Semiconductors This chapter introduces devices that are made from materials that are neither conductors nor

insulators. These semiconductor materials form the basis of diodes, thyristors, triacs, transistors and integrated circuits. We start this chapter with a brief introduction (4) to the principles of semiconductors before going on to examine the characteristics (6) of each of the most common types of semiconductor. In chapter 1 we described the simplified structure of an atom and showed (10) that it contains both negative charge carriers (electrons) and positive charge carriers (protons). Each electron carries a single unit (1) of negative electric charge while each proton exhibits a single unit of positive charge. Since atoms normally contain an equal number (2) of electrons and protons, the net charge present will be zero. For example, if an atom has eleven electrons, it will also contain eleven protons. The end result is (7) that the negative charge of the electrons will be exactly balanced by the positive charge of the protons. Electrons are in constant motion as they orbit around the nucleus of the atom. Electron orbits are organized into shells. The maximum number (8) of electrons present in the first shell is 2, in the second shell 8, and in the third, fourth and fifth shells it is 18, 32 and 50, respectively. In electronics, only the electron shell furthermost (9) from the nucleus of an atom is important. lt is important to note that the movement of electrons only involves those present in the outer valence shell. lf the valence shell contains the maximum number of electrons possible (5) the electrons are rigidly bonded ] together and the material has the properties of an insulator. lf, however, the valence shell does not have its full complement of electrons, (3) the electrons can be easily loosened from their orbital bonds, and the material has the properties associated with an electrical conductor.

Exmen 22.1.2004 - Gramtica

1. (The ) Old computers were not so fast and were very large (big). 2. The components of an electric circuit are usually divided into active and passive.

3. Vacuum tubes (valves) were very heavy and the transistor replaced them very quickly. 4. The instructions manual must (has to) be read before starting (beginning) the procedure. 5. Silicon is the most semiconductor in electronics. widely used

6. They did not check the voltage and there was a very important breakdown. 7. Alternating current flows first in one direction and then in the other. 8. Nowadays very accurate and instruments are used (nowadays). reliable

9. They will find the solution to that fault on page 12 of the instructions manual. 10 They had several problems with the transmitters and the signals were not properly received (well). 11. Those components cannot work (operate) above 45 degrees. 12. The power suppy was not suitable for our equipment. 13. Do not connect those resistors in series. The circuit would not work.

14. Gallium arsenide is capable of converting (turning) (able to convert (turn) ) light into electricity. 15. The larger the scale of integration, the higher the number of components will be. 16. (In order) to manufacture these components, a new material has been used and the most modern techniques have been applied. 17. The capacitance of fixed capacitors can never be modified. 18. The output of this power supply is always at the same level.