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Plant Cell
                

. , Development Growth Morphogensis . RNA DNA

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes :


. . . .

Cell Typical Plant




Plasmalemma . . Nuclear envelope .


 

Adsorption

Cell Wall


. . . ) . .


.(

Primary Wall


: .3 ( .

.2 + 3-1

.1

Secondary Wall
. . . . .
 

10-5

. .

Plasmodesmata Pit Field


( Plasmodesma: . . )


Membranes
 

. 1943

. Danielle

. . Differentially Permeable . The Fluid Ion Mass Diffusion Exchange Flow . Transport .

Nonpolar Membrane Unit . Mosaic Model .

. .

Active

. Pumps

Plasma lemma


. . .

(ER)Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic ) . . . .


Cisternae Reticulum , (

Dictyosomes GolgiApparatus


15-5 . .. ( . . )

Mitocondria
Mitochondrion RNA . .


DNA .

ATP

Plastids


6-4 Envelope Stroma 50-5 RNA DNA Proplastids

: Leucoplastids. . . : Chloroplasts . : Chromoplasts .

. : Amyloplastids .

Ribosomes


0.3 0.1 % 50 40 RNA RNA ( r- RNA)

% 60-50 RNA RNA

Polyribosomes RNA (m-RNA )

Vacuoles
Cell sap Tonoplast Turger . pressure


11 1 )

pH Tonoplast ) pH

.(

Microtubules
20-10 , B tubulin . .


Micro bodies
, 2-1 . .


. ) Ribonucleases ( . Hydrolases )Proteases (

Nucleus
Robert Brown . . 1835 . . 10 5 Nuclear envelope Pores .


. DNA Nuclear sap RNA DNA .

Nucleolus

Cell Shape


.


. . .

Cell Size
0.5 - 0.2 . 15


. . . .

. .

0.1 .(

100 )

1000 1

.6

.5

.4

.3

.2

.1


Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells

Golgi apparatus

: Annuals : . Biennuals : . Perennials : : Herbaceous perennials : . . Wool Perennials : . . . . . . . Pinus Cembroies . : Pinus torre yana Tress Shrubs Vines (2 (1 -

         

      

 

( -1

 

. -2


 

. : . 50 :40 (2 . :   

(1

 

20 :15

. The Stem : ( ) Trees

-1

 

Trunk .

) ( )

Shrubs

. Apical branching

18-12 ( ( 4 ) )

Perennials


( Main

) . Branches

Shoots : .( Twigs : . (

-2 ) -3 )

   

Stem Soft or green Cuttings

...

.Hard Wood Cutting Water Sprouts :

cuttings -4
 

. Suckers : ( ( ) ) -5
 

Frutting spurs : 7 1

-6

 

. . .

. : :Arms :Canes   

. . . . . :Shoots : Spur : :     

Leaves : .

-7

 

. : :Petiol . :Blade (


. (


Vascular system

: : Scale Leaves :Bracts . :Tensrils . : Thorns

( . (

 

 

. : : . ( . )


:Buds . . :Leaf buds :Simple Flower buds . :Simple flower buds ( ) :Mixed flowor buds ( ) : :

-8 (1) (2) ( (

     

-: :Terminal of apical buds :Axillary or lateral buds . .

. :Compound buds

( (1 (2

  

.Accessary buds :Adventitions buds (3




: . . : : ( ) ( . : ) ) : .( ( : . . . . ( ) ) ) : ( ( ) ) ( .( ) : .

   

 

  

Flower


.(

- :

(1):

. Calyx : Corolla : Androecium : - . . - :

- .

(2). Srament . ,

Gynoccium : .

Bisexual or herma Herma phrodites Monoecious

Complete Incomplete Staminate or male Pistillate of female phrodite

Dieoecious

Eggs .

Sperms .

11 .

. : -1
 

: : . : Pears : Hale .

-2 ( (

   

Limon

: . . : Self Incompatability : . : Gross Incompatability :

( * * ( *

 

  

 

.


Pericarp

Parthenocarpy


Seedless Perthenogenesis

. : Vegetative parthenocarpy : Complete




(1) parthenocarpy .

 

Simulative parthenocarpy :

(2)

 

: : : . : . . * -1 -2 : *

  

  

. : Aggregate fruits : . Berry . Nut Drupe Pome Dry Fruits Fleshy . Multiple : * * Fruits :
    

    

  

 

... Differentiation Development

Differentiation .

Morphogenesis Molecular Basis Morphogenesis .

