Basic Electronic Devices and Their Application

E4802/Unit 1

UNIT 1

BASIC ELECTRONIC THEIR APPLICATION

DEVICES

AND

OBJECTIVES

General Objective: Explain the operation and use of basic electronic devices Specific Objectives: At the end of this chapter, you should be able to 1.1 Explain the operation and use of a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). 1.1.1 Explain the physical structure of SCR. 1.1.2 Draw the symbol for SCR and identifying the three terminals of an SCR. 1.1.3 Explain the operation of SCR during forward bias and reverse bias conditions. 1.1.4 Draw and label the static characteristic curve for an SCR. 1.1.5 Explain the meaning of Regenerative Action for an SCR. 1.1.6 Define the terms Break over Voltage, Latching Current, Holding Current and Reverse Breakdown Voltage. 1.1.7 Explain the difference between trigger angle and conduction angle in the phase control usage. 1.1.8 State the advantages and disadvantages of SCR compared to Magnetic Contactors.

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Basic Electronic Devices and Their Application

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INPUT

1.0 Introduction

1. Electrical Engineering field may be divided into three areas: Electronics, Power, and Control1. 2. Basically, the Electronics field is more on the study of semiconductor devices and circuits in processing the lower power levels information. While the Power field deals with both the rotating and static equipments for the generation, transmission and distribution system, and the Control field deals with the stability and response characteristics of closed loop systems using feedback on either a continuous or sampled-data basis. 3. On the other hand, Power Electronics deals with the use of electronics for the control and conversion of large amounts electrical power*. The design of power electronics equipment involves interactions between the source and the load and utilises small signal electronic control circuit as well as power semiconductor devices. 4. And the widely utilized power semiconductor devices is the thyristor family Silicone controlled rectifier (SCR), Triode for alternating current (TRIAC), Diode for alternating Current (DIAC), Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) and Programmable unijunction transistor (PUT)2.

1 2

Santhosh,C. and Shanthi,M. (2007). Power Electronics. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia. ibs Wikipedia. (2010). Thyristor, Retrieved on 21st June 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor

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5. Apart from the thyristor family, there are also other families that are made to be the signal control devices such as Field Effect Transistor (FET) family Junction FET (JFET) and Metal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET), Photo family Photo transistor, Photo thyristor and Photo diode; and there also individual devices that are opt for the challenge such as the Optocoupler, Zener diode, Operational amplifier (OP-AMP).

* The examples of involving a controlling and conversioning large amounts electrical power can be seen in a AC and DC speed control motor, Lighting controls, AC static circuit

breaker, DC static circuit breaker, Variable voltage converter, and Variable frequency inverter.

1.1 Silicone Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

1. Silicone Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a solid state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and P* type material which happens to be the most distinctive criteria of a thyristor family3. The SCR can be identified as seen in Figure 1. In a glimpse, an SCR can be mistaken for a transistor. This can be further explained later on after you have understood the material construction of an SCR. 2. SCR has three terminals Gate (G), Anode (A) and Cathode (C) as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 shows the material construction alongside with SCR symbols. 3. SCR can also be constructed through a PNP and NPN transistor connected back to back as shown in Figure 3 as this type of connection can also creates a PNPN material (SCR) and this explained the similarities with a transistor component.

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3

Wikipedia. (2010). Thyristor, Retrieved on 21st June 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyristor

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Basic Electronic Devices and Their Application

*P type material is a semiconductor that has more holes than electrons as its free charge carriers4, for example silicone (Si) (four covalent bonds) + gallium (Ga) boron (three covalent bonds) = seven covalent bonds material with one hole 5 (refer Figure 4). And to a P-type material this hole has to outnumber the electrons thus more gallium

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should be added to the silicone. Vice versa process is implemented in getting an N type material.

Cathode Gate

Anode

Figure 1: Silicone Controlled Rectifier

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4

Wikipedia. (2010). P-type Semiconductor, Retrieved on 18th November 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDziekan,M. (2009). The Citizen Scientist, Retrieved on 19th November 2010 from

type_semiconductor
5

http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues_2009/2009-01-02/feature1/index.html.

