UNDER WATER COMMUNICATION

ABSTRACT
While wireless communication technology today has become part of our daily life, the idea of wireless undersea communications may still seem far-fetched. However, research has been active for over a decade on designing the methods for wireless information transmission underwater. Human knowledge and understanding of the worlds oceans, which constitute the major part of our planet, rests on our ability to collect information from remote undersea locations.

The major discoveries of the past decades, such as the remains of Titanic, or the hydro-thermal vents at bottom of Deep Ocean, were made using cabled submersibles. Although such systems remain indispensable if high-speed communication link is to exists between the remote end and the surface, it is natural to wonder what one could accomplish without the burden (and cost) of heavy cables.

Hence the motivation and interest in wireless underwater communications. Together with sensor technology and vehicular technology, wireless communications will enable new applications ranging from environmental monitoring to gathering of oceanographic data, marine archaeology, and search and rescue missions.

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1. INTRODUCTION Wireless Underground Communication Networks (WUCNs) constitute one of the promising application areas of the recently developed wireless networking techniques. The WUCNs consist of wireless devices that operate below the ground surface. These devices are either (i) Buried completely under dense soil or (ii) Placed within a bounded open underground space such as underground mines and road/subway tunnels. While wireless communication technology today has become part of our daily life, the idea of wireless undersea communications may still seem far-fetched. However, research has been active for over a decade on designing the methods for wireless information transmission underwater. Human knowledge and understanding of the worlds oceans, which constitute the major part of our planet, rests on our ability to collect information from remote undersea locations. The major discoveries of the past decades, such as the remains of Titanic, or the hydro-thermal vents at bottom of Deep Ocean, were made using cabled submersibles. Although such systems remain indispensable if high-speed communication link is to exists between the remote end and the surface, it is natural to wonder what one could accomplish without the burden (and cost) of heavy cables. 1.1 OBJECTIVE Our motivation and interest in wireless underwater communications, Together with sensor technology and vehicular technology, wireless communications will enable new applications ranging from environmental monitoring to gathering of oceanographic data, marine archaeology, and search and rescue missions. 1.2 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS This thesis is divided into six chapters. Chapter1 describes the introduction of under water communication and its need. Chapter2 describes the Wave propagation, Why Sound as a communication medium in UW-ASN, Traditional approaches for ocean bottom monitoring. Chapter3 describes under water networks, Centralized network topology, decentralized network topology and SONAR. Chapter4 gives the technologies used earlier and today. Chapter5 explains the advantages, disadvantages and applications. Chapter6 is the final conclusion and future scope and references.

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UNDER WATER ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION Underwater acoustic communication is a technique of sending and receiving message below water. There are several ways of employing such communication but the most common is using hydrophones. Under water communication is difficult due to factors like multi-path propagation, time variations of the channel, small available bandwidth and strong signal attenuation, especially over long ranges. In underwater communication there are low data rates compared to terrestrial communication, since underwater communication uses acoustic waves instead of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic transmission is more difficult in water. Acoustic transmission is better suited to water than air Speed of sound in water ~ 1500m/sec Speed of sound in air ~ 340m/sec The signals that are used to carry digital information through an underwater channel are not radio signals, as electro-magnetic waves propagate only over extremely short distances. Instead, acoustic waves are used, which can propagate over long distances. However, an underwater acoustic channel presents a communication system designer with many difficulties. The three distinguishing characteristics of this channel are frequency-dependent propagation loss, severe multipath, and low speed of sound propagation. None of these characteristics are nearly as pronounced in land-based radio channels, the fact that makes underwater wireless communication extremely difficult, and necessitates dedicated system design.

2.2 WAVE PROPAGATION

Fig. 2.1: Shallow water multipath propagation: in addition to the direct path, the signal propagates via reflections from the surface and bottom.