The Localization of Growth




.


Apical

meristems

Lateral meristems Phellogen

Growth Stages
: Cell Division -1
 

Dome

Cell Enlargement

-2

30

150

Dry matter

Cell Differentiation

-

Cell Wall
.


Plasmalemma .

nanometer = 1 cm x ) ,

60

10-5

, ( 10- 9

Secretions

. Droplets Telophase Vesicles




Primary Wall Xylans, ,Arabans Para-Crystalline Reversible plastic

Glactans Glycoproteins Intussusceptions Apposition




Gene off and on

, pH Plasticity

Elasticity

Loosening


pH amylase

( .

B 1,3 glucanase .

, .


. . ,


Canalization of . Dedifferentiation .

development Determination


Basal Cell

Terminal Cell

1924 Shemidt Single apical cell : Outer Tunica Apical Dome 5-2 3-2 Tunica

Inner Corpus Tunica Central mother cells Flank or Peripheral Meristems Rib Meristems

, .


Leaf Primordium

. Three Layer theory Tunica and Corpus theory

.


(1,2,3,2,1)

sink

source relationships

.


, , , ,

, , .

. ,

. .

. . Cichorium
 

pH

   

, .

Peroxidase IAA

. IAA Aspartate

IAA Indol ethyl acetate

, .

, .

W=Woert 2.7182 =W = Wo = e = r

rt Log e + Log W= Log Wo 

. . 6 . . .

Growth

Growth Formulas : Parameters Biological Yield :

Dry weight: ( ) ) ( / 4000 w = w . 4000 /

Efficiency of ):

(Utilization ( Eu

= S = St =EI


  

Efficiency of Conversion :

: Crop growth rate

 

Total Leaf Area




. %50 Specific Leaf Weight: g 1 2cm /2 / . = .... 2




SLW =

(Leaf Area Index(LAI ): : = :

  

1 F , 2F 4.0 . ( 5 2.5 ) , .

RGR) Rate Relative Growth)




2W, 1t

1W 2t

Net Assimimilation Rate :

 

The Control or Regulation of Growth and Differentiation

- - -

. . . .

-: : Differentiation

 

Determination : Development

 

: Canalization of development pathwayalternative . : Determination in plant leaf primordium anther structure : Induction flower induction : Initiation

determined .

. .( )

pH

Adult , Juvenile .

Morphogenesis

. In Vitro

.


Turing off Switching genes on and off

on Turing

Type of regulation in plant


1903


-1 -2 -3 -1 -2

      

-1




Jacob&Monod 1961 Jacob&Monod Regulator Genes -1 StStuctural Genes Regulator Genes Structural Operator Genes-2 Structural Genes-3 Regulator Genes Genes

  

Gelbert

Regulator Gene

Operator Genes Repressor 1967 Jacob&Monod effector Structural Genes Operator Genes m RNA

: Effector Structural Substrate

Effector Substrate induction -

 

steric configuration ) Operator gene) mRNA inactive Effector "

genes


regulator gene Structural Operator End . . . Cell free

End product repression mRNA product Repression by Histones -

system ." cell free system DNA . " " RNA polymerize cell free system . Globulin Globulin

E. Coli leucine c14

m RNA .

Cell free

cell free system DNA Globulin

.Globulin Globulin . system

. : DNA heterochromatic RNA Possibility I -1 . Possibility II masked RNA m


 

regulation of enzyme a cavity . substrate . Imidozole . (Competitive inhibition (Isosteric effete substrate

-2

 

 

. Isosteric effect - ( End Product Inhibition ( Allosteric effect Bielka 1969 Allosteric Operator genes Effection Reversibility of enzyme action

 

NH3 CO2

Regulation by phytohormones RNA Kinetin & In Vitro GA . Long Day Plant

3 IAA GA -

 

 

GA IAA

IAA

GA GA + IAA .

Switch gene Gene background : .

mechanism

 

mRNA tRNA Relay System Development Mayor Pathways

  

Relay K :

Relay System Transcription IAA GA Positive Negative

 

Lytokinius Fall of leaves and fruit +

Gibberellins _

IAA _

ABA _

Dormancy of buds Germination Cell elongation Cell division Flower formation LDP Flower formation SDP Seves cence Transcription

+ _ _ _ _ + + _

. . + + + _ _ + + + + + . _ +

_ + + + . . _ +

no effect = .

Stimulation = +

Inhibition =_

: (a ) Active genes (ina ) Inactive gene( ) ( potentially active gene (p.a.

