x) = 0
x = 3. (x) = 3(x 3)2 > 0 x. x
, , .

(1540-1603)
,
.
, .
,

.
. . 1593


, .

.

< = >

+ +

& 0 ,
& 0 ,
& , + +
0 & 0 ,
0 & 0 ,
0 , N

2 2
2 +1 2 +1

2
2
< < 0 , 2 +1> 2 +1

<

1 + 2 + ... + = 0 ,
1 = 2 = ... = = 0
12 1 + 22 2 + ... + 2 = 0 ,
1 = 2 = ... = = 0

IOPAIE

(x) = 0,
( ) , (

), ( )
. Rolle,
.
1, 2 1 2 (1) = (2) = 0. . Rolle
[1, 2] (x) (1, 2). (x) (x) 0 x(1, 2),
.

1, 2 1 2 (1) = (2) = 0.
1 < 2 (1) < (2)
(1) > (2), .
,
3 1 2 3. . Rolle [1, 2 ]
[2, 3] . ( 1 1). (x) = 0
(x) = 0 .

(x) = 0, ,
.
. ,
0. . 0.

(1811-1832)




.
Bourg-laReine


. To 1830
Ecole Normale Superieure , ,
.
. 1829
. 1832,
, . .

.


.

x 2 + y 2 + Ax + By + = 0
A 2 + B 2 4 A > 0

B
A
K ,
2
2

r =

1
A 2 + B 2 4 A
2

( 0, 0 )
r M ( x1, y1 )

xx1 + yy1 = r 2
y

( x1 , y1 )

,
(, , . ) (x) = (x )2q(x).
(x) = 2(x )q(x)+(x )2q(x) = (x )w(x),
x = . (x)

( 0, 0 )

IOPAIE
. , (x)
, x = (x). (x)
x = , x = . () 0. (x) . (x)
(x) > 0 (x) < 0 (x)
(.. (x) () = 4 > 0). ,
:
1) .
2) .
3) .

(x) = 0,
(, ), , [, x1],
[x1, x2], ,[x1, ] .
(x) = 0, , +1 . Rolle, [1, 2],
[2, 3], [, +1], .
+1 ,
, .

,
[x, ] [, x].
.

(x) = 0, ,
0 ( ).

(x) = g(x)
=

, (x)

g(x) = 0 (x)(x)v(x) g(x)t(x)(x) r(x)t(x)(x) .

.

(300 .x.)
'
300 .x. ,
.

" ", 8 ,
.

, ,

( , , , ).


.
:
-
. .
-
.
- 33
. , ,
.
-
( , ). ,


.
" "

,
.
, .

IOPAIE

, , (x) 0
(x) 0, x ,
, ( )
x, . (x)
(x0) (x) (x0) x0 .
() ()
() ()
(x) x1, x2.
,
[, ],
() < (x) < (). .
(x)
(x0) (x) (x0) x0
. x0, . Fermat (x0) = 0 .
, (x) ()
g(x), , g ,
h(x) = (x) g(x)
0. x0 h h(x0) = 0, . Fermat h(x0) = 0
.

,
. ,
,
x, x t.

(250 .)
' ,
'. 250
.

',
189 ,
. 6 , . 13,
6 4 ( 1974).
:
- "" (13 , 10) - " " ()
- "" ()
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8/
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"
To "" ' , .
.
" "
,

.
""

.

(x) = (x 2),
(x),
(x) 0 , x1, x2
x1 < x2 (x1) = (x2) . Rolle.

x x+1 [x, x+1].

IOPAIE

(,
) ,
[, ]
< <
() =
. () () = ()( )

. ,
[, x] [x, ] x(, ). , (370 415 ..)
[, x]
[x, ], (x) = 0. 370
.., . [, ]. ,
.



.
.
.
.
,
. () < < . () .
, . - .
. < < ()

13 . ()
, . , - (
, ()
. - ). ,


17

, - ,

, , .
. [, ] [, x0], [x0, ] ,
x0,

. , x x0.

.


. ,
.
. (x) = 0. (, )
.
, [x, ] < x < .

IOPAIE

(x) (x) (x) (x)

(x) 0 (x) (x) 0 , ,
min max .