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Path loss that occurs in an acoustic channel over a distance d is given as A=dka(f)d, where k is the path loss exponent whose value is usually between 1 and 2, and a(f) is the absorption factor that depends on the frequency f. This dependence severely limits the available bandwidth: for example, at distances on the order of 100 km, the available bandwidth is only on the order of 1 kHz. At shorter distances, a larger bandwidth is available, but in practice it is limited by the transducer. Also in contrast to the radio systems, an acoustic signal is rarely narrowband, i.e., its bandwidth is not negligible with respect to the center frequency. Within this limited bandwidth, the signal is subject to multipath propagation, which is particularly pronounced on horizontal channels. In shallow water, multipath occurs due to signal reflection from the surface and bottom. In deep water, it occurs due to ray bending, i.e. the tendency of acoustic waves to travel along the axis of lowest sound speed. Figure 2 shows an ensemble of channel responses obtained in deep water. The multipath spread, measured along the delay axis, is on the order of 10 ms in this example. The channel response varies in time, and also changes if the receiver moves. Regardless of its origin, multipath propagation creates signal echoes, resulting in inter symbol interference in a digital communication system. While in a cellular radio system multipath spans a few symbol intervals, in an underwater acoustic channel it can spans few tens, or even hundreds of symbol intervals! To avoid the inter symbol interference, a guard time, of length at least equal to the multipath spread, must be inserted between successively transmitted symbols. However, this will reduce the overall symbol rate, which is already limited by the system bandwidth. To maximize the symbol rate, a receiver must be designed to counteract very long inter symbol interference. The speed of sound underwater varies with depth and also depends on the environment. Its nominal value is only 1500 m/s, and this fact has a twofold implication on the communication system design. First, it implies long signal delay, which severely reduces the efficiency of any communication protocol that is based on receiver feedback, or handshaking between the transmitter and receiver. The resulting latency is similar to that of a space communication system, although there it is a consequence of long distances traveled. Secondly, low speed of sound results in severe Doppler distortion in a mobile acoustic system. Namely, if the relative velocity between the transmitter and receiver is v, then a signal of frequency fc will be observed at the receiver as having frequency fc (1v/c). At the

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same time, a waveform of duration T will be observed at the receiver as having duration T (1v/c). Hence, Doppler shifting and spreading occur. For the velocity v on the order of few m/s, the factor v/c, which determines the severity of the Doppler distortion, can be several orders of magnitude greater than the one observed in a land-mobile radio system! To avoid this distortion, a noncoherent modulation/detection must be employed. Coherent modulation/detection offers a far better utilization of bandwidth, but the receiver must be designed to deal with extreme Doppler distortion. Summarizing the channel characteristics, one comes to the conclusion that an underwater acoustic link combines in itself the worst aspects of radio channels: poor quality of a landmobile link, and high latency of a space link. In addition, current technology offers limited transducer bandwidth (typically a few kHz, or few tens of kHz in a wideband system), halfduplex operation, and limited power supply of battery-operated instruments.

. Fig. 3: Multichannel adaptive decision-feedback Equalizer (DFE) is used for high-speed underwater acoustic communications. It supports any linear modulation format, such as M-ary PSK or M-ary QAM 2.3 SOUND AS A COMMUNICATION MEDIUM IN UW-ASN UW-ASN:: Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network Radio waves propagate at long distances through conductive sea water only at extra low frequencies (30-300 Hz), which require large antennae and high transmission power. Optical waves do not suffer from such high attenuation but are affected by scattering. More over transmission of optical signals requires high precision in pointing the narrow laser beam.

