XR-EE-ES 2011 011 Dig

Comparison of existing PV models and possible integration under EU grid specifications
Ioannis-Thomas K. Theologitis
Degree project in Electric Power Systems Second Level Stockholm, Sweden 2011
XR-EE-ES 2011:011
Comparison of existing PV models and possible integration under EU grid specifications
Ioannis-Thomas K. Theologitis
Master of Science Thesis KTH School of Electrical Engineering Division of Electrical Power Systems EPS-2011 SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM
COMPARISON OF EXISTING PV MODELS AND POSSIBLE INTEGRATION UNDER EU GRID SPECIFICATIONS
Ioannis-Thomas Theologitis Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden
2011 School of Electrical Engineering Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan SE-100 44 Stockholm Sweden
The author is officially enrolled to the Sustainable Energy Engineering Master Program (SEE) and belongs to the School of Industrial Engineering and Management and the Department of Energy Technology.
The picture of the front cover is taken from the second edition of the book Planning & Installing Photovoltaic Systems A guide for installers, architects and engineers, published by Earthscan and copyrighted by The German Energy Society (Deutsche Gesellshaft fr Sonnenenergie (DGS LV Berlin BRB) in 2008. ISBN-13: 978-1-84407-442-6
-Take me out of the dark -Diogenes-
It was the answer to Great Alexander, when he stood in front of Diogenes and asked him what favour he needs. Diogenes, as a cynic philosopher, answered this phrase to Alexander implying that he was blocking the sun with his body. Cynics believed that the happiness is hidden in simple things as the energy and warmth of the sun and not in material goods.
MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011
Abstract
Abstract
This master thesis investigates the capabilities of a generic grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) model that was developed by DIgSILENT and is part of the library of the new version of PowerFactory v.14.1. The model has a nominal rated peak power of 0.5 MVA and a designed power factor cos=0.95. A static generator component, which includes the PV array, the DC bus with the capacitor, the inverter and the control frame, is used to model the PV system. The PV array is considered to operate at the MPP and the generator with cos=1. The thesis begins with a short review of the current status of the PV sector, focusing mostly on the types of PV systems and the necessary components that are used in grid-connected systems. Since the PV inverter is the key component, special reference is made to the different technologies applied and to the multifaceted role that inverters should play nowadays supporting the grids stability. Technical restrictions and requirements are presented highlighting primarily the German Grid Code for the MV network, which is the benchmark for the analysis of the role and behaviour of the PV model in question. Germany is regarded a very good example to base the study on due to its leading position and experience in the renewable area and its thorough grid specifications. The main part of the report includes a detailed description of the structure of the generic model, presenting the operating procedure of its components as well as model assumptions and simplifications. Various simulations in variable solar irradiation, frequency and voltage conditions are performed in order to conclude in its capabilities. The static voltage support is investigated under cloud effect situation where the changes in active power output of the PV array can influence the voltage stability of the grid at the PCC. The active power control is examined by forcing the grid frequency to deviate beyond specified limits and observing the active power output results. At last, the dynamic voltage support capability (LVRT) is examined by simulating four different short circuit events creating four different voltage dips. The ability of the PV inverter to stay connected and to provide reactive current when necessary is seen. The external grid component is designed to represent a strong grid. The results showed that the model is capable for active power reduction and LVRT behaviour. However, the absence of reactive power control makes it inapplicable for static voltage support. Thus, a PI controller is implemented in order to supply constant reactive power in steady state operation and support the grid stability. At last two different interconnections were built using a slightly modified version of the same generic model with a rated power 1 MVA. The control scheme remained the same. Both configurations were examined statically and dynamically and their results were compared. Small differences were found in terms of reactive power consumption/injection at the PCC. Keywords: Grid-connected Photovoltaic, PV inverter, Grid codes for PV, PV model, DIgSILENT iv
Sammanfatning
Sammanfatning
Det hr examensarbetet undersker frmgan av en generisk ntanslutna solcell (PV) modell som utvecklades av DIgSILENT och det r en del av biblioteket av den nya versionen av PowerFactory v.14.1. Modellen har en nominell berknat maximal effekt p 0.5 MVA och en utformad effektfaktor p cos=0.95. En stillastende generator bestndsdel, som innehller PV uppstllningen, DC bussen med kondensatorn, strmvxlaren och kontroll ramen, som anvndes fr att utforma PV systemet. PV uppstllningen frvntas att anvndas vid MPP-en och generatorn med cos=1. Examensarbetet inleder med en kort genomgng av det nuvarande lget av PV sektorn, som fokus fr det mesta p PV system sorter och de viktiga bestndsdelarna som anvndas i ntanslutna system. Eftersom PV strmvxlaren r den viktigaste bestndsdelen, r srskild hnvisning grs till de olika tillmpade tekniker och den mngfacetterade roll som vxelriktare br spela nufrtiden stdja ntets stabilitet. Tekniska begrnsningar och krav presenteras fr att belysa frmst p den tyska GC fr MV ntet, vilket r utgngspunkten fr analysen av den roll och beteende av PV modellen i frga. Tyskland anses ett mycket bra exempel att basera studien p grund av sin ledande stllning och erfarenhet inom frnybar omrdet och dess grundliga specifikationer ntet. Den huvuddelen av rapporten innehller en detaljerad beskrivning av strukturen fr den generiska modellen, som presenterar fungerande frfarandet av dess komponenter samt modellantaganden och frenklingar. Olika simuleringar i varierande solstrlning, frekvens och spnning villkor utfrs i syfte att ing i sin frmga. Den statiska spnningen understdet underskas under moln effekt situation dr frndringar i aktiv uteffekt PV uppstllningen kan pverka spnningsstabilitet i rutntet p den PCC. Den aktiva effekten kontroll undersks genom att tvinga ntfrekvens att avvika utver angivna grnsvrden och observera det aktiva resultatet uteffekt. ntligen r den dynamiska spnning std kapacitet (LVRT) undersks med hjlp av simulerad fyra olika kortslutning hndelser skapa fyra olika spnningsfall. Frmgan hos PV strmvxlaren att hlla kontakten och ge reaktiva strmmen vid behov ses. Det externa komponent i ntet utformats fr att representera en stark rutnt. Resultaten visas att modellen har kapacitet fr aktiv effekt minskning och LVRT beteende. Men gr det saknas styrning av reaktiv effekt inte tillmpas under statisk spnning std. Drfr r en PI-regulator som genomfrs fr att leverera konstant reaktiv effekt i konstant drift och support fr stabila nt. ntligen tv olika sammankopplingar byggdes med en ngot modifierad version av samma generiska modell med en nominell effekt 1 MVA. Kontrollschemat frblevs densamma. Bda konfigurationerna undersktes statiskt och dynamiskt och resultaten jmfrdes. Sm skillnader fanns i form av reaktiv effekt frbrukning / insprutning i PCC. Nyckelord: Ntanslutna solcell, PV strmvxlare , Nt koder fr PV, PV modell, DIgSILENT v
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
At first I wish to thank all the people, who, in whichever way, assisted me to complete this interesting project for my master thesis and made this period an important benchmark for my future professional expectations. From Energynautics GmbH1, Dr Thomas Ackermann, who gave me the opportunity to complete the thesis in his company, Dr Eckehard Trster, for his patience with all my questions, his valuable advices and insight that gave direction to my work, Rena Kuwahata, who was the initial contact with the company and the person that facilitated my work and life in the new environment, Dr Nis Martensen and Stanislav Cherevatskiy, who shared their experiences in the field whenever those were asked for and in general I wish to thank all the rest of the personnel, who were part of my everyday life the last five months, ensuring a friendly and highly professional environment. Furthermore, I would like to thank Prof. Lennart Sder for the fruitful pre-presentation and his valid comments and of course Giannis Tolikas for undertaking the translation of the abstract to Swedish. Since it is likely that I forget some people that offered their helped for the completion of this project, I feel obliged to thank them as well. Special thanks should be paid to Panagiotis Giagkalos and Kyriakos Liotsios, who were my classmates, colleagues, but most of all my friends during the last two years of this master. It is important to realize that anytime you can find people that you can count on. May this friendship lasts and dont leave time and distance to wear it, rather strengthen it through personal or professional common experiences. To Angela Maria Castao Garcia, for this beautiful journey that still goes on. Her support during this time was more that I could ask for. As far as the thesis concerned, her contribution and effort to the final format of the report was significant. At last, to my beloved family, my parents Konstantinos and Efterpi, and my brother Charalampos, who deserve my eternal gratitude for all that have offered me. Their constant support in every aspect is scarcely reflected on these few sentences here. However, any success in my life so far is mostly charged to them and consequently any success in the future will have their signature as well. Such moments, I feel the need to give space and mention all the people that left something valuable to me. Old friends from Greece that never forget, new friends from different parts of the world, people I met for short period, all of them are the people that with one way or another made this time worth living it again. You are my personal ark. Thank you all and wish you the best.
http://www.energynautics.com/
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... IV SAMMANFATNING ........................................................................................................... V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... VI TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... VII LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. IX LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... XII NOMENCLATURE ........................................................................................................... XIII 1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 THE DRIVING FORCE ....................................................................................................... 2 OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS REPORT ................................................................................ 4 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................... 5 LIMITATIONS .................................................................................................................. 6
BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 8 2.1 PV SYSTEMS OVERVIEW .............................................................................................. 8 2.1.1 I-V CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................................. 9 2.2 GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 11 2.3 PV INVERTER ................................................................................................................ 12 2.3.1 WHAT IS AVAILABLE CURRENT STATUS ............................................................ 13 2.3.2 ISSUES WHEN CHOOSING INVERTER ................................................................... 16 2.3.3 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS ANCILLARY FUNCTIONS .................................... 18 2.4 LOW VOLTAGE RIDE THROUGH (LVRT) REQUIREMENT ............................................... 18 2.4.1 REACTIVE POWER AND ITS IMPORTANCE ........................................................... 19 2.5 GRID REQUIREMENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS ...................................................................... 19 2.5.1 THE NEW GERMAN GRID CODE ........................................................................... 20 2.5.2 THE SITUATION IN THE REST OF EUROPE ............................................................ 25 2.5.3 FURTHER INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN REQUIREMENTS FOR PV ............... 25
METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 27 3.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS ........................................................................................ 27 3.2 WAYS FOR SIMULATING PV WITH POWERFACTORY .................................................... 27
MODEL DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................. 31 4.1 THE BASE MODEL ......................................................................................................... 31 4.2 THE PV GENERATOR ..................................................................................................... 33 4.2.1 THE CONTROL FRAME OF THE PV GENERATOR ................................................... 36 4.3 INVESTIGATION UNDER GERMAN GCS......................................................................... 48 4.3.1 STEADY STATE CONDITION .................................................................................. 48 vii
Table of Contents
4.3.2 ACTIVE POWER CONTROL .................................................................................... 52 4.3.3 DYNAMIC VOLTAGE SUPPORT ............................................................................. 55 4.4 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 62 5 FURTHER ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION .......................................................................... 64 5.1 ADDITION IN THE CONTROL SYSTEM OF THE PV MODEL ............................................. 64 5.2 MODEL ADJUSTMENT AND INTERCONNECTION CASES ............................................... 67 5.2.1 ADJUSTMENT OF THE PV MODEL ........................................................................ 67 5.2.2 FIRST CASE............................................................................................................ 70 5.2.3 SECOND CASE ....................................................................................................... 75 5.2.4 COMPARISON OF BOTH CASES ............................................................................ 78 6 7 8 CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................... 81 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 83 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................... 87 8.1 PARAMETERS USED IN THE PV MODEL ........................................................................ 87 8.2 THE DSL CODE IN MAIN BLOCKS OF THE PV MODEL..................................................... 89 8.3 RESULTS OF LVRT STUDY IN BOTH INTERCONNECTION CASES .................................... 91 8.3.1 FIRST CASE............................................................................................................ 91 8.3.2 SECOND CASE ....................................................................................................... 94
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List of Figures
List of Figures
FIGURE 1.1: INCREASE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN GERMANY 1990-2009 ............... 2 FIGURE 1.2: CUMMULATIVE INSTALLED GRID CONNECTED AND OFF GRID PV POWER IN 26 COUNTRIES THAT PARTICIPATE IN THE IEA PVPS ............................................................... 3 FIGURE 1.3: WORLD PV CELL/MODULE PRODUCTION FROM 1990 TO 2009 ............................ 4 FIGURE 1.4: ANNUAL PHOTOVOLTAIC INSTALLATIONS FROM 2000 TO 2009 .......................... 4 FIGURE 2.1: TYPES OF PV SYSTEMS ........................................................................................... 9 FIGURE 2.2: TYPICAL I-V CHARACTERISTIC ................................................................................ 9 FIGURE 2.3: THE EFFECT OF SOLAR RADIATION AND TEMPERATURE ON THE I-V CURVE ....... 10 FIGURE 2.4: THE EFFECT OF THE INTERCONNECTION OF PV MODULES ON THE I-V CURVE .... 11 FIGURE 2.5: PRINCIPLE OF CONNECTING PV SYSTEMS TO THE GRID WITH A SINGLE-PHASE AND THREE-PHASE INVERTER .......................................................................................... 13 FIGURE 2.6: FB INVERTER TOPOLOGY ..................................................................................... 15 FIGURE 2.7: INVERTERS OPERATING RANGE .......................................................................... 17 FIGURE 2.8: ACTIVE POWER CONTROL REQUIREMENT FOR GRID-TIED GENERATORS ........... 22 FIGURE 2.9: EXAMPLE OF COS(P)-CHARACTERISTIC ............................................................. 23 FIGURE 2.10: FAULT-RIDE-THROUGH CAPABILITY .................................................................. 24 FIGURE 2.11: REACTIVE CURRENT INJECTION REQUIREMENTS IN THE EVENT OF NETWORK FAULTS ............................................................................................................................. 24 FIGURE 3.1: PV ARRAY AS DC CURRENT SOURCE ..................................................................... 28 FIGURE 3.2: PV MODEL WITH BATTERY ................................................................................... 29 FIGURE 3.3: PV INVERTER AS PWM COMPONENT ................................................................... 29 FIGURE 3.4: PV SYSTEM AS STATIC GENERATOR ...................................................................... 30 FIGURE 4.1: THE BASE PV MODEL ............................................................................................ 31 FIGURE 4.2: THE EXTERNAL GRID SETTINGS............................................................................. 32 FIGURE 4.3: SIMPLE EQUIVALENT OF A SHORT CIRCUIT ON THE GRID .................................... 32 FIGURE 4.4: PV GENERATOR POWER FLOW CHARACTERISTICS UNDER NORMAL STEADYSTATE OPERATION ........................................................................................................... 34 FIGURE 4.5: CAPABILITY CURVE OF THE INVERTER .................................................................. 35 FIGURE 4.6: MAXIMUM REACTIVE POWER LIMITS IN THREE VOLTAGE LEVELS ...................... 36 FIGURE 4.7: THE CONTROL FRAME OF THE PV GENERATOR .................................................... 37 FIGURE 4.8: THE STRUCTURE OF IRRADIANCE SLOT ................................................................ 38 FIGURE 4.9: SOLAR IRRADIATION INCREMENT ........................................................................ 38 FIGURE 4.10: EFFECT OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE IN THE PV CHARACTERISTICS ............................ 39 FIGURE 4.11: EFFECT OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE IN THE PV POWER OUTPUT .............................. 39 FIGURE 4.12: TEMPERATURE INCREMENT IN THE PV ARRAY................................................... 40 FIGURE 4.13: EFFECT OF THE OPERATION TEMPERATURE IN THE PV VOLTAGE ...................... 40 FIGURE 4.14: THE PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY MODEL .................................................................. 41 FIGURE 4.15: THE ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF AN IDEAL SOLAR CELL ................................... 42 FIGURE 4.16: THE DC BUS BAR AND CAPACITOR MODEL ......................................................... 44 FIGURE 4.17: THE ACTIVE POWER REDUCTION CONTROL ....................................................... 45 FIGURE 4.18: THE MAIN CONTROLLER MODEL ........................................................................ 47
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List of Figures
FIGURE 4.19: THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF A PLL ........................................................................ 47 FIGURE 4.20: SOLAR RADIATION DROP.................................................................................... 49 FIGURE 4.21: SET OF CONSTANT POWER FACTOR ................................................................... 50 FIGURE 4.22: ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER CHANGE DURING A CLOUD EFFECT .................. 50 FIGURE 4.23: VOLTAGE DEVIATION DURING A CLOUD EFFECT ................................................ 51 FIGURE 4.24: ACTIVE AND REACTIVE CHANGE IN THE LV BUS ................................................. 52 FIGURE 4.25: CHANGE IN THE SPEED PARAMETER TO CREATE OVERFREQUENCY ............... 53 FIGURE 4.26: THE OVERFREQUENCY EVENT ............................................................................ 53 FIGURE 4.27: THE ACTIVE POWER REDUCTION OF THE GENERATOR DUE TO OVERFREQUENCY .......................................................................................................................................... 54 FIGURE 4.28: THE ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER VALUES IN THE LV BUS DURING THE OVERFREQUENCY EVENT ................................................................................................. 54 FIGURE 4.29: THE ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER VALUES IN THE MV BUS DURING THE OVERFREQUENCY EVENT ................................................................................................. 55 FIGURE 4.30: TESTS PERFORMED FOR DYNAMIC VOLTAGE SUPPORT..................................... 56 FIGURE 4.31: EQUIVALENT PLAN OF A GRID WITH FAULT (A) AND THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION (B) ....................................................................................................... 56 FIGURE 4.32: BEHAVIOUR OF THE PV MODEL IN 100% VOLTAGE DIP ..................................... 58 FIGURE 4.33: BEHAVIOUR OF THE PV MODEL IN 80% VOLTAGE DIP ....................................... 59 FIGURE 4.34: BEHAVIOUR OF THE PV MODEL IN 50% VOLTAGE DIP ....................................... 60 FIGURE 4.35: BEHAVIOUR OF THE PV MODEL IN 20% VOLTAGE DIP ....................................... 61 FIGURE 4.36: POSSIBLE DYNAMIC MPP CONTROL ................................................................... 63 FIGURE 5.1: THE CONSTANT Q CONTROL IMPLEMENTATION TO THE MODEL ........................ 64 FIGURE 5.2: THE SWITCHING FUNCTION WRITTEN IN DSL INSIDE THE CURRENT LIMITER...... 65 FIGURE 5.3: THE CONSTANT Q SET IN THE PV GENERATOR ..................................................... 66 FIGURE 5.4: THE ACTIVE POWER CHANGE OF THE PV GENERATOR......................................... 66 FIGURE 5.5: THE Q CONTROL RESPONSE TO THE ACTIVE POWER CHANGE ............................. 67 FIGURE 5.6: VOLTAGE VARIATION IN THE LV BUS WITH THE Q CONTROL ............................... 67 FIGURE 5.7: THE FIRST SET UP OF THE PV POWER PLANT OF 20 MVA ..................................... 69 FIGURE 5.8: THE SECOND SET UP OF THE PV POWER PLANT OF 20 MVA3 ............................... 69 FIGURE 5.9: THE FIRST CONFIGURATION AS BUILT IN POWERFACTORY.................................. 70 FIGURE 5.10: P-Q CURVE-FIRST CASE ....................................................................................... 73 FIGURE 5.11: THE SECOND CONFIGURATION AS BUILT IN POWERFACTORY ........................... 76 FIGURE 5.12: P-Q CURVE-SECOND CASE .................................................................................. 77 FIGURE 5.13: P-Q CURVES-BOTH CASES................................................................................... 79 FIGURE 8.1: THE DSL CODE OF EACH PV MODULE ................................................................... 89 FIGURE 8.2: MAIN PART OF DSL CODE IN THE ACTIVE POWER REDUCTION BLOCK ................. 90 FIGURE 8.3: THE DSL CODE IN THE PI CONTROLLER BLOCK...................................................... 90 FIGURE 8.4: THE DSL CODE IN THE REACTIVE POWER SUPPORT BLOCK .................................. 90 FIGURE 8.5: THE DSL CODE IN THE CURRENT LIMITER BLOCK.................................................. 90 FIGURE 8.6: BEHAVIOUR OF THE FIRST INTERCONNECTION IN 100% VOLTAGE DIP ............... 91 FIGURE 8.7: BEHAVIOUR OF THE FIRST INTERCONNECTION IN 80% VOLTAGE DIP ................. 92 FIGURE 8.8: BEHAVIOUR OF THE FIRST INTERCONNECTION IN 50% VOLTAGE DIP ................. 92 FIGURE 8.9: BEHAVIOUR OF THE FIRST INTERCONNECTION IN 20% VOLTAGE DIP ................. 93 FIGURE 8.10: BEHAVIOUR OF THE SECOND INTERCONNECTION IN 100% VOLTAGE DIP ........ 94 FIGURE 8.11: BEHAVIOUR OF THE SECOND INTERCONNECTION IN 80% VOLTAGE DIP .......... 94
List of Figures
FIGURE 8.12: BEHAVIOUR OF THE SECOND INTERCONNECTION IN 50% VOLTAGE DIP .......... 95 FIGURE 8.13: BEHAVIOUR OF THE SECOND INTERCONNECTION IN 20% VOLTAGE DIP .......... 95
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List of Tables
List of Tables
TABLE 2.1: NEW REQUIREMENTS FOR GRID TIED GENERATORS ............................................ 21 TABLE 4.1: VOLTAGE DIP TESTS FOR GENERATING UNITS TYPE-2 .......................................... 55 TABLE 4.2: TESTS PERFORMED WITH THE PV MODEL............................................................. 56 TABLE 4.3: FAULT CONDITIONS IN EACH TEST ........................................................................ 57 TABLE 4.4: AGGREGATION OF THE RESULTS OF ALL TESTS..................................................... 61 TABLE 5.1: PARAMETERS FOR THE CONSTANT Q CONTROL THAT ADDED IN THE ................. 65 TABLE 5.2: LINES USED IN THE FIRST CONFIGURATION .......................................................... 71 TABLE 5.3: RESULTS OF THE LOAD FLOW STUDY FIRST CASE ................................................. 72 TABLE 5.4: FAULST CONDITIONS IN EACH TEST FIRST CASE.................................................... 74 TABLE 5.5:AGGREGATION OF THE RESULTS FOR DYNAMIC VOLTAGE SUPPORT FIRST CASE 74 TABLE 5.6: LINES USED IN THE SECOND CONFIGURATION ..................................................... 75 TABLE 5.7: RESULTS OF THE LOAD FLOW STUDY SECOND CASE............................................. 77 TABLE 5.8: AGGREGATION OF THE RESULTS FOR DYNAMIC VOLTAGE SUPPORT SECOND CASE ..................................................................................................................................... 78 TABLE 5.9: LOAD FLOW RESULTS OF BOTH CASES .................................................................. 79 TABLE 5.10: REACTIVE POWER SUPPLY OF BOTH CASES AT PCC IN SEVERAL VOLTAGE DIPS .......................................................................................................................... 80 TABLE 8.1: PARAMETERS IN PV ARRAY SLOT .......................................................................... 87 TABLE 8.2: PARAMETERS IN DC BUSBAR AND CAPACITOR SLOT ............................................ 87 TABLE 8.3: PARAMETERS IN ACTIVE POWER REDUCTION SLOT ............................................. 87 TABLE 8.4: PARAMETERS IN MAIN CONTROLLER SLOT ........................................................... 88
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Nomenclature
Nomenclature
AC AI AM ASTM BDEW CSI DC DIgSILENT DIN DSL eEURO EMI EN EU FB FiT FRT GCs HV IEA IEC IEEE IGBT IK or ISC Impp MOSFET LV LVRT MPP MV NPC PCC PF PLL p.u. PV PVPS PWM RET RMS Alternate Current Anti-Islanding Air Mass American Society for Testing and Materials Bundesverband der Energie-und Wasserwirtschaft (Federal Association of Energy and Water) Current Source Inverter Direct Current DIgital SImuLator for Electrical NeTwork Deutsches Institut fr Normung (German Standardisation System) Dynamic Simulation Language (DIgSILENT Simulation Language) European efficiency Electromagnetic Interference European Normalization European Union Full Bridge Feed in Tariff Fault ride through Grid Codes High Voltage International Energy Agency International Electrotechnical Commission Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor Short circuit current Current at maximum power point Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor Low Voltage Low Voltage Ride Through Maximum Power Point Medium Voltage Neutral Point Clamped Point of Common Coupling Power Factor Phased Locked Loop per unit Photovoltaic Photovoltaic Power Systems Pulse Width Modulation Renewable Energy Technology Root Mean Square
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STC THD UL VDE VDN Vmpp VOC VSI Wp
Nomenclature
Standard Test Conditions Total Harmonic Distortion Underwriters Laboratories Verband der Elektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstechnik (Association of Electrical Engineers) Verband der Netzbetreiber (Association of network operators) Voltage at maximum power point Open circuit voltage Voltage Source Inverter peak Wattage
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Introduction
Introduction
In the coming decades and taking into account the continuous population growth, the energy demand will probably double [1], if not more, bringing the societies to the brink of energy shortage. Even if the improvement of energy efficient technologies is significant, the future demand will not be able to be balanced if new sources would not be introduced and innovative technologies (either passive or active) would not be exploited. Due to the use of fossil fuels, major side-effects both in the environment and social life, have already caused an outburst, sounding the alarm for cleaner and carbon-free energy sources. The renewable energy sources, as carbon-free sources, appear to be a feasible alternative to conventional fuels. This shift is not a current phenomenon and mankind has already exploited the sun, the wind, the water and the earth to produce clean energy in order to address its needs and provide better quality of services. Since 1997 and the introduction of the White Paper by the European Commission, the formation of a renewable energy policy has begun. The overall objective was to reduce the dependence on fossil fuel imports and increase the security of supply moving towards a low carbon economy [2]. Over these years the orientation of the EU has changed from indicative targets, referring to electricity and transport fuel, to specific targets that are legally established by a legislation pattern. What is more, change has occurred towards redefinition of the infrastructure policy that plays a key role to the growth of Renewable Energy Technologies (RET) [3]. Nowadays, it is common belief from all the stakeholders involved (government, producer and the end user) that the benefits of a society, where renewable sources account increasingly to the consumption needs, are multiple. Strengthening the national and local economy, jobs creation, better life quality and of course less harmful contribution to the environment are some of the strongest arguments in favour of RET. In 2001, the EU Renewable Electricity Directive together with the Biofuels Directive that was signed two years after, set quite ambitious goals for the member states by 2010. Unfortunately, the 21% of renewable electricity production was met only by very few countries (i.e. Denmark, Germany, Poland et al.), however it gave boost to many economies and the sector of renewable energies experienced significant growth with the electricity production enjoying the biggest share [3]. In the year 2009 almost 61% of the new electricity generating capacity that was connected to the grid in the EU was from RET [4], while in 2010 the total electricity share in the EU reached 18.5%. This number, even if it is promising, is still far from the 37% that the Member States have set for 2020. Nevertheless, today the conditions are more favorable for higher and faster growth rates. There is a much more organized research field dedicated to the renewable technologies, better and more flexible legislation framework with number of incentives and support mechanisms and also a more open-minded industry. It is inevitable though that with changes, new problems are acquired and need to be addressed. The high penetration of renewables in the electricity supply system could create
Introduction
issues of instability to the grid, which is not designed to receive such integration. The problem requires an immediate attention in order to meet the target of 2020 or even exceed it. There are researches [4] that present scenarios for 2030 and 2050, when renewable electricity supply could be 68% and 100% respectively. It is understood then that more modern electricity grid system should be adopted, which means expansion of the grid but more important implies urgent modification of the already existing one. Improved technical specifications, the so-called Grid Codes (GCs), which will ensure the proper and safe function of the electrical grid should be introduced and facilitate the interconnection of electricity systems and the reinforcement of the grid. Problems like bottleneck in the grid should be overcome so as grid operators to exchange kWh when excess of electricity is produced from one and is needed by another one. Deregulationbased energy market for the support of the distributed generation can be the compass of the reformation of energy scenery.
1.1 The driving force