    

: ina ; p.a ,a p . P.a,P.ine Regulator . Effects . RNA : . Second messenger (CAMP) Cyclic : : 1970 zenk . Adenosine monophosphate : :

gene

Adenosine triphasphate cAMP (ATP) Kinase DNA . cAMP adenylcyclase Phosphodiesterase cAMP monophosphate GA .

Adenosine

second messenger IAA atmosphere

Regulation by external Temperature . ( 10 5Velocity at 0/5Q10 = Velocity at 10 32 24 ) (Q 10 )

: -1

  

 

, 1972 Kefford & Caso In vitro 22 16 27 21 Gautberet 1969 . 25 25 .

juncea Chondrilla Adventitious shoot 15 26

Light

-2

 

Nobel & Naylos 1986 Alleweldt & 1969Margara 9 Lux400 . Lactuca sativa .

Photomorphogenesis 12 Explant Radlar 1961 Lux 5000

. Effectors Operator gene

Far red

Chromoprotein
 

Regulator gene . ( )

. .

. .

: Fibrous Root

-

Prop Roots Contraetile Roots .

   

. -

 

. :

Flower Induction ,

Initiation

Differentiation Determination Flower Development

, , 24 18 9 13 29


. 18 13

13

18

16


Light Quality Photoperiodism

, Process

Photo biological :

Photoperiodic response Garner & Maryland Mammoth ( ) 1920 Allard




: Garner & Allard . . Initiation of floral primoridia .

Phytochrome Pr Pfr .

Pr

Pfr Pfr

Pfr

Pr

Day neutral .

Short day plants Long day plants Indeterminate plant plants




, , Critical day length

Heteroblastic

.


Mature Florigen

Photoinductive Cycles . ) , 25 ( ) 17 (

: . Riboflsvin . " " nm 660 620 Pfr ( ( Pr Chromoprotein , )

 

Pfr

) Florrigen , Isoprenoid or Steroid like

Flower Induction : Tiba Galston antagonistic Bromeliaceae

 

Flowe induction : ,


Flowering Stimulus

"

Anthesis Anthesis Flower

Chailaklyan 1961 , . " "

induction .

. , .


: Nitsch 1969 methyl amino 6 ) Benzyl adenine Plimbago indica Kinetien Zeatin ( purine

( B9 , CCC

CCC

Alar

Vernalisation

 

) . Stimulus . , 1951 Lang 71 4




Hansel 15 7 ( 35 )

. . 30 48-12 . . . . .

: . :




: : N1)) (NC) . . . -: . -: -:

  

 

:
. .




. .

:
. .




. .

  

   

 

: . . : : . albuminous . (testa . : exalbumenous ) : -3 -2 -1

 

 

: : : . : -

: . .

:Seed germination , Imbibition : Hydrated . : Stored food digestion . : . . . * * * .

   

:Stages of germination : . . . :( . (ATP) . :( . . . . : : : () ( ) . :( ) . ) ) -

Seed Deormancy : . . true dormancy : Primary dormancy : Secondary dormancy : .

Quiescence . . .

 

Promary dormancy . Seed coat dormancy:

: : -1 .

   

: Physical dormancy :

.(

..

Mechanical dormancy : ( ) ) ( ) . . . -

. Chemical dormancy :( . .abscisic acid Atriplex . Coumarin

: Impermeability of seed coats to gases . .

20 . 4 Brown 1940 . ( /2 / 15.5)

.(

/2 / 4.3)

Morphological dormancy : . . enemone . 15 .orchids ( ) : . Ericaceae . 40 -38 . Umbelliferae . : :

-2

magnolia ranunculus

.rhodidendron

24 1000

. . ( 30) . . . . . . 6 -1

Physiological dormancy : . . 25 .

-3

Khan 1971 ( )

Embryo dormancy : . . . Cold stratitication . . . 4-1 . .

-4

( 7-2)

:
. .( ) . . ( ... . . .( -2 . . . Compensation . 57 17 . .temperature . . . 6 5 . 3-1 ) -1 -2 -3 -4 )


    

.


Epicotyl dormancy : : 3-1 . 3-1 .

-5

. Double dormancy : . . . . . ( . -6

Secondary dormancy

: . .

 

.gibberellic acid . . .


Treatments to overcome seed dormancy : . : .


. Mechanical searification : Hot water scarification : Acids scaritication : Warm moist scariffication : High temperature scarification : Harvesting immature fruits : Cold stratification : Leaching : Combination of treatments : :Daily alternation of tempeature : Light exposure : Soaking in potassium nitrate solution Hormones and /other chemical stimulants . . . 1000 -500 .

