UNIT - VI MODERN ALGEBRA GROUPS

Group: A non empty set G is said to be a group if it satisfies the following axioms (i) Closure axiom : a,b G => a * b G a,b,c G

(ii) Associative axiom: (a*b)*c = a*(b*c) (iii) Identity axiom: (iv) Inverse axiom: G, G,

G s.t a*e = e*a = a G s.t a* = *a = e

Abelian Group: A group is set to be abelian if for all a, b Example: The set of all 2 2 non singular matrices Matrix multiplication. (N, +) is not a group. (Z, +) (Q ,+) (R ,+) (C ,+) are groups. ( , ) is a group. This example shows that for any positive integer N there exists a group with N elements. Identity element in a group is unique. Inverse of each element of a group is unique. Reversal law : if a,b G a b In an abelian group ab Order of Group: The number of elements in a group G Order of Element: o(a) = n if o(G) = e such that n is least positive integer , , ,

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Theroems on Order of an Element of a Groups: 1. The order of every element of a finite group is finite . But converse is not true. i.e if G is a group in which every element is of finite order then group G need not be finite. 2. If there is no positive integer n such that = e then order of a is said to be infinite. 3. If G is a finite group then o(a) o(G) . 4. o(a) = n and = e then n divides m (n/m). 5. If every element of a group G is its own inverse then G is Abelian. 6. If every element of a group except the identity element is of order two then G is Abelian. (for all a G 7. If o(a) = n and p is prime to n then o( ) = n 8. If a, G a group, then o(a) = o( Cyclic Group: A group G is called Cyclic if for some a G, every element G is of the form . The element a is called generator of G. There may be more than one generator of a cyclic group.

Theorems on Cyclic Group: Every cyclic group is an abelian group The order of cyclic group is same as the order of its generator. If a is a generator a inverse also a generator. Every group of prime order is cyclic Every group of order 3 is cyclic An abelian group of 6 is cyclic If G is a finite group of order n and contains a such that o(a) = n then G is cyclic group. Let G be a cyclic group of order n generated by an element a then . Number of generators = ) If order of a cyclic group G is 24 number generators = 8 (1,5,7,11,13,17,19,23)
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Permutation: If g= then fg =

If f =

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 then 3 4 2 5 1 5 3 1 2 4 *A cycle of length two is called transposition. Sub Groups: A non-empty subset H of a group G is said to be subgroup of G. If H itself forms a group under the same operation defined

Theroems on Sub Groups: . 1. A non-empty subset H of a group G is subgroup of G iff a, b 2. Let H be a non-empty finite subset of G. If H is closed under the operation in G then H is a subgroup of G. . 3. Every group G has two trivial-improper subgroups 4. A subgroup of an abelian group is abelian 5. A non-abelian group can have an abelian sub group. 6. A non-abelian group can have a non-abelian sub group. 7. A subgroup of cyclic group is also cyclic. 8. Every proper subgroup of an infinite cyclic group is infinite. 9. If G is finite cyclic group or order n and m is divisor of n, then there exists one and only one subgroup of order m which is also cyclic. 10. The intersection of two subgroup of a group G is a subgroup. 11. The union of two subgroups is a subgroup iff one is contained in the other. A , . 12. If H and K are two subgroups of G, then HK is a subgroup of G, iff HK = KH.

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COSETS : Let H be subgroup of G, then *Ha = *aH = : : .

is called right coset of H in G. is called left coset of H in G.

*Any two left (right) cosets of H are either identical or disjoined. *Union of all left (right) cosets of H is G. *Number of elements in any left (right) cosets is the same as the number of elements is H. *If G is abelian group, the Ha = aH .