Among the RET, the lights have turned to wind turbines and solar PV technologies. Taking into consideration the fact that countries such as Germany and Spain enjoy a leading position in the renewable energy sector, tangible results can be withdrawn about the situation in Europe in general if those countries used as study cases. In figure 1.1 the aggregated renewable energy capacity in Germany is shown, proving that mainly the focus is on the wind technology and PV. As far as the PV installations concerned, there is a dramatic change since 2004, when the feed-in tariff policy mechanism and relevant subsidies have been in effect. Only in 2008 around 1.5 GWp were installed in Germany [5], while in September of 2010 the total number of installed capacity was 15 GWp, which is the 30% of the total RET installed and the 37.5% of the minimum load of electricity in 2009 as is seen in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Increase of Renewable Energy Sources in Germany 1990-2009 [5]
Introduction
In 2009, an improved version of the feed-in law was introduced specifying that for new PV power plants the feed-in tariffs will be reduced from 8% to 10% per year. The main reason for this change was to force the reduction of the investment cost in PV systems and lead to grid parity [5]. From the above, it is understood that the conditions are very favourable for the expansion of RET and especially of PV systems, which is the concern of this project. The Thesis focuses on grid connected PV systems and their advantage as a power generation unit. The tendency in industrialized countries is to connect the PV systems to the grid since there is almost everywhere an electrical network available. Figure 1.2 illustrates this tendency. The multifunctional role of the PV system and specifically of the grid tied inverter is highlighted in the Thesis. PV inverter is the main component of the system and is responsible for the power injection to the grid. Until now, its conventional role was to convert the DC power to AC power and feed-in the maximum possible active power to the grid. Moreover, in case of a grid failure it was designed to disconnect until the conditions stabilize again to reconnect. However, the high penetration of photovoltaics to the distribution network has raised new requirements for the modern PV inverters. Their role has become much more significant not only for the PV system but now also for the grid that is connected to.
Figure 1.2: Cummulative installed grid connected and off grid PV power in 26 countries that participate in the IEA PVPS [6]
The phenomenon of PV being one of the fastest growing sector in the RET industry is not only European but worldwide. In figure 1.3 is obvious that there is a steady rise in PV production around the world, which is being followed by a steady rise in PV installations, which can be seen in figure 1.4.
Introduction
Figure 1.3: World PV Cell/Module Production from 1990 to 2009 [7]
Figure 1.4: Annual Photovoltaic Installations from 2000 to 2009 [7]
The new setting that is being shaped because of the reasons mentioned so far makes the PV field even more interesting and every study around on-grid systems more challenging.
1.2 Overview of the Thesis report

The project in question is part of the initiative of Energynautics GmbH2 to fulfil a study concerning modelling and simulating large scale PV systems in relation to their impact on
For further information about the company refer to Acknowledgements
Introduction
the power system. The projects objectives are limited due to tight time constraints and are presented below in the same chapter. Nevertheless, the thesis tries to cover important aspects in theory and present realistic results through iterative simulations, aggregating some knowledge as far as the characteristics of larger penetration concerned. In the following chapter the theoretical approach is undertaken and basic background is presented. A brief overview of PV systems and some important characteristics are included and give place to a deeper analysis of the PV inverter and its modern role. A major part of this chapter is being covered by the reference of current GCs, principally those of Germany. In the third chapter the methodology of the study is explained as well as the tool that was used to model the PV and perform simulations. Chapter four is dedicated to the model with capacity 0.5 MVA that is used in this thesis and built by the company DIgSILENT. The control system is explained thoroughly and the choice of the configuration, inputs, outputs and parameters is justified. Its ability to be used as a generic model for PV systems that comply with the German GCs is investigated through simulations. Next chapter is dedicated to present an interconnection of the generic model in order to achieve a higher power output. The basic model was first modified by changing appropriate parameters in terms of rated peak power and consequently active power output. The new PV model of 1 MVA was used to create two different configurations of 20 MVA each. Load flow calculations and dynamic behaviour in case of a fault are presented with pasting relevant graphs. All the important results are, almost catholically, exported graphs from the simulation program. In the same chapter and after each result, a short discussion on the findings is taking place. In the conclusion chapter a general aggregation of the results is deployed. It is commented whether or not the objectives were met and further suggestions for future work are offered.
1.3 Objectives
The main aim of this thesis, presented also above, is to group together some basic knowledge, concerning the requirements that a grid connected photovoltaic system should fulfill in order to comply with certain codes, particularly with the German GCs, and how the integration of such decentralized power systems affect the behavior of the distribution network. More specifically, the objectives set for this project are: Provide a sufficient background and assessment for integrated PV systems. Important violations and technical constraints of MV and LV network are presented as well as the positive impact that PV systems have and the technological perspective that offer with the allotment of ancillary services. The key component for these services is the PV inverter, which covers the biggest share of the analysis. From the grid codes perspective, all the references concern the German grid code
Introduction
and mainly the provisions of the new German Transmission Code for Medium Voltage networks. Give a description of the tool used to model the full PV system, meaning the network, the PV generator, the inverter and the control system. The tool used for the simulations is the PowerFactory of DIgSILENT. Train for the use of PowerFactory and understand number of features that are useful for modeling and simulating PV systems. Understand and analyze a generic PV model and its compliance with the German GCs. Furthermore, examine, through simulations the shortcomings of the model. Customize the PV model in order to provide higher power output. Create two different interconnected PV configurations with the use of the modified PV model and study their behavior in case of faults. Recommend related future work.
1.4 Limitations
In the thesis, due to the broadness of the subject, several limitations were delineated with a sole purpose of presenting some facts in a conceivable and precise way and not correlating general cognition without any clear purpose. Some important limitations, following the objectives above, are: No stand alone systems are examined. The models are grid tied PV systems, meaning that no energy storage is taking into account. The attention is turned more to the electrical grid, meaning that the behaviour of the grid and the role of the inverter in this part are the basic considerations. No study is carried out as far as the suitable choice of an inverter according to the PV systems arrangement (number of modules per strings, number of strings per inverter or shading phenomena). The PV inverter is single-stage, meaning that there is no DC-DC boost converter involved and no studies are being undertaken concerning double-stage inverters. No real grid is taken into account for the study rather than an external grid component from the software used, where only the short-circuit power, the voltage factor and R/X ratio are defined. The grid is assumed strong and no comparison with weak grids is taking place.