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Figure 2: SCR symbol (right) and SCR constructions (left)

Anode

Gate

Cathode

Figure 3: A PNP and NPN transistor can create SCR2

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Figure 4: A silicon crystal doped with an impurity atom of gallium5

4. As the name implies, SCR can rectified an Alternating Current (AC) Voltage to a Direct Current (DC) Voltage if certain rules are fulfilled. 5. Among the rules are6 (refer to Figure 5) a. Positive supply from the AC voltage is connected to the SCRs Anode terminal. b. Negative supply from the same supply voltage is connected to the SCRs Cathode terminal. c. A positive pulse generator is connected to the SCR Gate terminal.

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Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education

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Basic Electronic Devices and Their Application

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Figure 5: SCR circuit configuration6

6. After these rules are met, you can experiment with the circuit and obtained few SCRs operation modes. The modes can be categorized as6

a. Forward Blocking Mode can be obtained during the Forward break over Voltage (VFBO) determination This voltage is the forward anode voltage at which SCR switches ON and begins to conduct, when gate current is zero (the gate has not yet be triggered By VGG). SCR is in the Forward Blocking Mode when the forward anode voltage (VA) is less than VFBO and small forward leakage current flows through SCR. Figure 6 shows the VFBO concept structure.

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Figure 6: VFBO concept structure

b. Forward Conducting Mode can be obtained once the gate terminal was triggered hence taking over the controlled of the value for the forward break over voltage and the forward bias level at which the SCR is turned ON. The higher the value of the gate current, the lower the anode voltage requires to turn SCR ON. Once the SCR is turned ON, gate loses control and its removal does not affect the conduction of the SCR. The anode voltage and the external load then determine the anode current, solely. Figure 7 shows the Ig concept structure.

Figure 7: Ig concept structure

c. Latching Current (IL) is said to be the value of the forward anode current (IA) requires in turning the SCR ON and if that forward anode current is less than the latching current the SCR shall remains OFF.

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Basic Electronic Devices and Their Application

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Figure 8: Latching Current concept structure

d. Once the SCR has been ON through the value of Latching Current, it need to be maintained ON through a current namely Holding Current. Holding Current (IH) is the minimum forward anode current required to be maintained to keep the SCR ON, once it was triggered. And if during the conduction of the SCR, the anode current (IA) falls below the level, it will automatically turns OFF.

Figure 9: Holding Current concept structure

e. Reverse Blocking Mode can be obtained if the polarities of the supply voltage were applied in the reverse connection from previous forcing the SCR to block any current that wants to pass through it. By increasing that voltage little by little, there will be small reverse leakage current flows through the SCR till it reached its limit of blocking the reverse voltage and breakdown. This limit is called reverse breakdown voltage.

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Basic Electronic Devices and Their Application

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7. These modes if were plotted together in the same graph, it will looked like Figure 107. This kind of graph is known as the V-I static characteristic of the SCR.

Figure 10: SCR V-I static characteristic7

8. And if you remember that in the beginning of our discussion, there was a mention about the possibility of constructing an SCR from a PNP and NPN transistor. Despite that, this does not alter the shape of the SCR V-I static characteristic as the original terminal (base, collector and emitter) has now been modified to accommodate the requirement in being an anode, cathode and gate.

Bright Hub. (2010). VI Characteristic, Retrieved on 21st November 2010 from

http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/electrical/articles/58051.aspx?image=34602

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Figure 11: Regenerative Action by two transistor

9. Thus, the emitter of both the PNP and NPN transistor are now the Anode and Cathode of the SCR, respectively, while the connection between the PNP collector and the NPN base is now the Gate terminal. 10. By referring to Figure 118, you can see the new labels to the transistors. 11. If these transistors were made to operate, the collector of Q2 drives the base of Q1, while the collector of Q1 feeds back to the base of Q2. 1 is the current gain of Q1, and 2 is the current gain of Q2. The gain of this positive feedback loop is their product, 1 times 2. 12. When the product is less than one, the circuit is stable; if the product is greater than unity, the circuit is regenerative. 13. And when a small negative current is applied to Gate terminal will bias the NPN transistor into cut off, and the loop gain is less than unity. Under these conditions, the only current that can exist between output terminals Anode and Cathode is a very small cut off collector current of the two transistors. For this reason the impedance between A and C is very high and the SCR is OFF.

