Professional Documents
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2-7
2-7 28
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of the design load and energy analyses is load is the sum of transmission, of the building. In the program the load".
calculation of thermal loads. internal and solar gain loads load is sometimes referred to load is the amount of heat load as well as ventilation,
The thermal load is distinguished from a coil load. A removed or added at the coil. It incorporates the fan gain and p1enum load characteristics.
The purpose of this chapter is to document the basic thyrmalload calculation procedures used in HAIP. These calculations apply to design as well as average load analyses. The procedures here are based on the Carrier rQO Load Estimating Method. The primary reference for the method is the Carrier Sys'lem Design Manual Pari I: Load E"!:;timating. Separate sections of this chapter deal with each thermal load component. Specific details concerning design thermal !()<id calculations are found in Chapter 2. Finally, in the formulas below, it convention is used in which cooling loads (Ileal gains) are positive and heating loads (heat losses) are negative.
Heat transmission through walls and roofs is due to the indoor-outdoor temperature difference and to the transmission of absorbed solar energy. The fundamental transmission equation is: Qw where: Qw
I\w
==
Uw
--
ETD
--
Equivalent Temperature
Difference
or K).
The ETD value incorporates the considerations of heat transfer due to both the actual indoor-outdoor temperature difference and absorbed solar energy. The basic ETD equation may be expressed as: ETD == Kw (Rs/Rm)C[em" where: Kw
==
Tes) +Tes +
roof color correction factor (dimensionless). This factor for varied absorptivity characteristics of different color dark color surfaces (reference color). medium color surfaces. light color surfaces.
Solar heat gain for wall or roof exposure (BTU/(hr-sqft) or W Isqm). This value is a peak solar heat gain (IPSHG) for design calculations; it is an solar gain (ASHG) for typical calculations. Solar heat gain for the reference condition (BTU I(hr-sqft) or W Isqm). The reference conditions are 40 deg. north latitude, July, sea level, design dewpoint temperature of 67 F (19.4 and clear sky conditions. Thus, the (Rs/Rm) ratio COHects for the magnitude of the solar flux on the surface.
!-I
LOAD CALCULATIONS
Equivalent temperature difference for sunlit exposures for the reference condition (F or K). Values are obtained from the Carrier Design Manual Tables! 9 and 20. Valucs vary for cach hour, for wall or roof weights and by exposure. Tes Equivalent temperature difference for sh',lded exposures for the reference condition (F or K). Values are.lobtained from the Carrier Design Manual Tables 19 and 20. Values vary for each hour, for wall or roof weights and by exposure. Temperature correction factor (F or K). Tern and T es valucs arc based on a reference outdoor air tempenHure profile. To adapt the ETDs to actual outdoor conditions, corrections for the amplitude and magnitude of the actual temperature pro~le must be made. This factor is derived in part from Table 20A of the Carrier Design Manual. Tam -Ti - .5 - 5 for English units. Tam - .5 - 2.78 for S.I. Metric Tam Ti Maximum temperature in outdoor (F or C). air temperature profile (F or C).
Daily temperature range (F or K). This is the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures in the daily profile.
The equation
Glass transmission
load (BTU/hr
or W). or W /(sqrn-K.
Glass U-value (BTU/(hr-sqft-F) Glass area (sqft or sqm). Outdoor air temperature
(F or C). (F or C).
--
Throughout the day the sun shines through windows in the building. This solar energy is absorbed by interior floors, walls and ceilings and is released by convection and radiation over time. To analyze this transient heat gain a set of hourly solar response factors are These factors been normalized for the maximum daily solar flux. Different sets of factors are defined in the Carrier Design Manual for various building weights and for bare glass elements and glass with internal shading devices. The basic solar gain equation for glass with no external shading is: Qsg ::;:(SHG)(SLF) where: Qsg SHG Solar gain load (RTU/hr or W). Fg Ag
I\Aaximum solar heat value (BTU/(hr-sqft) or W /sqm). This value is the peak solar heat gain for design cooling calculations or the average solar heat gain for aver:'l:ge
1-2
SLF
Storage load factor (dimensionless). This is the solar response value obtained from Carrier Design Manual. Tables 7 through I I for the appropriate glass condition, building weight, cooling equipment operation schedule, exposure and hour. Glass factor (dimensionless). SHG values are derived for solar nux through a single pane of ordinary glass. To account for different transmission and reflection characteris~ics of other types of glass and internal shading devices a correction f<ictor is applied. Glass area (sqft or sqm). is:
Fg
Ag
0-
For solar gains for glass with external shading, the equation Qsg where: Fe _.
