PILE FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGNSERIES IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Edited by 7. William Lambe Robert V. Whitman Professors of Civil Engineering ‘Massachusetts Institute of Technology BOOKS IN SERIES: Soil Testing for Engineers by T. William Lambe, 1951 Soil Mechanics by T. William Lambe and Robert V. Whitman, 1968 Soil Dynamics by Robert V. Whitman (in progress) Fundamencals of Soil Behavior by Jarnes K. Mitchell, 1976 Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock Mechanics by H. G. Poulos and E. H, Davis, 1974 Soil Mechanics, $1 Version by T. William Lambe and Robert V. Whitman, 1978 ‘The aim of this series isto present the modern concepts of soil engineering, which is the stence and technology of soils and their application to problems in civil engineering. ‘The word “Soil” is interpreted broadly to inctade all earth materials whose properties and behavior influence civil engineering construction Soil engineering is founded upon many basic disciplines: mechanics and dynamics; physical geology and engineering geology; clay mineralogy and colloidal chemistry; and mechanics of granular systems and fluid mechanies. Prin ciples from these basis disciplines are backed by experimen: tal evidence from laboratory and field investigations and from observations on actual structures. Judgment derived from experience and engineering economics are central to soil enginzering. The books if tis series are intended primarily for use in university courses, at both the undergraduate end graduate levels, The editors also expect that all of the books will serve as valuable reference material for practicing engineers. T. Wiliam Lambe and Robert V. WhitmanA ZDNet PILE FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN G. POULOS E. H. DAVIS The University of Syqpayses-n mireCopyright © 1980 All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Coad. Reproduction or tansation of any part of this work beysind that petmited by Sections 107 ana 108 of the 1976 United States Copy- Fight Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlav= ful. Requests for pexmission of further infesmation should be aildvessed ta the Permissions Department (BSP Sas PSeSeseSeseSesesesesesegEsesesasaS: bE Rt +e + At ARAM RET —O— Be Bo Ara a roe fe Skt ak oF RB 10TH BG his &# e seme A Bie kw RAH IOT HE GM Hie he Rem eRe FORIRTWIL : SALW M2261 3d Fada, SeSeSiaseseSenesesesatesasasaqasacasagaayPREFACE ‘This book deals with methods of analysis that may be use ful in design of pile foundations. Many excellent text books are concerned with the more practical aspects of pile foundations, such as the factors influencing the selection of | the type of pile, the techniques of installation, and practical details of construction and maintenance of piles. No attempt has been made to duplicate this type of inform. tion. The aims of the present book are to 1. Present a consistent theoretical approach to the predic: tion of pile deformation end load capacity 2. Present parametric solutions for a wide cange of cases, 3. Demonstrate how such solutions can be used for design purposes, 4. Review the applicability of these approaches to practi cal problems, In any theory, a certain amount of idealization is neces sary to obtain a tractable mathematical solution; this is especially so when dealing with problems involving sol. In dealing with the deformations of pile foundations i this book, we have generally considered the soll as an elastic material, with allowances made for pilesoil sip and soil yield where appropriate. Although real soils possess few, if any, of the attractive attributes of an ideal homogeneous isotropic elastic material, they nevertheless can often be treated as elastic over a limited range of stress, provided that the “elastic” parameters are determined for this stress range. When used in this manner, with due discretion and a measure of engineering judgment, elastc-based theory has hhad considerable success in predicting the deformation of both shallow and deep foundations. Although other simple soll models have also been