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2.4 TRADITIONAL APPROACHES FOR OCEAN BOTTOM MONITORING

Uses sensors to record data. Deploy underwater sensors to record data during the monitoring

mission, and then recover the instruments. This approach has the following disadvantages: Real time monitoring is not possible. No interaction is possible between onshore control systems and the monitoring instruments. If failures or misconfiguration occur, it may not be possible to detect them before the instruments are recovered. The amount of data that can be recorded during the monitoring mission by every sensor is limited by the capacity of the onboard storage devices (memories, hard disks, etc). Disadvantages: Real time monitoring is not possible. No interaction b/w onshore control systems and the monitoring instruments. failures or misconfiguration may occur Limited storage capacity

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3. UNDER WATER NETWORKS

3.1 CENTRALIZED NETWORK TOPOLOGY

With advances in acoustic modem technology, sensor technology and vehicular technology, ocean engineering today is moving towards integration of these components into autonomous underwater networks. While current applications include supervisory control of individual AUVs, and telemetry of oceanographic data from bottom-mounted instruments, the vision of future is that of a digital ocean in which integrated networks of instruments, sensors, robots and vehicles will operate together in a variety of underwater environments. Examples of emerging applications include fleets of AUVs deployed on collaborative search missions, and ad hoc deployable sensor networks for environmental monitoring.

Fig. 3.1: Centralized network topology 3.2 DECENTRALIZED NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Fig. 6: Decentralized network topology. Depending on the application, future underwater networks are likely to evolve in two directions: centralized and decentralized networks. The two types of topologies are illustrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6. In a centralized network, nodes communicate through a base station

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that covers one cell. Larger area is covered by more cells whose base stations are connected over a separate communications infrastructure. The base stations can be on the surface and communicate using radio links, as shown in the figure, or they can be on the bottom, connected by a cable. Alternatively, the base station can be movable as well. In a decentralized network, nodes communicate via peer-topeer, multi-hop transmission of data packets. The packets must be relayed to reach the destination, and there may be a designated end node to a surface gateway. Nodes may also form clusters for a more efficient utilization of communication channel. To accommodate multiple users within a selected network topology, the communication channel must be shared, i.e. access to the channel must be regulated. Methods for channel sharing are based on scheduling or on contention. Scheduling, or deterministic multiple-access, includes frequency, time and code-division multiple-access (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA) as well as a more elaborate technique of space-division multiple access (SDMA). Contention-based channel sharing does not rely on an a-priori division of channel resources; instead, all the nodes contend for the use of channel, i.e., they are allowed to transmit randomly at will, in the same frequency band and at the same time, but in doing so they must follow a protocol for medium-access control (MAC) to ensure that their information packets do not collide. All types of multiple-access are being considered for the underwater acoustic systems. Experimental systems today favor either polling, TDMA, or multiple-access collision avoidance (MACA) based on a hand-shaking contention procedure that requires an exchange of requests and clearances to send (RTS/CTS). Intelligent collision avoidance appears to be necessary in an underwater channel, where the simple principle of carrier sensing multiple access (CSMA) is severely compromised due to the long propagation delaythe fact that the channel is sensed as idle at some location does not guarantee that a data packet is not already in transmission at a remote location. One of the major aspects of the evolving underwater networks is the requirement for scalability. A method for channel sharing is scalable if it is equally applicable to any number of nodes in a network of given density. For example, a pure TDMA scheme is not scalable, as it rapidly looses efficiency on an underwater channel due to the increase in maximal propagation delay with the area of coverage. In order to make this otherwise appealing scheme scalable, it can be used locally, and combined with another technique for spatial reuse of channel resources. The resulting scheme is both scalable and efficient; however, it may require a sophisticated dynamic network management.
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In contrast, contention-based channel allocation offers simplicity of implementation, but its efficiency is limited by the channel latency. Hence, there is no single best approach to the deployment of an underwater network. Instead, selection of communication algorithms and network protocols is driven by the particular system requirements and

performance/complexity trade-offs.

Fig. deep-sea observatory.

Fig. deep-sea observatory.