(FeSHGe
+ FsSHGs)(SLF)
Fg Ag
Fraction of glass area exposed to sunlight (dimensionless). This value is determined first by evaluating the angIe of incidence for the beam component of solar flux for the hour. Using the angle of incidence with the physical characteristics of the external shading device, the portion of the glass pane exposed to sunlight can be computed. Fraction of glass area shaded (dimensionless).
I - Fe
Maximum (hr-sqft)or
-.
Maximum solar heat gain for shaded glass (BTU/(hr-sqft) or W /sqm). Different SHG values are used because the exposed glass receives beam and diffuse components of the solar flux; the shaded glass receives only diffuse solar.
The human body continuously releases quantities of sensible heat and nlOisture. The magnitude of these heat gains depends upon the level of physical exertion. It is assumed body heat is released directly to the surrounding air. The basic sensible and latent heat gain equations are as follows: Qps = Np Qs where: Qps
---
Qp!
N p QI
or W). or W). space for the hour. or W /person). or W /person). This value is This value is
1-3
LOAD CALCULATIONS
to be instantaneous.
Ballast multiplier (dimensionless). When fluorescent lights are used, the heat gain from the ballast starter device must be considered also. A ballast multiplier factor is used to increase the lighting power PI accordingly. This multiplier is defined by the user and typically ranges from 1.0 to 1.25. For incandescent lights the multiplier is not used. Unit conversion (3.4]2 factor used to provide heat gain in proper units. for English units. BTU/hr)/(W)
Fu
This load element is used to model heat gain due to miscellaneous electrical machinery such as computers, typewriters, vending machines, etc ... Heat gain from these machines is assumed to be instantaneous. The basic heat gain equation is:
HEAT GAINS
or W).
=:
Scheduled
miscellaneous
Unit conversion
12 BTU/hr)/(W) =
This load element is used to consider heat gain from miscellaneous non-electrical sources. Heat gai,n is assumed to be instantaneous. Gains considered for both sensible and latent load components. Hourly heat gain quantities are directly specified by the user in the form of a maximum heat gain and hourly scheduling factors. Heat values may be positive or negative. Negative heat values are used to model loads due to refrigeration cases or similar equipment.
L LOAD CALCULA
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Heat transmission through partitions adjacent to a non-conditioned region are considered with this load element. non-conditioned we mean such regions as adjacent parking garages, freezer storage rooms and unconditioned warehouses, The air temperature in these regions may vary in different ways. Therefore two options for analyzing transmission loads through partitions are offered, Adjacent Region Temperature. The first option is to consider the temperature in the adjacent region as being fixed, This option should be used for regions such as a refrigerated storeroom or an equipment room in which the temperature is relatively constant. The transmission load for this case is computed Qpl = Up Ap (T",-Tj)
where:
AND
= Transmission load through partition = Partition U-value (BTU/(hr--sqft-F) = Partition area (sqft or sqm).
=
Air temperature user. Air temperature in adjacent
(BTU/hr
or W).
or W I(sqm-K,
in conditioned
Pcrcenlage 01' huJoor-O!!hloor Tempen!lure evaluates the partition temperature difference temperature difference. This method may be garage or unconditioned warehouse in which temperature. The basic transmission equation Qpt ::::Up where: Qpt
:::: --.