*The number of distinct left (right) cosets of H in G is called the index of H in G denoted by . LAGRANGES THEOREM: Let G be a finite group of order n and H be any subgroup of G. Then the order of H divides the order of G. 1. A group of order 8 cannot have subgroup of order 3,5,6 or 7. Any proper subgroup of G must be of order 2 or 4. 2. Any group of prime order has no proper subgroups. 3. The order of any element of a finite group G divides the order of G. 4. Let G be a finite group of order n and let , 5. If H is a subgroup of finite group G then the index of H in G = 6. Converse of legranges theorem is not rule (i.e) If G is a group of order n and m divides n, then G need not have a subgroup of order m. 7. Let A and B be subgroups of a finite group G such that A is a subgroup of B. 8. Let H and K be finite subgroups of a group G, then order HK, o(HK) =

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NORMAL SUBGROUP: A subgroup H of G is called a normal subgroup of G if aH = Ha . 1. A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal subgroup of G, if for every G and for every H, H. 2. A subgroup H of a group G is normal, iff G H. 3. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal. 4. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is normal. 5. Let H be a subgroup of index 2 in a group G . Then H is a normal subgroup of G. 6. A subgroup N of G is normal iff the product of two right cosets of N is again a right coset of N. 7. A subgroup H of a group G is a normal subgroup of G, if each left coset of H in G is a right coset of H in G. 8. The intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group is normal subgroup. 9. If H is a subgroup of G and N is a normal subgroup of G, then H . But need not be normal in G. 10. If a group G has exactly one subgroup H of given order then H is a normal subgroup of G. 11.If H is a subgroup of G and N is a normal subgroup of G, then (i) HN is a subgroup of G (ii) N is a normal subgroup of HN Simple group : A group having no proper normal subgroups is called a simple group. Every group of prime order is simple RINGS Let R be a nonempty set with binary operation + (addition) and , then the mathematical structure (R, + , is called ring. If 1. (R ,+) is an abelian group 2. (R, is a semigroup i.e: Closure law for all a, b Associative law (a
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3. Multiplication is a distributive over addition i.e: Left distributive a Right distributive (a

Example: * (z,+ , ; , , ; , , ; , , are all rings * (2z,+ , . * * A ring R is called a Boolean ring if for all a * Commutative ring : The ring (R, + , ) is called commutative ring if a for all a, b * is a non-commutative ring. TYPES OF RINGS *Ring with Unity:

The ring (R, + , is said to be ring with unity (identity) if there exists a multiplicative identity 1 such that a 1 = 1 Example: *(z,+ , ; , , ; , , ; , , are all rings with identity. *(nZ,+, n > 1 is a ring which has no identity *(2Z,+, is a ring without unity. * The ring of even integers is commutative ring without unity. * The ring of 22 matrices over reals is a non-commutative ring with unity *UNIT in a ring Let R be a ring with unity . An element u is called a unit in R If it has a multiplicative inverse in R Example: * In (z,+ , 1 and -1 are units since no other elements except 1 and -1 have multiplicative inverse. all the no singular matrices are units. * *In Q,R and C every non zero element is a unit. * , , [1],[3] are units *The set of all units in a ring forms a group under multiplication

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*DIVISION RING (OR) SKEW-FIELD Let R be a ring with identity . R is called a Q field are division ring if every non zero element in R is unit. Example: * is not a division ring since 1 0 1 0 AB = 0 0 0 1 0 0 A is not a unit

*FIELD (i) (F,+ , (iii) a (a A commutative skew field is called a field. (F,+ , is field if .

(ii) (F {0} , is an abelian group. Example: *(z,+ , ; * , , ;

,

for all a, b, c

*(z,+ , is a commutative ring with identity but not a field since 1 and -1 are the only non zero element which have multiplicative inverses .

, , ;

, , are all fields .

* ZERO DIVISOR Let R be a ring. A non zero element a is said to be a zero divisor if there exists a non zero element b such that ab = 0 (or) ba = 0 Example: * In , 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 .

*In (z,+ ,

*In the ring

, 3 is a zero-divisor, since 3 4 = 0. Also 2,4,6 are zero-divisors.

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*No skew field has any zero divisor. * A ring R has no zero divisor iff cancellation law is valid in R. * Any unit in R cannot be a zero-divisor but converse is not true. In Z 5 is not a zero divisor and 5 is not a unit.