            

. %3-0.5 24

100

Environmental factors affecting seed .


. ) %60 -40

germination : :
Water : :

. .( . .

. (Permanent wilting point (PWP . . . (Field capacity (FC .




Temperature :
. . . . . . 30 -25 . : : .( 40 -30) . 25 . : 15 . . : -1 ... : . : . : : :

   

( .

4.5

. 10

Areation
%0.03 . . . . . . . (2 ) Light . %0.03 . %20 %80 . .

.


. .


(Strangling Fig (Ficus aurea .

(
.
      

)


     

: .

.
 

ABA , .


: dormancy . ,

Dormancy Endogenus Rest

Internal limitation . Period ,




35 , . 2 .

20 2


:
The steady state condition of growth , -2 -1: Rest induction , Perception of light stimulus . , Mid = Main = True Dormancy Post dormancy - 3GA3 -4 . , . scales

Bud

 

. 5 Chandler . . .


. .

: : Endodormancy : Paradormancy

 

: Ecodormancy

-: . .

: -1 -2 -3 -4

    

. . .
 

phytochrome PR PFR

. : 5180


. " ) . " (

: -: : . . : .... ( Diffusible Auxin Free or Auxin Precursor . , . 1938 . ) Total Auxin . Bennett & Skoog . 1938 Bonner : . . : : :

Thimann &

: 33

. 100 .

165


.


* ) Chilling Requirement * * * %52 ( . .... ) 1000 100 * GA

    

: : %4 -2 %1 .% 4 -2 . ) ( ) . % 0.5 . "H2CN2 " ( ) Thidiazeron : -1




-2

. (

. : -3 : -4


. (Anna) . .


: Bud burst

. Growing Degree Hours o4.4 .( .. : GDH ) ) ((GDH

= GDH

 

:
: . : . Blueberry Chandler . 113 . . . . . : : . :




.


: Esterases Protectant Water binding : . :

Osmoregulators

Denaturation

RNA

Li & Weiser

: .

. Gene IAA .

mRNA

on and off

:" .

" Fruit drop


: . .

.


Physically .

Methylated Pectins

:
Proximal Pectin methyl esterase Auxin gradient ( ) end . 20 15 Naphthalen acetamide " 10 8 . 6 % 50-20 100 25 . / 2.5 B9 D

"

- 2,4

Red delicious .

    

. . :

: .

-1 -2

 

Abscission

. Separating layer

zone -3

-4

. .

-5

: : RAN

-1

. . -2 . RAN ase -3 -4 RNA Ribonuclease . protease -5

Fruit drop ,

Pre-harvest 6-5 ( ( ) 10 )

drop

Physically Methylated Pectins . (Addicott Davies &Morgan ( 1972 . ( )


Auxin Pectin methyl esterase ) Proximal end gradient . 20 15 acetamide 10 8 D - 2,4 . " %2

( Naphthalen

" % 98 4 2 % 50-20

100 25 B9

2.5

Thinning
. . Flower Induction ,

1000 ) (Martin ( 1971

, . . . . . Dinitroorthocresol -

DNOC) ) :

    

    

. , .

. , ( .( ( ) ) ( )

... :



) (

: ,




, . , ) 20 8

(


. .


: .

:
, , . . .




, . ,


50.1 59 74 68 51

49.9 41 26 32 49 ( o 10 ) + ++ ( o 48 ) ++ 20 100 1000 10000

.


Plagiogeotropic

. Positive Geotropism Negative Geotropism . Diageotropic




40 6

. .(

: .

 

: ( ) ) ( . .

 

: . .

 

, ,


0.2 .

: . . . . . . . * * * * * * *


 

    

Senescence
      

Ageing .

: ,

. , ,

.


. polycarpic .

: . Mg 1995 Vicentini chlorophyllase dechelatase .




dioxgenase

Vicentini 1995 chlorophyllase Mg - dechelatase dioxgenase .

Tonoplast

: . RNA RNA DNA

RNA

: : mRNA Aromatic amino acids NAA ATP

mRNA 100 10 , GA DNA loop forming DNA ABA DNA

DNA

GA

: , 1957 aminoacyl-s-RNA ABA like compounds RNA ase invertase . source / relation ship / sink . .

transformation

IAA oxidase .

chlorophyllase :


: B9 (Methyl Jasmonic acid (MJA

Stolen ( )

MJA

phospholipidase acyl hydroxylase

:
( Water Stress ) GA ABA , reductase Salinity stress .

glutamine synthetase nitrate

ABA mailc dehydragenase

j ammonium assimilation glutamine synthetase . . .