Dillercnce. Thc second option as a fraction of the indoor-outdoor used to model regions such as a parking the temperature varies with outdoor air is:
transmission
Temperature difference fraction (dimensionless), The fraction of indoor-outdoor ternpcraturc difference to be applied to the partition. Values may range from 0 (0%) to 2,0 (200%). Outdoor air temperature or C). (F or C).
'Ii
Sensible and latent heat gains due to infiltration air arc considered with this load element. Infiltration air is assumed to enter the space at outdoor conditions and leave at the room conditions. The basic equations for this load are:
Tn
Qis
Qil
LOAD CALCULATIONS
Pa
==
::::
Value is adjusted
Ps! Pba
==
-
standard
or 1.201 kg/m3).
Standard atmospheric pressure at site elevation x J 0-6E)5.256! x 1O- E)5.2561
5
--
PsI E
==
air flow rate (CFM or Lis). values used arc 0.24 BTU/(lbm-F) or
Cpa Fu
lO04.832 J/(kg-K).
Conversion 60 min/hr factor used to provide load in correct units. for English units.
Ta
Tj
Outdoor
air temperature
or C). or C).
hfg
or
2.4535x106 J/kg.
Heat loss through floors on or below grade and through walls below grade are computed only for the heating design condition. Heat transmission through ground clements for other conditions is not evaluated. Transmission loads are computed using empirical equations derived for the Carrier ~QO Method. This method is appropriate only for heat loss through concrete or masonry walls and floors, and only for the heating design condition. A study of ground heat loss showed that ground temperatures below 8 ft (2.44 m) are relatively stable regardless of outdoor air temperature. Between the 8 ft (2.44 m) depth and the surface, ground temperature varies with outdoor temperature more appreciably. Further, research showed that heat loss through floor elements was relatively independcnt of depth below grade, while heat loss through the perimeter of the floor was dependent upon depth. Because of these considerations, the E20 method analyzes ground transmission loads ill components. These arc floor loss, perimeter floor loss, wall transmission below an 8 ft (2.44 depth and wall transmission abovc an 8 ft (2.44 m) depth. These load components are discussed below.
Perimeter Floor Loss. To evaluate heat loss through the perimeter of floors, a set of
thermal resistance factors were derived to account for the insulating effcct of the floor material and of the ground at various depths. Heat loss is computed Ilsing the following equation: Qfp == Lfp Fp (Tad - Tn
1-6
-~.
Wall Loss Above a Depth of 8 n m). To analyze heat loss through the portion of the wall between grade level and 8 ft (2.44 m) below grade, a set of factors were empirically derived to account for the insulating effect of the wall and ground at various depths. The basic tra~smission equation for this load component is: Qw!
Heat Loss for Wails More thalli 8 If basement walls exist below a depth of 8 ft (2.44 m), a separate analysis is used to determine the heat I.oss for this section of waIL The transmission equation for this section of the wall is: Qw2 Variable Qn Qfp 1 Qw2 Af Aw = = Defilliitiollls: Floor transmission load (BTU/hr or Vv'). (BTU Ihr or W). Heat loss through floor perimeter
Heat loss through wall area between grade and 8 ft (2.44 m) below grade (BTU/hr or W). Heat loss through or W). wall area below 8 ft (2.44 m) depth (BTU/hr
Floor area (sqft or sqrn). Basement wall area (sqft or sqrn). For Qw I this is the area between grade and an 8 ft (2.44 m) depth. For Qw2 this is the area below an 8 ft (2.44 m) depth. Floor U-value. An assumed value of .05 BTU/(hr-sqft-I<') or .28 W I(sqm-K) is used. This value models a concrete or masonry floor. Wall U~value. An assumed value of .08 BTU/(hr-sqft-F) or .45 \V I(sqm-K) is used to mode! concrete or masonry walls.