Electrical Engineering Training Series. (2009). SCR Structure, Retrieved on 21 st June 2010 from

http://www.tpub.com/neets/book7/26d.htm

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14. But, when a positive current is applied to Gate terminal, transistor Q2 is biased into conduction, causing its collector current to rise. Since the current gain of Q2 increases with increased collector current, a point (called the break over point) is reached where the loop gain equals unity and the circuit becomes regenerative. 15. At this point, collector current of the two transistors rapidly increases to a value limited only by the external circuit. And both the transistors are driven into saturation, and the impedance between A and C is very low; the SCR is OFF. 16. The positive current applied to Gate terminal, which served to trigger the self-regenerative action, is no longer required since the collector of PNP transistor Q1 now supplies more than enough current to drive Q2. The circuit will remain ON until it is turned OFF by a reduction in the collector current to a value below that necessary to maintain conduction. (Similar as you reduce the forward anode current below the value of the holding current). 17. By examining the graph, you discovered that the SCR can be turned ON by either breaking its forward voltage limit or by giving its Gate terminal a short positive pulse. By giving the Gate terminal a pulse, you had shortened the time for the SCR to be switched ON. But what the graph failed to illustrate was what kind of pulse has to be given to that Gate terminal. 18. The kind of pulse that can be given to the Gate terminal are either from a DC gate signal triggering as seen in Figure 5, an AC gate signal triggering (Figure 129) or a Pulsed gate signal triggering (Figure 1310).
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Jojo. (2009). SCR control circuit, Retrieved on 21 st November 2010 from http://www.circuitstoday.com/scr-control-

circuits

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Figure 12: AC gate signal triggering9

Figure 13: Pulsed gate signal triggering10

19. If the Gate was triggered from a DC signal, the DC supply should be properly connected between the Gate and the Cathode. 20. By referring to Figure 5, you can see that the Gate received a positive supply from the DC voltage while the negative was connected to Cathode as is why, you can understand by linking that fact to the material construction of the Gate and Cathode which is from a P-type material and N-type material, respectively (Figure 2).

10

Kuphaldt, T.R. (2003). Lessons in Electric Circuits, Retrieved on 21st November 2010 from

http://www.faqs.org/docs/electric/Semi/SEMI_7.html

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21. But the drawback of this method is that the gates signal has to be continuously applied resulting in increase in internal power dissipation and there is no isolation of gatecontrol circuit from the main power circuit. 22. While, if the Gate was triggered from an AC input (Figure 12), the gate-to-cathode voltage is obtained from a phase-shifted AC voltage derived from the main supply. 23. The main advantage of this method is that proper isolation of power and control circuits can be provided. The firing angle control is obtained very conveniently by changing the phase angle of the control signal. 24. However, the gate drive is maintained for one half-cycle after the device is turned ON and a reverse voltage is applied between the Gate and the Cathode during the negative half-cycle. 25. And in Figure 13, the Gate was triggered from a single pulse appearing periodically or in a sequence of high frequency pulses. A pulse transformer is used for isolation10 seen here in Figure 14. The gate losses are very much reduced since the triggering is discontinuous.

Figure 14: A pulse transformer providing isolation to the Gate terminal10

26. The end results of these different types of Gate triggering methods and if were made to compare were not that much in difference.

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27. For example in Figure 1511, the gate was triggered from DC gate signal while in Figure 1612 was the result from an AC gate signal triggering. And by comparing these two figures with Figure 13, you can see that in terms of the waveform shape it is more or less the same.

Figure 15: The output waveform from a DC gate signal triggering11

Figure 16: The output waveform from an AC gate signal triggering12

11

Joint Apprenticeship Training Committee. (2010). Power Supply Rectification and Control Circuits, Retrived on 21st Hobby Projects Electronic Circuits Tutorials & Videos. (2010). Thyrostor, Diac and Triac Electronic Tutorial: Phase

November 2010 from http://www.ibewlocal625jatc.ca/technical/power.html

12

Triggering The Thyristor Tutorial, Retrived on 21 st November 2010 from http://www.hobbyprojects.com/thyristor_triac_and_diac/phase_triggering_the_thyristor.html

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28. But what important is when or at what phase the SCR was triggered because this in a way influenced the value of the loads power being delivered as seen in Figure 1713. By delaying the triggering phase or sometimes being called as triggering angle will cause the conduction phase (or conduction angle) be only half (50%) or one-fourth (25%) from loads full capacity. 29. However, the delayed in triggering the phase is sometimes necessary for example in controlling a bulk of dimmers in stage lighting, or in welding power supplies where it is used to maintain a constant output current or voltage14.