Research today is active on all topics in underwater communication networks: from fundamental capacity analyses to the design of practical network protocols on all layers of the network architecture (including medium access and data link control, routing, transport control and application layers) as well as cross-layer network optimization. In addition to serving as stand-alone systems, underwater acoustic networks will find application in more complex, heterogeneous systems for ocean observation. Figure 7 shows the concept of a deep sea observatory. At the core of this system is an underwater cable that hosts a multitude of sensors and instruments, and provides high-speed connection to the surface. A wireless network, integrated into the overall structure, will provide a mobile extension, thus extending the reach of observation. While we have focused on acoustic wireless communications, it has to be noted that this will not be the only way of establishing wireless communication in the future underwater networks. Optical waves, and in particular those in the blue-green region, offer much higher throughput (Mbps) albeit over short distances (up to about 100 m). As such, they offer a wireless transmission capability that complements acoustic communication.

3.3 SONAR
SONAR Sound Navigation And Ranging
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Two types of technologies: Active SONAR, Passive SONAR Sonar (originally an acronym for Sound Navigation And Ranging) is a technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in Submarine navigation) to navigate, communicate with or detect other vessels. 1. Two types of technology share the name "sonar": 2. Active sonar is emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes. 3. passive sonar is essentially listening for the sound made by vessels 4. Sonar systems generally use highly directional beams of sound when searching for targets. In this way they are able to determine direction to the target, as well as the distance. The echoes heard in active sonar systems can also be very distinct. Experienced sonar technicians are often able to tell the difference between echoes produced by a submarine, a rock outcrop, a school of fish, or a whale.
5. Active SONAR uses a sound transmitter and a receiver

Principle:

Creates ping. Listens echo Active sonar uses a sound transmitter and a receiver. When the two are in the same place it is monostatic operation. When the transmitter and receiver are separated it is bistatic operation. When more transmitters (or more receivers) are used, again spatially separated, it is multistate operation. Most sonars are used monostatically with the same array often being used for transmission and reception Principle of Active SONAR Active sonar creates a pulse of sound, often called a "ping", and then listens for reflections using a sonar Projector consisting of a signal generator, power amplifier and electro-acoustic transducer/array. A beam former is usually employed to concentrate the acoustic power into a beam, which may be swept to cover the required search angles. To measure the distance to an object, the time from transmission of a pulse to reception is measured and converted into a range by knowing the speed of sound. To measure the bearing, several hydrophones are used, and the set measures the relative arrival time to each or with an array of hydrophones, by measuring the relative amplitude in beams formed through a
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process called beam forming. (echo) of the pulse. This pulse of sound is generally created electronically
Passive SONAR Passive sonar listens without transmitting.

Noise limitations Passive sonar listens without transmitting. It is often employed in military settings, although it is also used in science applications, e.g., detecting fish for presence/absence studies in various aquatic environments.. Passive sonar on vehicles is usually severely limited because of noise generated by the vehicle. For this reason, many submarines operate nuclear reactors that can be cooled without pumps, using silent convection, or fuel cells or batteries, which can also run silently.

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4. TECHNOLOGY IN USE
4.1 ACCOUSTIC MODEM Acoustic modem technology today offers two types of modulation/detection: frequency shift keying (FSK) with noncoherent detection and phase-shift keying (PSK) with coherent detection. FSK has traditionally been used for robust acoustic communications at low bit rates (typically on the order of 100 bps). To achieve bandwidth efficiency, i.e. to transmit at a bit rate greater than the available bandwidth, the information must be encoded into the phase or the amplitude of the signal, as it is done in PSK or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). For example, in a 4-PSK system, the information bits (0 and 1) are mapped into one of four possible symbols, 1j.

The symbol stream modulates the carrier, and the so-obtained signal is transmitted over the channel. To detect this type of signal on a multipath-distorted acoustic channel, a receiver must employ an equalizer whose task is to unravel the inter symbol interference. Since the channel response is not a-priori known (moreover, it is time-varying) the equalizer must learn the channel in order to invert its effect. A block diagram of an adaptive decision-feedback equalizer (DFE) is shown in Figure 3. In this configuration, multiple input signals, obtained from spatially diverse receiving hydrophones, can be used to enhance the system performance. The receiver parameters are optimized to minimize the mean squared error in the detected data stream. After the initial training period, during which a known symbol sequence is transmitted, the equalizer is adjusted adaptively, using the output symbol decisions. An integrated Doppler tracking algorithm enables the equalizer to operate in a mobile scenario.