No power quality studies (e.g. harmonics) are performed.
Introduction
The purpose of the study of the two different configurations is not to conclude in an optimum design.
Background
Background
2.1 PV systems Overview

Before studying the particularities of grid connected systems it is thoughtful to introduce very briefly the current status and some basic terminology of the photovoltaic technology and systems, singling some known key concepts that are the basis of this sector. In figure 2.1 the different kind of PV systems are presented. As it is seen the two basic categories are: The stand-alone systems, which are usually implemented in rural and remote areas in developing countries where no access to the grid is possible. However, the low cost production and innovative ideas have led to numerous of applications in industrialized countries as well (e.g. roof top systems, PV-glazing, solar traffic lighting, solar parking ticket machines, solar chargers, telecom et al.). Stand-alone systems are usually supported by storage systems (e.g. batteries) in order to meet the load in times when the solar irradiation is not enough for the PV to cover the whole need. The grid-connected systems, which are PV systems connected to the local distribution grid and supply it with power. The connection is via an inverter that converts the DC to AC and also secures the synchronization with the grid in voltage and frequency. The PV systems can be connected directly to the public grid or first to the house grid covering the electricity demand of the house and then supplying any excess to the public grid. Most of the systems are of large scale (above 100 kW), but small roof top on-grid systems are very common in countries with favourable FiT law. In general there is no separate energy storage beside the grid, but there are configurations that they use batteries [9] to increase the PV self-consumption and with it the availability of the system and provide a better back-up mode when grid failure occurs. Nevertheless the additional benefits of those systems should balance the extra investment and maintenance cost in order to be more competitive.
Background
Figure 2.1: Types of PV systems [8]
2.1.1 I-V Characteristics

The identity of a PV unit, either cell, module or array is the current and voltage curve or as usually found on texts I-V curve or PV characteristic curve. A typical shape of the characteristic under STC is seen in figure 2.2, showing the basic points. Those are the shortcircuit current (IK), the open-circuit voltage (Voc) and the maximum power point (MPP) and are defined below.
Figure 2.2: Typical I-V characteristic [8]
Background
The maximum power point (MPP) is the point where the PV cell, module or array supplies the maximum possible power. At this point the voltage and current are defined as maximum power voltage (Vmpp) and maximum power current (Impp) respectively. The MPP is given in peak watts (Wp) and is strongly affected by the irradiance level as well as the operating temperature of the PV. The short-circuit current (IK) is the maximum current that can flow from a PV when the voltage across the terminals is zero, meaning that are either connected to each other or an abnormal low-resistance connection has occurred. The short-circuit current is strongly affected but the incoming irradiation as it is seen in figure 2.3 and is approximately 5 to 15 per cent higher than the Immp [8]. Typical values of shortcircuit current of various PV modules and under STC can be found in the specifications of the product [10]. The open-circuit voltage (VOC) is the voltage between the two terminals of the PV when no external load in connected to it. The VOC is influenced by the operating temperature of the PV array which is of course linked to the ambient temperature. This can also be seen in figure 2.3. Typical values of open-circuit voltage can also be seen in [10]. The STC is a standard test of uniform conditions related to IEC 60904/DIN EN 60904 standards, which categorize the PV modules according to their I-V characteristics [8]. In brief, those are: vertical irradiance E of 1000 W/m2, cell temperature T of 25C with a tolerance of 2C and a defined air mass AM =1.5. AM defines the shape of solar light spectrum, in an approximate way, at a specific position of sun in comparison to that at zenith at sea level, which considers to be 1. AM increases as the zenith - sun angle increases since the light passes through more atmosphere and the attenuation (scattering and absorption is greater.
Figure 2.3: The effect of solar radiation and temperature on the I-V curve [8]
10
Background
A PV system, which is an interconnection of PV modules in series and in parallel, has its own I-V curve depending on how many PV modules are connected in series (strings) and how many are connected in parallel. Below it can be seen how the characteristic is formed by adding PV modules to the system. Furthermore, figure 2.4 points out that only PV modules with the same electrical characteristics are used in the interconnection in order to avoid power losses in the final system.
Figure 2.4: The effect of the interconnection of PV modules on the I-V curve
2.2 Grid-connected PV systems

Grid connected systems were explained in the previous section 2.1 as one of the two types of PV systems. In this part of the chapter a more detailed reference will be attempted since they cover the highest share of the installed photovoltaic capacity, either as on-grid domestic systems or power plants. Such PV systems consist mainly of the following components [8], [11], [12]:
11
Background
The PV modules that interconnect together forming the desirable system. The PV array is basically the generator of the system and specifically the static generator as it will be presented later on, since there is no rotating part. The mounting system, which for PV power plants is a stone or concrete pad foundation with metal or timber frames attached on it. The mounting system should above all ensure the designed angle of the PV system with the suns incident irradiation. When the system is implemented in an open field, sometimes the mounting should be within some requirements for environmental reasons. The DC cabling. The PV combiner/junction box, which is the place where all the strings are connected together and end up to the main DC cable. This box contains also important safety components as string diodes, fuses, isolations and the DC main switch to protect the system and the maintainer from accidents in case of faults. These protections together with the equivalent ones from the AC side are also found in literature as the balance of the system. The PV inverter, which transforms the DC current to AC and supplies it to the grid (mostly distribution), fully synchronised in frequency and voltage with it. The significance of this component is high and the full modern role is described in the following section of the chapter. The AC cabling and necessary protection. The meter cupboard, which is the systems data monitor involving supply and feed meter, displaying the flow energy between the PV and the grid or/and the load. In large PV power plants, there can be additional components that improve the efficiency of the system or ensure better control and monitoring. For instance, cooling pipes in the back of the PV array to reduce the operating temperature and increase the MPP or remote monitors that allow real-time performance, output values and potential faults to be displayed in a the owners computer are some examples of such components.
2.3 PV inverter
The PV inverters that are studied in this thesis are the grid-tied ones. They are also found as utility-intertie or synchronous inverters. The labelling exists, because there is often a misunderstanding that there are no inverters for stand-alone systems or that both types of inverters are the same. In fact there are and they can connect to the grid, but only to import power from the grid and not supply [11].
12
Background
2.3.1 What is available Current status

PV inverters can be categorised in various ways according to the topology, the operation principle, the type of the connection to the grid and by application. Based on the connection to the grid inverters can be: Single-phase inverters refer to inverter structures applied in small scale roof-top systems (of until 5 kWp). Three-phase inverters refer to larger systems, which is mostly the case for on-grid PV systems and are connected of course to a three-phase supply system. The basic three-phase inverter consists of three single line inverters, which are connected to each load terminal. So, it is not actually a true three-phase inverter and this is because a three-wire topology will require relatively high DC voltage values (around 600 V for a 400 V three-phase grid) and is limited to 1000 V due to safety reasons in installation procedures. Also the monitoring and control for islanding requirement becomes more difficult in relation to three single phase connections [14]. The inverter as an electronic oscillator is required to generate a pure sine wave synchronized to the grid as stated before.
Figure 2.5: Principle of connecting PV systems to the grid with a single-phase and three-phase inverter [8]
According to the size and the application, inverters can be central, string, multistring and module kind [11], [14]. Central inverters are connected with more than one or all the parallel strings of PV modules and can be of some kW until one MW of power range. String inverters are connected to each string of the PV array seperately and their range of power is a few KW (0.4 - 2 kW). Multi-string inverters are a rather new concept according to which, several strings of different configation (different PV modules) and orientation can be connected
13
Background
together. For this reason, necessary DC-DC converters are used to provide the same output signal to the input of the multi-string inverter. Multi-string inverters increase the efficiency of the system since every string can track its own MPP. Their range varies from 1.5 kW to 6 kW. Module-type inverters are connected to each module seperately transforming it in a PV AC module. Their use is still limited and their range is from 50 to 400 W. Taking into consideration that the PV modules produce DC power at a low voltage, the systems output requires some adjustment to be fed as AC power at the votage of the grid as cited before. The inverters used for this adjustment and apply diferent operationprinciple are [8], [13]: Line-commutated. Such invertrs use switching devices (thyristor bridge or IGBT) that control the switch-on time only. The switch-off time is done by reducing the circuit current to zero by using the voltage of the grid. The name line-commutated represents exactly this grid controlled dependance, meaning the inverter uses the voltage of the grid to decide the turn on and turn off time of these thyristors. One disadvantage is that they produce a square wave current output, which introduces undesirable harmonic components, which can be reduced by the use of filters. This principle is used today less especially in single phase inverters. Self-commutated. Such inverters are more complicated and use switching devices (IGBT and MOSFET) that can control the switch-on and switch-off time and adjust the output signal to the one of the grid. The self-commutated inverters are the predominant technology in PV power sources because of their ability to control the voltage and current output signal (AC side), regulate the power factor and reduce the harmonic current distortion. Especially, since the role of PV inverter has become more vital, this operation principle is offering the capabilty to cover the multiple services and increase the resistance to the grid disturbances. Depending on the type of pulse they control, either voltage or current, self-commutated are divided to voltage source and current source inverters. Voltage source inverters (VSI). VSI realize the DC side as a constant voltage source and the output current is changing with the load. For this reason is normally connected to the grid with an inductance so as not to supply with current infinitely when there is not voltage or phase match between inverter and grid. Current source inverters (CSI). Respectively, CSI the DC source appears as a constant current input and the voltage is changing with the load. The protection filter is normally a capacitance in parallel with the DC source.
Self-commutated inverters produce very good sine wave outputs with the use PWM technic and low pass filters [8].
14
Background
Another basic criterion for categorizing PV inverters is whether or not use galvanic isolation (transformer) to connect to the grid. There are many advantages and disadvantages in each type to be considered, with Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) being one of the most important issue. Inverters with low-frequency transformers (50 Hz) or high frequency transformers (10 kHz to 50 kHz) have the DC circuit seperated from the AC circuit, offering recuction of EMI. However, the big size especially when using low frequency transformers, the lower efficiency of the inverter due to transformer losses and the extra cost turn the attention to transformless topologies and their improvement to work in higher power ranges than today [8]. Transformless topologies still need more innovative and complicated solutions to become competitive especially in terms of electrical safety. Furthermore, in cases when the the DC output of the PV system is not as the one of the grid or higher, a step-up DC-DC converter is needed. Thus, part of the losses that were avoided from not using a transformer are compensated by the use of the converter. Nevertheless, almost all the typical applied inverter structures today need a boosting and require a DC-DC converter [14]. In general, there are numerous different topologies of inverters that could apply in grid connected systems. Today, big manufacturing companies promote their own designs and variations, which are derivatives of two main converter families [14]: H-bridge or FB topology. Figure 2.6 shows the original structure of this topology, which is used in the most typical complete PV structures nowadays. Based on that many designs have been patented offering a wider range of choices (e.g. H5 Inverter of SMA, HERIC Inverter of Sunways, REFU Inverter etc). NPC topology. It is a more modern topology and the one that was connected to the grid without transformer. In general and in comparison with the FB topology, NPC can produce lower switch losses and harmonics, improving the efficiency of the inverter [15]. However, is rather unbalanced and require double voltage input in comparison with the FB topology [14].
Figure 2.6: FB inverter topology [14]
15
Background
2.3.2 Issues when choosing inverter

It is obvious that selecting the right inverter technology for the PV system is an issue with many parameters, technical and economical. If there is no clear purpose from the operator of the power plant then the choice is always the one that combines the best possible efficiency output with the best possible cost (investment, operation and maintenance). However, there are PV power systems that aim to the highest energy output for covering partly or fully a load need and others that aim to support and optimize a weak grid. Therefore, the systems basic configurations (PV array, control systems, inverter etc) should be approached and analyzed differently. Even so, no matter the objective of the system, basic considerations should be addressed when selecting a PV inverter and these considerations should be examined under the technical requirements and specifications (grid codes) of each country. Below these issues are presented [16]. Efficiency. This is a basic issue in every system, but mostly in PV systems where the highest energy yield is the priority. The current efficiency of the inverters is very high in every topologies, reaching the 92% and 94% in inverters with transformers and even higher without galvanic isolation. As rule of thumb an improvement of 1% can result in 10% more power output over a year [16]. Standby power losses during periods of negligible load need to be assessed, because they affect the overall efficiency. Since inverters operate at different efficiencies depending on the load, every inverter is expressed with different efficiency curve. A reliable method to evaluate the overall efficiency of the inverter is the European Efficiency standard or else eEURO. This standard takes into consideration the amount of time (in percentage) that the inverter is expected to work at partial load/level of irradiation. Even if this standard is valid for irradiance levels of Central Europe, it is a sufficient way to compare different inverters [11]. The euro-efficiency is defined by (2.1)
EURO = 0.035% + 0.0610% + 0.13 20% + 0.130% + 0.4850% + 0.2100%
(2.1)
Explaining a factor of the above component e.g. 0.03, it means that the inverter is operating at 5% for a duration of 0.03 and the total operating time. Safety. Refers mainly to Anti-Islanding (AI) protection. Unintentionally islanding takes place when PV inverters dont disconnect from the utility after it has been shut down. This is due to the fact that there are load circuits that happen to resonate at the frequency of the grid. So the inverter continues to put voltage on the grid making it unsafe especially for the utility workers. Isolation transformers and other AI setups are defined by standards (e.g. VDE 0126, IEEE 1574) [14]. Similar protection is required against over-currents, surges, under- and over-frequency and under- and over-voltages for DC input and AC output. Power Quality. This issue is actually a general requirement for all grid-connected inverters and not only PV ones. It refers to variations in voltage magnitude, frequency limits, harmonic content in the waveforms and other parameters. The THD limits are set by international and local standards (usually less than 8%). The
16
Background
total harmonic distortion is given by (2.2) [17]. In general the harmonic content must be low to protect both loads and utility equipment. The waveform and power factor must be acceptable to the utility.
40
THD =
X h = harmonics X 1 = fundamental
h=2
X
X1
2 h
(2.2)
Electromagnetic Interference. It should be as low as possible in order to comply with the limits of relevant local requirements. Compatibility with the array. Both array and inverter need to be compatible and the inverter should be able to withstand the maximum array current and voltage. The VOC of the array should also be well within the inverters tolerable voltage range. The MPP range of the inverter should also match the operating voltage of the array. These compatibility issues can be seen in figure 2.7. As far as the MPP tracker requirements concerned, those should be of high efficiency during steady state, fast tracking in sudden changes of solar radiation and stable operation at very low irradiation levels [14].
Figure 2.7: Inverters operating range [8]
Lightning and voltage impulse protection. These must comply with local provisions.
17
Background
Other. Issues like size, weight, construction and materials, protection against local weather conditions, terminals, and instrumentation should be addressed in conjunction with local rules.
2.3.3 Additional requirements Ancillary functions