*INTEGRAL DOMAIN A commutative with identity without zero divisor is called an integral domain. Thus in an integral domain ab = 0 => either a =0 (or) b = 0 *(nZ,+ , where N > 1 is not an integral domain since nZ does not have an identity * * * RELATIONSHIP FOR A FIELD WITH DIVISION RING AND INTEGRAL DOMAIN * A field is a commutative division ring *Every field is an division ring but not vice-versa *Every field is an integral domain but not vice-versa *An integral domain need not be a field for ex: Z is an integral domain but not a field . But any finite integral domain is a field. SUBRINGS *A non-empty subset S of a ring (R,+ , is called a subring if S itself is a ring under the same operations *Example: *2Z is a subring of Z *Z is a subring of Q *Q is a subring of R
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, ,

Example: *(z,+ , is a integral domain

, is an integral domain

, is not an integral domain since 4 is a zero divisor in

*R is a subring of C. *An example of subring without identity, of a ring with identity. 2Z is a subring of Z. Z has 1 as the identity but 2Z doesnot have an identity. *An example of subring of a field which is not a field Q is a field. Z is a subring of Q but Z is not a field. CHARACTERISTIC OF A RING Let R be a ring if there exists a positive integer n such that na = 0 for all a then the least such positive integer is called characteristic of the ring R. if no such positive integer exists then the ring is said to be of characteristic zero. Example : * is a ring of characteristic 6 since

6a = a+a+a+a+a+a = 0 for all a *Any Boolean ring is of characteristic 2 *Z is a ring of characteristic zero since no positive integer such that na = 0 for all a * is a ring of characteristic zero

* The characteristic of Q is zero *The characteristic of an integral domain D is either 0 or a prime number *The characteristic of any field is either 0 or a prime number POLYNOMIAL RINGS Let R be a ring. By the ring of polynomials in denoted by R[ ] we mean the expression where n is a non-negative integer and who coefficients , , . . are all Here R is a ring is just symbol not an element of R with usual methods of addicting and multiplying * Let R be a ring then R[ polynomial is a ring. * R[

is an integral domain iff R is the integral domain.

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*Degree of sum and product of two polynomials Let deg f( i) deg[f( deg[f( ii) deg[f( =m deg g( = max[m , n] when m m when m = n = deg f( 2 2 =n n

Note: If R is not an integral domain the above result (ii) is not true. In - degree 2 3 - degree 2 5 5 0 - degree 3 2

*Zero of a polynomial If f(x) is a polynomial over a field F and a (i) (ii) 4 has no zero over the field of reals 4 has zeros is said to be zero of f(x) if f(a) = 0

2 over the complex field

*Irreducible polynomials A polynomial p(x) is irreducible if when ever p(x) =a(x) b(x) then a(x) or b(x) has degree zero Hint : zero degree means constant not a linear factor. To show a polynomial irreducible we will show it has no linear factors. We all so use Eienstein criterion (rational) Example: i) 2 1 is reducible over Z since linear factors having degree one. ii) 1 is irreducible in Q[x]
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1 both are

iii) 1 factor in

for

iv) 3 is reducible over C since factors having degree one. v) 3 is irreducible over Q

in 1

since 2 3

2 3

( x -2 ) is a linear 3 both are linear

EISENSTAEIN CRITERION Let be polynomial with integer coefficients. but p Suppose there exists a prime number p such that , , . does not divide does not divide . is irreducible over Q. Example 4 clearly 3 , , 3 does not divided over 3 is a prime eisentaein criterion satisfied. 4 9 6 is irreducible over Q here 6 = -9 and 3 does not divide 0 more

VECTOR SPACES A non-empty set V is said to be a vector space over a field F if (i) (V, +) is an abelian group. (ii) For every There is defined an element (a) (b) (c) (d) 1 satisfying following conditions. , , ,

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Example: 1) R R is a vector space over R under the operations . (i) , vector space. (ii) (iii) F is a vector space over itself under the operations addition and multiplication of the field F. (iv) C is a vector space over the field R. (v) V = 0 is a vector space over any field F (vi) R is not a vector space over C. (R,+) is an abelian group . But (vii) Z over Q is not a vector space under usual + and (z, +) is an abelian group. But But = 5 and
,

is a

(viii) Q is not a vector space over R . Let Scalar from R be a irrational number Then the product of vector from Q and scalar need be in Q.