successfully used for various aspects of pile analysis (For example, the theory of subgrade reaction as applied to laterally loaded piles), elastic theory provides a unified basis for the analysis of all types of foundation; it also makes possible identification of the Parameters that exercise a significant influence on pile performance. Since elastic theory allows consideration of stress transmission through a mass, it can be used to analyze the Interaction between two or more piles and, therefore, to examine the behavior of groups of piles. ‘The material contained in this book is organized as follows: 1. The behavior of piles under vertical loads (Chapters 2106) 2. The behavior of piles under lateral Toading (Chapters 7 and 8) and under combined vertical and lateral loading (Chapter) 3, The behavior of piled rafts (Chapter 10) 4, Piles subjected to vertical of lateral soil movements (Chapters 111013), 5. Miscellaneous topics such as pile buckling, dynamic loading, and pile load tests (Chapters 4 to 16) Although the text deals with a relatively wide range of topics, it is by no means exhaustive, Furthermore, since geotechnical analysis is advancing ata very rapid rate, there may well be cases in which the analytical techniques we describe may have been superseded by more versatile methods capable of modeling real soil behavior more realistically. Nevertheless, we feel that the techniques and solutions presented in this book can be usefully applied to ‘most practical problems and provide a basic series of results against which the results of more sophisticated analyses ray be checked, Some worked examples are given to illustrate the appli cation of the solutions to practical problems. Because units are by no means standardized as yet, some of the examples are worked in’SI units, some in British units, and a few in the Continental metric system, We thank the: many people who have conteibuted to this book and in particular Dr. N. S. Mattes, of the Elec: tricity Commission of New South Wales, who obtained a considerable number of the elastic solutions presented, Dr. J. R, Booker and Dr. P. T. Brown of the University of Sydney, who provided a great deal of assistance with various aspects of the theoretical analyses, Mr. P. J. N. ells, who provided valuable information on the subject of piles,wi PREFACE. to rock, and Dr. T.J. Wiesner, who obtsined some of the solutions presented in Chapter 10. The Civil Engineering Graduates Association of the University of Sydney gave financial support for the postgraduate .course on pile foundations that formed the basis of this book. Grateful acknowledgement is given to Professor J. W. Roderick, former Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, who made the facilities of the Department available to us, to C. J. Peiti, B. Crook, J. Kilpatrick, $.Picken,J. Knight and B, Rocke who undertook the typing and assembly of the ‘manuscript, and R, Brew and H. Papallo who prepared many of the diagrams. HG. Poulos EH. DavisCONTENTS 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 11 Introduction 1.2 Structural Approach 1.3 Basie Theory Required 13.1 Failure Theory 1.3.2 Blastic Theory 1.3.3 Changes in Soll Type 1.3.4 The Role of Idealization 14 Examples of Theoretical Pile Calculations 14.1 Vertically Loaded Foundations on Deep Clay 1.42 Vertically Loaded Foundations on Clay over Gravel 1.4.3 Foundations Subject to Rotation 2. EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES 2.1 Introduction 2.2. Effects of Pile Driving ia Clays 2.2.1 Influence on Soil Shear Strength and Pile Capacity 2.2.2 Pore Pressures Developed During Driving 2.2.3 Dissipation of Excess Pore Pressures 2.2.4 Displacements due to Driving 2.3. Effects of Pile Driving in Sands 23.1 Single Piles 23.2 Pile Groups 24 Bifects of Installing Bored Piles 24.4 Clay Soils 24.2 Sands 3 ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY OF PILES 3.1 Introduction 3.2. Ultimate Load Capacity of Single Piles 3.2.1 General Expression 3.22 Piles in Clay 3.2.3 Piles in Sand 33 Pile Groups 3.3.1 Pile Groups in Clay 10 B rf 4 1s 1s i 18 18 18 18 19 24 30 30 3.322 Pile Groups in Sand 34 Piles to Rock 34.1 Point Bearing Capacity 3.42 Pile Rock Adhesion 3. Use of In-Situ Tests 3.5.1 Static Cone Penetromeser 3.5.2 Standard Penetration Test 3.6 Special Types of Pile 3.6.1 Large Bored Piers 3.6.2 Under-Reamed Bored Piles 3.6.3 Screw Piles 3.7 Uplift Resistance 3.7.1 Singie Piles 3.7.2 Pile Groups 3.8 Load Capacity of Bent Piles 4 LOAD CAPACITY BY DYNAMIC METHODS. 