The additional requirements have been enforced by GCs due to the increasing penetration of photovoltaics into the grid and basically impose additional functions and technical improvements concerning the grid support. Summarily these new roles are: Voltage control Active power control Reactive power compensation Harmonic compensation Fault ride-through
Those new services of the PV inverters will be presented more deeply later on in the new German Grid Code section.
2.4 Low voltage ride through (LVRT) requirement

In general, the definition of LVRT or FRT includes the requirements that a power generating unit tied to the grid should meet, in case of a voltage dip due to a fault or sudden load change in the grid. The impact of the voltage dip can be described according to the voltage level reduction and its duration. In this case, the power generation unit is a PV system, connected with the grid through the inverter, which is in fact the device that should be capable for LVRT. The possible scenarios during a voltage dip (or power dip) are: Immediate disconnection from the grid, when the fault occurs and throughout its duration. The inverter shall reconnect again after the fault is cleared. Stay connected to the grid during the fault. Stay connected but support the grid only with reactive power (reactive current) during the fault. After the clearance of the fault the unit should consume the same reactive power as before the fault. From the above three scenarios, the one that will be applied depends on the decision of the grid operator under respective grid codes. Until recently PV systems were designed with the sole purpose to provide the best possible active power to the grid. Therefore, the PV inverter topologies and control systems were orientated mostly to the MPP tracking and
18
Background
even if they were designed to provide reactive current, during a fault they were disconnecting from the grid under technical standards as IEEE 1547 and VDE 0126-1-1 [17]. However, due the extensive PV penetration into the grid, as described in the introduction chapter, the requirements have been modified. The PV inverters should stay connected to the grid and support it with reactive power, when needed, contributing to the power quality and prevent voltage instabilities. The disconnection-reconnection scenario is aggravating for the components of the system reducing possibly their lifetime or causing even greater instabilities to the grid especially in large scale integration. Moreover, after disconnection the PV unit will be connected again when the grid is stabilized, meaning that the time that is off the grid the loss of active power could be of great significance especially on grids where the share of PV power is high.
2.4.1 Reactive power and its importance

The high importance of the reactive power was perceived after major blackouts (e.g. Ohio in 2003) that occurred due to voltage drops (and subsequent current rise) in electricity lines, when one line was cut off and the remaining ones could not bear the load. Reactive power, in general, can be seen as a tool to provide smoothly real power and has a strong effect on the voltage of the system. It is a circulating power in the grid that doesnt do any useful work. In PV systems the importance became obvious after the growth of PV systems connected to the LV and MV as well. The existing grid was not designed for such high penetration of interconnected PV and a violation of voltage limits in times of high solar irradiation was possible. For this reason PV inverters should be able to provide reactive power in order to reduce the voltage rise along the feeder [18]. As mentioned above, in case of voltage collapse the inverter should be able to provide reactive current and stabilize the grid within some time frames defined by grid codes. Nevertheless, reactive power compensation for the PV inverters hasnt been part of many local GCs. German utilities, though, have defined and analysed the supply methods of reactive power, which are stated below the the new German Grid Code section. The specificity of the PV systems to be close to the location where the reactive power could be needed is an advantage considering the fact that reactive power does not travel far in comparison to the active power [19].
2.5 Grid requirements for PV systems

The need of improved and new technical specifications, as stated in previous parts of this report, is the requirement that will ensure smoother penetration of PV systems, without compromising the power quality and stability of the grid. The GCs represent these requirements and address to network operators, project designers as well as component manufacturers (mostly PV inverter manufacturers) in order to design their products
19
Background
according to some uniform guidance [20]. Photovoltaic power systems affect mostly the low and medium-voltage network and only approximately 1% of the high voltage network is fed by PV power [5], meaning that the demand for grid stability reflects the low and the medium voltage networks. The growth of the renewable generation and the expansion of distributed generators, have aroused awareness to many countries. However the introduction of effective grid codes is a rather difficult task with problems that cause significant delays in the process [14]. Some of those problems are the different features among the different generators, the void legislation pattern and the lack of production management in the field. The PV industry is even more sensitive to such problems, because of the wide range of different PV inverter technologies and designs and their multitask role in comparison to the conventional one they had until now [14]. Due to the different grid characteristics there are many different GCs that have been introduced around the world. Countries as China, Australia and India have different requirements among them. Even inside Europe there are many differences. Concerning the PV field the requirements usually follow the requirements of wind power systems or the general provisions that apply to the generators that produce electricity close to the end users of power (distributed generation).
2.5.1 The new German Grid Code

The situation in Germany is examined selectively, because its GCs directives are the most updated and specific ones. The Federal association of Germany has introduced in June 2008 a new code referring to the connection and operation of distributed power generation plants to the medium voltage power grid. This code was published as a consequence of the Transmission Code of 2007, which covers the requirements of systems connected to the high-voltage grid (transmission network) [21]. The PV power plants that were excluded from the provisions of the Transmission Code are now affected by this new medium voltage grid code reforming their static and dynamic requirements as well. Since January 1st 2011 all the new PV plants should comply with this code, while existing units can still operate according to their initial requirements [20]. The following table 2.1 summarizes the new requirements based on the definitions of the HV in VDN, MV in BDEW and LV in Network Technology/Grid operated with VDE (Netztechnik/Netzbetrie beim VDE) grid codes. The operating requirements are given at the PCC.
20

Table 2.1: New requirements for grid tied generators [22]
Background
Static Voltage Support Under continuous operation and when the system operator requires it, the unit must be capable to participate in the static voltage support in order to keep the voltage within acceptable limits when slight deviations occur. The participation is has to do with reactive power injection capabilities which are described below. These voltage limits are different in every level of voltage but are usually between +12% and -13% of the nominal voltage [23]. The IEEE-1547 standard requires for the utility interactive inverters +10% and -12% at the PCC [24]. Active Power control Active power control or active power throttling [21] or active power derating [22] or active power curtailment [14], [23] as it is found in the literature refers to the ability of the generating plant to reduce/adjust its power output as required by the network operator or even disconnect the PV plant in order to avoid potential dangers regarding the stability of the system and human personnel. Some cases of controlling the active power could be: unsafe system operation, unintentional islanding, frequency deviation or maintenance after a grid failure. In Germany the active power is required to be changed with a ramp rate of 10% per minute, or smaller, of the rated active power capacity until any level is necessary. However, it cannot be lower than 0.1 p.u [14]. The power plant should not disconnect from the grid for any setpoint over 10%. The control is implemented normally in two ways [20][21]: Automatically, when an overfrequency is detected.
21
Background
Manually, with the use of an adequate signal by the operator, which represents a setpoint (e.g. 100%, 60%, 30% and 0%). There is no physical interference in the control unit, only the use of the control signal. As far as the first way concerned, the control unit should follow the below figure 2.8. According to this figure the PV system should reduce the power output when the frequency exceeds the value 50.2 Hz. The slope or gradient of reduction should be 40% of the instantaneous last value of power just before the 50.2 Hz. Besides the upper frequency limitation, the value 50.05 is the lower limit below which the PV system can increase again the active power feed-in. The grey areas in the figure set where the plant should disconnect from the grid, what is to say below 47.5 Hz and above 51.5 Hz.
Figure 2.8: Active power control requirement for grid-tied generators [20][21]
Reactive Power control The reactive power was discussed in a different part of this thesis, in an attempt to emphasize its importance to the safe operation of the grid. The German GCs state that the generating units should be able to provide reactive power support in every operating point by adjusting the power factor at the PCC, at least in a value of 0.95 both leading and lagging for all the power levels. The investigated reactive power supply methods are [18][20][25]: A fixed power factor (cos). A cos(P) function, where the provided power factor depends on the instantaneous active power output of the inverter. In figure 2.9 an example is seen, as well as the limitations (0.95underexcited to 0.95overexcited) A fixed reactive p ower.
22
Background
A Q(U) droop function, where the provided reactive power depends on the voltage at the PCC.
Figure 2.9: Example of cos(P)-characteristic [20]
Nowadays, PV systems are mainly designed to provide active power, since reactive power contributes to losses in the lines, transformers and inverter. For this reason and in order to comply with the above requirement the inverter should be oversized. What is to say, taking into account the above power factor of 0.95 an inverter able to supply 475 KW should be of 500 kVA apparent power. Dynamic Voltage Support When referring to dynamic voltage support, it is simply implied the requirements what a PV system should fulfil under fault conditions and grid disturbances and also which should be its behaviour after the restoration of the fault. These requirements are [14], [20]-[22]: Fault-Ride-Through requirement, which is mainly LVRT that described before. During a voltage drop the PV should remain connected to the grid even if the voltage at the PCC drops to zero. As seen in the figure 2.10 the system is required to stay on grid for 150 ms and inject reactive power. The time chosen is typically the operating time of the protection relays. However if the voltage continues being lower than 30% of the nominal, the unit can disconnect since there are no requirements for that duration (above 150ms). Borderline 1 is placed to distinguish the normal operation, since above it the voltage dips may not create any instability and the system should stay connected. However, in the area below the borderline 2 there is a possibility of short or longer disconnection. In the area that is defined between the two borderlines the PV generator should stay connected and provide reactive power after arrangement with the system operator. A short-time disconnection of up to 2 s is also within arrangement.
23
Background
Figure 2.10: Fault-Ride-through capability [20]
Reactive current injection requirement. During the fault and as described above the PV should support the grid (voltage support) by feeding-in reactive power or absorbing. In the German GCs the required reactive current is defined as presented in figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Reactive current injection requirements in the event of network faults [20]
As it is obvious in the figure, a deadband of 10% of voltage variation is used, where no current is injected. The purpose of this deadband is to improve the stability of the grid. The response time of the reactive current controller should be preferably less than 20 ms (maximum 30 ms). In case the fault does not apply in the same way in each phase
24
Background
(asymmetrical fault), the reactive current should not cause voltage increment above 10% of the nominal voltage in the non faulty phases.
2.5.2 The Situation in the Rest of Europe

There are other European countries that have developed in detail their own GCs. Scotland, Ireland and Denmark are some examples of countries that have released specific codes that determine FRT, power factor and dynamic requirements that can be found in detail in [23]. However, these directives are mostly reflect wind power systems or other renewables connected to distribution system and there is no specific reference for PV systems to comply with. The case that could be excluded is Spain where, since 1st January 2011, grid requirements are in effect covering also the photovoltaics [28]. In France the case is similar, while in Greece GCs codes are under investigation [20].
2.5.3 Further International and European requirements for PV

Beside the local GCs, there are number of worldwide standards that are being developed by international organisations in order to promote uniform-based requirements that could boost up the PV market even more and facilitate the interconnection of distributed systems among neighbour countries. Some important of those standards are presented briefly below [14]: IEEE 1547 Interconnection of Distributed Generation. This standard is the result of effort to establish an interconnection standard that applies to all technologies. It comes as continuity from the IEEE 929-2000 and the UL 1741 that covered recommended practices for utility interface of small-scale PV systems and listed important safety and grid performance requirements that influenced a lot the PVinverter technologies. IEEE 1547 gives base on technical specifications and testing standards, setting mandatory provisions for power quality, dc current injection and AI requirements for interconnected generators of up to 10 MW. IEC 61727 Characteristics of Utility Interface. This standard is more specific for PV systems and refers to on-grid systems operating in parallel with the utility and utilize static non-islanding inverters and also to PV systems interconnected to the distribution system. A more specific standard, IEC 62116, has been implemented also, defining the testing procedures of AI measures that cited in the IEC 61727. EN 50160 Public Distribution Voltage Quality. It defines the main voltage parameters and the acceptable deviation ranges at the PCC in the MV and LV network and under normal operation. Those parameters affect highly the control and design of the PV inverters in order to withstand voltage disturbances. Thus, the PV inverter should be designed to comply with [14]: The voltage harmonic levels. Maximum THD is 8%. The voltage unbalances (three-phase inverters). Maximum unbalance is 3%.
25

Voltage amplitude variations. Maximum 10% Frequency variations. Maximum 1% Voltage dips: duration less than 1 s at 60 % dip
Background
The above parameters should be fulfilled during the 95% of the testing period, while for 5% of the period other wider ranges apply. The specific variations in voltage and frequency are describes in the local GCs.
26
Methodology
Methodology
The method applied in this thesis and meeting the objectives was based on creating a sufficient background by continuous literature review of a number of scientific papers, articles, reports and books. The necessary information were filtered and used to provide a theoretical overview over the grid connected photovoltaic systems and support with discussion the simulation results. Furthermore, during this bibliographical research the first acquaintance with the modelling tool was made, by studying tutorials and useful parts of the technical manual. Since the theoretical needs have been satisfied, the practical part was initiated that covers an examination of a PV model of DIgSILENT at first, a modification of it and a development of two interconnected systems.
3.1 Description of the tools

The study that was carried out in this project was a simulation study of a PV on-grid system. The model as well as the simulation was performed using the PowerFactory tool of DIgSILENT. The respective company has applied years of experience in modelling power systems and the simulation tool is considered to be one of the most powerful in the field. DIgSILENT provides the ability to the user to simulate load flow, RMS fluctuations and transient events in the same environment. PowerFactory has a quite comprehensive library of models for electrical power system components such as generators, motors, relays etc, as well as many passive network elements such as lines, terminals, transformers etc. Those built-in models can correspond to predefined types that are part of the library or userdefined data types. What is more, it is possible to create new models with DSL and by using mathematical formulas that describe the behaviour of the model. The version used is the latest one (version 14.1), which very more adequate for distributed generation modelling. Load flow studies and RMS dynamic simulations were the functions that used in this thesis.
3.2 Ways for simulating PV with PowerFactory

Until now three methods have been used to model a PV system itself with PowerFacory, regardless the type of control. In each method different elements/components are used
27
Methodology
depending on the users experience and the type of study that is performed. Below those methods are deployed in short. DC Current Source In this method the PV array is represented as a DC current source connected to a DC terminal. This is a simple way to simplify the PV array and focus on the grid and its behaviour. In parallel with the current source a shunt filter is used, which is the capacitor for these models. The below figure 3.1 shows the set-up as it was captured from a model.
Figure 3.1: PV array as DC current source
DC Voltage Source In fact DC voltage source is used to model PV systems with storage requirements and not to represent the PV array itself. The battery can be considered as a source of real voltage. The source voltage represents the open circuit voltage between its terminals [26]. An example from the PowerFactory library is shown in figure 3.2.
28
Methodology
Figure 3.2: PV model with battery
PWM converter As seen in figure 3.2 and more clearly in figure 3.3, PWM converter can be used to model a PV inverter. The PV array is again modelled as a DC current source connected to a DC terminal and a PWM PV inverter is used to create a sine wave. This converter represents a self-commutated, voltage sourced converter [26].
Figure 3.3: PV inverter as PWM component
Static generator The PV system is modelled as a static generator, since there is no rotating part in the PV array. The static generator is used for other similar generators, without rotor, such as fuel cells, storage etc. Since the generator is connected to an AC terminal, it includes the PV array, the DC terminal and the PV inverter, which are normally presented as DSL userdefined models in the general frame. A more detail reference is done in the following
29
Methodology
chapters, because in this Thesis the component used for modelling the PV system is the static generator.
Figure 3.4: PV system as static generator
30
Model Description
Model Description
4.1 The base model