This receiver structure has been used on various types of acoustic channels. Current achievements include transmission at bit rates on the order of one kbps over long ranges (10100 nautical miles) and several tens of kbps over short ranges (few km) as the highest rates reported to date. On a more unusual note, successful operation was also demonstrated over a basin scale (3000 km) at 10 bps, as well as over a short vertical channel at a bit rate in excess of 100 kbps.The multichannel DFE forms the basis of a high-speed acoustic modem implemented at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The modem, shown in Figure 4, is implemented in a fixed-point DSP, with a floating-point co-processor for high rate mode of operation. When active, it consumes about 3 W in receiving mode, and 10-50 W to transmit.
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The board measures 1.75 _ 5 in, and accommodates four input channels. The modem has successfully been

deployed in a number of trials, including autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) communications at 5 kbps. Fig. 4: The WHOI micro modem has dual mode of operation: low

4.2 VECTOR SENSOR

Vector sensor is capable of measuring important non-scalar components of the acoustic field such as the wave velocity, which cannot be obtained by a single scalar pressure sensor. They have been

mainly used for underwater target localization and SONAR applications

Earlier underwater acoustic communication systems have been relying on scalar sensors only, which measure the pressure of the acoustic field. Vector sensors measure the scalar and vector components of the acoustic field in a single point in space; therefore can serve as a compact multichannel receiver In general, there are two types of vector sensors: inertial and gradient. Inertial sensors truly measure the velocity or acceleration by responding to the acoustic medium motion, whereas gradient sensors employ a finite-difference approximation to estimate the gradients of the acoustic field such as velocity and acceleration. in fig.Vector sensor communications with three channels the pressure channel p, represented by a straight dashed line, and two pressure-equivalent velocity

channels pz and py, shown by curved dashed lines.

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In the example of vector sensor communications shown, there is one transmitter pressure transducer, shown by a black dot, whereas for reception we use a vector sensor, shown by a black square, which measures the pressure and the y and zcomponents of the velocity. This is a 13 single-input multiple-output (SIMO) system. With more pressure transmitters, one can have a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system also.

4.3 TYPICAL SUBMARINE CABLE SYSTEM

How Submarine Cables Work Modern submarine telecommunications cables rely on a property of pure glass fibers, whereby light is transmitted by internal reflection. Because the light signal loses strength en route, repeaters are installed along the cable to boost the signal New systems rely on optical amplifiers glass strands containing the element, erbium. Strands are spliced at intervals along a cable & then energized by lasers that cause erbium-doped fibers to boost optical signals

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Fig 3.3 Modern submarine cable

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4.4 LAYING AND MAINTAING CABLES Laying typically involves:

1. Selection of route 2. Assessment of potential impacts of cable lying on environment 3. Full survey of route & its final selection .Design cable to meet environmental conditions. 4. Laying of cable Notification of cable position. In some cases, a post-lay survey if repair or replacement needed, an operational plan may be required along with requirements outlined above.

Cable Burial
Cables typically buried 1-3.5m under the seabed (can extend to 10m) to protect from fishing & other activities Burial may extend from shore out to ~2000m water depth, which will protect submarine cables from the majority of trawl fisheries Burial may locally disrupt the seabed along a narrow path &form turbid water, whose extent relates to burial technique, seabed type & wave/current action . In the absence of cable-based studies, analysis of seabed disturbance by other activities suggests impacts short-lived (months) where waves/currents are active, but possibly longer-lived in deeper, less turbulent water Cable Protection Zones as Sanctuaries Cable protection zones may act as marine.Sanctuaries to improve biodiversity & fish stocks. An effective zone must contain habitats suitable for fish & other marine life, exist long enough for

ecosystems to develop, be policed to Prevent illegal Experiment to count fish to test if cable protection zone acts as a Marine fishing