4.1. Introduction 4.2 Pie Driving Formulas 4.2.1 Derivation of General Formula 4.2.2 Practical Driving Formulae 4.23 Realiability of Dynamic Formulae 4.3 Pile Driving Analysis by the Wave Equation 4.3.1 The Wave Equation 4.3.2 Smith’s Idealization 4333 Basic Equations 4.3.4 Values of Soil Parameters 43.5 The Effect of Set-Up" 44. Typical Solutions from Wave Equation Analysis 4.4.1, Resistance versus Set Curves 4.4. Pile Stresses 4.5. Reliability of Wave Equation 4.6 Pile Impedance 5 SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PILES 5.1 Introduction 5.2. Theoretical Methods of Analysis 5.2.1 Load Transfer Method 3s 38 38 40 41 4l 43 a 43 “4 44 45 45 48 49 32 2 33 33 54 s4 58 39 59 61 63 65 66 66 68 68 0 n n n nwil CONTENTS: 5.2.2 Analysis Based on Elastic Theory 5.2.3 Finite Element Analysis 5.2.4 Comparison between Solutions from Mindlin Approach and Finite Element Analysis 523. Theoretical Solutions for Settlement and Load Distribution 5.3.1 Stress and Load Distribution in Pile 5.3.2 Load Transferred 10 Pile Tip 5.333 Settlement of Pile 5.34 Settlements in a Soil Mass Resulting From a Pile 5.3.5 Immediate and Final Settlements 54 Simplified Method for Constructing Load- Settlement Curve to Failure 5.5. Determination of Soil Parameters SS.1 Laboratory Triaxial Tests 5.5.2 Pile Loading Tests 5.5.3. Empirical Correlations 5.5.4 Typical Values of K 5.6 Some Compsrisons between Observed and Prodicted Pile Settlements, 6 SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 6.1 Introduction 62. Analysis of Group Settlement 6.2.1 TwoPile Interaction Analysis 6.22 Interaction Factors 623 Analysis of General Groups 6.3. Theoretical Solutions for Freestanding Groups 6.3.1 Settlement of Floating and End- Beating Groups 63.2 Load Distribution in Groups with Rigid Cap 63.3 Groups with Equally Loaded Piles 6.38 Approximation of Group as 2 Single Pier 64 Settlement of Groups Caused by Compres- sible Underlying Strata 65 Preparation and Use of Design Charts 646 Surface Settlements Around a Group 6.7 Observed and Theoretical Group Behavior 62.1 Settlements 672 Load Distribution 6.73 Group Behavior Predicted feom Single Pile Test Results 7 ULTIMATE LATERAL RESISTANCE OF PILES 7.1 Introduction " 83 83 84 84 85 86 94 96 99 101 102 102 102 103 109 109 nie 110 no nv 120 120 126 128 129 132 133 135 135 135 139 141 143 143 7.2 Single Piles 7.2.1 Conventional Statical Approach 72.2 Broms’s Theory 7.2.3 Plane Strain Solutions 7.24 Piles with Significant Base Resis- tance 728 Socketed Piles 7.26 Piles Subjected to Inclined Loading 7.2.7 Battered Piles 73 Pile Groups 73.1 Groups of Vertical Piles 7.3.2 Groups Containing Battered Piles 74 Use of Pies to Increase Slope Stability 7.5. Methods for Increasing the Lateral Resis- tance of Piles 8 LOAD-DEFLECTION PREDICTION FOR LATERALLY LOADED PILES 8.1 Introduction 8.2. Subgrade-Reaction Analysis 82.1 Basic Theory 8.22 Solutions to Linear Theory 8.23 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction 8.2.4 Nonlinear Analysis 8.3. Elastic Analysis for Single Piles 8.3.1 Basic Theory 8.3.2 Solutions for Floating Pile in Uni form Soil 8.3.3 Soluvions for Floating Pile in Soil with Linearly Increasing Modulus 83.4 Solutions for Socketed Files 84 Analysis of Pile Groups 84.