The basic PV system that is analysed in this Thesis is developed by a static generator. It is a generic model that was built by DIgSILENT as part of a past study and is available in the newest version of the PowerFactory tool. The template consists of the PV generator with number of control systems and design features, which are integrated in it and also a LV terminal of nominal voltage 0.4 KV that the generator is connected with. The capacity of the system is 0.5 MW. The model is being examined thoroughly and its features are being presented below. Some additional information about the DSL code and the parameters used are found in the Appendix. The model is being analyzed in accordance with the German GCs and its possibility to serve the needs of PV on-grid systems in Germany. Below in figure 4.1 the system-model is pasted and highlighted inside the red box. The rest of the configuration, which includes an external grid, a MV bus bar of 33kV nominal voltage and a step up transformer of 0.5 MVA rated power, were just built in order to serve the needs of the examination.
Figure 4.1: The base PV model
31
Model Description
The external grid that is used in the system is a component of the program. The values that are used for the calculations in the study are the minimum short circuit values as seen in figure 4.2. In general, the minimum values are used to determine where to set the fault pickup level. The minimum short circuit current is the smallest current that can run at a given point and the circuit breaker should be able to sense that fault at that point [27]. The maximum values of short circuit currents are calculated to determine the breaking capacity of the circuit breakers. Both minimum and maximum values are defined by the IEC standard (IEC 60909) [27].
Figure 4.2: The external grid settings
The assumption that the short circuit power is 30 times higher than the capacity of the solar power is used [28]. This value is considered a good estimation. In order to determine how much of PV capacity can be installed in a certain grid, load flow studies are necessary to check the voltage rise at the PCC. From this value and using (4.1) [29], the initial short circuit current is calculated automatically by the program. Figure 4.3 is a simple representation of a short circuit.
Figure 4.3: Simple equivalent of a short circuit on the grid [29]
32
Model Description
S
where,
'' kQ
= 3U I
'' nQ kQ
'' kQ
'' S kQ
3U nQ
(4.1)
U nQ = 33kV ( MV nominal voltage)
The c-factors, or else voltage factors, are according to IEC 60038 for MV up to 35 kV [27], [29]. Voltage factors refer to voltage regulation and imply that the pre-fault voltage (nominal) would be approximately 5% lower than the no-load voltage. The voltage factors cmax and cmin define the allowance for system voltages. Here the cmin value is used, which is used for minimum currents. As far as the R/X ratio concerned, based on the conclusions of [30], at low values (<0.4) reactive power is more effective for voltage regulation in distribution networks, while for values above 1.8 active power has a larger impact. In this case a value of 0.3 is assumed.
4.2 The PV generator

The PV generator under normal steady-state operation and flow injects 448.84 kW and 0 kVar as seen in figure 4.4, implying PF=1 at the point of connection with LV terminal. The active power is at the MPP and is defined by the parameters of the PV array and the data sheets of the PV modules used in the array. In table 9.1 the values of Vmpp and Impp of the PV modules are given for STC and are 35V and 4.58A respectively. Taking into account that 20 modules are per strings and 140 modules in parallel then the following calculation gives the input active power result.
(35 V 20 modules series ) (4.58 A 140 modules parallel ) = 700 641.2 = 448.84 kW
(4.2)
33
Model Description
Figure 4.4: PV generator power flow characteristics under normal steady-state operation
The active power operation limits refer to the inverter (AC side), which is able to inject 475 kW, due to the 0.95 PF that the PV generator is designed to operate. Concerning the reactive power limits of the inverter, those are defined by the capability curve, which is implemented in the generator, shown in figure 4.5 and explained below.
34
Model Description
Figure 4.5: Capability curve of the inverter
In the above graph a, the complete capability curve of the PV generator (or PV inverter) is seen, which includes manufacturing constraints and limitations defined by the operator and the GCs. The x-axis is the active power in p.u. values, while the y-axis suggests the reactive power in p.u. values. To begin with, the blue line is the power limit of the inverter. The inverter cannot operate outside this curve since it is limited by the nominal power of the generator (0.5 MVA in this case). Thus, it is considered to be a manufacturing constrain. I should be stated that the injected power is limited by the nominal current of the inverter, meaning that is impossible to operate at maximum active and reactive power at the same time. As far as the black line concerned, it is the limit of the active power injection by the engine itself due to the designed power factor (0.95 in this case), as explained before. Finally, the red lines are the maximum values (limits) of possible reactive power injection. Those limits are defined by the manufacturer and here are given for three voltage levels as it is seen in graph b of the same figure. The nominal AC voltage (green lines in graph b) and the two voltage limits, maximum (blue lines in graph b) and minimum (red lines in graph b) for normal operation. The lines of graph b are drawn according to the values of the matrices in figure 4.6. The inverter can supply reactive power within the limits (-Qmax and +Qmax) according to the system operator, the control system and method that is used. In the green marked area in
35
Model Description
graph a, the requirements according to the medium voltage GC is shown. The inverter should supply reactive power within the defined PF limits and of course the maximum limits (the capability) should cover this area. Concerning the use of the reactive capability curve, it is used by setting the local voltage control to a setpoint (0.95 p.u., 1 p.u. or 1.05 p.u.) and running load flow calculations considering the reactive power capability settings. The static generator tries then to reach the voltage setpoint by feeding or consuming reactive power until either the voltage reaches the setpoint or the reactive power reaches its limit. The reactive power capability curve is expressed in p.u. values, so it is scaled according to the rated power of the static generator.
Figure 4.6: Maximum reactive power limits in three voltage levels
The area that is highlighted in red circle in figure 4.5 and figure 4.6 is a situation where the reactive power is limited in a certain active power value and voltage due to the nominal apparent power (0.5 MVA) and the PF (0.95) of the generator. As mentioned before, the inverters are not designed to provide reactive power. For this reason they are normally over-sized to provide some amount of reactive power even in maximum active power production in order to compensate for the absorbance by the transformers. Under no solar conditions, they can provide voltage support at no extra cost [31].
4.2.1 The Control Frame of the PV Generator

The control frame of the PV system is shown in figure 4.7. At first glance it is obvious that there are blocks for modeling the DC bus bar and the PV array itself since in the electrical diagram of figure 4.1 these components are integrated in the static generator. The basic schematic consists of 11 slots, which have been numbered in order to be more obvious to the reader.
36
Model Description
Figure 4.7: The control frame of the PV generator
Solar Radiation (Slot 1) In the second chapter of this Thesis the influence of the solar irradiation to the PV array current and consequently to the power output was presented. The existence of this slot is to to comprehend with all the potential change of irradiance (dE) per second and integrate them over a period of time (see figure 4.8).
37
Model Description
Figure 4.8: The structure of irradiance slot
This is of great importance when examining ramp rates and dynamic behaviours of the PV system during cloud effects. Below in figure 4.9 a simple case of solar radiation increment is presented, while in figure 4.10 its effect on the PV output characteristics are seen.
Figure 4.9: Solar irradiation increment
38
Model Description
Figure 4.10: Effect of solar irradiance in the PV characteristics
From the above, it is clear the high effect solar irradiance has on the PV array current (~ 70 A more). On the other hand the voltage output and the Vmmp of the array are not influenced much from this rise (less than 10 V). Therefore, as expected the PV power output increases when the solar irradiation increases. This is shown in figure 4.11. This result is not entirely correct, because with the rise of the incoming radiation, the operating temperature of the PV array is rising also, especially when there are no cooling mechanisms (fans, heat exchangers etc). In fact the PV power output will start decreasing slightly after a point, since the array voltage will decrease.
Figure 4.11: Effect of solar irradiance in the PV power output
In this case and under normal operation, no shading effects are taken into account, so the constant value of this slot is irradiance of 1000 W/m2, which corresponds to the STC
39
Model Description
irradiance. The upper limit of the integrator is set to 1400 W/m2, which is related to the mean solar power above Earth atmosphere (1366 W/m2) [32]. Temperature (Slot 2) Similar reasoning follows the temperature slot. Temperature is the second important factor that influences the power output of the PV system by affecting the voltage of the array. An integrator is used also here for the potential temperature changes in the cell/module per second. Such changes can be seen in figure 4.12. The effect in the voltage output is presented in figure 4.13. However the temperature that is used here is 25 oC which is the STC temperature.
Figure 4.12: Temperature increment in the PV array
Figure 4.13: Effect of the operation temperature in the PV voltage
40

Photovoltaic model (Slot 3)
Model Description
This slot consists of five other blocks which are presented in figure 4.14. The main component of this model is the one that is enclosed in blue contour, which is the model description of one PV module of the whole array. Then according to the way that is interconnected with identical modules the final outputs of the PV array are calculated, which are the array current and the array voltage at MPP, as described in (4.2). The inputs are the operating temperature theta and the irradiance E that are defined in slots 1 and 2 as seen above, as well as the voltage at the DC bus bar, meaning the operating voltage of the PV array, which is denoted as Uarray here. In brief, the voltage is passing through a low pass filter to attenuate the high frequency signals in case of abnormal operation, so under normal conditions is deactivated. The filtered voltage then is devided by the number of modules that are connected in series in order to achieve the voltage per module.
Figure 4.14: The photovoltaic array model
Inside the PV module an algorithm is used and presented in Appendix (figure 9.1) by captions taken from DIgSILENT. This algorithm is calculating the voltage and current at MPP taking into consideration the temperature and solar irradiation dependency. Since all the parameters are given at STC, corrections should be made in all voltages (VOC and Vmpp) and currents (Ik and Impp) according to the operating temperatures of the module. The factors au and ai from table 9.1 are provided by the module manufacturer and are used in the following equations:
41
Model Description
voltage correction = 1 + au (T TSTC )
(4.3) (4.4)
current correction = 1 + ai (T TSTC )
These correction factors are used to determine with the following equations in figure 9.1 all the voltages and currents when the PV array operates in real temperatures, in order to determine undesired voltage and current levels. For instance, early in the morning or in cold places the Voc is much bigger than in times with high irradiance and high temperatures. Such voltage ranges can be harmful for the inverter. The calculation procedure is based on the modifications of ASTM E1036-96 [33]. The equivalent circuit for the ideal solar cell that is used as a model for calculating the current output is shown in figure 4.15. The equations, found in [34], that follow the below figure are used in the DSL code to determine the current output. Such models of course have a low approximation quality, since important parameters as Rs and Rp that affect the efficiency of the cell are omitted. Rs refers to losses due to poor conductivity and poor external connection, while Rp refers to losses due to poorly rectifying devices and has to do with leakage of current through the cell and around the edges [35].
Figure 4.15: The electrical equivalent of an ideal solar cell [34]
I = I ph I 0 (e
U = U T ln(
U UT
1)
)
(4.5)
I ph I + I 0 I0
U oc UT
(4.6)
I0 = Ik e
(4.7)
I ph = I k
(4.8)
42

where, I k = short circuit current I 0 = reverse bias saturation current U oc = open circuit voltage UT = thermal voltage (=kT/q) and is around 25.85 mV at 300 K
Model Description
Power Measurement (Slot 4) This slot is used to represent an active power measurement. A PQ measurement device is used in the connection point of the PV generator and is implemented in this slot. The output value that is used is the active power measurement, pist, which is used as an input to the DC Busbar and Capacitor model slot. Slow Frequency Measurement (Slot 5) Similar to slot 4, a frequncy measurement device is used and implemented to slot 5. However, the device that is used is a PLL device and is described biefly later on (slot 10). One of the outputs of PLL is fmeas, that is used as an input value to the Active Power Reduction block. This value is a clear value of frequency regardless of instantaneous disturbances, over a period of time [31]. For this reason is called slow frequency, so as to reflect this slow dynamic function. DC Busbar and Capacitor Model (Slot 6) The slot consists of four blocks, see figure 4.16, and represents the DC bus to which the PV array and the DC side of the inverter are connected. There are two inputs and one output from the model. The one input is the Iarray that comes from the PV model. The other one is the active power pist measured in slot 4. The output is the input DC voltage of the PV inverter. This values is denoted as udc or Uarray and is the value that enters the PV module model (slot 3). The function of this slot is rather simple. The active power measured in the connection point of the static generator is devided with the udc and the current that runs the DC bus is calculated in A. The magnitude of units is not the same, so attention should be paid for transforming the MW to A. The DC current is now subtracted from the PV array current in order to find the differential current that runs in the capacitor, which is connected in parallel with the DC bus. This current is transformed in p.u. using the nominal current as base. The nominal current is not known, however is calculated knowing the nominal DC voltage and the nominal power of the PV. The p.u. current enters an integrator in order to calculate the voltage across the capacitor, which is the voltage of the DC bus and input of the inverter. The calculation in the integrator is similar to the one shown in (4.9) and is valid for any capacitor. At last the voltage is transformed to V units.
43
MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011 Current Voltage relation
Model Description
i (t ) = C
du (t ) dt
(4.9)
Figure 4.16: The DC bus bar and capacitor model
AC Voltage (Slot 7) Slot 7 represents a voltage measurement device in the connection point of the PV generator. The output value is uac and refers to the voltage in the LV bus. The value is used as an input to the Controller slot. Active Power Reduction (Slot 8) This slot represents one of the main requirements that the PV inverters should meet according to the German GCs. It is described by the equations in figure 9.2, which are implemented in the over frequency power reduction block that is seen in figure 4.17. The equations follow the needs described in the analysis of the new German GC and figure 2.8 and its function is examined thoroughly later on in the 4.3.2 paragraph. It has one input, which is the frequency measurement from slot 5 and one output pred, which is an input to the main Controller. The frequency, which passes through a filter as well, is the variable that will trigger the function, when excess of active power in the grid will cause over frequency situation. 44
Model Description
Figure 4.17: The active power reduction control
Controller (Slot 9) The Controller is the main part of the PV control frame. In figure 4.18 is seen that consists of several different blocks. The Controller has four inputs and two outputs. The outputs are the two components idref and iqref, which will be inputs in the static generator slot where, in fact, will be used by the PV inverter to modulate and control the active and reactive power respectively. Starting with the active power control part, the vdcref is the value that was calculated by the PV array model and is denoted by Umpp-array. This value is the desired voltage at MPP for the input of the inverter (DC side). This value passes first through a low-pass filter to atenuate high-frequency components and then ends to a lower limit block. Inside that block (Max in the figure), it is compared with the minimum operating value of the inverter U_min, which is set to be 333 V. According to figure 2.7 the inverter has a low limit voltage on the DC side below which is turned-off (turned-off voltage level). By this comparison inside that block the voltage that is chosen vdcref0 is above the U_min. This value is then compared (subtracted) with the actual voltage of the DC side of the inverter, udc, which is here seen as vdcin and also with the value dvdcref, which is the difference vdcref0 - vdcin. The result of this comparison is denoted with dp and is also a voltage that passes through a low-pass filter. Finally, the dpd value enters a PI controller with proportional gain Kp and integration time Tip and the id component that regulates the active power is calculated. The PI controller is limited by two parameters, id_min and id_max, and the variable pred from the slot 8. The
45
Model Description
parameters represent the minimum and maximum active current limits respectively, while pred represents the reduction due to overfrequency. Under normal operation pred is equal with 1. On the other hand and as far as the reactive power control part concerned, the uac value that is measured by the voltage measurement device as described above, passes through a low-pass filter and is compared with a reference value, uac0 which is the voltage in the steady state condition (no fault). Both values refer to the voltage on the AC side of the inverter. The comparison (difference) gives duac, which shows the voltage deviation or voltage dip in the connection point of the PV generator. This voltage change is the input of the Reactive Power Support block that follows the principle of figure 2.11. The equations that seen in figure 9.4 define a deadband of 10% of the nominal voltage and determine the iq component as in (4.10)
iq = K duac
(4.10)
The factor K is what is denoted as droop in the parameters table 9.4. The definition of iq is written according to the Transmission Code 2007 and the System Service Ordinance SDLWindV. The Reactive Power Support block is limited by the maximum reactive current (iq_max) and minimum reactive current (iq_min). At last the calculated values of iq and id together with duac enter the current limiter block in which the reference values of these components are calculated. The limiter sets the maximum allowed value of ablosute current and the maximum absolute value or reactive current in normal operation, as limits.
46
Model Description
Figure 4.18: The main controller model
Phase Measurement (Slot 10) This slot contains a PLL device from the library of PowerFactory. PLL is a closed loop structure, which contains an internal oscillator that is synchronized by being phased-locked to some particular grid power signal. Normally, as well as in this case, this element is able to measure the frequency and phase of a voltage in the system. The measurement point is the LV bus bar as shown before is slot 5. The basic structure of a PLL is seen in figure 4.19 and explained shortly below.
Figure 4.19: The basic structure of a PLL [14]
47
Model Description
Phase detector generates a signal proportional to the phase difference between v and v. Loop filter is a low-pass filter to cut the high-frequency AC components from the phase detector. Voltage controlled oscillator generates an AC signal, whose frequency is shifted compared to a given frequency, as a function of the input filtered voltage that is produced by the loop filter. Static Generator (Slot 11) With this slot the static generator component that was described in the section 4.2 (The PV generator) is matched.
4.3
Investigation under German GCs
In this part of the Thesis number of simulations were run in order to investigate the compliance of the model with the German GCs. The model was tested for its static voltage support and reactive power injection behaviour under normal opearation, its active power control capability, FRT compliance and dynamic support. Each study is run seperately and presented below.
4.3.1 Steady state condition