Figure 17: Triggering Points for various power output13

13

Powtran Technology Co. (2009). DC Drives Principles of operation, Retrieved on 21st November 2010 from Wikipedia. (2010). Silicone Controlled Rectifier, Retrieved on 21st June 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicone-

http://www.powtran.net/faq.asp?Page=3
14

controlled_rectifier

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30. By analyzing the previous discussion, you will come up with a conclusion that this SCR operates more or less like a switch, an electronic switch to be exact. And as a switch, it should be able to be turn OFF after being turned ON. 31. To turn OFF an electronic switch such as the SCR it is not as easy as shutting down the supply. Shutting down the supply means that you have permanently stops the machine and halts any ongoing operation, and that is not the intention of turning OFF the SCR. 32. So how can you turn OFF the electronic switch but not the machine? Turning OFF the SCR is much easier than you think. Remember how you turned ON the SCR its either by breaking the SCRs forward voltage or giving a pulse to the Gate and a certain value of forward anode current (IA) must be given in maintaining the SCR operation. 33. So, in short in turning OFF the SCR you can simply make IA less than the value of the holding current (IA < IH) by shunting the SCR with anode device or you can applied a reverse voltage across the anode-cathode circuit. But, naturally when an AC supply is used as the main supply voltage to that particular machine, IA will goes through a natural zero value whenever the cycle went from positive to negative15. This action is known as natural commutation. 34. But then again, why goes to all the fuss in utilizing an electronic switch if a mechanical switch can do the same function as the electronic switch? 35. SCR is made with voltage ratings of up to 7.5kV and current ratings up to 3kA per device. Some of the larger ones can take over 50kA in single-pulse operation14. 36. SCR is used in power switching, phase control, chopper, battery chargers and inverter circuits. Industrially it is applied to produce variable DC voltages for motors (from a few to

15

Sen, P.C. (2008). Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics. Second Edition. Wiley India Edition.

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several thousand HP) from AC line voltage14. Figure 18 charts out the SCR applications in a more convenient way.

Figure 18: SCR Applications6

37. Thus, by linking up the list of the SCR applications with the harsh environment requirement in which the SCR was installed, you can figure out why it was chosen at the first place rather than any mechanical switch (such as relay). 38. If you carefully looked at the list of the SCR applications, you can see that it mostly need to switch ON and OFF small or large amounts of power, so it needs to perform this function successfully unless it has moving parts that wear out or require replacing. 39. SCR can often replaced much slower and larger mechanical switches as it is an extremely fast switch. In 1 second, the SCR can be switched ON and OFF 25,000 times. It takes just microseconds for it to turn ON and OFF. 40. Furthermore, nowadays most devices operate on pulses of power (AC voltage is a special form of alternating positive and negative pulse) it can be used readily in control application. Motor

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speed controllers, inverters, remote switching units, controlled rectifier, circuit overload protectors, latching relays computer logic circuits all use SCR. 41. It can also provide fast response and high resolution as well as the ability to limit current and regulate load voltage, current or power to all that applications. 42. By that, in terms of its reliability is quite high as there are no moving parts to wear out. Simply keeping it clean and cool provides users with many years of reliable service. In other words, no moving parts means low maintenance requirement. 43. In short, both the SCR and Magnetic Contactor can be compared in the same table as shown in Figure 18. and

Types Current

SCR Do not need high current to operate the circuit Faster to on the device Small Low Low Long time Current flow one direction only Can protect complex circuit

Magnetic Contractor need high current to operate the circuit Take time to induce the loop before on the device. Big High High Short Time Can flow more than one direction Only protect simple circuit

Time Size Cost Voltage Drop Performance Direction Protection

Figure 19: SCR versus Magnetic Contactor

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Exercise:

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1. Draw the SCR material (structure) construction and its symbol. 2. State the requirements in switching ON and OFF the SCR. (July 2006, Jan 2007, July 2007, Jan 2008, July 2008, July

2009, Jan 2010, July 2010)

3. With the help of an equivalent circuit figure, explain the regenerative action of an SCR. (Jan 2007, July 2008, July 2009, Jan 2010) 4. Draw the SCRs transistor equivalent circuit and explain its operation. (Jan 2008) 5. What is Forward break over voltage? 6. What is Reverse break over voltage? 7. Differentiate between holding and latching current. 8. What are the working modes of an SCR? 9. Draw the V-I characteristics of SCR. 10. What happens when gate drive is applied? 11. Is gate signal necessary during reverse biased? 12. What type of triggering is used in SCR? 13. What are the advantages of SCR? 14. What is the disadvantage of an SCR? 15. What are SCR applications? (July 2008)

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