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Elastic Analysis of Interaction Between Two Piles 8.4.3 Solutions for TwoPile Interaction 8.444 Elastic Analysis of General Pile Groups 8.4.5 Elastic Solutions for Square Groups 8.4.6 Approximate Prediction of Load- Deflection Curve for a Group 8.5. Determination of Soit Modulus 8.6 Comparisons Between Theoretical and Ob- sesved Load Deflection Behavior 9 GENERAL ANALYSIS OF PILE GROUPS 9.1 Introduction 9.2. Simple Statical Analysis 9.3. Equivalent-Bent Method 9.3.1 Principle of Method \3 144 146 152 153 153 134 156 157 157 159 160 161 163 163 lea 64 166 m 175 7 7 182 192 199 209 209 au 216 217 21 223 2s 233 233 233, 24 2494 9s 10 PILE. 101 102 103 104 105 9.3.2 Determination of Equivalent Bent 9.3.3 Torsional Response of Piles Elastic Analysis of Pile Behavior 9.4.1. Analysis of Single Battered Pile 94.2. Analysis of Pile Groups 9.4.3 Parametric Studies of Pile Groups ‘Comparison of Methods of Pile-Group Analysis -RAFT SYSTEMS Intcoduetion Analysis Elastic Solutions for Square Groups 10.3.1 Influence of Poisson's Ratios ¥, 10.3.2 Influence of Pile Arrangement 10.3.3 Systems Containing Large Numbers of Piles 10.3.4 Effect of Pile Compressibiity and Raft Flexibility Simplified Analysis for Load Settlement Curve to Failure Other Analytical Approaches 11 NEGATIVE FRICTION ON END-BEARING PILES 11.1 Introduction na 113 na Field Studies on Instrumented Piles 11.2.1 Observed Downdrag Forces 11.2.2 Development of Downdrag with Time 1123 Effect of Pile Driving on Negative Friction 11.24 Methods of Reducing Negative Frievion Analysis of Downdrag Forces 113.1 Introduction 11.3.2 Analysis of Final Downdrag Forces 11.3.3 Development of Downdrag with Time 11.34 Modifications to Elastic Analysis ‘Theoretical Solutions for Single Pile 11.4.1 Final Maximum Downdrag Force 11.4.2 Rate of Development of Downdrag Force 11.43 Pile Settlement 114.4 Rate of Development of Settlement L145 Effect of Pile Crushing 235, 237 237 237 242 243 248 250 250 250 253 237 257 287 258 259 262 265 265 269 269 269, 269 269, 271 271 272 273 278 274 274 28 279 282 283 3 lus 116 CONTENTS ix 11.46 Pile in Soil Subjected to Variable Loads 11.4.7 Data on Pile Soil Parameters Pile Groups ‘Comparisons Between Measured and Pre- dicted Pile Behavior PILES IN SWELLING AND SHRINKING SOILS 121 122 123 124 125 126 12.7 Introduction Existing Methods of Analysis Analysis Based on Elstic Theory 123.1 Basic Analysis 123.2 Pile Soil Slip 12.3.3 Compression Failure of Pile 12.34 Tension Failure of Pile 123.5 Nonuniform Soil 12.36 Variation with Time ‘Typical Solutions for Pile Movement and Load 124.1 Purely Elastic Pile Soil Interface 12.4.2 Solutions Incorporating Pile Soil Slip 12.4.3 Effect of Tensile Failure of the Pile 124.4 Differences Between Piles in Swelling and Consolidating Soils Design Curves Application of Theoretical Analysis to Practical Problems 12.6.1 Prediction of Soil- Movement Profile 12.6.2 Pile-Soil Interface Strength 12.63 Soil Modulus Observations of Pile Behavior and Compati sons with Theory PILES IN SOIL UNDERGOING LATERAL MOVEMENT 13 32 133 134 Bs Introduction Analysis Typical Results 13.3.1 Effect of Relative Pile Flexibility 13.3.2 Effect of Boundary Condicions 13.3.3 Effect of Soil Movement Distribu. tion 13.34 Effect of Magnitude of Soil Moves ment 13.3.5 Effect of Pile Diameter 13.36 Effect of E, and p, Distributions Application of Analysis to Practical Problems Comparisons with Field Measurements 284 285 288 289 294 294 295 296 296 297 297 297 297 298, 298 298, 299 303 304 304 306 306 307 au 31 312 314 315 316 316 316 318 318, 319 319contents 14 BUCKLING OF SLENDER PILES 1s 4a 142 43 144 145 Introduction Fully Embedded Piles 14.2.1 Basie Subgrade Reaction Theory 14.2.2 Solutions for Constant ky 14.2.3 Solutions for Linearly Varying ky Partially Embedded Piles 14.3.1 Theoretical Approach 14.3.2 Solutions for Constant ky 14.3.3 Solutions for Linearly Varying ky Effect of Practical Complications 144.1 Axial Load Transfer Along Pile 14.42 ‘Initial Imperfections 14.43 Inelastic Buckling 144.4 Group Effects ‘Analysis Using Elastic Theory 14.5.1 Analysis 14.5.2 Typical Solutions 14.5.3 Comparison with Subgrade-Reaction Solutions DYNAMIC LOADS ON PILES 1s 152 Introduction Estimation of Dynamic Loads 15.2.1 Machine Loads 15.2.2 Wave Forces 15.2.3 Earthquake Forces Pile Response to Axial Loads 15.3.1 End-Bearing Piles 15.3.2 Floating Piles or End-Bearing Piles with Load Transfer 15.3.3 Pile Groups Pile Response to Lateral Loading 15.4.1 Equivalent Cantilever Systems 15.4.2 Finite Difference