As presented before in this Thesis, during the citation of the new German GC, the PV system is required to participate actively in the voltage support by injecting reactive power to the PCC. The voltage variations in this case are a result of active power variations from the PV generator. It is a fact that the PV array output cannot be controlled or predicted with accuracy since it is strongly resulted by the incoming irradiation and the general weather conditions of the location of the power plant, which affect the output behaviour of the PV array (I-V characteristics). Cloud effects, wind speed and dust can influence the power output significantly resulting in voltage variations at the PCC, which may cause problems especially in cases where the grid is week. Even the decrement in solar radiation from noon to sunset can affect the voltage at the PCC. The magnitude of the variation depends on the PV generator capacity. In this case the grid is assumed strong (30 times higher than the PV capacity), however an investigation is necessary. The methods of providing reactive power are four. Here, is examined if the PV generator is able to fulfill this requirement and with which of the four ways is able to provide the reactive power. The power factor limits (0.95leading to 0.95lagging), set by the GCs, are taken into consideration.
48
Model Description
After a closer look to the control frame of the PV model that was presented above, it is easy to see that there is no Q control function in the system. Only the active power is controlled according to the German codes and the reactive power supply during the fault (dynamic support). This can be proved by running a simple simulation, which is presented below. The simulated event is a parameter event, where the solar irradiation was set to drop (maybe due to a cloud effect) to 50%. This drop that is seen in figure 4.20 of course implies drop to the active power output of the PV array. The drop starts at the 5 sec and the cloud effect lasts for 5 seconds as well.
Figure 4.20: Solar radiation drop
To perform the investigation, a contant power factor of 0.95 inductive (lagging) was set in the PV generator as seen in figure 4.21 in the load flow tab. The choice of the method fixed power factor is random and serves the purpose of the study. The generator in a simple load flow with full capacity (448.84 kW) is injecting 147.53 kVar of reactive power. The expected result would be that with the active power drop, the reactive power would drop as well in order to maintain the fixed power factor constant during the voltage variation. If this way of providing reactive power is not part of the control system, then at least the power factor should be in compliance with the GC limits to justify the presence of another type of control (fixed Q, cos (P) function or Q (U) droop function). However, the simulation showed different results, which are presented in figure 4.22.
49
Model Description
Figure 4.21: Set of constant power factor
The active power decrement and the reactive power change at the PCC were plotted in figure 4.22 for the duration of the event, to observe if the power factor was kept constant. Furthermore, the voltage deviation due to active power change is seen in figure 4.23.
Figure 4.22: Active and reactive power change during a cloud effect
50
Model Description
Judging by the graphs and the two different points A and B, it is concluded that the power factor doesnt remain constant. Moreover, performing the necessary calculations with the use of (4.11) and (4.12), it is found that no Q control is implemented in the system.
Apparent power ( S ) = [active power ( P )]2 + [reactive power (Q)]2 power factor (cos ) = active power ( P ) apparent power ( S )
(4.11) (4.12)
Calculations:
4.999 s point A: S = 0.8982 + 0.2432 = 0.93 p.u. cos = 0.898 = 0.966 0.93
9.948s point B:
S = 0.399 2 + 0.2812 = 0.488 p.u. cos = 0.399 = 0.818 0.488
The power factor in point B is found 0.818, which is outside the specified limits, meaning that the model is not capable for static voltage support according to the German GCs. The voltage change is almost insignificant as seen in figure 4.23, however the reactive power supply is not according to the GCs. The voltage starts slightly above 1 p.u. due to the fixed power factor.
Figure 4.23: Voltage deviation during a cloud effect
Furthermore, plotting the active and reactive power behaviour in the LV terminal, where the generator is connected, the same behaviour is observed. As seen in figure 4.24 at the right plot, which is a zoom version of the reactive power (green line) of the left plot, the injection is very small of rate of 10-4, meaning that the results in the MV bus bar are influenced from 51
Model Description
the transformer, which absorbs reactive power regardless of the loading [36]. This stengthens the argument that there is no Q control for the normal operation of the PV generator.
Figure 4.24: Active and reactive change in the LV bus
The same results were observed when the solar radiation was set to increase. The active power increased, while the reactive power was decreased. The voltage decreased slightly as well.
4.3.2 Active power control

The active power control in case of frequency deviations is also a requirement that a PV model should meet. In the analysis of the model, it was seen that the model has a seperate slot for this operation. An active power reduction value due to overfrequency is calculated (pred) which is set as limiting input signal in the PI controller for the id component. However, to investigate the validity of the function, is thoughtful to create an over frequency event and see the results of the active power generation. In order to create a frequency change with PowerFactory the possibilities are more than one. One way is to use an AC voltage source component with an adequate frame instead of the external grid and change the frequency, which is an input value in this component. Another possibility would be to disable the PLL, initialize the frequency using a DSL command, inc(), and then change it through a parameter event. However in this case a third solution was chosen which doesnt require any changes in the model. Based on the consideration that the grid is like an AC synchronous generator, by changing the speed of the rotor the frequency is changed. As seen in figure 4.25 a parameter event was set and the speed was changed from 1 p.u. to 1.04 p.u. The change occurs in the 7th second and the simulation runs for 10 seconds.
52
Model Description
Figure 4.25: Change in the speed parameter to create overfrequency
As seen in figure 4.26 the 0.4 p.u. change in the speed of the rotor created an overfrequency of 2 Hz, which is enough in order to evaluate the active power reduction, since the upper limit as shown before is 50.2 Hz.
Figure 4.26: The overfrequency event
Indeed, when the frequency changed the power reduction came into operation and the value pred changed from 1 p.u. (no reduction) to 0.281 p.u. (71.9% reduction) as seen in figure 4.27. According to the theory, the reduction step is 40% of the active power per Hz. In this study the excess in frequency is 52-50.2=1.8 Hz, meaning that the reduction should be of 1.8 40%=72%.
53
Model Description
Figure 4.27: The active power reduction of the generator due to overfrequency
The reduction of around 72% in active power is seen when perform power measurements in LV and MV buses in figure 4.28 and figure 4.29 respectively. The reactive power is not affected, appart from some slight increment in the MV bus due to the transformer absorbance.
Figure 4.28: The active and reactive power values in the LV bus during the overfrequency event
54
Model Description
Figure 4.29: The active and reactive power values in the MV bus during the overfrequency event
4.3.3 Dynamic voltage support

As explained before, the dynamic voltage support covers LVRT and reactive current injection requirements. It has been seen already that seperate block is available in the control scheme of the PV model. In order to examine the behaviour of the PV model under different voltage dips, four different simulation tests were undertaken based on [37]. The German technical guidelines for generating units define specific standards for test in order to examine LVRT behaviour. Table 4.1 displays these tests for type-2 generators (no synchronous generator is connected), while in table 4.2 the performed tests with the PV generator are shown. These conditions are seen also in figure 4.30 with different colours in comparison with figure 2.10. Type-1 generators refer to directly coupled synchronous generators and their LVRT analysis is based on different tables.
Table 4.1: Voltage dip tests for generating units type-2 [37]
Test-number 1 2 3 4
Maximum line-to-line voltage U/Un 0,05 0.20 0.25 0.45 0.55 0.70 0.80
Duration of fault [ms] 150 550 950 1400
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Table 4.2: Tests performed with the PV model
Model Description
Test-number 1 2 3 4
Maximum line-to-line voltage U/Un 0 0.2 0.5 0.8
Duration of fault [ms] 150 550 1000 1500
Figure 4.30: Tests performed for dynamic voltage support
For achieving voltage drops of certain percentage a short-circuit event is simulated with the fault impedance to be adjusted properly. To avoid multiple iterations and testing of different fault resistances, in order to acquire the desirable voltage dip, an approximate method was used. This method follows figure 4.31, which is taken from [29] and adjusted.
Figure 4.31: Equivalent plan of a grid with fault (a) and the electrical circuit representation (b)
The above figure 4.31 is described by (4.13) and the values seen in figure 4.2.
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'' I kQ =
Model Description
cU nQ 3Z Q
ZQ =
cU nQ
'' 3I kQ
(4.13)
2 2 Z Q = RQ + X Q , where RQ / X Q = 0.3 (taken from figure 4.2)
U nQ = MV voltage after the voltage dip (e.g. with voltage dip of 80% U nQ = 20% 33kV )
'' c and I kQ are taken from the figure 4.2
It should be noted that this method is not accurate. If the calculation procedure will be done for each test, deviations from the correct value of resistance will be seen. However, it gives a sufficient range based on which, number of iterations can be avoided. At the end table 4.3 was obtained, which describes the fault impedance in each test. The precision of second decimal is not necessary since changes are seen in the order of half unit.
Table 4.3: Fault conditions in each test
Test-number 1 2 3 4 Test 1
Voltage dip [%] 100 80 50 20
Resistance [Ohm] 0 1 4.17 16.5
Reactance [Ohm] 0 3.33 13.9 55
Test 1 refers to a voltage dip of 100%. That means that the voltage at the PCC in the MV bus is 0 p.u. The duration of the fault is 150 ms following figure 4.30. The results are seen below in figure 4.32. The main concern and requirement for the PV inverters is to observe the ability of reactive power injection and see the voltage level in the LV bus, where the PV generator is connected. Each graph from the figure is explained below.
57
Model Description
Figure 4.32: Behaviour of the PV model in 100% voltage dip
Graph a: The active power at the PCC drops to 0 during the fault, while before and after the fault the value is 0.898 p.u., which corresponds to 0.449 MW (the base is 0.5 MW). Moreover, the reactive power in the MV in non-fault state is found -0.049 p.u. (24.5kVar), meaning that the transformer is absorbing reactive power from the grid. During the fault the reactive power is 0, since it is compensated by the PV generator, which provides a constant reactive current. This function is seen clearer in graph c. Graph b: The voltage in the MV bus drops to 0 due to the pure short-circuit fault. However, in the LV bus (the AC side of the inverter) the voltage is 0.057 p.u., which is around 22.8 V. Before and after the fault both buses obtain values close to nominal (0.997 p.u.). Considering these values and based on figure 2.11 and the Reactive Power Support block in figure 4.18 the following simple calculations can be performed:
duac = uac before fault uac during the fault = 0.997 p.u. 0.057 p.u. = 0.94 p.u.
(4.14)
and since the droop parameter is 1 (table 9.4) the reactive current that is injected from the PV generator is iq=0.94 p.u, which leads to
qduring the fault = uac during the fault iq during the fault = 0.057 0.94 = 0.053
(4.15)
Graph c: The PV generator before and after the fault supplies the LV bus with 0.898 p.u. active power, which corresponds to 0.449 MW. This value is the same with the one in the MV bus, which implies that the losses are insignificant, since there is only one transformer 58
Model Description
and no lines in this simple grid plan. During the fault the real power is 0. Furthermore, and only during the fault the, PV injects 0.053 p.u. reactive power as calculated above in (4.15), which is 26.5 kVar. Graph d: The voltage change in the DC side of the PV inverter is seen. In a voltage dip of 100%, the PV inverter obtains the Voc of the array, which is 876 V based on table 9.1 (Appendix), where 20 (modules in series) x 43.8 V (open circuit of a module UI0)=876 V. In conclusion, it can be said that the German grid code requirements are fulfilled during the 100% voltage dip. The PV generator is able to remain connected to the LV bus and provide reactive current for the whole duration of the fault. The response time is instant after the fault according to the needs. After the clear of the short-circuit the voltage stabilizes almost directly in compliance with the GCs. Similar conclusions are found in the other tests. The results are seen in the graphs and more clearly in the aggregative table 4.4 below. Test 2 Test 2 refers to a voltage dip of 80%. That means that the voltage at the PCC in the MV bus is 6.6kV. The duration of the fault is 550 ms. The results are seen below in figure 4.33.
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Test 3
Model Description
Test 3 refers to a voltage dip of 50%. That means that the voltage at the PCC in the MV bus is 16.5kV. The duration of the fault is 1000 ms. The results are seen below in figure 4.34.
Test 4 Test 4 refers to a voltage dip of 20%. That means that the voltage at the PCC in the MV bus is 26.4kV. The duration of the fault is 1500 ms. The results are seen below in figure 4.35.
60
Model Description
Figure 4.35: Behaviour of the PV model in 20% voltage dip Table 4.4: Aggregation of the results of all tests
Voltage dip [%] 100 80 50 20
Voltage level in the LV bus [p.u.] 0.057 0.239 0.527 0.807
Injected active power by the PV [p.u.] 0 0.057 0.279 0.652
Injected reactive current by the PV [p.u.] 0.94 0.753 0.463 0.188
Injected reactive power by the PV [p.u.] 0.053 0.182 0.249 0.155
Voltage level in the DC bus [V] 876 872.6 857.2 815.7
Seeing the results of the above table, interesting conclusions can be drawn. Starting with the most expected outcomes, when the voltage drop becomes bigger the active power injection of the PV generator is less, while in a pure three-phase fault (100% voltage dip) the injected active power is 0. Also the voltage in the DC bus bar increases reaching the VOC at 100% voltage dip. As far as the reactive current injection and the voltage level in the connection point of the PV generator concerned, which is the actual purpose of this investigation, it is seen that the reactive current injection is bigger when the voltage dip is bigger. If those results seen in conjunction with figure 2.11, moving further from the deadband of 10%, meaning bigger voltage dip, the reactive current should be bigger. Therefore, the results are in accordance with the GCs. On the other hand, the reactive power injection is dependent on two inversely proportional factors, the voltage level and
61
Model Description
the reactive current. Thus, the maximum value should be at 50%, which is the case as seen in the table 4.4. The reactive current injection and LVRT requirements are fulfilled in each of the 4 tests that the PV model was examined. The voltage stabilizes almost instantly after the fault clearance ensuring that the PV is capable of dynamic voltage support.
4.4 Summary
During chapter 4 the PV model was investigated according to the German GCs. The investigation included static and dynamic behaviour and results were presented for both LV and MV buses. Summarizing the capabilities of this generic model, it could be said that the generic model is equipped with basic functions in order to address the new requirements. Active power reduction and dynamic voltage support are met as seen from the results. However, the lack of reactive power control during normal operation for static voltage support is considered to be a significant shortcoming. As far as the ideal solar cell model that the PV array calculations were based on concerned, for such studies, where the focus is on the impact on the power system, is acceptable. If the study requires deep analysis and very detailed results, changes should be done and different solar cell models should be considered such as with Rs or with Rs and Rp or two diode models. At last, an issue that was not mentioned during the analysis is that the model has no real MPP logic implemented. It is assumed that the model works at MPP and a simplified approximation is used only for the MPP voltage and current by taking into account the dependency on the irradiance and the temperature with the use of correction factors. For better performance, the control system could be improved by adopting a more complicated technique. One way could be adding a block (controller), which will control the vdref signals as it is seen in figure 4.36. The vdref is the desired voltage at MPP for the input of the inverter (DC side).
62
Model Description
Figure 4.36: Possible dynamic MPP control
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Further Analysis & Discussion
5.1 Addition in the control system of the PV model