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4.5 EFFECTS OF NATURAL HAZARDS 1. Katrina as a Category V hurricane, August, 2005. Such events affected cables by flooding coastal facilities, triggering submarine landslides, & forming strong, eroding currents/waves Courtesy: NASA. 2. Submarine cables are exposed to a range of natural hazards in all water depths. 3. In water depths less than ~ 1000m the main hazards are human activities; natural impacts cause <10% of cable damage. 4. In water depths more than ~1000 m, natural hazards dominate & include: Submarine earthquakes, fault lines & related landslides break or bury cables. 5. Density currents - break or bury. 6. Currents & waves - abrasion, stress & fatigue ~ Tsunami, storm surge & sea level rise - damage coastal Installations.

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5. UNDER WATER COMMUNICATION 5.1challenges

1. Battery Power is limited

2. Limited available bandwidth 3. Channel characteristics 4. UW sensors are prone to failures because of fouling, corrosion, etc 5. Mobility 6. The ocean can be as deep as 10 km Battery power is limited and usually batteries can not be recharged because solar energy cannot be exploited. The available bandwidth is severely limited. Channel characteristics, including long and variable propagation delays, multi-path and fading problems. High bit error rates. Underwater sensors are prone to failures because of fouling, corrosion, etc. A unique feature of underwater networks is that the environment is constantly mobile, naturally causing the node passive mobility. The ocean can be as deep as 10 km. 5.2 CABLES, SATELLITES ADVATAGES 1. High reliability, capacity & security 2. None of the delays present in satellite traffic 3. Cost-effective on major routes, hence rates cheaper than satellites 4. Submarine cables carry >95% of international voice & data traffic

Advantages of satellites
1. Suitable for disaster prone areas 2. Provides wide coverage for mobile subscribers 3. Suitable for linking isolated regions and small island nations into the international telecom network. 4. Satellites carry <5% of international voice & data traffic
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5.3 Applications of Underwater Communication

1. Seismic monitoring.

2. Pollution monitoring 3. Ocean currents monitoring 4. Equipment monitoring and control 5. Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV) 6. Environmental monitoring to gathering of oceanographic data 7. Marine archaeology 8. Search and rescue missions 9. Defense To make these applications viable, there is a need to enable underwater communications among underwater devices -> Wireless underwater networking. Use sound as the wireless communication medium. Pollution monitoring: The density or minerality of water is changed that the presence of pollution. Ocean current monitoring: the of the water is monitored

Disadvantages
1. Battery power is limited and usually batteries cannot be recharged also because solar energy cannot be exploited. 2. The available bandwidth is severely limited. 3. Channel characteristics including long and variable propagation delays 4. Multipath and fading problems. 5. High bit error rate.

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6. CONCLUSION
In this topic we overviewed the main challenges for efficient communication in under water acoustic sensor networks. We outlined the peculiarities of the under water channel with particular reference to networking solutions the ultimate objective of this topic is to encourage research efforts to lay down fundamental basics for the development of new advanced communication techniques for efficient under water communication and networking for enhanced ocean monitoring and exploration applications The aim of this is to build a acoustic communication This is not only the way for underwater communication By using optical waves which offers higher throughput (Mbps) over short distances (up to about 100 m)

Future scope
Future applications could enhance myriad industries, ranging from the offshore oil industry
to aquaculture to fishing industries, she noted. Additionally, pollution control, climate recording, ocean monitoring (for prediction of natural disturbances) and detection of objects on the ocean floor are other areas that could benefit from enhanced underwater communications.

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REFERENCES
To get more information and other stuff if you need to know refer the following links will help you in understanding concepts more clearly. www.redtacton.com www.wikipedia.com www.google.com www.howstuffworks.com

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