Analysis 15.4.3 Novak's Analysis 15.44 Pile Groups 336 336 337 338 338 338 339 339 341 345 347 348 348 351 351 155. Pile Response to Earthquake Forces 16 PILE LOAD TESTS 16.1. Introduction 16.2 Maintained Loading Test 162.1 Procedure 16.2.2 Interpretation of Load Tests 16.3 Constant-Rate-of Penetration Test 164 Method of Equilibrium 16.5. Sources of Error in Settlément Measure- ‘ments in Pile Load Tests 16.5.1 Errors Resulting from Use of Re. ference Beam 16.5.2 Errors Resulting from Jacking ‘Against Anchor Piles 16.5.3 Enrots Resulting from Jacking Against Ground Anchors 16.6. Lateral Load Tests 16.7. Torsional Testing APPENDIX A. INTEGRATION OF MINDLIN'S EQUATIONS FOR PILE SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX B ELASTIC EQUATIONS USED FOR LATERALLY-LOADED PILE ANALYSIS REFERENCES AUTHOR INDEX SUBJECT INDEX 353 354 354 355 355 356 358. 358 359 359 360 363 365 365 366 369 a7 383 389PILE FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGNGENERAL PRINCIPLES 1.1 INTROD TION ‘The use of pills is man’s oldest method of overcoming the difficulties of founding on soft soils, Although it dates back to prehistoric fake villages, until the late nineteenth cen: tury, the design of pile foundations was based entirely on experience, or even divine providence. Modern literature on piles can be said to date from the publication of Piles and Pile Driving, edited by Wellington of the Engineering News (later to become the Engineering News-Record) in 1893 in whick che widely known Engineering News pile-driving formula was proposed. Since this frst atiempt ata theoret: ical assessment of the capacity of a pie, a great volume of field experience and empirical data on the performance of pile foundations has been published. In recent years, the increasing demang on the foundation engineer to predict reliably the behavior of his pile designs has stimulated more-sophisticated theoretical research into the interaction between a pile or piles and the embedding soil, so that a Targe volume of empirical knowledge is now balanced by a comparable theoretical understanding This balance between empicicism and theory is a com- ‘mon feature of progress in many engineering fields, Any engineering design or solution to a practical problem can bbe imperfect in two ways. It can be imperfect because it is inadequate: that is, parts of the structure fail or deform excessively; in the present context, the design involws too few, too-slender, or too-short piles, But it can also be imperfect because it is more than adequate (too many, oolong, or too-substantial piles) and therefore is an excessively costly design, Design based on empiricism alone tends to focus attention on the former, because recorded experience gerierally only distinguishes between unsatis: factory and trouble-free pecformance and rarely between economical and uneconomical design. Only by under- standing the behavior of the engineering structure in an analytical as well as empirical sense can engineers reason- ably expect to achieve designs that are neither inadequate inor overadequate. In other words, to obtain the full benefit of experience of actual engineering behavior, it is important (o fiave a sound theoretical understanding of the problem. OF course, it is equally important that engineering theory should be based initially on oxperience and extended or ‘modified in the light of further experience, 1.2 STRUCTURAL APPROACH It is only too convenient to divide the design of major buildings into two components: the design of the structure and the design of the foundations. The structure for its own2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES reasons alone i assumed to produce certain column loads, and tie foundations are merely required to carry these predete mined loads. In reality, for complicated structures, the load: on the foundations determine their movernent, but this movement affeots the loads imposed by the struc: ture; thete is inevitably, iteration between structure and foundation. tn fact, the whole complex of structural frame, foundation components (footings, piles, pile