It was concluded before that one of the most important weaknesses of the model is the lack of ability to respond properly to active power variations caused normally by solar irradiation variations, an attempt was made at this point to implement such function. The approach that was followed is consistent with simplified methods that used in other PV models built by DIgSILENT and especially in generic wind turbine models. In figure 5.1 the control addition is seen inside the red dashed lines and is a constant Q operation mode.
Figure 5.1: The constant Q control implementation to the model
The principal that is used is similar to the one used for the active power control. The control is done through a PI controller and the switching between fault and non fault current is in the "Current Limiter" block. The switching for the two operations is seen in figure 5.2, while the parameters used for the control are seen in table 5.1.
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Table 5.1: Parameters for the constant Q control that added in the Controller model
Constant Q control
Parameter
Reactive Power Control Gain [p.u.] Reactive Power Control Time Constant [s] Measurement delay [s] Maximum Reactive Power Limit (lagging) Minimum Reactive Power Limit (leading)
Symbol
Kq Tq Tmq Qmax Qmin
Value
0,6 0,5 0,001 0,296 -0,296
The selected reactive power limit values in the above table were based on the capability curve of the generator and the manufactures settings as presented in figure 4.6 for voltage 0.95 p.u. (worst case). Concerning the values of gain, Kq, and time constant Tq those were defined after a number of iteration and checking the response of the control to be as close as possible to the desired value Q that was set. It should be noted that the tuning is not the optimum one and the trial-and-error method is not always the most accurate one. Tuning the controller can be rather complicated depending on the application; however for this study the method is sufficient.
Figure 5.2: The switching function written in DSL inside the current limiter
In order to test the effectiveness of the implemented control a similar method as in the paragraph 4.3.1 is used. At first through the static generator the method of supplying constant reactive power is set as seen in figure 5.3. The value of 93.5 kVar (0.187 p.u.) corresponds to a PF of 0.98, meaning that is within the required limits. Then, a parameter event is set, changing the instantaneous solar irradiation, which leads to active power output change. This change is seen in figure 5.4, where it is implied that there is first an irradiation drop and then an increment above 1000 W/m2, since it is assumed that in steady state the PV array operates under STC conditions.
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Figure 5.3: The constant Q set in the PV generator
Figure 5.4: The active power change of the PV generator
The results at the bus where the generator is connected are presented in figure 5.5 and should be seen in comparison with the ones presented in figure 4.24, where there was no control. The response of the PV generator to the active power drop is almost instant. There is a small spike at the moment of the event and then the controller tries to regulate the reactive power supply stabilizing it at 0.187 p.u. (the set value) after a period of one second. The same response is seen during the increment of the solar irradiation.
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Figure 5.5: The Q control response to the active power change
The spikes in figure 5.5 at the moment of the event change the reactive power within a value of power of 10-5, meaning that there is no actual effect that violates the required PF limits. Figure 5.6 show the voltage variations in the LV bus. The change of 10-3 p.u. during the changes is insignificant.
Figure 5.6: Voltage variation in the LV bus with the Q control
5.2 Model adjustment and interconnection cases

5.2.1 Adjustment of the PV model
In order to adjust the PV model to the needs of the specific task that is analysed later on, some changes in the configuration of the PV array took place. As mentioned before, the model is generic, meaning that is open for any kind of changes needed. The objective is only to change the rated peak power of the model to 1 MVA for load flow calculations and
67
dynamic simulations and consequently change the active power output. The modified static generator (inverter) was based taking into consideration a real commercial central PV inverter, at least as far as the maximum input and output values of voltage and current concerned. The full technical data of this inverter can be found in [38]. To achieve that, the following modifications were done: In the parameters of the Photovoltaic model (slot 3 and table 9.1) the number of modules in parallel, parameter nParallelModules, was set to 290 instead of 140. All the other values remained unchanged considering the same type of modules in the modified PV array. The modified array has still VMMP=700 V but the current now is IMMP=1328.2 A. Judging by [38] the values remain within acceptable and realistic limits and give maximum power output of 929.740 kW. The change through the parameters was necessary for the RMS simulations. The rated power was changed in the static generators basic data as well. The rated power was set 1 MVA and with the PF 0.95 of the engine the active power operational limits were set to 950 kW in the capability curve. The active power in steady state load flow under normal conditions was set 929.740 W, which is the value defined by the above new configuration. The generator is assumed again to work at MPP. The change in the static generator data was necessary for the load flow calculations. In the parameters of the DC Busbar and Capacitor model, table 9.2, the capacity was set to double than the previous one, meaning 0.0344 and the rated power value, Pnen, that is used to define the voltage input of the inverter was set to 1 MW. The rated power of the transformer was also changed to 1 MVA in order to satisfy the needs of the new generator. The modified generator fulfils the same requirements and behaves the same under both static and dynamic conditions since no interventions took place in the basic control systems and no active or passive components were added to the frame of the model. However, the adjustment hides an important assumption. The maximum reactive power limits of the new inverter remained the same. In reality it is most likely that they would be different. The modified generator and the transformer are used to create two different models of 20 MVA each. The first model is set by connecting 20 times the generator in series, through lines. Then the whole plant is connected to the MV bus via a line. In the second set up another method is applied by connecting the generator 20 times to a common MV bus, like a star. Since, different number and types of AC lines are used the behaviour of each plant is examined and the results are compared. Draft designs of both set ups are seen in figure 5.7 and figure 5.8. The external grid in both cases was modified in terms of short-circuit power value, which was set 600 MVA. The same assumption of 30 times more than the power plants capacity was made as before. 68
Figure 5.7: The first set up of the PV power plant of 20 MVA3
Figure 5.8: The second set up of the PV power plant of 20 MVA
The figure 5.7 and figure 5.8 were made using symbols from figures used in [8]
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5.2.2 First Case

The first configuration was built in DIgSILENT and seen in figure 5.9. It shows a connection, where each PV generator (with transformer) is connected with the next one via an AC line (cable). Judging by figure 5.7 and figure 5.9 each of these lines will support different current. To be more specific, line 19_20 that connects the 19th and 20th generator will carry the current that the 20th PV generator produces (Iflowed), line 18_19 that connects 18th generator with the previous ones (19th and 20th) will carry the current that both 20th and 19th PV generators produce and so on. Since all the generators are the same, then line 18_19 will theoretically support 2 x Iflowed and finally the line connected to the PCC will carry 20 x Iflowed, assuming that all the generators are undergoing the same conditions (irradiance, temperature etc).
Figure 5.9: The first configuration as built in PowerFactory
The amount of nominal current that is carried by each cable defines the type and the diameter of the cable. In general terms, more current requires a bigger cable (in diameter/cross-sectional size) to support it. Different diameter means different impedance,
70
capacitance and inductance of the cable. So it is vital to conclude to the best possible choice of cables for the PV system. In this case the selection of cables was made from the types of lines that the library of PowerFactory offers and according to the nominal current that they support. Table 5.2 shows all the lines used in the configuration, the nominal current of those lines and the nominal current that the lines should support. Aluminium cables were used (Al), which together with the copper ones (Cu) are the most common types. However, no study for the best type (material) of cable was conducted in this thesis. The column nominal current from table 5.2 was filled from the data of each type of cable used, while the current support without voltage drop was filled using (5.1), which defines the nominal current of each PV generator that the line should be able to support. Thus, based on where the line is used in the configuration, meaning which generators connects, the nominal current (Iflowed) is multiplied with a factor of 1 or 2 or 3 etc as explained at the beginning of this paragraph 5.2.2. The citation without voltage drop is used, in order to mark the fact that no voltage drop effect across the line was taken into account due to impedance change.
I flowed =
Table 5.2: Lines used in the first configuration
1MW 3 20kV
(5.1)
Selection of lines - 1st case

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Lable Line (PCC) Line 1-2 Line 2-3 Line 3-4 Line 4-5 Line 5-6 Line 6-7 Line 7-8 Line 8-9 Line 9-10 Line 10-11 Line 11-12 Line 12-13 Line 13-14 Line 14-15 Line 15-16 Line 16-17 Type Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Al Nominal current (ground, kA) 0.635 0.635 0.565 0.565 0.51 0.51 0.456 0.456 0.397 0.353 0.32 0.282 0.238 0.238 0.195 0.166 0.139 Current support without voltage drop (kA) 0.576 0.5472 0.5184 0.4896 0.4608 0.432 0.4032 0.3744 0.3456 0.3168 0.288 0.2592 0.2304 0.2016 0.1728 0.144 0.1152
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18 19 20 Line 17-18 Line 18-19 Line 19-20 Al Al Al 0.139 0.139 0.139
0.0864 0.0576 0.0288
Load flow study Before performing similar studies, as presented in chapter 4 for the generic model, load flow calculations were conducted. The purpose was to investigate the behaviour of the power plant when the active power output decreases in conjunction with the voltage deviation at the PCC in a strong grid. By power plant, the 20 PV generators, the transformers and the lines as a whole unit are referred. The decrement reflects the active power output dependence on the solar irradiation. In this case it was assumed that all the PV generators undergo the same reduction step of active power, which is 20% as seen in the first column of table 5.3. The results of active and reactive power were summarized, showing how the power plant is behaving in order to maintain approximately the same level of voltage at the PCC. The maximum voltage deviation is considered to be +/- 5%. The relevant Q curve in p.u. values is drawn based on the results of the table and shown in figure 5.10 presenting the reactive power injection ability in steady state operation.
Table 5.3: Results of the load flow study-first case
Operating ability of the PV power plant [%] 100 80 60 40 20 0
Nominal power of the PV park [MW] 20 16 12 8 4 0
Injected active power by each PV generator [kW] 929.27 743.79 557.84 371.89 185.95 0
Injected active power by the PV power plant at the PCC [MW] 18.378 14.736 11.078 7.402 3.710 0
Injected reactive power by the PV power plant at the PCC [MVar] -1.169 -0.690 -0.314 -0.047 0.115 0.168
Judging by the results of the above table, it can be concluded that the more active power the PV plant unit is injecting, the more reactive power consumes from the grid in order to maintain approximately the same voltage level around 1 p.u. When the PV power plant is operating at 20% and 0% injects reactive power to the grid due to the consumption of the transformers and lines. As seen in figure 5.10 the power plant starts consuming reactive power when more than 0.35 p.u. active power is injected, which is almost 7 MW. The PF was around 0.99 in all cases. At this point it should be pointed out that this model and also the second configuration are simple interconnected set-ups. They should not be confused with aggregative models, since for such purpose further assumptions and changes should be applied that are not covered in this thesis. However, when performing aggregative techniques load flow studies are
72
necessary in order to define the capability curve of the aggregative model at the PCC and under normal operation. Lines and transformers as mentioned before in this report affect the reactive power limits at the PCC regardless of the capability curve of each generator and for this reason, the new limits should be defined. A valid way to estimate the reactive power margins is to use the U-Q curve method as described in [28]. Briefly, the method includes load flow calculations in different active power outputs and in various voltages in the respective bus (PCC). Then, the reactive power versus the voltage is plotted. For steady state operation, the reactive power limits at 0.95 p.u. and 1.05 p.u. voltage are the ones of interest. Furthermore, according to the German GCs the aggregative model should provide reactive power within 0.95underexcited to 0.95overexcited limits. Thus, the obtained limits from the U-Q curves should include the reactive power values at 0.95underexcited to 0.95overexcited area as in figure 4.5. In a different way power factor corrections should be made by connecting capacitors (that supply reactive power) or inductors (that consume reactive power).
Figure 5.10: p-q curve-first case
Static voltage support All the generators used in the configuration follow the same control frame. That means that the static voltage support addition that was presented in section 5.1 counts for this case as well. The results should be the same as before since the control refers to the point of connection of the PV generator, which is the LV bus and no change was made there. Notice, that in an aggregative model the static voltage control should be examined at the PCC. That means that first the total influence of the equivalent distribution network (including lines, transformers etc), as that is seen at the PCC, on the reactive power should be calculated.
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Active power control
Similarly, no change took place in the active power control blocks, meaning that identical results were found after performing the same simulation as in 4.3.2. Assuming the same power reduction in each PV generator consequently means approximately the same reduction at the PCC in p.u. values. Dynamic voltage support The dynamic voltage support was examined using the same method as described in the 4.3.3 chapter. However, due to the fact the grid is different the fault impedances are different as well. The values of resistance and reactance that were used in this case to create the desired voltage dips are presented in table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Fault conditions in each test-first case
Test-number 1 2 3 4
Voltage dip [%] 100 80 50 20
Resistance [Ohm] 0 0.045 0.19 0.75
Reactance [Ohm] 0 0.15 0.63 2.5
After running the simulation the results were summarized in table 5.5. The relative graphs taken by PowerFactory are found in the Appendix in the 8.3.1 section.
Table 5.5: Aggregation of the results for dynamic voltage support-first case
Voltage dip [%]
100 80 50 20
Injected active power by the PV generator [p.u.] 0 0.060 0.284 0.659
Injected reactive current by the PV generator [p.u.] 0.934 0.747 0.456 0.182
Injected reactive power by the PV generator [p.u.] 0.059 0.184 0.243 0.148
Injected active power by the power plant [p.u.] 0 0.055 0.284 0.659
Injected reactive power by the power plant [p.u.] 0.062 0.209 0.284 0.181
The above table presents similar results with the ones found in chapter 4.3.3. When the voltage drop becomes bigger the active power injection of the PV generator is less. In voltage dip of 100% the active power injection is 0. The reduction of the active power in the LV bus is followed by a power reduction at the PCC as it is seen in the 6th column. As far as the reactive current injection and the voltage level at the connection point of the PV generator concerned, the results show that the reactive current injection is bigger when the voltage dip is bigger as found also in the previous LVRT analysis. Furthermore, the reactive 74
power injection by each PV generator has again its maximum value at 50% due to the dependence on the two inversely proportional factors, the voltage level and the reactive current. This behaviour is repeated at the PCC for the whole power plant as it is seen in the last column of table 5.5. The LVRT requirements are fulfilled in each of the 4 tests that the PV configuration was examined. The voltage stabilizes almost instantly after the fault clearance ensuring that the PV is capable of dynamic voltage support (short-circuit support).
5.2.3 Second Case

The second configuration was built and seen in figure 5.11. This one shows a connection, where each PV generator (with transformer) is connected in a common (central) bus via an AC line (cable). Judging by figure 5.8 and figure 5.11 each of these lines will support the same current. What is to say, line_1 that connects the 1st generator will carry the same current with line_2 that connects the 2nd PV generator with the common bus and so on. Since all the generators are the same and it is assumed that they undergo the same conditions (irradiance, temperature etc), the produced Iflowed, will be the current that all the 20 lines (line_1 to line_20) will support. Finally the line connected to the PCC will carry 20 x Iflowed. The choice of the lines was again from the library of PowerFactory and using the (5.1). Table 5.6 presents the two types of lines used.
Table 5.6: Lines used in the second configuration
Selection of lines 2nd case