, -

[, ], = min =
max, (x)

( )

(1906-1978)
, ,
, .

.

. , , 1931
. ,
,
.
, .

20
.


.

( ), ( )
( ) .

(, ) g(, ) , (, x) g(, x) (x, ) g(x, ).
,
/ = x.

,
i. , ..

.
ii.
.
iii. ,
g x0, x0, , .
iv.

, .
Fermat.

,
, = 1
.

M ( x, y ) C ,
x2 y2
+
=1
2 2

= 2 + 2 )

E ( , 0 ) E ( , 0 )
2
2

( 0, 0 )

( , 0 )

( , 0 )

IOPAIE

(x)g(x) . (LATE).
lnx (x) ,
x = 1.

(g(x)),
g(x).

O (1707-1783)

, , .
, , c .
.

.
dt x,

F(x) =

, F(x)

, g(x) =

g(x) = (x),

= g((x))

= g((x))

,
: = dx

= = , 0 , N

ln|(x)|+c.

.
,

,
. f(x),
, e , i - 1 -
.
, (. ). . ,
.

1 2 ... = 1 2 ... ,
1 , 2 , ..., + , N

(x)
Q(x), (x) : Q(x) (x)
U(x) ( = + ).
: (x) = Q(x)(x)+U(x)
dx
= ((x)+
.

)dx = (x)dx+

dx, . -

( )

= , R + , , N

, + , + , N

, R + , , N
, R + , , , N

= , , R + , N

= , R + , , N

IOPAIE
,
, x 1, x2, x3: :
=
+ + (x) = (x x2)(x x3)+(x

x1)(x x3)+(x x2)(x x2) , , x = x1,

x 2, x 3.

x1 x2 . :

(x) = (x x2)(x x1)+(x x2)+(x x1)2

, , x x1 , x2
.
,
.
Q(x) = (x )(x2+x+) 2 4 < 0.

:
=
=
+
(x) =

(x +x+)+(x+)(x ), , , x =
1, 2 R.
.
Q(x) = (x ) (x2+x+)2 2 4 < 0. :
=
+ (x) = (x2+x+)2+

(x+)(x +x+)(x )+(x+)(x ),

, , , , x = 1, 2, 3, 4R.

= ln|x| + c.

(xt), xt = ,
= x d = xdt t = = , t = =

(287-212 ..)
,


, ,
,
.
,
(287-212
.X.), :
,
, . :
(), ( )
" ",
(

. ). (
).

: "" ( -
"-"
) , "", "" (
) ""

(
. 1973

). .
,
,
,
.
" "
...

IOPAIE

xx xx,
, ,

!! C1 C2 1
2, , 1
2, , , =

, .

(, ()), (, ()) (, ()), () = |

|.

, 1(x) = u x = (u)

(1789-1857)

.


.

.


. 21
Ecole Polytechnique
. .
. 1816
. , ,
( )

1848. .
789 , 42 .

x = x log10 = log10 x
log x =

1
log x

log x1 > log x 2 x1 > x 2 > 0

dx = (u)du x = () u = (()) = x = () u =
1(()) =
=
.

(t), ,

ln1 = 0
lne = 1
ln x + ln y = ln x y
ln x ln y = ln

) =

= (x) x

(t) ,
,
. t x.
. t x.
.

x
y

ln x = ln x
x = x ln e = ln e x

ln x =

1
ln x

ln x1 > ln x 2 x1 > x 2 > 0

log x =

ln x
ln10

ln x =

log x
loge

IOPAIE

, (t) |(t)| 1 .

, x = y
dx = dy

, -

[, ] , (x) = 1/x 0.

,
. ,

dt.
, ,
.
.. (
) = [(x2 3x)
].

,
h(x), h(x)
x, . ,
[, ],
[, ]

KEOPK KANTOP
(1845-1918)


,

. T 1867 B

X.
T , , , 1874. A
.

: . O
, . T

(1883)
(1895-97). A
, ,
. ,
N M.

M ( x, y ) C ,
x2 y2

=1
2 2

= 2 + 2 )

E ( , 0 ) E ( , 0 )
2

x y = x

=
: y =

,
1 2,
, h g
, x,
, h g
h(x) g(x) 1
2, , ,
= (x)
(x)
.