Perimeter factor (BTU/(hr-ft-F) or W I(m-K). This factor accounts for the thermal resistance of the floor or wall and the ground at varying depths. The perimeter factor is applicable from grade level to 8 ft (2.44 m) below grade. For floors more than 8 ft (2.44 m) below grade, the perimeter factor at the 8 ft (2.44 m) level is used. The empirical equation for the factor is: 0.60 -+ 0.075(D) for English Units 1.0384 -+ .4259(D) for S.I. Metric Units Ground temperature below floor (IF or C). This value is obtained from an empirical equation: 55 -+ .s Tad for English units. 21.67 -+ .5 Tad for SJ. Metric units. Indoor air temperature Heating design outdoor Depth below grade grade level to the (F or C). air temperature or C).
1-7
CALCULATIONS
For desngn load calculations a factor is introduced to provide a margin of safety in the design. The safety factor is defined by the user. The safety load is computed by multiplying eachof"the space sensible and latent thermal load componenl<; by the factor.
1-8
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..--
CIIAPTER
DESIGN SYSTEM
ANALYA-9IS CALCULATIONS
~'h..._J
..
The purpose of the design analysis is to determine system coil loads and air flow characteristics for cooling or heating design conditions. The analyses typically involve three stages: The Thermal Load Calculation Stage determines the heat quantity to be added or removed from the spaces in order to maintain comfort conditions. The Sizing Stage involves computation of supply air characteristics required to meet the thermal loads. In the special case of hydronic heating system design, sizing involves computing a required water flow rate. The System Analysis Stage. System operation is simulated to determine the cooling or heating coil load. Coil loads arc in turn used to size the cooling or heating plant The purpose of this chapter is to describe procedures for both cooling and heating design analyses. The following discussions will be useful in interpreting and utilizing data on program printouts. Separate sections arc devoted to each analysis.
Design cooling analyses are performed onan hourly basis. Each of the three analysis stages is described below. For these calculations the indoor temperature is fixed at the specified cooling setting. The outdoor conditions are obtained from the design temperature profiles.
2-1
DESIGN
ANALYSIS
CALCULATIONS
TlJermalload
Component
Considerations
-------------
Compute nos using peak solar gains. cooling designlemperature profile data and the daily range lor design days.
-----------
Uiifize specified cooling values for the temperature dillerence across the partition.
----------------.. -----.<---"---.-
Infiltration
Use specified cooling design infiltration air !low rales. This load is not considered lor cooling calculalions. Tim E20 load calculation procedure lor this element is appropriate only lor healing design calculations.
_._-------_.~--
Plenum load
Computed as a percentage 01 the tolal mol and Iota! lighting loads. Individual percentages lor each component are liseI' -supplied.
--------------------
1.2 Supply
Sizing
The next stage in the analysis is to derive supply air characteristics. The purpose of the cooling system is to provide conditioning to meet a thermal load. To do this a quantity of chilled air at a certain temperature is provided to the space. Thus, characteristics of supply air are air How quantity and temperature. The user has specified one of these characteristics. It is the program's job to compute the other quantity. ~uppIy airf1Qw rates are computed both on a space and zone basis. Supply temperature iscomputed ol1Iyon basis. SIzing calculations on the zone and space levels are described below.
2-2
Space Slupply Air Calculations. These computations depending upon the user supply air specification.
I. Given the supply flow rate per unit !loor area, the flow rate is computed as shown below. Note that this quantity is not ,elated 1.0 a specific system supply temperature, or even to the space load.
2. If the total supply air flow rate is given for the zone, the program has no basis for computing a space How rate. Consequently, none is computed or reported. 3. Given the supply temperature, the following equation for the space supply flow rate is computed by solving
Co
.~)
Space sensible thermal load include plenum heat gains. Density of air. Value is adjusted
PsI
or 1.201 kg/m]).
Standard atmospheric pressure at site elevation (psia or kPa). x lO-6E)5.256! x I O-~:E)5.2561 for English units. for Metric units. 14.696 (! - 6.87535
J 0 1.3 (I .. 2.25569
Psi E Cpa Fu
--
(feet or meters above sea level). values used are 0.24 BTU/(lbm-F) or
== ==
1004.832 J/(kg-K).
Con version f~lctor to provide load in proper units. 60 min/hr for English units. 013/(1000 L) for S.!. Metric units. Indoor air temperature Supply air temperature for cooling (F or C). (F or C). again take three forms depending upon
--
Tc Tsa
Calculations
2-3
i. Given the supply air flow rate per unit 1100r area, the zone flow rate is computcd
as: Vsa:::: Vsf Afz where: Vsa Vsf Afz
Zone supply air flow rate (CFM or Lis). Supply air flow per unit floor area (CFM/sqft or LI(s-sqrn)).