Number 1 to 20 2 Lable Line 1-Line 20 Line (PCC) Type Al Al Nominal current (ground, kA) 0.139 0.635 Current support without voltage drop (kA) 0.0288 0.576
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Figure 5.11: The second configuration as built in PowerFactory
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Load flow study
A simple load flow study as in the first case was carried out using the same levels of active power output. The results are seen in table 5.7 and the relevant graph in figure 5.12.
Table 5.7: Results of the load flow study-second case
Operating ability of the PV power plant [%] 100 80 60 40 20 0
Nominal power of the PV park [MW] 20 16 12 8 4 0
Injected active power by each PV generator [MW] 929.27 743.79 557.84 371.89 185.95 0
Injected active power by the PV power plant at the PCC [MW] 18.532 14.841 11.375 7.434 3.723 0
Injected reactive power by the PV power plant at the PCC [MVar] -1.071 -0.651 -0.328 -0.081 0.076 0.129
Figure 5.12: p-q curve-second case
Judging by the results of the above table, the same conclusions can be drawn for the behaviour of the second PV interconnection. More active power by the PV plant unit results to more reactive power consumption from the grid in order to maintain approximately the same voltage level around 1 p.u. Again at 20% and 0% of operating ability the unit injects reactive power to the grid due to the consumption of the transformers and lines. In figure 5.12 is seen that the power plant starts consuming reactive power when more than 0.30 p.u. active power is injected, which is almost 6 MW. The PF was around 1 in all cases.
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Static voltage support
Like in the first case the results were the same as in section 5.1 Active power control Like in the first case the results were the same as in the section 4.3.2. Dynamic voltage support In order to facilitate the comparison between the two cases, the same voltage dips were simulated in this model as well. The grid is considered identical with the one in the first configuration, meaning that the values of table 5.4 were used for the fault impedance. The LVRT results are presented in table 5.8, while the graphs are found in section 8.3.2.
Table 5.8: Aggregation of the results for dynamic voltage support-second case
Voltage dip [%]
100 80 50 20
Injected active power by the PV generator [p.u.] 0 0.060 0.286 0.659
Injected reactive current by the PV generator [p.u.] 0.933 0.747 0.457 0.182
Injected reactive power by the PV generator [p.u.] 0.059 0.184 0.244 0.148
Injected active power by the power plant [p.u.] 0 0.058 0.284 0.659
Injected reactive power by the power plant [p.u.] 0.054 0.198 0.271 0.163
The above table verifies that the second configuration fulfils the LVRT requirement. At the PCC the maximum value of reactive power injection is found at 50% voltage dip.
5.2.4 Comparison of both cases

Two different PV set-ups were built and simulated. The main purpose of this study was to compare the reactive power behaviour due to the different configurations, which impose different use of lines in the system. In the below table 5.9 the results of both load flow studies are summarized. It is seen that in the 2nd case, the power plant consumes less reactive power in order to maintain the voltage level. The difference when both plants work at 100% is almost 100 kVar. Also at 20% and 0%, when the plants inject reactive power, in the second case the injection is lower. These differences are due to the fact that the consumption of the lines in the second case is less (the transformers are the same and work with the same loading). The second case uses smaller cables, while the first one uses bigger cables. Seeing the configurations as a whole unit (aggregative) the first one has greater influence in the reactive power flow due to its bigger line-capacitance.
78

Table 5.9: Load flow results of both cases
Operating ability of the PV power plant [%]
Nominal power of the PV park [MW]
Injected active power by each PV generator [MW]
Injected active power by the PV power plant at the PCC [MW] 1st Case 18.378 14.736 11.078 7.402 3.710 0 2nd Case 18.532 14.841 11.375 7.434 3.723 0
Injected reactive power by the PV power plant at the PCC [MVar] 1st Case -1.169 -0.690 -0.314 -0.087 0.115 0.168 2nd Case -1.071 -0.651 -0.328 -0.081 0.076 0.129
100 80 60 40 20 0
20 16 12 8 4 0
929.27 743.79 557.84 371.89 185.95 0
The results can also be compared easily by observing the curves in figure 5.13. From the graph is obvious that in the first case the plant starts injecting reactive power at 7 MW, while in the second case, when the plant injects 6 MW, proving that the consumption of reactive power of the lines in the first case is greater.
Figure 5.13: p-q curves-both cases
Similar conclusions can be drawn looking the injected reactive power by both set-ups in case of voltage dips. Table 5.10 shows, that even if the injected reactive current and power by each generator is the same in both configurations, the total reactive power behaviour at the PCC differs, showing larger consumption of reactive power in the first case.
79
Table 5.10: Reactive power supply of both cases at PCC in several voltage dips
Voltage dip [%]
Injected reactive power by the power plant [p.u.] 1st Case 2nd Case 0.054 0.198 0.271 0.163
100 80 50 20
0.062 0.209 0.284 0.181
80
Conclusions
Conclusions
This chapter summarizes the findings of the presented master thesis project Comparison of existing PV models and possible integration under EU grid specifications. Solar power and especially grid-tied photovoltaic power is expected to play a significant role as an energy source among other renewables like wind power and hydropower that enjoy the leading positions. Europe is turning attention to PV power and Germany as a strong player in the area will influence things notably. PV applications still live their pre-mature days and there are many, mostly technical, aspects to be studied and improved. Efficiency of the components, inverter topologies, control schemes and aggregation techniques are some of the major research areas. This thesis report focuses on the static and dynamic behaviour of on-grid PV systems and their interaction with the power grid. A generic model built by DIgSILENT is selected to be presently examined. The PV system is modelled by a static generator and the control scheme is implemented in it. The model of the PV array is based on the ideal model of a PV cell and takes into consideration the voltage and current correction factors based on the operating temperature and solar radiation. The control is structured according to the requirements of the German GC for the MV distribution network. Active power reduction requirement is effectively adjusted and operates in case of over-frequency events. The reduction is occurred in less than 50 msec. The LVRT requirement is tested under four different voltage dips of different duration each according to the German technical guidelines for type-2 generating units. The results support the capability of the PV model in question to remain connected when a voltage dip occurs and provide reactive current when it is needed according to the GC. Thus, the grid stability is improved at the PCC, there is no loss of active power since active power is provided again the moment the grid is stabilized and no burden on the lifetime of the components due disconnection-connection and grid is occurred. As far as the static voltage support concerned, initially the model had no relevant control. For this reason, a PI controller is implemented to the main control scheme providing reactive power with the constant-Q method. The controller shows sufficient behaviour when changes of the irradiance take place, which cause changes in the active power supply affecting the voltage at the terminal that the generator is connected. However, the need of more proper tuning is necessary. The switch between static voltage support and dynamic voltage support in case of a fault is inside the current limiter block and ensures reactive power support in any occasion. The study of the two interconnected models shows that the choice of the configuration and consequently the choice of lines, affects the reactive power at the PCC. This is of great importance in aggregative studies, where the equivalent line should have the characteristics (capacitance, impedance etc) of all the lines of the network that has been substituted.
81
Conclusions
Judging by the objectives set at the beginning of this project, it can be said that all of them where addressed during this study and analysed to the extent of the time constraints given for such projects. However, in such multifaceted areas there are numerous of issues that require deeper analysis and further research. Some important issues concerning this model and in general the PV on-grid systems field are: Additional studies should be conducted concerning the reactive power support in voltage variations under normal operation. Concerning this generic model, the constant-Q method that was implemented can be further improved and moreover, the other three methods (fixed cos, cos (P) function or Q (U) droop function) can also be applied, by building a controller with four modes of operation and making it possible to switch to which ever mode the plant operator decides. The PV array model is based on the ideal model of PV cell making the results of voltage and current output rather simplified. Cell model with one or two diodes and taking into consideration the Rs and Rp resistances would provide more accurate and tangible results. MPP logic would have been also an issue of concern for future studies. Besides the simplified techniques for correcting the voltage and current in changeable irradiance and temperature, more advanced methods could be applied e.g. MPP tracking with fuzzy logic. Research studies should be done in terms of power quality. So far, there are no results for the harmonic distortion or possible flicker effects that this PV model can cause. The model has been tested under the German GCs, which are considered being the most detailed. However, it would be interesting to examine the model under other GCs especially nowadays that countries like France and Italy have increased their installed capacity significantly. Regarding the Spanish GCs, some studies have been conducted by [28]. The model has been tested only under voltage dip-types of grid fault. Additional studies under other types of faults e.g. unsymmetrical fault scenarios can be conducted. Rounding up the conclusions of this thesis, in response to the fact that policies and incentives have brought PV systems to the fore, the research area has to be expanded. Better solar radiation forecasting and cloud effect studies can be initiated, aggregative studies can be undertaken, ant-islanding control schemes can be improved and numerous other areas can be evolved in order to thrust the PV market, encourage the high PV penetration, while securing the stability and normal operation of the power system.
82
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Boyle G., Renewable Energy Power for a Sustainable Future, Oxford University Press, New York, USA, 2004 European Union, Renewable energy: White Paper laying down Community strategy and action plan, Summaries of EU legislation, available at http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/other/l27023_en.htm , last modified 13.03.2001, as accessed 07.03.2011 European Commission, Renewable Energy: Progressing towards the 2020 target, Progress report, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, European Commission, Brussels, 31.1.2011 Ackermann T., Kuwahata R., Troester E., European Grid Study 2030/2050, Commissioned by Greenpeace International study, Energynautics GmbH, Germany, 18.01.2011 Brown M., Integrating PV in Local Distribution Systems -Germany-, IEA PVPS Task 14 Meeting, Golden, CO, USA, 01.12.2010, available at www.nrel.gov/eis/pdfs/iea_task_14_workshop_braun.pdf , as accessed 25.02.2011 IEA International Energy Agency, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications Survey report of selected countries between 1992 and 2009, Statistic Report 2009, IEA PVPS Programme, August 2010, available at http://www.ieapvps.org/fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/tr_2009_neu.pdf , as accessed 07.03.2011 Jager-Waldau A., PV Status Report 2010, Scientific and Technical report, European Commission Joint Research Center, Italia, August 2010 Earthscan, Planning & Installing Photovoltaic Systems A guide for installers, architects and engineers, Second Edition, Earthscan, UK, 2008 Brown M., Buedenbender K., Self-Consuming Photovoltaic Energy in Germany Impact on Energy Flows, Business Cases, and the Distribution Grid -, IRES, Berlin, Germany, 24-25.11.2009, available at http://www.iset.uni-kassel.de/abt/FBA/publication/2009/2009_Braun_Ires.pdf , as accessed 25.02.2011 Soleko, Monokristallines Photovoltaik Modul, available at http://www.soleko.de/de/downloads/solarmodule/SOLEKO/SOL-BN%2010-30-5075-100Wp.pdf , as accessed 05.03.2011
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Gueymard A. Christian, The suns total and spectral irradiance for solar energy applications and solar radiation models, Elsevier, Vol. 76, Issue 4 pp. 423-453, April 2004 Marion B., Validation of a Photovoltaic Module Energy Ratings Procedure at NREL, NCPV Program Review Meeting 2000, Denver, Colorado, 16-19.04.2000 Wagner A., Photovoltaik Engineering Handbuch fr Planung, Entwicklung und Anwendung5, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 2009 Nelson J., The Physics of Solar cells, Imperial College Press, London, UK, 2003 Radhakrishna C., Reactive Power Management, Lecture material, South Asia Regional Initiative for Energy (SARI/Energy), Sri Lanka, available at http://www.sarienergy.org/PageFiles/What_We_Do/activities/CEB_Power_Systems_Simulation_Trai ning,_Colombo,_Sri_Lanka/Course_ppts/lecture_41.pdf , as accessed 07.04.2011 Frdergesellschaft Windenergie und andere Erneuerbare Energien (FGW e.V.), Bestimmung der Elektrischen Eigenschaften von Erzeugungseinheiten am Mittel-, Hoch- und Hchstspannungnetz, Technische Richtlinien fr Erzeugungseinheiten6, Germany, 22.03.2010 SMA Solar Technology, Sunny Central 1000MV, Technical data, available at http://www.sma.de/en/products/solar-inverters/sunny-central/sunny-central800mv-1000mv-1250mv.html , as accessed 04.05.2011
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Throughout this report and especially from chapter 4 until chapter 9, figures, graphs, tables, parameters and parts of the software environment PowerFactory of DIgSILENT have been used as captions. There is no specific bibliographic reference, however it is mentioned several times that the subject of test and the results are products of the simulation tool in question.
5 Photovoltaic Engineering Handbook for Planning, Development and Application 6 Determining the electrical properties of generating units at medium, high and very high voltage grid, Technical Guidelines for generating units.
86
Appendix
Appendix
8.1 Parameters used in the PV model

Table 8.1: Parameters in PV array slot
PV Array
Parameter Open circuit voltage of module in STC [V] MPP voltage of module in STC [V] MPP current of module in STC [A] Short-circuit current of module in STC [A] Temperature correction factor (voltage) [1/K] Temperature correction factor (current) [1/K] Number of modules connected in series [-] Number of modules connected in parallel [-] Time constant of module [s]
Table 8.2: Parameters in DC Busbar and Capacitor slot
Symbol UI0 Umpp0 Impp0 Ik0 au ai nSerialModules nParallelModules Tr
Value 43,8 35 4,58 5 -0,0039 0,0004 20 140 0
DC Busbar and Capacitor

Parameter Capacity of the capacitor on DC busbar [s] Initial DC voltage [V] Nominal DC voltage [kV] Rated Power [MW]
Table 8.3: Parameters in Active power reduction slot
Symbol Capacity Udc0 UdcN Pnen
Value 0,0172 700 1 0,5
Active power reduction

Parameter
Start of active power reduction [Hz] End of active power reduction [Hz] Gradient of active power reduction [%/Hz] PT1-Filter Time Constant [s]
Symbol
fUp fLow gradient Tfilter
Value
50,2 50,05 40 0,01
87

Table 8.4: Parameters in main Controller slot
Appendix
Controller
Parameter Gain of the active power PI controller [-] Integration time constant of the active power PI controller [s] Measurement delay [s] Time delay MPP-Tracking [s] Deadband for AC voltage support [p.u.] Static for AC voltage support [-] i_EEG = 0 according to TC2007; i_EEG = 1 according SDLWindV [-] Minimum active current limit [p.u.] Minimum allowed DC - voltage [V] Minimum reactive current limit [p.u.] Maximum active active current [p.u.] Maximum reactive active current [p.u.] Maximum allowed absolute current [p.u.] Maximum absolute reactive current in normal operation [p.u.] Symbol Kp Tip Tr Tmpp deadband droop i_EEG id_min U_min iq_min id_max iq_max maxAbsCur maxIq Value 0,005 0,03 0,001 5 0,1 1 1 0 333 -1 1 1 1 1
88
Appendix
8.2 The DSL code in main blocks of the PV model
Figure 8.1: The DSL code of each PV module
89
Appendix
Figure 8.2: Main part of DSL code in the active power reduction block
Figure 8.3: The DSL code in the PI controller block
Figure 8.4: The DSL code in the reactive power support block
Figure 8.5: The DSL code in the current limiter block
90
Appendix
8.3 Results of LVRT study in both interconnection cases

8.3.1 First case
Figure 8.6: Behaviour of the first interconnection in 100% voltage dip
91
Appendix
92
Appendix
93
Appendix
8.3.2 Second case
Figure 8.10: Behaviour of the second interconnection in 100% voltage dip
94
Appendix
95

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Comparison of existing PV models and possible integration under EU grid specifications

Comparison of existing PV models and possible integration under EU grid specifications

COMPARISON OF EXISTING PV MODELS AND POSSIBLE INTEGRATION UNDER EU GRID SPECIFICATIONS

Ioannis-Thomas Theologitis Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden

-Take me out of the dark -Diogenes-

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

1.1 The driving force

Figure 1.1: Increase of Renewable Energy Sources in Germany 1990-2009 [5]

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

Figure 1.3: World PV Cell/Module Production from 1990 to 2009 [7]

Figure 1.4: Annual Photovoltaic Installations from 2000 to 2009 [7]

1.2 Overview of the Thesis report

For further information about the company refer to Acknowledgements

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

2.1 PV systems Overview

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

Figure 2.1: Types of PV systems [8]

2.1.1 I-V Characteristics

Figure 2.2: Typical I-V characteristic [8]

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

2.2 Grid-connected PV systems

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

2.3.1 What is available Current status

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

Figure 2.6: FB inverter topology [14]

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

2.3.2 Issues when choosing inverter

EURO = 0.035% + 0.0610% + 0.13 20% + 0.130% + 0.4850% + 0.2100%

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

Figure 2.7: Inverters operating range [8]

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

2.3.3 Additional requirements Ancillary functions

2.4 Low voltage ride through (LVRT) requirement

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

2.4.1 Reactive power and its importance

2.5 Grid requirements for PV systems

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

2.5.1 The new German Grid Code

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011

Figure 2.9: Example of cos(P)-characteristic [20]

MSc Thesis Project KTH, June 2011