A ( , 0 )

( , 0 )

( , 0 )
A ( , 0 )

( 0, 0 )

x 2 y 2 = 2 .

IOPAIE

,
[, ] [, x] x > 0.
0 (x) 0

x[, ], x0 (x0) > 0

> 0.
,

(t) = , t
(t) = 2t , t [1, x] x > 1,

1(x 1)

x 1

= +.

(x 1) = +

, F -

, ,
F[g(x)] F[h(x)]
, .. > 0, h(x) t
g(x) (h(x)) (t) (g(x)),
t,


(h(x))[g(x) h(x)]

(1685-1731)
,

1712,
( ).
1716 ( 3
). .
. , ,
, ,
.

(g(x))[g(x) h(x)], (x) 0,

0,

, g ,

h(x) = (x) g(x) 0,

0,

. , g -

>

( )

p
0,
2

h(x) = (x) g(x) .

x y
,

o
90 :
x 2 = 2py

y =

, (x) (x),
,
, ln(x), , , , = -

p
2

p
0,
2

( 0, 0 )
y=

p
2

p
2

IOPAIE
(x) = cex

),

,
i. (x) = 0 x,
.
ii.

(x) = g(x) x, (x) = g(x)+c, c

.
(x)
= g(x) (x) = g(x)+c c. .

i.

(x)(x) =

(x)(x) = [2(x)]

[ln(x)].
ii.

(x)+(x) = 0, (x) = 0.

iii.

(x)+(x) =
ex,
, ex[ (x)+(x)] = (ex)(x)+ ex
(x) = [ex (x)].

(1781-1848)

,
, , .

1805
.

, .
, ,
. , , , , .
, ,


. ,
. (1930
31),
1969.

> 0 x1 = x2 , x1 = x 2
> 1 x1 > x2 , x1 > x 2
0 < < 1 x1 > x2 , x1 < x 2
x, y > 0 :

log x = x = 10

iv. (x) (x) = ex,

, [ (x) (x)] / ex = [ex (x) ex (x)] / e2x = [(x)/ex ].
, (x)+g(x)(x) = h(x),
G(x) g(x) G(x) = g(x)
eG(x) [(x)eG(x)],
.

> 0 = e ln

log1 = 0
log10 = 1
log x + log y = log x y
log x log y = log
log x = log x

x
y

ln x = x = e

IOPAIE
v. (x+y) =
(xy) = ,

, (x) =
. x = y = 0

y x x = y = 1 y 1/x.
vi. (x) (x) (x) =
,

.
vii.

viii.

g(x) = (x) (x) = g(x), x . (h(x)) = g(x) h(x), h(x)(h(x)) =

h(x)g(x) [(h(x)] = (x) .
,
(x)
(x), [(x)] =
(x),
(x)+(x)(x) = (x) e(x)
(x) = (x) [(x)e(x)]
. (x)
> 0, ,
.

(1646-1716)

.

( ).
, !..

,
.


.

1684 16
, ,
!

x
y ,

90o :

y2 x2
+
=1
2 2

= 2 + 2 )

E ( 0, ) E ( 0, )
2
2

, , (
) = (x).
(

) = (g(x))g(x).

( 0, )
( 0, 0 )

( 0, )

ix. ,
.

IOPAIE

, c
.
i. , (x) = c(x), g(x) = e cx(x) (x) = ecx
. (x) = h(x)(x),
g(x) = e h(x)(x) (x) = eh(x)
.
ii.

, (x)(x c) = (x),
g(x) =
(x) = (x

c) .
iii.

, (x)(c x) = (x),
g(x) = (x c)(x) (x)
=
.

iv. , (x)x = (x), g(x) =

(x) = x

.
v.
g(x) = ,
=
+c ln(x) =
+c,
, , (x) > 0 (x) < 0.

g(x) = F((x)) .
vi.
(x), (x).

APENT NOP
OYATXAINT
(1861-1947)

. T
K M,
N
. Y

M P

M A,
20 . E
. O O
M
K ,
, ,
E
X HA .
.