Zone floor area (sqft or sqm). This is the sum of space floor areas for all spaces in the zone. is computed by solving the following
Next, the required supply air temperature equation for Tsa. where: Q5ZL7 ::::
Qzs ::::Pa Vsa Cpa Fu (T c - Tsa) Zone sensible thermal load (BTU /hr or W). Density of air (lbm/ft3 or kg/m3). Values arc adjusted for site elevation. See previous discussion for calculation. Specific heat for air. Values used are .24 BTU/(lb-F) 1004.832 J/(kg-K). Conversion or
Pa
Cpa Fu
(60 min)/hr Tc
Tsa
for English units. 3/(l000 L) for S.L Metric units. m for cooling (F or C). (F or C). needs to be
--
2. If given the total supply air flow rate, only the supply temperature determined. The following equation is solved for Tsa. Qsz:::: Pa Vsa Cpa Fu (Tc - Tsa)
only supply air flow rates needs to be is solved for Vsa. (Tc - Tsa)
Pa Vsa
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CALCULATIONS
Ventilation Loads. The quantity of air entering the system through the ventilation duct and quantities of air exhausted directly from the zone and exhausted from the return duct result in a heat gain or loss for the system. The ventilation load is computed separately for sensible and latent components: Qvs =, Pa Vva Cpa Fu (Ta - Tzc) + Pa Vre Cpa Fu (Tze - Tre) Qvl '" Pa Vva hlg Fu (wa - we) where:
Qvs Qvt
Vva
Sensible ventilation
or W). or W).
-~
Air density or kg/013). This value is adjusted for site elevation, See 2.1.2 for calculation details. Heat capacity of air (.24 BTU/(lbm-F) or 1004832 J/(kg-K. or
Heat of vaporization
2.4535
Outdoor
106 J/kg.
air temperature
Air temperature for air exhausted from return duct or return plenum (F or C). This temperature may differ fro-m-T-ze-' ~le to-d plenum heat gains. Air temperature for air exhausted directly from the zone (F or This is the specified indoor temperature for cooling. Outdoor air specific humidity (Ibm/Ibm (Ibm/Ibm or kg/kg). or kg/kg).
Exhaust air specific humidity Fu Conversion 60 min/hr m3/(l000 for English units.
Supply Fan Heat Gain is due to friction between air and the 1~lI1 blades, energy added to the air by compression, energy loss in the drive mechanism and heat gain from the fan motor. Assuming the fan motor is in the air stream, the fan heat gain equation is:
or W).
Air !1ow rate through fan (CFM or L/s). Total static pressure across fan (in wg or Pa). Fan drive and mechanical to be 0.55 (55%). efficiency (dimensionless). Value assumed
Value assumed to be
.4003 for English units. (62.3 Ibm water/cuft)(ft/J2 m3 io)(60 min/hr)(.00J285 BTU/ft-Ib)
2-5
SYSTEM ANALYSIS
CALCULATIONS
Cooling Coil Loads. Once coil inlet and outlet conditions are defined, the cooling coil load is computed. Sensible and latent load components are calculated separately. Qcs QcI where: Qcs QcI pa Cpa Vsa hfg Tci Tco Wci Wco Fu
-
pa Vsa Cpa Fu (Tci - Tco) Pa Vsa hfg Fu (wci - wco) or W). or W).
= =
-.
Air density (lbm/H3 or kg/m3). Values are adjusted for site elevation. See 2.1.2 for calculation details. Heat capacity of air (.24 BTU/(lbm-F) Supply air flow rate (CFM or L/s).
or
or 1004.832 J/(kg-K).