caps, raft, etc. and soll or rock forming the founding material, together comprise one interacting structural system, The interaction between a pile and its embedding soil, and that between one pile and another pile, provide subsets of the lager set of all interacting structural components. If an overall structural approach is to be successful, we need to know much more about a particular pile than that it can be classified as, say, a 50-ton pile, We need to know its load-settlement behavior up 0 failure, possibly its behavior under lateral load and moment, and how its behavior is modified by adjacent piles. This is analogous to saying that we need the complete load-deformation characteristics of beams and columns, not just their load capacities, before we can analyze complete. strvctural frameworks. Most of this book is concerned with bringing the ana- lytical treatment of the losd-deformation and the failure behavior of pile foundation systems to the same level of sophistication as similar analytical treatments available for systems of structural frames. With this achieved, it is a relatively simple matter with modem computer programs to combine the structural and foundation systems into ‘one—but that matter is outside the scope of this book. 1.3 BASIC THEORY REQUIRED Piles embeded in soil provide a reinforcement to the soil, increasing its load capacity and modifying its deformation ‘behavior in much the same way as the steel reinforces the concrete in reinforced ot prestressed concrete members, Unfortunately, although a sufficiently accurate analysis of the effects of reinforcement in concrete members can usually be obtained by adaptation of the simple theory of bending, the extended-continuum nature of the emived- ding soil around piles makes the corresponding analysis of the reinforcement effect of piles much more difficult 13.1 Failure Theory In the present state of knowledge, it is generally only possible to consider failure as something that ogca7s mainly at the interface between the sides of the pile and the soil, ignoring the detalls of failure within the sol, although for the pile base, ordinary bearing-capacity theories may be applicable. Thus for vertical failure, the shear stress at the shaft-soil interface attains a limiting value (possibly varying with depth and soil type), and for horizontal failure result ing from lateral load or moment, the normal stress at the interface attains a limiting value (again, possibly varying with depth). In such a simplified approach, any reduction in failure load for a particular pile because of the presence of a nearby pile cannot be taken into account, except that the failure load for a group of closely spaced piles ‘can sometimes be calculated from bearing-capacity theory for buried footings on the assumption that the piles and soil between them act as one solid block. This load can be taken as the answer if itis less than the um of the failure loads for the piles, calculated individually, 13.2 Elastic Theory Soil and rock are not ideal elastic swaterials in that stress and strain afe not linearly related, strains are not fully recoverable on reduction In stress, and strains are not independent of time, However, at east it can be said that strains in soil increase as styesses increase. Furthermore, the assumption of anything mote complicated than 4 linearly elastic material for the soil in the pile-soil contin- tuum situation would generally Jead to unduly complicated theory lacking useful generality. The use of linear elastic theory is therefore expedient and should be sufficiently accurate for engineering purposes, provided that elastic “constants” are employed that are appropriate to the patticular problem. That is, they have either been back- figured from field tests on piles in similar situations, or determined from laboratory tests employing stress changes similar to the average changes in the soil mass in the partic lar case. ‘The basic elastic sesponse of the soil from which the solutions for elastic piles in elastic soil can be derived is given by Mindlin’s set of equations for the stresses and