- 2) Peroxisome ) glycolate Glyoxysomes ( ( ) Phosphatase Esterase Hydrolase

micro bodies

 ( 1.5 .

Spherosome Protease Rilonuclease ,

remobilization Free radicals H2O2) hydrogen peroxide) ,

Catalase

detoxify

Hypersensitive response .

LSC54

(Molisch (1938 (1931) Mothes .

. .

(1940) Petrie

, . (Varner (1961 .

Das and Leopold 9 .RNA , RNA RNA ase RNA effect Mobilization Richmand and Lang (Moths (1959 .

    

: .

. Physiological Drought

: .

-1

. -: . . . . -1 -2 -3 -4

: Water balance in plants : . . CO + 2O 2 .

) %40

( .

. . . . . . . -

. :

-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -1

-2 .

: Drought resistance

Arid Zones Water Stress

Semiarid Zones . Dehydration

. Water Stress

Parker . 1968 -:

Desiccation Tolerance-:
. Dehydration . . . . -:

Mesophytes

Water Stress -: Water Stress

Dry

. ( McWillam .1968)

Seson

-:

. Plant Water Stress Larrea Water Water Tal 1966 . Waggones & . . -: .

Water Stress . Stress Stress Wilty tomato

Simmonds 1966

Efficiency of Water use Water 500-200 . . . pimeappie . . crassuiacean viets , 1966 . . 500-200 pimeappie . . Supply .Sletyer 1964 2000

Water Stress Moderate Water Stress Henckei May 1962 . Water Stress Water Stress . water Stress

:
. Water Stress . Water Binding Capacity . 1964 . . Water Stress Water Stress water Stress Kelly et al Orchard 1967 . . stress Hardened

Hardening

. 1956 Ciarck & Levitt High Water Stress Guagule water Stress Icale-Brassila Olerace Var. Fruticosa moderate Water Stressed Plov .

Water Stress Water Stress

      

      




.


Exocarp

Endocarp Mesocarp Auxin precursor .




Release .


Parthenocarpy ,


Stemospermocarpy :

. .

 

. .
 

Exogenous

: , . :

 

.


. 80

%1

"


% . .


, . Diffusible auxin Achenes 100 . Naphthoxyacetic acid 2 .

"

25 Cellular Free nuclear

14

. endosperm


50-1 .

NAA,IBA ,IAA

, Sink/Source 200 10 . Golden % 80 -40

: Relation , . delicious ppm 800 100 20 GA3

, Lombartacol villa NAA T-2,4,5 D-2,4 .

. GA3 .


: . CCC 100 10 % 20 . : 3-1 BA + GA3


-:
 

.


NAA

. D - 2,4

Anthesis

9-4 Sigmoid curve

8-4 S

Double sigmoid curve .

) .


. .

% 25 .

.


. . ( ,


 ...... . ( )
 

)


.


%7 .

% 37

% 16

% 18 , ,

%23


% 25-20

% 80-75

Starch . .

phosphorylase


: middle lamella . . :




 

25 %3 . . % 17 , ( 4-1) %35 ,

          

: 3 -3 -3 -3 . (Succinyl CO A) A Protoprophyrin Pheophytin _ _ _ _

      

Chlorins

Neurosporene

phytofluene

phytoene


 

, .

Polyphenoles :

... Hydrolysable tannins ) ( Gallotannins Ellagitannins ( 2) Condensed tannins ,

 

 

: 16 % 10 %4 . , . 54 %16 . . Nonethylenic 4.3 6 , % 20-12 : . % 70 % 64 % %3 : % 18 %

 

volatiles /

: :

: : : :

: Polyphenol oxidase

, :


( . % 0.64 0.25 . (

) ) : .


) ( Kidd & West

Climacteric


: .

    

Ripening .. ,

: : ( Pink 600-200 D-2,4 )

 

Stage . Indole acetyl glucose Indole acetyl glucose : .




tryptophan D Malonyl Zeum , Indole acetyl Aspertate

, , Regreening Hashimata & Report

500-100

( DNA .( 1954

: ) Cytokinesis 100 , BA) :

 

, mRNA

1964 Leapold 1967 Hansen

Cycloheximide . . . IAA Oxidase

: ABA GA3

 

On year .. Off year : ( 4 -3 . )

 

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