Heat of vaporization of water (1054.8 2.4535 x !O6 J/kg). at coil inlet (F or C). at coil outlet (F or C).
BTU/lbm
= = = =
--
or kg/kg). or kg/kg).
factor used to provide load in proper units. for English units. L) for SJ. Metric units.
The coil outlet humidity is computed using the bypass factor relations. The coil bypass factor is a measure of the approach of the outlet coil state to the apparatus dew point (AD?) condition. The first step in computing Wco is to determine the AD? state. It is computed using the equations: BF:::: (T co-T adp)/(T ci-Tadp) ::::(wco-wadp)/(wci-wac!p) - BF)
BF
Tadp wac!p
--
Coil bypass factor (dimensionless). Apparatus Apparatus dew point dry buJb temperature dew point humidity (F or C). or kg/kg).
ratio (Ibm/Ibm
Since the apparatus dew point state is a saturated condition, we can determine wadp using Tadp and psychrometric relations. Next, Wco is computed using the equation: Wco
Finally, the total coil load is the sum of sensible and latent load components.
2-6
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Design heating loads are computed for one design condition. This condition is not associated with a particular hour. For these calculations the outdoor winter design dry-bulb temperature, and the specified indoor heating temperature are utilized. The analysis stages are discussed separately below.
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_._._._-_.
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.... -.---.-.--.----.--.--.---
.-'-.-.--- ..
--..
load Component
Considerations
An actual temperature difference is used in place of the equivalent temperature difference (EHI). This eliminates the consideration of the transmission of stored sofar hea!. Computed using outdoor air temperature for design condition. Not considered.
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.._------------~-------.--_._---------------_.
Glass Transimssion
__ ._--_ ..
Nol considered. Utilizes specified heating values for the temperature difference across the partition.
..------.----------.-----...-.---.
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2-7
SYSTEM ANALYSIS
CALCULATIONS
or 1004.832 J/(kg-K).
factor to provide load in proper units. for English units. L) for S.L Metric units.
The zone
Having sized the system, the heating coil load can be computed. Instead of simulating system operation, the coil load is computed as the sum of space thermal loads and the ventilation load. This procedure is used because fan heat gain is not considered for the heating design condition. The design load is: Qhc = - (Sum of Qss values) - Pa Vva Cpa Fu (Ta - Th) where: Qhc Design heating coil load (BTU/hr or W). For convenience, we report the heating coil load as a positive quantity. Note that in this equation, Qss values are negative indicating a thermal heating load. Ventilation air flow rate (CFM or L/s)_ for heating (F or C). for heating design condition (F or C).
Vva
=
Ta
air temperature
2-8
DESiGN SYSTEM
NALYSIS CALCULA110NS
Hydronic Heating Systems. Given space sensible thermal loads and a user-defined hot water temperature drop across heating coils, required water flow rates are computed by solving the following equation for V w: - Qss = Pw Vw Cpw Fu (WTD) where: Space sensible thermal load (BTU/hr or W). Note that by convention a sensible heating load is a negative quantity. Pw -Density of water (62.0 Ibm/ft3 at 100 17 (37.8 C) are used. Specific heat ofwater(J.O or 993. I kg/m3). Conditions for water
Cpw
Vw
BTU/(lbm-F)
Of
or 4186.8 J/(kg-K.
WTD
Fu
= = =
-
L/s).
Of
K).
(60 min/hr)(.
m3/(1000
In addition, a water flow rate is computed to meet the ventilation load. The total zone hot water flow rate is the sum of space and ventilation load flow rates.
F"inally, the design heating coil load is the slim of space sensible thermal ventilation load. Fan heat gains are not considered for this calculation. loads and the
Mathematically,
= - (Sum
ofQss
where:
Qhc
Design heating coil load (BTU/hr or W). Note that for convenience we report the heating coil load as a positive quantity. In this equation, Qss values arc negative since they represent thermal healing loads. Ventilation
-.
air flow rate (CFM or Us). for heating (F or C). for heating design condition (F or C).
air temperature
2-9