SUBSPACES Let V be a vector space over a field F. A non-empty subset W of V is called a subspace of V if W itself is a vector space over F under W operations of V. * Let V be a vector space over F. A non-empty subset W of V is a subspace iff u,v W and , => .

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Example: *W= axis , (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) SPAN OF A SET Let V be a vector space over F. Let S be a subset of V then L(s) is the set of all linear combinations of finite sets of elements. i.e. L(s) = of S. is called linear span need not be a subspace is subspace of V iff is a subspace of ,0, 0 is a subspace or W consists of all points on the x

* R is a subspace of R R * If be two subspace of v then

or

(i) L(s) is a subspace of vector space V. (ii) L(s) is the smallest subspace of V containing S. (iii) S L (s) (iv) L (S (v) S = L (S) + L (T) => L (S) L (T) a subset S such that

(vi) A vector space is said to be finite dimensional if L(S)= V

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LINEAR INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT A set , ,.. of n elements is called linearly independent if =0 .

Suppose there is some Example: (i) 1, 0,1 1,0,1 =0 =0 =0 Solving =0

0 then the set is called linearly dependent 1,1,1 =0 1,1,1 0,1,1 = 0 0,1,1 in

The set is Linearly independent.(ii) Any non-zero vector in vector space V is linearly indepence. 0 0 0

THEOREM ON LINEAR INDEPENDENCE * Any subset of a linearly independent set is linearly independent. *Any set containing a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent. *Theorem: , ,.. is a linearly dependent set iff there exists a vector such that is a linear combination of the preceeding vectors , , .. *Any set containing the zero vector is linearly dependent.
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BASIS : (i) A linearly independent subset S of a vector space V (ii) Which spans the whole space V DIMENSION: The number of elements in any basis of V is called the dimension of V. THEOREMS ON BASIS AND DIMENSION: a) Any two bases of a finite dimensional vector space V have the same number of elements. b) Let V be a finite dimensional vector space if A is a subspace then there exists another subspace such that V = A B c) If A and B subspaces of V the dim(A + B) = dim A + dim B dim (A d) If V = A B dim V = dim A + dim B e) Let V be a vector space of dimension n (i) any set of m vectors where m > n is linearly dependent (ii) any set of m vectors where m < n can not span V. g) S = , , .. is a basis for this is known as the standard basis. is called a basis of the vector space.

Examples : *C is a vector space over R with dimension 2 Reason : 1, * Reason : *dim 1 0 is a basis for C 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

is a vector space of dimension 4 over R

=n

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Reason:

* C C is a vector space over R with dimension 4 Reason : 1,0 ,0 0,1 0, is a basis

, ..

is a basis

*Vector space R over R is of dimension 1 Since 1 is a basis * R R over R ie Since 1,0 is of dimension 2 is a basis 1,1,1 3,0,0 3,4, 7 15 0,1 0,1,0 2,0,0 3,1,5 2

SOME MORE BASES FOR (i) 1,0,0 1,0,0 3,2,1 is a basis

Reason : L.I and this set spans V (ii) is not a basis it spans 3 2 is not a basisReason: This is L.D set 3 1 3 4 1 12 3 = -81 +72+9 = 0. , 0,0 only 1 5 = 7

Reason: This is L .I , but this does not span (iii) 3 7

1,0,0 1,1,0

20

21

is not a basis . Any set having less than 3 elements

Reason: This is L.I but it can not span . can not span (V) 1,0,0 1,1,0 1,1,1 0,1,0 Reason: This is linear dependent because (i) Dimension of

is not a basis

is 3 but this set contains 4 elements (m > n) 0,1,0 A vector is written as linear

(ii) This is L.D because 1,1,0 1,0,0 combination of proceeding vectors.

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Prepared by:Manavalan M.Sc.M.Phil.,B.Ed For Complete Set of TRB Materials Contact:9791349046