displacements throughout an elastic half-space resulting from horizontal or vertical point load applied at a point beneath the surface, As will be explained in subsequent chapters, this basic response can be integrated to give the pile soil interface stresses in such a way that the displace- ments of the pile and soil are compatible, Modifications to take account of failure at some parts of the interface are then relatively easy to make. Alternatively, the elastic response can be assumed to be that of a series of unconnected springs, that is, a Winkler medium or the subgrade reaction assumption, In spite of what is said by some of the protagonists of this approach, it most Gundamentally be inferior to the elastic continuum approach of the Mindlin equations, since it ignores thevery real interconnection among elements throughout the soil mass. However, it does have the advantages of com. putational simplicity and perhaps moreeady adaptation to complications such as change in soil type. On the other hand, it can never take into account the important matter of interaction between adjacent pies, 1.3.3 Changes in Soil Type Appropriate idealization of actual subsurfate conditions frequently involves consideration of one or more distinct layers of material of different properties. Piles in soft clay are often driven to a stiffer stratum of sand, which may in turn overlie a different clay before encountering bedrock, Both the failure theory and the deformation theory should therefore be capable of coping with such changes in properties from layer to layer. The modification cof the failure theory for this matter presents litle diff culty, but the modification of the deformation theory may require a number of simplifying assumptions. 1.34 The Role of Idealization Engineering theory can only give the behavior in an ideal situation, It must start from assumptions with regard to the properties of the materials and their disposition. In complicated problems such as that of pile behavior, the engineering theory itself is often not fully rigorous, since approximations have to be made to obtain numerical answers even for the ideal situation. Thus, there is a judge: ment to make about the extent to which a particular set of numerical answers is an accurate enough answer to the ideal problem. This judgement is largely the job of the research engineer. There is also a judgement to be made on the practical side, of the accuracy with which the idealized situation fits the real situation, This judgement is largely the job of the practicing engineer. It is important that the difference becween these judgements should be recognized and that they should never be made as one. For example, the fact that predicted behavior is not verified by subse- quent observation can mean either that the prediction was based on inaccurate theory, or that it was based on an ‘unrealistic idealization, or even both, 1.4 EXAMPLES OF THEORETICAL PILE CALCULATIONS Asa foretaste of the types of prediction possible from the theory to be given in subsequent chapters, the results of caleulations are given for differentexample pile founda tions, and for comparison, a surface pad footing, GENERAL PRINCIPLES 3 Working Loods ene [tours |2towns | aeones | a Le! | eacare J fseo —_Shrs%0 1500 eee a Js coset | Ey 700K" 78 Ee seoket | Vsoa uu Cores foctng CS) gee re le FIGURE L.1 Example 1. Foundations or deep cay 14.1 Ver lly Loaded Foundations on Deep Clay The’ foundations considered are shown in Fig. 1.1. All carry the same load and have the same factor of safety TABLE 1.1 BEHAVIOR OF EXAMPLE FOUNDATIONS ON DEEP CLAY bea Pad Single Pile* 4Fite Fxample Tooting Pile pad Group Factor of Sufeny 222 tof Pad or cap 100 nM Shaft sw 8S « Pile base Boot 3 Percent of Pad or eap 100) seers working Shaft 2 38 Toad taken Pile base g 2 2 by Settlements Immediate 09 in? 231m. 08m at Percent of OR 36 OF working immed. resulting load fom yield Contolidation —4.2in. OL ip, Oj. 0.2m Total final 53in, 1.0in 27in_ 1.0%n, 6 See Fig. 1 Elastic shortening of ple as 9 columo = 0,04 in. © sti shortening f pile groupas columns = 0.11 in